Indian Culture

Topic: Stage in the Evolution of Indian Culture

Q: Briefly discuss the different stages in the evolution of Indian
Culture upto the Post-Gupta age?
Answer: Indian culture is the oldest surviving culture in the world. It has passed
through centuries of continuity and changes. It was not evolved in any particular
phase of Indian history; but in every phase it continued to assimilate certain new
features, which, in turn, provided it with a distinctiveness in each succeedding
phase. If we look to the eternal march of Indian culture, we will notice that Indian
culture along with its essential features remained receptive to new ideas. This
receptiveness has given a new progressive outlook to Indian culture.

THE HARAPPAN CULTURE

The Harappan culture was essential a city culture drawing sustenance from a large
area extending from modern Punjab to as far as Gujarat. The traces of this culture
have been found in various places in Kashmir, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar
Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat. The Harappan people lived in well-
populated cities and towns with all amenities of a developed city life. Among the
popular deities, the mother Goddess and Pashupati Siva were the most prominent.
Serpents, trees and certain animals, most prominent being cows were also
worshipped. These elements of religion, though contrary to the Vedic religion,
were subsequently adopted in Hinduism. Good progress was achieved in the field
of architecture, science and technology. Harappan civilisation has made an
important contribution to the growth and development of culture and civilisation in
India during the subsequent phases.

THE VEDIC CULTURE

The Vedic culture, which is associated with the advent of the Aryans in India, is
the cornerstone of Indian culture. The word Veda comes from the root Vid (to
know). The Rigveda is the earliest, Veda, and is also the first testament of the
world. The other Vedas are the Samaveda and the Yajurveda. The Atharvaveda is
the later Veda. The later Vedic literature comprises: (i) the Samhitas of four Vedas;
(ii) the Brahmans attached to each of the Samhitas; (iii) the Aranyakas and
Upanishads (which are mostly attached to the Brahmanas). The Samhitas are books
of hymns for psalms. The Brahmanas are treatises relating to prayer and sacrificial
ceremony. The Aranyakas and the Upanishads deal with the philosophical
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doctrines, allegorical significance of rites, etc. The Vedic Aryans contributed to
three facets of Indian culture. At the level of social institutions the idea of a Varn
(occupational groups) society was evolved at this time. The responsibility of
maintaining this social order was undertaken by Indian society. At the religious
level, the ritual of sacrific became the keystone of religious ritual. Finally the
philosophcal thought of this period was gathered together in a body of literature
(for example, the Upanishads) which not only contained subtle metaphysical
doctrines attracting the respect of Indian intellectuals through the centuries, but
was also germinal to many of the later systems of thoughts. It was the acceptance
or rejection of these three facets that constituted the dominant trend in the
evolution of Indian cultural ideas and institutions.

LATER VEDIC AGE

The period following that of the Rigveda is known as the later Vedic Age, when
later Vedic Samhitas, Brahmans, Upanishads. etc. were composed. During this
period stately cities and extensive compact kingdoms came into existence. The
society underwent a complete change. The concept of Varnasrama (varnas-
ashramas) became the focal points of the social and individual life. The functions
and duties. The privileges and status of the four varnas were minutely defined.
Significant changes also took place in the religious life of the people. We discover
three distinct currents of religious thought- the ritualistic, the philosophic and the
ascetic. Hinduism was fully expounded in the later Vedic literature- the
Brahamanas, the Upanishads and Aranyakas. The doctrines about the Soul
(Atman), the Absolute (Brahma), relation between God and man, and the
principles of Karma, maya, mukti, trans-migration of soul and other special
features that have dominated Hindu way of life and thought were evolved, stated
and elaborated in the Upanishads.
But the most important achievement of this period is the geographical conquest of
India. The rivers, the mountains and the general features of every part of India
were known. The Aryan culture and thoughts were spread all over the country.
The Age of the Budha and Mahavira and the Contribution of Buddhism and
Jainsim of Indian Culture.
The sixth century B.C. witnessed great religious ferment in the world. It was an
age when people in India were disgusted with philosophical dogmas and were
striving for simple methods of worship and easier means of escape from the ills of
this mundane existence. It was an era of revolt- an age of protest against the old
order of things. The thinkers of new movement were pure intellectualists –
philosophers. The greatest of these wandering teachers were the two Kshatriya
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princes, viz Vardhamana Mahavir and Gautam Buddha. The philosophy and the
ideologies of the former took the shape of a reforming movement known as
Jainism, while those of the latter led to the other movement called
Buddhism.Jainism and Buddhism were the reformation movements of Hinduism
Mahavir did not believe that God created this world or that he exercised any
control over it. According to him there is no creation of the world, no supreme
creative spirit, nor is there any creator necessary to explain the nature of the world.
He regarded all objects, animate or inanimate, as endowed with various degrees of
consciousness. So the greatest emphasis is laid on the doctrine of ahimsa or non-
injury to any kind of living being.
Mahavir successfully founded the Jain Church. His severe asceticism and simple
doctrines attracted many followers. The Jains have played a very important part in
the development of the languages of the country. The Jains utilised the prevailing
spoken language of different times at different places in the country for their
religious propaganda and preservation of the sacred knowledge. Their religious
literature is very vast. They have also produced a rich literature in Sanskrit and
Prakrit, both narrative and philosophical, and works on technical subjects like
grammar, prosody , lexicography and mathematics are also not wanting.
The beauty of Jainism found its high watermarks during the eleventh and the
twelfth centuries. The gigantic statues of Bahubali called Gomateswara at
Sravanabelgola and Karkal in Mysore are among wonders of the world. The Jain
caves with their relief works and statues at Udaigiri hills near Bhilsa in Madhya
Pradesh and Ellora in Maharashtra are examples of excellent architecture and
sculpture of the period. The Jain tower at Chittor in Rajasthan is one of the best
specimens of Jain architecture. The famous Jain temples at Dilwara near Mount
Abu in Rajasthan belonging to the eleventh century, carries to its highest perfection
the Indian genius for the invention of graceful patterns and their application to the
decoration of massonary architecture.
Gautama Budha never endeavoured to establish a new religion or creed.He
advocated not a set of doctrines of dogmas but a rational scheme of spiritual
development. Simple goodness of spirit, deed and conduct are the basis of his
teachings. The Buddha preached his followers the four “Noble Truths” concerning
sorrow, the remedy or destruction of sorrow and the way leading to the destruction
of sorrow. With regard to his religious teachings and Buddha may call an agnostic,
because he neither accepts nor rejects the existence of God.
The Buddhist Scriptures known as pitakas are divied into three sections, namely
the sutta, the vinaya and the adbihamma. The Buddbha had two kinds of disciples-
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monks (bhikshu) and lay worshippers (upasakas); the former were organised into
sanghas, or congregations.
Perhaps the greatest factor that contributed to the popularity and growth of
Buddhism was the missionary activities of the Buddhist Sangha. The Buddhist
congregations became the centres of light and learning.
The progress of Buddhism- exercised considerable influence in shaping the various
aspects of Indian life- cultural, social, religious and political. Buddhism gave a
popular religion, without any complicated, elaborate and unintelligible rituals such
as could be performed only by the priestly class. The doctrine of ahimsa so
strongly stressed, devoutly preached and sincerely practised by the Buddhists was
incorporated bodily in their teachings by the brahmanas of later days. This
indirectly led to the rise of that particular phase of the bhagwat religion which
completely absorbed the doctrine of Ahimsa.
The practice of worshipping personal Gods, making their images and creating
temples in their honour was adopted by the Hindus in imitation of the Mahayan
Buddhists. As Buddhism was intended for the masses it made popular the spoken
languages of the people. Buddhism thus fostered the growth of a vast and varied
literature in the languages of the people.
The finest contribution of the Buddhism to Indian life was made in the realm of
architecture and sculpture. Under the patronage of Buddhism all branches of arts-
architecture, sculpture, painting etc. made good progress Viharas or monasteries
were built all over the country for giving permanent abodes to the Buddhist monks.
Some pieces of Buddhist sculpture are considered to be the finest specimens of art
in the world. The stupas of Sanchi, Bharhut and Amarvati, the stone pillars of
Asoka and the cave temples of Kanheri (Bombay), Karle (Poona) and Nasik are
regarded as the best specimens of the Buddhist art. The stupa at Sanchi is world-
renowned for its gateways and railings which are profusely covered with sculpture.
The Buddhist are was essentially an art with an intense feeling for nature and a
vivid comprehension of the unity of all life- human animal and vegetable.
But the most important fact is that Buddhism proved to be one of the greatest
civilising forces which India gave to the neighbouring countries. Buddhism broke
the isolation of India and established an intimate contact between India and the
foreign countries. It was India’s greatest gift to outer world. Indian culture and
civilisation had been carried by the Buddhist missionaries to China, Mongolia,
Manchuria, Korea, Japan, Myanmar, Java, Sumatra, Indo-China and other
countries since the days of Ashoka. These religious ties came to bind many

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foreigns with our country and paved the way for spreading the Indian Culture
abroad.

THE MAURYAN AGE

The rise of the Mauryan dynasty ushers in a new era in the political and cultural
history of India. It was in the Mauryan Age that India became the cultural
ambassador of the world, sending out missionaries to spread out India’s civilisation
and religion to distant parts of the globe. India under the Mauryas sought to build a
new world based on peace, brotherhood and cultural unity.
The Mauryan period is a great landmark in the history of the Indian Art. In fact, the
history of Indian Art begins with the advent of the Mauryans. The stone
monuments of Asoka have defied the ravages of time and they form the earliest
artistic record of Indian civilisation yet discovered. The perfection which the art of
sculpture attained during this period suggests that it had a long period of
continuous and steady developments. Tradition credits Asoka with building 84,000
stupas all over India and Afghanistan. The monolithic pillars or lats set up by
Asoka furnish, perhaps, the finest, the most beautiful and characteristic specimens
of the remains of the Mauryan art. These Asokan pillars are a triumph of
engineering, architecture and sculpture. The capital of the Sarnath Pillar is
undoubtedly the most magnificent and has been declared the finest piece of
sculpture.
Dr. V. A. Smith makes the following observation on the Sarnath capital,
which is our national emblem.
“It would be difficult to find in any country an example of ancient sculpture or
even equal to this beautiful work of art, which successfully combines realistic
modelling with ideal dignity and is finished in every detail with perfect accuracy”.
It would not be an exaggeration if we call the Mauryan age a brilliant period in
Indian history. The world owes a huge debt to one of the Mauryan kings – Ashoka.
He is the only King in the history of world who gave up war after victory and
attempted to banish war entirely from the world. He not only gave to the world the
lessons of religious toleration but placed before the world the model of an ideal
king. The century and a half of Mauryan rule witnessed a growth of civilisation, art
and culture which entitled India to rank among the greatest countries of the time.

THE SHUNGA-SATAVAHANA-SAKA AGE

The Mauryan Emperors were succeeded in Magadha by the Sunga and Kanva
rulers, while the Greeks, the Parthians, the Sakas and the Kushanas ruled the north-

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west frontier. In the trans-Vindhyan India a new power was rising under the
Satavahanas. The Satavahana rule lasted for nearly three hundred years. Together
with these kingdoms a large number of indigenous states also flourished in
northern India during the long period of approximately four centuries.
There was an outburst of activity in the realms of religion, literature and art. Under
the liberal patronage of Kanishka, Buddhism spread far and wide especially in
Central Asia and China. Bhagvata (the cult of Vasudeva-Krishna) and Saiva sects
were growing in importance. Many foreigners were convented to Bhagvata
religion. The famous Greek ruler Minander embraced Buddhism while Saka rulers
embraced the Vedic religion. The alien rulers in India, the Greeks, the Sakas and
the Kushanas were Indianised. The missionary activities of the votaries of
Buddhism and of Vedic religion outside India enabled the Indians to set up their
cultural centres. The presence of aliens, especially the Greeks, restored India’s
contact with foreign countries. Besides opening avenues for brisk foreign trade,
India art and science were also influenced by the Hellenic culture. The rise of the
Gandhar school of art testifies to the prevalence of foreign influence on the art of
the country.
Inspite of the existence of a large number of sects and creeds, the votaries of
different faiths were living in percept harmony. The national art of India underwent
a rapid development in this period. The artists took considerable pain in carving
and evolved perfect techniques of sculpture. This was probably on account of the
natural growth of an aesthetic progress.
For the first time Indian art became conscious of the socio-economic structure of
the society and in view of the social psychology learnt “to differentiate between the
subtle and the violent shades and emotions of the human heart. The base reliefs of
Bharhut, Sanchi, Amravati and other places serve the purpose of an illuminating
commentary on the life of the age. They effect the spontaneous joy, emotions and
movements of the life of the masses.

CONTRIBUTION OF THE KUSHANAS TO INDIAN

CULTURE
The empire of the Kushanas proved a great civilising factor. It opened the way for
the spread of Indian civilisation to central and eastern Asia. Trade and commerce
flowed between China, India, Persia, Mesopotamia and the Roman-Empire. The
Kushana Ambassadors were despatched to the great Roman Emperors. The sea-
borne trade of India was carried, under the Kushanas, through the Persian Gulf and
the Red Sea.

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The Kushanas were patrons of literature and art. A large volume of Sanskrit
literature of high standard, both religious and secular, was produced in the
congenial atmosphere of royal patronage. The name of the Kushan Emperor,
Kanishka is associated with several eminent Buddhist writers Asvaghosha,
Nagarujna, Vasumitra and Charak, the reputed count physician of Kanishka, was
the celebrated author of the Ayurvedic Science.
An important event of the Kushan Empire is that it not only witnessed the
extension of Buddhism but also the most serious dissension with the bosom of the
Buddhist church itself. It was this changes in the Buddhist creed which
permanently divided Buddhist church into two big camps-Hinayan and Mahayan,
the former was the original Buddhism and the latter the new school of Buddhism.
In the Kushana Age, Buddhism in its new form spread rapidly to many countries
beyond the borders of India to Tibet, China, Burma and Japan. Mahayanism is
called the northern school of Buddhism and Sanskrit is the vehicle of its literature.
To distinguish it from the old or Himayan Buddhism which is called the southern
school has Pali as the medium of its sacred texts.
Intimately connected with the Mahayan school of Buddhism was a new school of
Indian sculpture, known as the Gandhara school. It flourished under the Kushanas,
especially Kanishka, during whose time a vast number of Buddhist monasteries,
stupas and statues were constructed. They bear a distinct influence of the old Greek
school of art. The province of Gandhara, the centre of the new school of
Buddhism, was ao situated as to be the meeting ground of the Indian. Chinese,
Iranian and the Greco-Roman cultures. Hence the art of the province could not but
be a mixture of the west and the east.
The main theme of the Gandhara School of Sculpture was the form of Buddhism,
and its most important contribution was the evolution of an image of the Buddha.
Kanishka was the founder of that reckoning which commenced in 78 A.D. and
came to be known as the Saka era. Kanishka, through a Buddhist, continued to
honour the Greek, Sumerian, Elamite, Mithraic, Zeroastrian and Hindu Gods
worshipped by various communities of his far-flung empire. On his coins the
deities of different sects and religions are engraved, bearing testimony to his spirit
of religious toleration.

THE GUPTA AGE

The Gupta Age is described as the Golden Age of Indian History. The Gupta
period really marks as spoch as it gave an impetus to the revival of national spirit
which manifested itself in almost every aspect of the life of the nation. In the
sphere of religion, the activities of the national spirit found expression in an era of
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the Brahmanical revival. But the Gupta period is conspicuously free from any trace
of religious tyranny, intolerance and persecution. It was in the Gupta period that
India entered her most glorious phase of cultural expansion.
In this age, Indian talent blossomed and unprecedented intellectual progress was
achieved. The Sanskrit language was revived and the Gupta emperors liberally
encouraged its use. Several literary works of great merit were produced. World
renowned poets like Kalidas, grammarian and statemen like Viresen Sab,
Dramatists like Vishakhadatta and Shudraka, celebrated Buddhist philoso-phers
and authors like Asanga, Vasubandhu, Aryadeo, Dignag and Jain philosophers like
Siddhasen, Diwakar, Samantbhadra, etc., flourished in the Gupta period. Well-
known works on astronomy and mathematics were produced and certain Puranas
and epics were given the final shape in which they are available today. It was a
most remarkable age from the artistic point of view. Architecture sculpture,
painting, terracotta, metallurgy, music, dancing etc. all attained unprecedented
progress under the Guptas. Tantricism was a significant development in religion.
Great progress was made in the domain of scientific studies during the Gupta
period. The formulation of the theory of zero and consequent evolution of the
decimal system are to be credited to the thinkers of this age. Aryabhatta
Varahamihira and Brahmagupta were in their own days, “the foremost astronomers
and mathematicians of the world”. In his famous work Surya Siddhanta Aryabhatta
examines and explains the true causes of solar and lunar eclipses. His calculation
of the size of the earth is very near that estimated by modern astronomers.
The art of casting metals reached degree of perfection which may well be regarded
as exceptional.

THE PALLAVAS AND THE CHOLAS

The Aryanisation of South India was complete during the rule of the Pallavas.
They exercised their supremacy for nearly 500 years, from the fifth century to the
ninth century.
Pallavas were greater patrons of Sanskrit. Most of the inscriptions of the Pallavas
were in Sanskrit and even in Tamil inscriptions the Prasasti portions were
composed in Sanskrit. Temples were important centres for Sanskrit studies.
Bharavi, the well known poet of Sanskrit and the author of the Kiratarjuniyam, is
said to have adorned the court of a Pallava King Simhavishnu. Similarly, Dandin,
the famous author of a standard work on poetrics, is reported to have flourished in
the reign of another Pallava King Narasimhavarman II. The University of Kanchi,

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the seat of Sanskrit learning and the then greatest centres of education in the south,
played an important part in the cultural expansion in the south.
Since the Pallavas were a great maritime power, their activities on the sea were
mainly directed- towards maintaining friendly relations and close contacts with the
countres of the south-east Asia. In the realm of religion the Pallavas had made their
own contribution. The great religious reform which was to sweep India in the
eighth century, originated at the Pallava Court. The Saiva and Vaishnava Bhakti
saints of the south flourished in the Pallava period. The great Saiva saints were the
contempories of Pallava King Narshimha-varman. Similarly the Vaishnava saints
Alavars were liberally patronised by the Pallavas. A new branch of Bhakti
literature- the Tevaram and the Viruvachakam of the Saivas and the Prabandham
of the Alavars of the Vaishnavas belong to the Pallava age.
The history of architecture and sculpture in South India begins with the Pallava
temples which introduced a new technique called the Dravidian style. In addition
to the temples, in Kanchi and other places, some of the rock-cut temples known as
the seven pagodas or Rathas of Mamallapuram are built in this style which may
justly be called the Pallava style of art. Undoubtedly, their edifices are among the
noblest monuments in South India. The town of Mahabalipuram or Mamallapuram,
thirty two miles south of Madras, founded by the great Pallava king
Narasimhavarman (625-645) on the sea bench, has many cave-temples or
mandapas decorated with fine reliefs. The monolithic temples called rathas, known
as ‘seven pagodas’ are another type of remarkable rock-cut architecture at
Mamallapuram. These mandapas and rathas are adorned with marvellous figure
sculpture. The most wonderful example of the Pallava structured art is the famous
Kailash temple at Kanchi. The temple of Vaikuntha Perumal is yet another
marvellous example of the art.
The style of Pallava architecture not only set the standard in the south but also
greatly influence the architecture of Cambodia, Vietnam, etc. The Pallava art was
transmitted beyond the seas to the countries of south-east Asia like Indonesia
“where its effulgence, reflected in the vast monuments of these civilisations; shone
with even greater splendour than in the country of its origin”.

THE CHOLAS
The Cholas whose dynastic history began at about 900 A.D. lasting for about 250
years, supplanted the Pallavas. The Cholas, who were great builders like Pallavas,
executed works on a stupendous scale. Chola rulers elaborately and carefully
planned and laid out vast cities. The chola art attained maturity in the two

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magnificent temples of Tanjore and Gangaikonda-Cholapuram both built in the
first quarter of the eleventh century. The Dravidian style of temple architecture
reached final culmination under the cholas.
Another amistic achievment of the Cholas lies in the special Indian plastic art
known as the Chola bronzes. The Nataraja (dancing Shiva) figures of the period
and the images and portraits of the saints and Hindu gods and goddesses have now
been recognised as masterpieces of the world.

THE POST-GUPTA AGE (600-1200 A.D.)

After the collapse of the Gupta-Empire northern Indian became congeries of small
states. Many petty kingdoms arose on the ruins of the Gupta empire and
disintegration followed in the course of next fifty years; but under Harsha of
Kannauj (606-647) these disintegrated units were again brought under the central
authority. He was a great lover and patron of learning and a religious and
charitable man. Himself a poet and dramatist and the author of three plays he
extended state patronage to men of letters like Bana, the author of Harshacharita
and Kadambari, and Jayasena, a man of encyclopedic learning. His court was
famous for philosophers, poets, dramatists and painters. He later on adopted
Buddhism whose cause he served in many ways. In his time the learned Chinese
scholar and monk, Hiuen Tsang, visited India in 630 A.D. and remained here till
643 A.D. and has given us a fairly elaborated account of the religious, social and
economic conditions of India in those days.
The Buddhist monasteries were not only the strong-holds of religion but also of
education. The University of Nalanda which reached its high water-mark during
this period was an educational centre of international fame. In addition to Nalanda.
Texila and Ujjain were other centres of learning : the former was renowned for its
medical school and the later for its secular learning including mathematics and
astronomy. The death of Harsha was a signal for general disruption and
disintegration of his empire and India again lost her political unity. This period
witnessed a new tendency in literature, namely, the rise of the vernaculars. The
period under review witnessed not only great progress in Sanskrit literature, but
also the foundation of the modern vernacular languages of India, such as, Hindi,
Gujarati, Marathi and Bengali in the Rajput period. Though architecture
degenerated during this period, yet the spiritual content, the very basic principle of
Indian architecture, finds its free play in the building activity of the age.
The most famous temples of the period in the Northern India are those of Somnath
in Saurashtra, Bhubaneswar, Puri and Konark in Orissa, Khajuraho in
Bundelkhand and Abu in Rajasthan. The Jagannath Temple at Puri was constructed
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around 1100 A.D. while the Sun temple at Konark approximately around 1250
A.D. Though Hinduism was theoretically based on the old Vedic beliefs and
practices, it had evolved its own characteristic features, such as doctrine of avatars,
predominance of the theistic sects of Vaishnavism and Saivism, the Bhakti cult,
Tantricism and the construction of magnificent temples.

Topic: Features of Indian Music- Hindustani and

Karnataka (Carnatic)
Question : Briefly discuss the features of Indian Music?
Answer. Originally, in India there was only one system of music, but during the
medieval period the North India came under the impact of the diverse musical
influences of the Islamic world-particularly Persian, which led to the division of
the Indian Music into two distinct schools the Hindustani (North Indian) and
Karnataka (South Indian). But the basic features in both schools of music were
common. The Indian music is of two types Marga-Sangit (mystical) and Desi
Sangit (secular). The cause of music is pleasant sound termed in India “Nada”.
Indian music is divided into “Ragas” or melody-types. There are ten major
“Ragas” or parent scales of which the most important are Yaman, Bilawata
Khamaj, Bhairava, Purvi, Marwa, Kafi, Asawari, Bhairavi and Todi. The major
Ragas or parent scales are further sub-divided into Ragas and Raginis so that we
have about 200 types of melodies. Each Raga must have five notes, one principal
one (called Vadi), one second important note (called Samvadi) and the rest
assistant notes (called Anuvadi), Ragas are sung in various speeds and some move
in a certain pitch. Music has also its rhythmic beats which are divided into ‘tala’,
‘laya’ and ‘matra’. ‘Tala is a complete cycle of a metrical phrase composed of a
fixed number of beats. ‘Laya’ is tempo-slow, medium, fast. ‘Matra’ is the smallest
unit of the ‘Tala’.
Thus the gamut of several notes woven into a composition may be called a ‘Raga’.
The Ragas can be sung without any instrumental accompaniment but generally
take ‘Tabla’ (drim) for the purpose besides any stringed instrument. They are sung
at particular seasons and time of the day or night.
Beginning in the 13th century, with the establishment of Delhi Sultanate Islamic
hegemony in the north is commonly believed to be associated with evolution of
two distinct styles of musical practice in India. The Hindustani of north and the
Karnataka of the south. Although the Hindustani system considered different from

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 the Karnataka by virtue of presence of Persian and Turkish features in the former-
musicians from Persia and central Asia were associated with courts in the North at
least until the late seventeenth century.

Today the two main classical styles in India correspond geographically the
linguistic areas of Indo-Aryan based languages in the north and Dravidian based
languages in the south. Although analytically both can be considered two variants
of one underlying system, the two systems are considered in India to distinct
constituting separate theory systems, histories, composition and performers.
Common to both systems are the fundamental concepts of pitch (svara) melody
type (raga known as rag in the north and ragam in the south) and meter (tala, tal in
the north and talam in the south). Both also use similar, types of performance
ensembles with a vocalist or instrumentalist as soloist, a drummer as rhythmic
accompanist and a drone provided by a tanpura. In the case of vocal soloist, a
melodic accompanist on an instrument is also present.

Question : Write short notes on;

1. Hindustani Musictc “A) Hindustani Music”
2. Karnataka Musictc “B) Karnataka Music”
3. Principal Indian Ragastc “C) Principal Indian Ragas”
4. Indian Musical Instrumentstc “D) Indian Musical Instruments”
Answer. Hindustani music is usually traced back by its practitioners to the Delhi
Sultanate period with Amir Khusrau (1253-1325 A.D.) as one of the earliest
historical personalities. Although traditionally considered the inventor of the sitar
and tabla, and as well as several ragas and other musical genres, the actual
evidence for these assumptions is not clear.
The Zenith of Hindustani music is associated with the great Tansen, one of the
jewels of the court of the Mughal emperor, Akbar, (1556-1605). A vocalist and an
instrumentalist, most Hindustani today trace their muscial descent from Tansen.
Hindustani musical performance is based on a composition which is set to a meter
and from which extemporised variations are generated. The composition is usually
a relatively short tune which is said to embody the essence of the rag (mode or
melody type) in which it is composed.

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A performance begins with an alap. For dhrupad (four part composition) and in
instrumental genres, the alap is elaborate and characterised by the absence of any
metered accompaniment. Following the alap, pulsed sections, which are considered
subsectors of the alap, are performed in dhrupad and instrumental genres and are
called for (instrumental) or nom-tom (dhrupad). Sitar and Sarod performance
practice also includes a jhala, which is an alternating pulsed and melodic section
often repeated within the composition itself later in the performance. In the voval
khayal the alap is typically non-existent or short and sometimes extended into the
metered section.
Once the alap is ended the composition proper is performed. The composition is
set to a recurring rhythmic cycle (tala).
Hindustani vocal music is performed in three major and several minor styles. The
oldest and most austere is a four part composition known as dhrupad. The main
classical vocal form today is the two part composition known as khayal (pers,
imagination), usually followed at the end of a concert by a light classical form
known as thumri.
Texts of most compositions are devotional, although these can take on a
remarkably wide range of manifestations ranging from abstractly spiritual to the
highly erotic.
Most instrumental compositions in the north (referred to as gat), although
sometimes based on vocal models are a largely separate repertoire in the north and
are performed mainly on either the sitar or the sarod. They include compositions
which are inherited through family lineages along with more recent compositions.
In this century several other instruments including the flute, sarangi and shahnai
have also developed solo performance traditions.

¨ Karnatak Music
What is performed today as Karnatak music is derived most immediately from
three outstanding composers of the eighteenth century, known collectively as the
Trinity: Thyagaraja (1759-1847); Svami Shastri (1763-1827) and Dikshitar (1775-
1835). The Trinity, although not themselves patronized by the courts, spent most of
their lives within a few miles radius of Tanjore, which became the focal point of
musical patronage in the south after the fall of Vijayanagar (1585). Thyagaraja is
revered both as the supreme artist and a saint, and epitonizes the ideal of
musicianship in the south. Most of his immediate disciples were not professional
musicians but devotees and is only after the succedding generation that
professional musicians received Thavagaraja’s compositions.

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Karnataka performance practice tends to give greater emphasis to the actual
composition than is the case for Hindustani music. The fixed and memorized
composition along with its memorized variations are longer and constitute
proportionately much more a given performance than in the north.
Karnataka music include three major performance genres as well as some minor
ones: the varnam as advanced etude-like composition of ten performed as the first
item of a performance. The kriti, which is the classical compositional form most
often associated with the eighteenth century Trinity, is devotional in its textual
material, and the ragam-tangam-pallavi a somewhat more abstract musical form
embodying extensive unmetered sections along with a new or borrowed
compositional line characterized by rhythmic variation in the pallavi section. The
ragamtenam-pallavi is in principle the centerpiece of a Karnatak performance,
although a kriti will often assume this role in actual practice.
Despite the series of contacts one can make between the two systems they share
analogous structural units. For example, the Karnatak alspana is in many respects
equivalent to the Hindustani alap; both function as the expositional structure of a
raga.

¨ Principal Indian Ragas

Indian classical music consists of six principal Ragas and thirty Raginis. Music is
adapted to the season of the year, hours of the day and mood of the performer. The
Indian year is divided into six seasons and each season has its own Raga. The
principal Ragas are Bhairav, Hindol, Megha, Sriraga, Deepak and Malkaus.
According to Indian concept of Music, each Raga is a demigod, wedded to five
Raginis. Thus there are six Ragas and thirty Raginis. The day is divided into six
parts, and each is allotted to a particular Raga. Thus Bhairavi Raga is usually sung
from 4 a.m. to 8 a.m. Hindol from 8 a.m. to 12 noon. Megha from 12 noon to 4
p.m. Sriraga from 4 p.m. to 8 p.m. Deepak from 8 p.m. to 12 midnight and
Malkaus from 12 midnight to 4 a.m.

¨Indian Musical Instruments

The principal Indian musical instrument as may be divided into tour classes : (i)
stringed instruments, which have strings made of steel, copper or brass wires or
silken cords. Such instruments are veena, sarod, sitar, tanpura, rabbad: (ii)
instruments played with bow, such as sarangi, dilruba, mayuri etc., (iii) drum
instruments, which are played with bands on sticks, such as pakhawaj, tabla,
naggara, dholak etc., and (iv) wind or mouth instruments, which are played by
blowing full or half breaths, such as, flute, bin, surna etc.

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 Question : Give a brief description of the miscellaneous
dances of India ?
Answer: There are interesting performances, with highly artistic values and
arduously developed disciplines, surviving in different parts of the country under
indigenous conditions. One such system is
the Chhau Dance of Mayurbhanj and Saraikala. Chau is a dance which is
exclusively performed by men. Originated from Seraikela, a former princely state
in Orissa, now in Bihar, this dance form follows certain fundamental traditions of
the classical modes. It is dedicated to the twin aspects of Shiva and Shakti. It is a
dance of festival which culminates in a three-day ceremonial worship in the Shiva
temple to be followed by a grand procession. They interpret mythology, sacred
history, legend and nature. The style is precise and vigorous comprising of intricate
steps, quick turns, gliding walks and various gaits. The choreography is well
thought out and impressive.
 Mohini Attam is one of the important forms of the classical dance tradition of
Kerala, presenting a perfect mode for solo performance that incorporates lasya and
tandava styles. Its technique is based on the Kathakali mode, which includes the
peculiar manner of dancing with the feet and legs apart, knees greatly bent, and
utilising the rhythmic syllable words in the recitation and play of the drum, with
perfect synchronisation of the dancer’s feet.
 Krishna Attam as the name suggests, is a dance drama associated with Krishna
legends. It is believed that Kathakali originated from Krishna Attam, some time in
the middle of the 17th century A.D., the Zamorin King of Calicut named
Mahadevan, who was a poet of distinction and a votary of Lord Krishna, composed
eight dramatic lyrical plays dealing with various episodes of Krishna’s life. The
poet king incorporated them into an ensemble which he named as Krshna Attam.
 The Bhagavata Mela dance dramas of Tamil Nadu appear to have gained
importance 300 years ago. when Tirtha Narayan Yati, author of the ‘Krishna Lila
Tarangini’ in Sanskrit, migrated from Andhra to Tanjore district. He began the
Bhagvata Mela tradition on the pattern of dance drama as expounded in the ‘Natya
Shastra’ by Bharat Muni. With these ideals before him, he composed several dance
dramas and as Parijataharnam and Rukmangada. His celebrated dance drama
compositions like Prahalad, Harishchandra, Usha Parinayam and Gollabhama,
were not only enacted all over Tamil Nadu but they became a part of people’s life.
They were performed annually at the great festival dedicated to God Narsimham.

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 Yakshangana originated from one of the very early and indigenous musical
dramas known as Bahu Nataka composed by Pakkuribi Somnath in about 1250
A.D. and portrayed in several varieties of the Shiva-lila episodes. In times, these
took the form of the yakshangana plays common to many regions of India.
Originally a solo performance, this form, later, developed into two and then four
principal characters. Gradually it assumed the form of a regular dance drama
picking up themes from my theology and legend.

Topic: Folk Dances

Question : Briefly discuss the chief characteristics of folk

dances.
Answer. Whereas classical dances tend to be subject to a definite order and a
complicated system of gesture languages, footwork and body movements, folk
dance is generally much more spontaneous. Its primary impulse in rhythm; its roots
lie in religious and seasonal festivals, and dance it is often guided by songs
glorifying nature, expressing traditional occupations and offering devotion to
deities. The vast majority of folk dances are performed by groups of people,
usually consisting of either men or women. Certain basic dance patterns exist.
These have been described in medieval Sanskrit literature and consist of the pindi
(gourp), the thrinkhala (chain), lata (creeper) and bhedyaka (the separate
movement of each dancer away from the group). Even more basic is the rasak or
rasa, referring to a circular dance. There are two kind of rasa dance; the Talai-rasa,
with rhythmic clapping of hands, and the Danda-rasa, in which each dancer marks
the rhythm with a pair of stikcs. Through these dances unsupported by the written
word, and established by its tremendous sociological impact, customs and tradition
have been established and people’s aesthetics enriched. With national
consciousness for the arts growing from day-to-day many of these beautiful
expressive dances are coming to urban audience and are being received with the
enthusiasm and success they deserve.

Question : Briefly discuss the folk dances of South India.

Answer: Kolattam is a dance by young girls with little lacquered sticks held in
hands to celebrate the birthday of Rama. Originating from Tamil Nadu, this dance
form is popular throughout India. Another variety of this dance form is popular
throughout India. Another variety of this dance is known as Pinnal Kilattam
accompanied with song or chorus that speak of the trapping of the sticks in rhythm,
of the twinning of the strammers, of happy youth and that of happy dance.

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Vasanta Attam is a dance of Spring, when the trees are in blossom and the air is
crisp with the perfume of flowers, the peasants dance to celebrate the birth of
nature. Palms coloured with turmeric and bodies dressed in orange saris with vivid
contrasting borders, girls and young women foregather before the village deity and
crown her with garlands. Little boys and girls bring mango buds and sing in chorus
to the accompanishment of cymbals, hand clapse and the choluk. They sing and
dance extolling mother goddess, the Earth.
Kummi dance usually takes place in Tamil Nadu during the Hindu New Year of
the South which falls in January just after the Pongal festival. Groups of young
girls dance with varying steps and clapping hands using their little minding steps in
circles upon circles. Kummi takes several forms in Tamil Nadu. There is also a
flower dance to a song that extols the beauty of many blossoms.

Dummy Horse Dance

One of the most picturesque and interesting performance is the Dummy Horse
Dance play done in rural south India near the temple towards autumn. Heavily
attired in colourful costumes, dancers stand in a frame of a horse made of paper,
cloth and light wood, brilliantly painted and draped. The dance lasts for hours
together on wooden legs to the rhythm of music and drums. These dance-plays
depict mythological stories.
Ootam Tullal is a type of pantomime akin to Kathakali. It is usually performed by
a single accompanied by a singer, a drummer and a cymbal player. The pantomime
interprets some of the choicest and select experts of Malayalam literature in an
amazingly enchanting manner. Kaikottkkali is performed by young women and
girls in Kerala. The chorus songs based on mythological stores build the crescendo
of the dance in circles with slow and measured speed.
Tappatikkali is performed by young women and girls in Kerala during the festival
of Lord Shiva. One of the elder women in the group commences the song and leads
the dancers the others repeating what the sings and following her movements.
Circling round and round and clapping their hands to the rhythm of their steps and
the music, the dance mirrors the rural simplicity and the vivaciousness.
Dollu Kunitha among the perfomring folk arts of Karnataka Dollu Kunitha (Drum
Dance) is outstandingly attractive and dynamic. It is a masculine dance because it
is confined to males with good physique and at the same time keep the best on the
hollow drum tied to his waist.

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The Dollu Kunitha came down to Karnataka as a tradition of Beereswara
worshipped by the Shepherd class of Karnataka. It is an inevitable religious and
cultural ritual and is performed mostly by Kurubas, the devottes of Beere Devaru.
Generally, the performing troops consists of 15 to 20 persons. They stand in a
circle and move as they start beating their drums. They group into different
formations and display their artistry.
Vyomalata Leather Puppet Show: Leather puppet show is popularly known as
shadow play. This art is very popular in South India. The performers belong to a
caste of Killekvatas who speak a Marathi dialect. They took the local Folk Dramas
for their performances with their puppets. The Leather Puppets are made out of
goat or dear skin. The themes are drawn from Ramayana, Mahabharatha and
Shivapurana.
Veerabhadreswara Nruthya: The dance form depicts the story of Veerabhadra,
the legendary minor god created by Lord Siva to teach a lesson to his father-in-law
Daksha.
The costume here is traditional and colourful to depict the folk tradition. The
troops consists of 15 artistes of whom eight are musicians. Veerabhadra is the
central character and the others provide the ensemble effect.
Pooja Kunitha: This is a dance of worship to propitiate goddess Shakti. A frame
made out of bamboo is covered with beautiful sarees. The artiste who dances
carrying the frame on his hand calls for special skill in the centre of the frame the
‘face’ of the goddess made out of copper or some other metal can be seen. On
festive days or special occasions, the artistes dance to fulfil their pledges. This
dance is usually performed in front of the temple of Goddess Shakti.
It is very popular in Madhya, Bangalore and Kolar districts.
Karaga is a religious folk dance prevalent in Kolar, Bangalore, Tumkur and
Mysore districts. The person who performs Karaga wears a beautiful decorated
brass pot and dances with full of maneuvers.
Kumbha on the head of the dancer is a significant factor for Karaga, The
Vannikula, a sect of Kshatriva community, performs Karaga dance.
Karadi Majalu is a percussion ensemble of Karnataka, traditionally performed in
the Northern parts during social and religious functions and festivals to propitiate
deities. The instruments used here include Karadi Vadya (drum) in
accomplishment with Sanadi, Sati, Dimmu and Chaugada.

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Costumes generally comprise of Kase panche, Kase Shirt, colourful turbans and
similar coloured waist bands. The artistes dance to the orchestral support standing
in a semi-circle with rhythmic movements.
Gorava dance of Karnataka is a religious dance performed by the devotees of Lord
Mylaralinga. Mylara is a Shivite Centre situated in North Karnataka. The Goravas
sing songs in their god and dance to the tune of Damaruga and Flute.
Mudalapaya Yakshagana is a dance prevalent in North and South Karnatka. The
lead singer in this tradition is called Bhagavatha. He is the Guru who teaches dance
and dialogue to the amateur village artistes.
The Songs which form part of the play are sung by him and the actors dance to the
verses, drums and cymbals. Mudalapaya is known for its fine music vigorous
dance and gorgeous costumes.
Veeragase is the symbolic presentation of heroism and volour of Veerabhadra
during Daksha Yajnya of mythological lore. This is a popular folk form of Halnad
in Karnataka. The exponents called “Lingada veeraru” perform with all religious
fervour on festive day, especially during Shravana and Kartika.
Sporting an unsheathed sword in the right and a wooden prague of Veerabhadra on
the left and, the performers display martial dance to the accompaniment of Karadi
and Chammal drums.
Halakki Suggi Kunitha: This dance is performed by Halakki Vokkaligas have
many folk arts of their own. Their harvest dance is well-known. They have a
beautiful head gear which is very colourful. They dance to the tune of a drum
called Gummate.

Question Give a brief description of the folk dances of North India.

Answer. Kalri is an occasion when the peasants in north India propitiate the Vedic
God Indra and pray for the nourishment of the earth and fire and a successful
harvest. Performed in raily season the dance movements follow the songs that are
accompanied by the rhythmic beat of the dholuk and cymbals.
Nautanki is one of the most popular folk dance of Uttar Pradesh with songs
recited in operative style. Acting and dance movements interpret stories connected
with mythology and also modern social problems.
Ras Lila is an equally popular dance form originating in Mathura and Vrindavan
in Uttar Pradesh, which are closely connected with the life of Lord Krishna. Fine
movements, some of them being common with those of the Kathak, are most

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attractive. Playing the roles of the Gopies and Radha, the expression of the dancers
is full of freshness and charm.
Karan is a dance to worship the holy tree marking the happy period when the
harvest is over. The dance festival commences with fasting during the day.
Jhora is a community dance and is done by both men and women, all castes
joining in the celebration. Dancing to a court of four or eight beats, they stand and
bend, sit down and then prange around in a merry alternation of movement and
counter movement.
Chappeli is one of the romantic dances of the Kumaon hils which is often
performed at weddings and spring time. Depicting as it does the spirit of romance,
dancers perform in twos, holding a mirror in one hand and a coloured handkerchief
in the other had which they gracefully wave, as they advance forwards and
backwards in rhythmic stepping.
The Thali dance, done entirely by Jaunsar women is an embodiment of grace.
Holding brass trays, forming circles, moving forward and backward, the dancers
move with slow steps with songs on their lips. The Thali dance is a
commemoration of the ancient days of chivalry when men danced before going
into battle. The dance is very forceful, full of firm stepping and men brandish
sword, they move faster to the accompaniment of the nagara drums and curling
trumpets.
Rauf dances are performed essentially by women in Jammu during harvesting
season. Dancing in two rows, about fifteen girls in each, form a sort of a chain by
placing their arms across one another’s backs. Dressed in bright skirts and
draperies with heavy ornaments of silver, their faces laden with smiles and
animation, the dancers create a heavenly charm and delight.
Hikat is another dance of Jammu in which groups of young girls and boys express
sheer joy and exhuberance. Their hands held crosswise pairs of dancers spin in fast
circles. This is a feat requiring food balance, perfect timing and precise movement
of the feet.
Bhangra is the most popular and best known dance of Punjab, performed on all
festive occasions. It is symbolic of exuberance and gaiety generally associated with
the nature of people living in this part of India. Forming into a usually large circles,
dancers start going round with as many new entrants as the time or occasion
demands. The drummer is in the centre giving fillip to dancer’s speed and

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movement. As the dancer’s get into the spirit of the dance, they produce a rhythmic
cry of joy.

Question : Give a brief description of the folk dances of East and

North-Eastern India .
Ans. Basant Manipuri folk dance and a type of Raslila, is Ras performed at full
moon in March-April. In depicts the story of a misunderstanding between Radha
and Krishna but it comes to a happy ending after a good deal of persuasion by
Krishna.
Baul is dance-song from Bengal, which are mainly devotional in nature with
Vaishnava characteristic.
Jadur folk dance of the Boomiyas of Orissa, is performed to propitiate Burn
Bonga a deity of the tribe. This dance is also performed by the Orasn tribe of
Bihar.
Jata Jatin a folk dance of Bihar, it is performed by Mithila women on moon-lit
nights during the monsoons, depicting the romance of Jata and Jatin.
Karama a folk dance of Bihar, it is generally performed in the rainy season. It is
performed by boys and girls who carry sticks on their shoulders during the dance.
Kathi a Bengali folk dance, is unique for its rhythmic footwork and for the
remarkable synchronisation in the beating of the sticks which the dancers hold in
their hands.
Keli Gopal a folk dance of Assam, depicts episodes from the life of Krishna.
Khamba Lim an Assamese folk dance, is performed at the beginning of the
harvest season, by two groups of dancers- male and female- who stand in two
rows.
Mahras a Manipuri folk dance and a type of Raslila, is performed during the full
moon night in December. It depicts the separation of divine lovers. Krishna and
Radha. Ultimately Krishna returns to Radha.
Maya Shavari is a folk dance of Orissa in which the mightiest of the gods and
goddess are treated as ordinary human beings.
Nat Puja an Assamese folk dance, performed with a sword in both hands, is an
invocation to the supreme deity, Siva, who assures victory to his devotees in time
of war.

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Natha Ras is a Manipuri folk dance and a type of Raslila. In this dance eight
gopies dance with Krishna.
Nruira Lim. This Assamese folk dance is also known as cock-fight dance. It is
performed by groups of boys and girls who stand opposite to each other and stage a
mook fight.
Raslila a Manipuri folk dance, it was initially visualized by Maharaja Jay Singh,
probably in 1700 A.D. Since Raslila is based on the Vaishnav theme, it is played in
different parts of the country in the fold of semi-classical traditions in the form of
dance or dance-dramas like the Raslila of Brij (U.P.).
Ruk Mar Nacha This is an attractive folk dance from Orissa. The Ruk Mar Nacha
dance- which means to ‘defend and attack’ is a highly stylised mock fight. It is
generally performed in the Mayurbhanj district of Orissa and is believed to be the
rudimentary form of the evolved Chhow dances of the region.
Sarbul a folk dance of the Oraons (Bihar). It is also called summer dance and is
more or less a martial dance.
Thambal chonabi a Manipuri folk dance, it is a merry social dance performed
during the festival of Holi.

Question: Give an account of the folk dances of Western India.

Answer : Rasa Nritya is considered to be the form of Rasa Leela, which Krishna
used to perform when he was leading the life of a cow-herd boy at Gokul and
Vrandavan. In several Sanskrit treaties and books its is mentioned as the form of
Halli Saka Nritya of which Danda Rasak, Tala Rasak and Laleet Rasa were the
varieties.
Danda Rasak known as Dandia Rasa is by itself very simple and is generally
performed by a group of youthful people who move in a circle to measured steps,
marking time by sticks called Dandias which they keep in their hands, also sing in
chorus accompanied by dhol, cymbals, zanz, flute or shehnai.
Tala and Lalit Rasaka. Similarly when the time measure is kept with clapping of
hands instead of ‘sticks’, it is called ‘Tala Rasak”. This is also called Garbi in
Saurashtra where generally the males participate. In Gujarat, Dandia Rasa is more
popular in Saurashtra than in any other part and performed during the Janmashtami
and other festive occasions connected with God Krishna’s life. There are various
types of Rasas such as Chokdi, Swastik and Kapai.

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Matki Nritya is a lyrical variation of the Rasa Dance which depicts the love
episodes of God Krishna during his younger days. The time beat is maintained by
striking their fingers or rings on the fingers on the empty pots.
Mer Rasa. Mers are a virile community which migrated to Saurashtra with Jathwa
Rajputs soon after the fall of Valabhis in the 8th century A.D. they are at present
found in the Porbandar region of Junagarh District and Baradi region of Jamnagar
District in Saurashtra. The Rasa of Mars begins in a slow tempo which warms up
at the end. They strike the Dandias so furiously and bring so much of verve and
vigour in the bodily movements that it looks more like sabre rattling in a war
dance.
Kutchhi Rasa Kutch, is a repository of some of the most ancient traits of the
culture of Gujarat. But so far as folk dances are concerened, the variety which is
extant is a form of Rasa popularly known as Kutchhi Rasa. It is very akin to the
Mer Dance in movement, tempo and music except its warlike character. Only male
dancers participate. Usual accompaniments are Dhol and Shehnai.
Gher and Gherria Rasa Gher is a variation of Rasa Nritya which is more popular
in Rajasthan and some parts of Malwa. There, it is a favourite dance of Minas who
are akin to the Bhills.
Gherria Rasa in the South Gujarat is a sort of dance wherein the agricultural
labourers of Surat District hold a Dandia in one hand and a peacock feather on the
other with which they make different movements and keep time. They go singing
to a temple and the player who leads the singing is called Kavio. The dance is a
male dance wherein everyone done a very colourful costume and wears simple
ornaments.
Gof Gunthan. This is a form of Dandia Rasa a maypole dance of Gujarat wherein
the process of Gof Gunthan i.e. weaving a rope proceeds along with the dance. The
Gof Gunthar, popularly known as Athanga Nritya in Gujarat is a very intricate and
entertaining variation of the Dandia Rasa. In this dance, every player holds a stick
in one hand and a coloured strin in the others which is attached to hook at the top.
Garba Nritya. Just as Krishna popularised the Rasa form of dance, similarly,
Usha, the grand daughter-in-laws of Krishna, i.e. the wife of Anirudhdha and
daughter of King Banasura of Shonitpur is credited to have popularised the form of
Lasya Nritya which came to be known as the Garba Dance.
The Garba Nritya is a circular form of dance performed by the village as well as
the urban ladies and the occasion for this dance is especially Navaratri, Sharad,

GUNJAN Page 23
Purnima, Vasant Panchmi, Holi and other festival occasions. The word “Garba”
derives its name after a lamp called “Garbhadip”, meaning the lamp inside the
earthern pot. The light in the earthern pot symbolises the emboroyonic life. The
ladies place it on their head and move in a circle and sing songs in honour of
Mother Goddess.
Bhil Nritya. The border tracts of Gujarat have a large population of Bhils who
have much in common with the Bhils of Rajasthan. Of the important forms of Bhil
dance, the war dance and hunter’s are more or less or ritualistic variety. In the Holi
dance, the males and females indulge in a gay revelry of dance. In a war dance, the
bow and arrow, the sword and spears, are flourished and the dancers indulge in a
wild and boisterous performance to the accompaniment of Dhol and flute.
Siddi Nritya. The Africans in Gujarat are called Siddis. Therse Siddi dancers hail
from a place called Jambur situated in the Forest of Gir, near Junagarh, well-
known as the only habitat of lions in Asia. Though three hundred years of domicile
in India have made them perfect Indian citizens, they have still retained in their
folk dances. Some features which resemble their counterparts in Africa. Though
the songs they sing while dancing are in Gujarati, they have a ilting refrain and
ferocious rhythm, let loose by their primitive drums which remind us of the
African tribal music. Their dances are called Dhamal and Hamchi wherein they
recreate all the vigour, verve and ferocity for which the African tribal dances are so
well known.
Dangi Nritya. The forest areas of Dangs, a district of south Gujarat touches the
borders of Maharashtra and absorbed many influences of the tribal forms of the
folks dances of Central India. Dangi Nritya is more or less very akin to Oraon
tribal dances of Bihar. It has refreshing vigour and movements which are similar to
those of Jadur dance also. This region of Gujarat rich both in forest wealth and folk
dance is now getting its due share of development and recognition of its
contribution to the folk culture of Gujarat.
Manjira Nritya (Cymbal Dance). Most of the folk dances in Gujarat have group
formations. But the Manjira dance is the only form of a sole dance preserved only
by the women of a community called Kamalias in Saurashtra. The dance is
generally performed by a woman who sits on the ground with “Manjiras” tied on
all parts of her body i.e. head, hand, chest, waist, thighs, anklet, and feet. A naked
sword is held in the mouth and an earthen pot is balanced on the head with a
burning lamp on it. The dancer holds a pair of “Manjiras” in each hand to the
accompaniment of music and tablas she rhythmiable swings to and from the strikes
“Manjiras” held in her hands on other “Manjiras affixed on different parts of her
GUNJAN Page 24
body. A slightly different form of this variation exists in Rajasthan, where it is
known as Teratali.
Tippani Nritya. Although most of the dance forms in Gujarat are either connected
with Lord Krishna’s episodes of life or other Shakti cults, there are some dance
forms which typically represent the community activities and their functional
aspect. Such activities are clearly visible in a dance form called Tippani Nritya
performed by the women of Chorwad, a seaside place near Somnath. These women
are generally labourers, who is spite of the advent of tiles and cement concrete,
have still maintained their ancient vocation.
The orchestration is quite simple. The drummer accompanied by zanz and cymbal
players controls the tempo and the pace of movements. He is also the person, who
leads the singing too.
Hali Nrtya. The Hallis belong to a community called Dublas from Udwada in
Surat District, who are a sect of ancient community called Bhils. Their festive
occasion for dances are Holi, Diwali and marriages. The usual accompanishment is
a Turi and a Thali, i.e. brass plate.The steps of the dance change with every new
formation with a corresponding change in the measure. A row of women with arms
interlaced dance in a straight line opposite a row of males. Both the rows of males
and females swing forward and backward with swiftness and agility to the tuneful
rhythm of Turi and Thali. Their dance begins with a fairly fast tempo and
continues changing the patterns of the rows, while the Turi and Thali players take
position in the midst of dancers and play the instruments against each group.
Padhar Nritya. Padhar Nritya derives its name from a community called Padhar
who are one of the tribal communities of Gujarat. Ranagarh, one of the villages of
Bhal situated in the Surendranagar District has produced one of the most
distinguished troops of folk dancers of Gujarat. This ancient Community has
preserved a form of folk dance which typifies their life, which is full of toil,
enterprise and joy of boating and rowing mariners, the undulating seawaves and
introduce the hilarity of rural joy.
They sit with bended knees in a ring formation and with little cymals in their hands
they keep timing and sing in chorus. they rise up and down, move to and fro and
simulate the vigorous movements of Boat rowing. They rise with bended knees and
life down and roll from side to side. After this dance is over, they change to a form
termed as Zakolia, wherein they mainly use the zanz i.e. big and flat cymbal. Four
persons form the circular formation stand in the middle with zanz tied to long

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strings. The folk instruments used in the performance are tablas, zanz, cymbals and
a grotesque instrument called Bagalia.
Tamasha is an operation folk dance from Maharashtra with a certain amount of
dancing in it. The player sing and narrate stories with mime interwoven by dancers.
Men do forceful martial movements and women sing in high tones with their
dancing steps that are quick concise and staccato accentuating the gusto by
rhythmic pauses.
Dholacha Nach. This dance takes its name after the name of the drum dhol. Two
other similar folk dances named after musical instruments and Tamboricha nach
after the tambori and the Tarapicha Nach after the wind instrument tarapi. The
formation of most of these dances is circular.
Tarapi is performed at the time of Holi by the Warlis and The kars. The tarapi
dances are of many types, each taking its name either from the predominant
movement or the formation. There are nearly nine or ten different types of
formations which are executed in the Tarapi dances, and in each there is a
characteristic pattern of foot movements, by swings and hand and arm movements.
Gauricha is a popular folk dance of the Kunabis of Kolaba. This dance is also
known as Cheuli Nach and Jakhadia. This dance is usually performed on Gauri
Puja or Ganapati Puja.
Dindi and Thekala. Both these are associated with Lord Krishna and the
description of his childhood pranks. The Dindi is a dance of the Rasa Variety.
The Kala is performed around Gokul Ashtami, and is connected with the breaking
of a dahi handi. The dancers from a pyramidical structure to enact the breaking of
earthern pot.

Question : Give an account of the folk dances of Rajasthan ?

Ans. Ghumar or Jhumar is the most popular folk dance of Rajasthan. Performed
in all seasons, it is always accompanied by songs of love, glory or defeat. Men and
women dance in a circle, one half made of men and the other half of women with
the accompaniment of instrumental and vocal music.
Raika is a martial folk dance, in which men and women both participate. The men
hold swords and sing invoking the gods to grant them strength. Men and women
then form circle and move in steps.Jhoria. The word Jhoria which means a wooden
stick, is a marriage dance. The men form one circle, the women another and they
perform a vivacious dance to the accompani-ment of Nagara. Shehani and
Dhol.Dandiya and the Dhamal are the circular stick dances of men. They are
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associated with the Lord-Krishna legend and the songs such during the dance tell
the story of God Krishna’s boyhood.Kachi Ghori is performed by the Bavaris and
Saegaras of eastern Rajasthan. As the name implies, the dance is a presentation of
horse riding. The horse used in the dance is made of bamboo sticks and dancer
dressed as a bridgeroom, “adjusts the horse” on his waist in such a way as to create
a realistic effect.Bhavai is a ballad, dance drama and theatre performed by the
Bhavai community. The themes of these dances are based on the popular love
story, historical or social incidents.

Topic: Festival / Fairs of India

Question : Give a brief account of the important fairs of
India.
Answer:

Goa Carnival (February) – Goa

In the South-West of India, in February, as the rigour and fasting of Lent approach,
the residents of Goa, specially of Panaji, give vent to an exuberance and zest for
life in a carnival that lasts for a week.
This carnival, rivals the best in the world. Bright colourful costumes, masks and
flitrations favour the revellers. Processions follow processions. Geniously made
floats ply down the picturesque roads. And for an unforgettable week exuberance
and joy find a home amidst the sandy beaches and beauty of Goa.

Urs (April/May) – Ajmer Sharif

New clothes and feasts at home for friends, acquaintance, and strangers. At the
fair, the wonderland of saints, fakirs and pilgrims. The endless voices in gawalising
the praise of Hazarat Khwaza Moinuddin Chishti, helper of the poor. Such an
environment welcomes visitors at the Urs of Ajmer Sharif.
The fair, like all fairs in India, is just not a commercial venture. It is a great out-
pouring of culture. All night-long, qawals, regardless of religion, sing in the
mehfil and poets sprout amids the shop, above the hubbuh in the streets.

Kulu Mela (September/October) – Himachal Pradesh

To the north, Dussehra, brings with it a fair in Kuly Valley. It is time for gods and
goddess to forsake their temples and adore the fields amidst the sun. Each village
has its god. They are led in a noisy procession by musicians and minstrels from
their various high perches in the hills to the fields of Kulu below.

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Pushkar Mela (October/November) – Rajasthan
Pushkar, near Ajmer, in Rajasthan is famous place of Hindu pilgrimage. Pushkar is
famous for its large natural lake and its temple dedicated to Lord Brahma. On
Kartik poornima, or any of the four days preceding it, an annual festival is held
here. During this fair animal from all parts of North India are brought here for sale.

Kumbha
Kumbha Mahaparva, a festival and fair of great antiquity and magnitude is held
once every twlve years on the banks of Ganga at Haridwar. The Ardha Kumbha
and Kumbhis are held at an interval of three years, between each other, at Ujjain,
Allahabad and Nasik.
Kumbha, which literally means a pot of water, is an astrological sign of the zodiac
which corresponds to acquarius, the Water Bearer. The Kumbha symbolises the
descent of Ganga from Heaven into Shiva’s matted locks, the suspicious entry of
Jupiter into the sign of Kumbha once every twelve years when Kumbha is held;
and the falling of mythical amrit (nectar) at Hardwar- all blend and fuse in the
Hindu Psyche to make Kumbha the holiest of all festivals. The main ritual at the
Kumbha fair is have the dip in the river.

Rath Yatra of Puri

Puri, which is the abode of Lord Jagannath (another name of Lord Krishna) is one
of the seven most sacred places of Hindu Pilgrimage. During Shravan
(July/August) the presiding deities Krishna, his brother Balabhadra and Sister
Subhadra are taken in three colossal chariots, built in the shape of temple to
Gundichi Bati, near Puri. Every year thousands of devotees come to Puri to tug the
ropes of the Chariot, to take Jagannath from the temple at Puri to his suburban
home at Gundichi Bari.

Hola Mohalla
It is a Sikh festival held every year on Holi at Anandpur Sahib. This festival is held
in the form of a fair to commemorate the militarisation of the Sikhs into the order
of Nihangs (Warrior-medicants) by the last Sikh Guru Shri Govind Singh. The
main focus of this fair is the display of martial arts like archery, sword fencing,
horse-riding etc.

Kulu Dussehra
This week-long festival is celebrated with great pomp and show, song and dance.
On this day various Gods are taken in splended palanquins and taken to Kulu

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maiden. Each of the numerous processions is led by musicians. Kulu Dussehra is
the most important festival of Himachal Pradesh.

Historic and Cultural Place and Famous Monuments of India

Agra
Located about 204 km. from Delhi in Uttar Pradesh, Agra is one of the most famus
medieval cities of India. The rise of Agra as a great medieval city dates back to
1505 when Sultan Sikandar Lodi made Agra the capital of the Lodi Kingdom in
place of the existing capital Delhi. After the defect of the Lodis, Babar captured
Agra and also died here. In 1558, Akbar re-established the Mughal capital at Agra.
Under Akbar, became one of the greatest cities of the contemporary world. Except
from 1574 to 1586, when Akbar shifted his capital to Fatehpur Sikri, Agra
remained the capital of the Mughal Empire till the second coronation of
Aurangzeb. Agra commands a unique status in the art map of the world on account
of numerous masterpieces of Mughal art and architecture. Some of the finest
specimens of the Mughal art Agra are the Fort, the Taj, Jasmine Palace, Pearl
Mosque, etc. The golden age of Agra came to an end with the end of Shah Jahan’s
reign.

Ahmedabad
Situated on the bank of the river Sabarmati in Gujarat. Ahmedabad was founded in
1411 by Sultan Ahmad-I of Gujarat. Under Sultan Ahmad-I and his successors,
Ahmedabad rapidly grew as the most well planned beautiful and prosperous city of
Western India. In medieval India, it was also a great industrial town known for the
manufacture of silk, brocades, gold and silver, thread and lac. At the close of the
17th century, the Italian traveller Careri called it “the greatest city in India nothing
interior to Venice”. The Sultans of Gujarat greatly enriched with numerous
excellent monuments, such as: Ahmedabad fort, the Jami Masjid, the Tin Darwaja,
Rani-Ka-Hazria, Sidi Sa’id mosque, etc.

Ahmednagar
Located about 121 km. to the north-east of Pune, in Ahmednagar district of
Maharashtra, Ahmednagar was founded in 1494 A.D. by Ahmad Nizam Shah, the
founder of the Nizam-Shahi dynasty as the new caital of his Kingdom . From 1494
to 1636 when the Nizam-Shahi Kingdom of Ahmednagar was annexed to the
Mughal Empire Ahmednagar served as the capital of the Nizam Shahi Kingdom
and rapidly became a Premier town of the Deccan. Its fame was immortalised by
the Nizam-Shahi, Prime Minister Malik Amber, and Queen Chand Bibi. The

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Nizami Shahi Sultans, during their rule for about a century and a half greatly
enriched the city with excellent water supply system, numerous forts, mosques,
palaces, tombs, gardens. The battle-scarred fort of Ahmednagar built by Nizam
Husain Shah is one of the finest and the strongest forts of India.

Ajmer
Situated at the feet of the Taragarh hill, Ajmer now a principal town of Rajasthan,
was founded by the Chahaman King Ajayapala who named the city as Ajaymeru.
Ajayapala also shifted its capital from Sambhar to Ajmer some time before 1123
A.D. After the defeat of Prithvi Raj Chauhan-III, at the hands of the Muhammad
Ghori, Ajmer was annexed to the Sultanate of Delhi. Akbar made Ajmer as the
capital of the Mughal province of Rajputana. Ajmer was also the abode of greatest
Indian Sufi saint Shaikh Muin-ud-din Chisti whose Dargah is a great centre of
pilgrimage for the Hindus and Muslims alike.

Amber
Located at a distance of about 10 km. from Jaipur in Rajasthan, Amber was the
capital of Kachhwaha Rajputs. Amber came to lime-light when its ruler gave his
daughter in marriage to the great King Akbar and soon Amber emerge as a well
known capital city of northern India. The Kachhawahas built numerous structures
at Amber particularly the palace, the fort and artificial lake etc. Amber was also a
great centre of Jainism. Till the foundation of Jaipur, as a new capital of the
Kachhawaha Kingdom, Amber served as a capital till 1727 A.D.

Aihole
Situated on the Malaprabha river in Bijapur district of Karnataka, Aihole was the
cradle of the Chalukyan architecture of all the three principal religions of India-
Buddhism, Jainsim and Brahmanism. The Chalukyan architecture of Aihole is
particularly famous for the Buddhist rock cut cave.

Ajanta
Situated about 100 km. north-west of Aurangabad in Maharshtra, Ajanta is famous
for its ancient caves and cave paintings and is known as a museum of Buddhist
paintings. The making and adorning of these caves is supposed to have lasted for
about a thousand years from the 2nd century B.C. to the 8th century A.D. But the
place attained its greatest glory in the 6th and the 7th centuries A.D. when Ajanta
developed into a shrine of Buddhism and one of the glories of ancient art. At
Ajanta, in all there are 29 caves which are either the Buddhist temples or
monastries. Cave No. 17 has described as the greatest gallery of Ajanta paintings.

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The painting of a ‘Dying Princess’ in Cave No. 2 is one of the finest Ajanta
Paintings.

Amravati
Situated on the banks of rivers Krishna in Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh,
Amravati has been a flourishing centre of Buddhism and the metropolis of the
Andhra rulers, particularly under the Satvahans. The most famous monument of
Amravati is the great stupa of Amravati, which was sumptiously sculptured and
carved in its prosperous days. Presently, a lofty temple of Amresvara stands on the
bank of Krishna which is a great place of pilgrimage for the Hindus.

Amritsar
Situated between the Ravi and the Beas rivers in the Punjab, Amritsar came into
prominence with the rise of the Sikh Power. The fourth Sikh Guru Ramdas, took
over in 1574, laid the foundation of the future of Amritsar upon a site granted by
the Mughal emperor Akbar. Guru Ramdas also excavated the holy tank of Amrita
Sara from which the town derives its name. Guru Arjuna, the fifth Guru completed
the sacred buildings and witnessed the growth of a flourished town around the holy
site of the Golden Temple. During the later 18th century the Sikh confedracies
established their quarters in the city. Under Ranjit Singh, Amritsar received his
much patronage and the city and the Golden Temple owe their numerous structures
to Maharaja Ranjit Singh. Amritsar was also famous as a great industrial centre
and was particularly famous for its woolen shawls, carpets and silk fabrics.

Aurangabad
Situated on the Kham river, in Maharashtra, Aurangabad is one of the famous
historic towns of Indian and no other district in India has so many historical
monuments such as Ajanta, Ellora, Daulatabad, Paithan etc., as this district
Aurangabad was founded by the Nizam Shahi, Prime Minister Malik Amber in
1610. When the Nizam Shahi Kingdom was annexed to the Mughal empire,
Aurangazeb made Aurangabad as the military and administratve headquarters of
the Mughal viceroyalty in the Deccan. In 1720, Asaf Jah Nizam-ul-Malk made
Aurangabad as the first capital of his kingdom in the Deccan. Some of the
important medieval monuments at Aurangabad are- the Kali Masjid, the Jami
Masjid and Bibi Ka Maqbara, a beautiful tomb of the wife of Aurangzeb.
Aurangabad was also famous for its fabrics of silk and cotton.

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Ayodhya
Located in the Faizabad district of Uttar Pradesh, Ayodhya is one to the seven
sacred cities for the Hindus. The ancient town of Ayodhya was also known as
Saketa and is supposed to be the birth place of the epic hero Rama. In the 6th
century B.C. it was the capital of the Southern Kosala.

Badami
Located in Bijapur district of Karnataka, Badami was the capital of Chalukyas and
is famous for its cave temples which were excavated by the Chaulukyas in the 6th
and 7th centuries and by their political successors- the Rashtrakutas between the
7th and 9th centuries. The cave temples at Badami are Brahamanical and Jain. In
all there are four large cave temples. There are Brahmanical and the fourth is the
Jain.

Belur
Situated in Hassan district of Karnataka, Belur was an ancient place of pilgrimage
and therefore was also called as a Dakshina-Varanasi. It emerged as a great city
under the Hoysalas, who built numerous temples – of them the Chinnakeshava
temple is one of the finest specimens of the Hoysala architecture and sculpture.

Besanagar or Vidhisha (Bhilsa)

Situated in Madhya Pradesh on the banks of river Betwa, Vidhisha, Bhilsa or
Besanagar figure prominently in the Buddhist, Jain and Brahmanical literature. It
lay on the main route from the North to South and was also connected to Western
India and Northern India alike. On account of its exalted commercial position
Vidhisha was one of the richest cities of ancient India. Ashoka as a Prince stayed
here as a Governor. Numerous dynasties of ancient India from the Mauryas to the
Shungas and Indo-Greeks, were intimately connected with Vidhsha. From here
several antiquities have been found, most important being the Guruda- Dhwaja
erected by the great King Heliodorous.

Bhubaneswar
Presently the capital of Orissa, Bhubaneswar is a very anicent city having a
continued history from 2nd century B.C. to the 16th century A.D. and provides a
panorama of the Orissian art. The most famous ancient monument of Orissa s the
famous Lingaraja temple which has been acclaimed as one of the finest Hindu
temples in India. This temple was built in the 7th century A.D.

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Bijapur
Located on the Maharashtra-Karnataka border, Bijapur is the headquarters of a
district of the same name in Karnataka. It was an important town under the
Chalukyas of Badami and the Yadavas of Devagiri. After the foundation of the
Bahamani Kingdom, Bijapur formed part of their Kingdom. When the Bahmani
Kingdom declined and disintegrated, Sultan Yusuf Adil Khan founded an
independent Adil Shahi, Kingdom with Bijapur as its capital. Till the annexation of
the Adil Shahi Kingdom to the Mughal Empire by Aurangzeb in 1686, Bijapur
remained a rich and prosperous town and one of the best known capital cities of
South India. The Adil Shahi Sultans were great patrons of art and architecture. The
city boasts of over 20 mosques 20 tombs and atleast as many palaces of the Adil
Shahi period. Of those the most outstanding monument is the Gol Gumbaj which is
the second largest dome in the world. The Bijapur school of painting is regarded as
the best school of Deccani painting.

Bodh-Gaya or Buddha Gaya

Situated about 10 kms. to the South of Gaya in Bihar. Bodh-Gaya is one of the
most scred spot in the history of Buddhism (where Lord Buddha attained
enlightenment under the celebrated people or Bodhi Tree). The most famous
monument at Bodh-Gaya is the famous Mahabodhi temple built in the 2nd century
A.D. There are also numerous other Buddhist Chaityas and stupas particularly of
the Pala period.

Champaner
Situated about 51 km from Godhara in Panchamahals district of Gujarat,
Champaner was one of the most well known medieval towns of Gujarat. In 1484.
Mahmud Begada, the Sultan of Gujarat transferred his capital to the new city. Till
the death of Sultan Bahadur Shah in 1536 Champaner remained the political
capital of Gujarat. After the death of Sultan Bahadur Shah, the capital and the court
of Gujarat were transferred to Ahmedabad, Champaner was also famous for sword-
blades and dyed silk fabrics.

Chanderi
Situated on the bank of Betwa, about 80 km west of Guna in Madhya Pradesh,
Chanderi was a very famous medieval city which is said to have been founded by
one of the early Chandela Kings. Chanderi was a well laid out town, a rich centre
of trade and commerce and also the scene of considerable military activities during
the medieval period. Babur in his memoris had left a vivid account of this town.
Chanderi has long been famous for the manufacture of delicate muslims and fine

GUNJAN Page 33
alike. Chanderi abounds several monuments including its great fort and several
other Islamic buildings.

Chidambaram
Situated about 24 km. south of Madras in South Arcot district of Tamil Nadu,
Chidambaram was a great town and a place of pilgrimage. It was also once the
capital of the Cholas. The Cholas and the Pandhyas build numerous magnificient
temples here. The most famous of these is the great Nataraja temple which is
dedicated to Lord Shiva in his ‘Cosmic Dancer’ manifestation. The Gopurams of
the temple are covered with sculptures illustrating the 110 positions of the Natya
Shastra- the Indian art of dancing.

Chitor
Situated about 108 km. to the North-East of Udaipur in Rajasthan, Chitor has been
the cradle of Rajput Chivalry and valour. The city and the fort of Chitor were said
to have been founded by the Mauryan ruler Chitrangada. Chitor got reknown when
the Guhila ruler Jaitra Singh (1213-52 A.D.) made Chitor the capital of his
Kingdom of Mewar. In the early 14th century, the Sisodiyas established their
supremacy over Chitor, and some of the great rulers of this dynasty were Rana
Kumbha, Rana Sanga and Rana Pratap. In 1567-68, when Akbar conquered it from
Rana Pratap, the capital of Mewar had to be shifted from Chitor to Udaipur, which
threafter became the Permanent capital of Mewar. Chitor is a treasure house of
historical relics and monuments. A Tower of victory or Kirti Stambh built by Rana
Kumbha, the fort of Chitor and several Jain and Hindu temples constituted the rich
heritage of Rajput art at Chitor.

Dhar or Dhara
A city and a district of the same name in Madhya Pradesh, Dhara became famous
as the capital of the Parmara when King Bhoj transferred his capital from Ujjain to
Dhara. Bhoja rebuilt the city on a new model. Under the Parmaras, Dhara grew as
a metropolitan town with beautiful palaces, pleasure gardens and fortifications
around the city. It also came to be recognised as one of the great centres of
learning. The Bhojasala at Dhar was a famous temple of learning or a College of
Sanskrit. The presiding deity of this temple was an image of Vagadevi, which now
preserved in the British Museum, London, and is insignia of the Bhartiya Jnanapith
Award.

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Delhi
Located on the banks of the Yamuna, Delhi now a Union Territory and the capital
of India is one of the most historic cities of India. From the earliest dawn of Indian
History, city after city have risen and fallen in succession within the confines of
present Delhi and therefore Delhi has aptly been called “the procession of cities”.
The first known city was the Indraprastha, next was founded by the Tomars.
Today’s Delhi is said to be an amalgam of seven previous cities Delhi had been
enriched by the successive rulers by numerous monuments. The most important
being the Qutab Minar completed by Illtutmush, the Tughlaqbad complex built by
Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq and Mohammad-bin-Tughlaq but the reign of Shahjahan
marked the golden age of the city of Delhi when Shahjahan founded
Shahjahanabad and beautified the city with numerous large and beautiful buildings
such as Jama Masjid, the palace fort complex known as the Red Fort which has
several important buildings such as the Diwan-i-Aam, Diwan-i-Khass, the Rang
Mahal, etc. inside it. In 1911, the British transferred the capital of the British India
from Calcutta to New Delhi and founded a new capital city i.e. New Delhi.

Dwarka
Located in the extreme west of Saurashtra on the Arabian Sea about 137 km. from
Jamnagar in Gujarat, Dwarka was considered as a Gateway to the mainland of
Western India. According to mythological accounts, it was the adopted home and
capital of Lord Krishna after he gave up Mathura. As a place of Hindu pilgrimage,
it was considered to be one of the seven sacred towns of Hindu pilgrims.
Originally, Dwarka is said to have been swallowed up by the sewa which has been
proved by the recent oceanographic archacological explorations conducted by Prof.
S.R. Rao.

Devagiri or Daultabad
Situated about 14 km. north west Aurangabad in Maharashtra, Devagiri, was the
capital of the Yadava Kingdom, which rose in the 12th century. In 1494, Allauddin
Khilji invaded Devagiri and finally it was annexed to the Sultanate of Delhi in
1313. In 1527, Mohammad-bin-Tughlaq made Devagiri the second administrative
centre of the empire and changed the name of Devagiri to Daultabad but Daultabad
remained the capital of Tughlaq empire hardly for 10 years. After the decline of the
Tughlaq Empire, Daultabad formed part of the Behamani Kingdom and after the
decline of the latter of the Nizam Shahi Kingdom. In 1633, it was captured by the
Mughals and served as the headquarters of the Mughal viceroys in the Deccan. The
fort of Daulatabad, the Jami Masjid are some of the important monuments at
Daultabad.
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Elephanta
Situated about 11 km. east of Apollo Bunder and 5 km. south of Trombay (near
Bombay), Elephanta is a small island in Kolaba district of Maharashtra. Elephanta
from 3rd to the 10th century A.D. was the site of an ancient city and a place of
religious resort to the Buddhists and Shaivites alike. It was famous for rock cut
caves mostly excavated between the 6th and the 8th centuries A.D. The most
famous sculpture from Elephanta is a 18 feet triple-headed image of
Trimoorti comprising the Brahma; the Creator; Rudra, the destroyer, and Vishnu;
the preserver. In all there are four caves in Elephanta, one of these caves contains a
Buddhist Chaitya.

Ellora
Situated about 24 km. north-west of Aurangabad, Ellora was once a large town and
is known to the world for its wonderful rock-cut cave temples in the hills. Ellora
contains some of the largest and most elaborately carved specimens of the
Buddhist, Brahmanical and Jain styles of cave architecture. Cave No. 16, well
known as Kailasha or Rang Mahal is regarded as the greatest monolithic structure
in the world. This monument is a wonderful combination of skill, infinite labour
and grandeur of conception-unmathced by any other monument in India or
elsewhere.

Faizabad
Situated on the right bank of Ghaghra, about 126 km. east of Lucknow in Uttar
Pradesh, Faizabad was founded by Nawab Safdarjung sometime before 1739 A.D.
and it remained the capital of the Nawabs of Avadh till the transfer of capital to
Lucknow by Nawab Asaf-ad-daula.

Fatehpur Sikri
Situated about 37 km. south of Agra in U.P., Fatehpur Sikri owes its glory and
greatness to Akbar who founded the new capital city here and made it its capital in
lieu of Agra. The construction of the city began in 1569 and was completed in
1574. Fatehpur Sikri remained the defecto capital of the Mughal empire from
1572-1585. Fatehpur Sikri is knwon as “an epic poem in red-sand stone”. Great
buildings at Fatehpur Sikri, built by Akbar include palaces, assembly halls, public
offices, schools, hospitals, the Jami Masjid, the Panch Mahal etc. The Buland
Darwaja erected to commemorate Akbar’s victory in the Deccan is the loftiest
gateway in India and is the crowing glory of Fatehpur Sikri.

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Golconda
Situated about 8 km. west of Hyderabad in Andhra Pradesh, Golconda was the
capital of the Qutab Kingdom. From 1515 till 1591 when the capital was
transferred from Golconda to Hyderabad. However, even after the transfer of their
capital to Hyderabad, Golconda continued to remain the military headquarter of the
Qutab Shahi’s. Under the Qutbshahi’s Golconda not only emerged as the greatest
metropolis of the Deccan but also rose into an internationally known commercial
centre. It was acknowledged as the greatest diamond mart in the world and one of
the greatst centre of textile industry and trade. The fort of Golconds is one of the
best known forts of Deccan. To the north of the fort there are numerous tombs of
the Qutbshahi rulers.

Goa
Located on the western coast of India, the ancient name of Goa was Gomantak.
The Arab writers called it Sindavur. In the 14th century.Goa emerged as one of the
most important emporia on the western coast and also one of the greatest centres of
Arab trade being the greatest disembarkation point for the imported Arabian
horses. In 1510, the Portuguese captured Goa from the Adilsahi Sultan of Bijapur.
The Portuguese continued to occupy Goa from 1510 to 1961. Under the Portuguese
old Goa was known as the Rome of the east and was a typical European settlement
where the trade between the east and west met.

Gwalior
Located in Madhya Pradesh, Gwalior derives its name from historic rock-fortress
built on an isloated hill, which is variously referred as Gope Parvat or Copagiri etc.
In the medieval period Gwalior was ruled by Gurjar Pratiharas, the Chandelas and
Kacchapa-ghatas, the Sultans of Delhi, the Tomar Chiefs etc. The Tomar Chief
founded an independent state of Gwalior in 1424. The greatest king of this dynasty
was Mansingh, who adorned the hill castle with several new buildings and
constructed many irrigation works. Under him Gwalior also became a great centre
of Hindustani music. During the Mughal period, the fort of Gwalior was used as a
state prison where princes and chiefs were kept imprisoned. On the model of the
fort of Gwalior, Akbar and his successor modelled the Mughal forts. Besides the
fort, the Tomar King Mansingh also built the Man Mandir, Gurjari Mahal etc. The
dome of Tansen, a celebrated musician of Akbar’s court is also at Gwalior.

Halebid or Dwarsamudra
Situated in the Hassan district of Karnataka, Dwarsamudra, now known as
Halebid, was the capital of the Hoysalas from the 11th to 14th centuries A.D. The

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city was destroyed by Malik Kafur in 1311. Under the Hoysalas Dwarsamudra
rapidly grew as a splendid city with numerous architectural gems of the Hosala
Art. The most remarkable of these are the Hoyasaleshvara and Kedareshwara
temples.

Hampi or Vijayanagar
Situated on the southern bank of Tungabhadra in Bellari district of Karnataka,
Hampi is the present name of Vijayanagar which was the capital of the great
empire of Vijayanagar from 1336 to 1565. During its hey days, the city of
Vijayanagar was the glory of medieval India and various foreign visitors from
different parts of the world compared it to the great cities of their times. It was
compared with Rome, Milan, Venice, London, etc., and still the foreign travellers
considered that this was “the best provided city in the world”. After the defeat of
the Vijayanagar forces in the battle of Talikota in 1565, the city was badly
destroyed by the civtorious troops of the Deccani states. The ruins of ancient
Vijayanagar are spread in Several kilometres. Some of the surviving monuments at
Vijayanagar are Krishnaswami Temple. Vitthalswami temple, the Lotus Palace, the
Maharangamandapa with its world famous musical pillars etc.

Hastinapur
Situated on the banks of Ganges in Meerut district of Uttar Pradesh, Hastinapur
was the capital of kauravs and the Pandavas of the Mahabharata, which gives the
detailed account of the city. Hastinapur was once a splended city from where five
periods of occupation have been unearthed during the archaeological excavations.
Hastinapur is an important painted Greware Site.

Hyderabad
Located on the bank of river Musi, Hyderabad now the capital of Andhra Pradesh
was founded by Sultan Mohammad Quli Qutb Shah in 1591, as the new capital of
the Qutb Shahi Kingdom. The new city was built in the form of a joint double
cross. Of the many buildings raised in the new capital by Mohammad Quli, the
Char Minar occupies a pride position. After the annexation of the Qutb Shahi
Kingdom to the Mughal empire, Hyderabad served as headquarters of the Mughal
Government for sometime and finally became the capital of the Nizams During the
17th and 18th centuries, Hyderabad was famous as a great centre of trade and
commerce particularly of precious towns.

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Jaipur
Situated about 307 kms. from Delhi, Jaipur present capital of Rajasthan was
founded by the Kachhwaha King Sawai. Jaisingh II in 1727 as the new capital of
his kingdom in place of Amber. Sawai Jaisingh who was a great mathematician
and astronomer laid out the city with mathematical precision. The city was planned
like a board of Chaupar. Jaipur is one of the most well planned cities of Northern
India. Sawai Jaisingh built numerous beautiful monuments in his new capital.
Some of the important monuments at Jaipur are the Hawa Mahal, Jantar Mantar or
astronomical the observatory, palaces and gardens etc. Sawai Jai Singh-II, the
founder of Jaipur was a great builder and astronomer, who built five astronomical
laboratiories at Jaipur, Delhi, Mathura, Varanasi and Ujjain.

Khajuraho
Situated in the Chhatarpur district of Madhya Pradesh, Khajuraho was the religious
capital of Chandelas. In the history of Indian Art, Khajuraho is famous for more
than thirty temples built by the Chandelas at Khajuraho and in the neighbouring
village. The splendour of Khajuraho reached its peak in the 10th, 11th century
A.D. under the Chandela rulers. The Khajuraho temples are the finest group of
Hindu temples in northern India which are almost equally divided between the
three sects, Shaiva, the Vaishnava and the Jain. The largest and the most imposing
of these temples is the Kandariya Mahadeva temple and the largest and the finest
of the Jain temples is the Parsvanath temple. The magnificence and splendour of
the Khajuraho temples is largely on account of their sculptures- several of them
being highly sensuous.

Kalanjar
Located about 56 km. south of Banda in U.P. Kalanjar with its famous hill fort is a
place of great antiquity. The world Kalanjar has been derived from the temple of
Shiva under his title of Kalanjar. Kalanjar was one of the three important towns of
the Chandela Kingdom, two other being Khajuraho and Mahoba. Mahmud Ghazni
invaded Kalanjar atleast twice. In 1545, Sher Shah Suri while supervising siege of
the fort of Kalanjar was fatally hit by a shell and died at Kalanjar. The hill fort of
Kalanjar is one of the strongest and best known pre-Mughal fort of northern India.
Numerous rock out tanks, remains of temples, inscriptions etc., are scattered on the
hills. The temple of Neel Kanth is one of the best surviving Chandela temples at
Kalanjar.

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Kanya Kumari or Cape Comorin
Situated at the southern most tip of Indian land, where the waters of three seas
coverage, Kanya Kumari is a very ancient port town which has been mentioned by
the early Greek writers. It is said that Parvati as a maiden meditated here and
therefore the place was known after her as Kanya Kumari. The temple of the
Goddess built by the Pandyas on the sea coast is dedicated to her Swami
Vivekanand also meditated here and the two rocks where he sat in contemplation
are now the site of the celebrated Vivekanand memorial.

Kanchi or Kanchipuram
Situated about 69 km. south-west of Madras in Tamil Nadu, Kanchi is one of the
seven most sacred places of Hindu pilgrimage. It was also regarded as the Kashi or
Varanasi of the South. It was the capital of the Pallavas from the 5th to the 9th
century A.D. Kanchi once contained about a thousand temples and, therefore, it
was known as the city of thousand temples. Two most famous temples built by the
Pallavas here are the Kailashnath temple and the Vaikuntnath temple. Kanchi
continued to enjoy the pre-eminence position under the Cholas, the Pandyas and
the Kings of Vijayanagar. It is also India’s one of the oldest and the greatest
centres of silk weaving.

Kashi or Varanasi
Located on the bank of Ganga, Kashi also known as Varanasi on account of its
geographical location between the two small rivers- varuna or Varna and Asi it was
known as Varanasi. In the 6th century B.C. Kashi was one of the sixteen great
states which was later on merged into the empire of Magadh. It was also a great
centre of Shaivism. The famous temple of Lord Vishavnath is the most renowned
centre of pilgrimage at Kashi. It is also one of the seven most sacred cities for the
Hindus.

Konark
Located about 39 km. north-west of Puri on the sea-shore of Orissa, Konark is
famous for the Sun Temple, known as Black Pagoda. The erection of the temple is
ascribed to King
Narasinhavarman of Khuria who ordered his minister Sibai Santara to build a vast
temple complex over here. The Orissian architectures reached its culmination in
the Sun Temple of Konark in the 13th century. It was conceived of as a gigantic
solar chariot with 12 pairs of ornamental wheels dragged by 7 horses. The temple
had also hall of dance, with numerous subsidiary shrines.

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Kurukshetra
Located about 160 km. north to Delhi in Karnal District of Haryana Kurukshetra
which means the land of the Kurus finds frequent mention in the ancient literature
particularly, the Mahabharata, the Puranas, etc. It short into prominence as the
scene of the famous Mahabharata war and the site of the discourse of Gita by Lod
Krishna.

Kusinagar
Located about 60 km. to the east of Gorakhpur in U.P. Kusinagar is identified with
modern town of Kasia. It was the scene of Buddhas death or Parnirvana. In the 6th
century B.C., Kusinagar was also the capital of the Mallas. Kusinagar is one of the
four greatest centres of Buddhist pilgrimage, in India. The famous image of the
‘Buddha in death’, about 20 feet in length, has been found from here, which was
erected in the 5th century A.D.

Madurai or Madura
Situated on the banks of river Vaigaj. Madurai is a famous district and town in
Tamil Nadu and is one of the most ancient cities of South India. It was the centre
of early Tamil poets of the Sangam age. In the growth of Madurai, the Pandyas,
Pallavas, the Cholas, the Vijayanagar Kings and the Nayaks of Madurai
contributed equally. From the middle of the 16th century to 1743, the Nayaks of
Madurai left their majestic or artistic imprint on the city by raising nine tall
gopurams of the Meenakshi temple and the hall of thousand pillars inside the
temple. The Meenakshi temple dedicated to Lord Shiva and his wife Meenakshi is
the greatest religious, culture and artistic landmark of Madurai.

Mahabalipuram or Mamallapuram
Situated at a distance of about 56 km. to the south of Madras and Tamil Nadu,
Mahabalipuram was once the main harbour and naval base of the great Pallava
empire. It is famous for its seven Pagodas known as Rathas representing attractive
Puranic scenes. These rock cut cave temples were carved out during the Pallava
period. The most famous of the Rathas of the Mahabalipuram consist of a group of
five chariots dedicated to five Pandavas Princes and their wife Dropadi. But the
Penance of Bhagirathi at Mahabalipuram is the world’s largest base relief.

Mandu
Situated about 35 km. south of Dhar in Madhya Pradesh, Mandu was one the
strong holds and a royal enclave of the Permaras who frequently held their camp
capital at Mandu. In 1401 when the independent kingdom of Malwa was founded,

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the glory of Mandu was revived again and soon it became a city of joy. The Khalji
Sultans of Malwa greatly enrched the place with a numerous beautiful buildings. A
majority of the surviving monuments. at Mandu were built over a period of nearly
25 years between 1410 and 1526. During this period numerous mosques, palaces
like Jahaz Mahal, Hindola Mahal, Hawa Mahal, etc., were built at Mandu. Two
most romantic structures associated with Baz Bahadur and Rupmati are Baz
Bahadur and Rupmati’s Pavilions.

Mathura
Situated on the banks of Yamuna, Mathura was the capital of the Suresenas, one of
the sixteen great states into which northern India was divided in the 6th century.
B.C. It is believed to be the birth place of Lord Krishna. It was also a great centre
of Jainism and one of the richest centre of the Kushana art known as the Mathura
School of Art. Mathura has been sacred to the Vaishnavas, the Jains and the
Buddhists alike.

Nagarjunikonda
Situated on the banks of river Krishna in Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh,
Nagarjunikonda is now the site of the famous Nagarjunasagar Dam. It was a great
centre of Buddhism and boasted of a number of monasteries and stupas and was
also the city of the Krishna culture. It was a great centre of Mahayan Buddhism
and this place has been named after the great Buddhist Scholar Nagarjuna.

Nalanda
Situated about 10 km. north of Rajgir in Bihar, Nalanda was the principal centre of
Mahayan Buddhism and a renowned university town with numerous monastries
and shrines which attracted scholars from all parts of the India, and the far east.
From the 8th to the 12th century A.D. Nalanda continued to enjoy the patronage of
the Palas. Numerous Pala sculptures, Bronzes, seals, sealings etc. of great
historical evidence have been discovered from here. The invasion of Bakhtiyar
Khalji destroyed this ancient town and city of learning.

Pratisthan or Paithan
Situated on the north bank of the Godavari, about 45 km. to the south of
Aurangabad in Maharashtra, Pratisthan or modern Paithan was the capital of King
Shalivahan who is said to have founded the Shalivahan era. It was also a
flourishing capital of the Satvahans and a great centre of trade and commerce
during the Satavahan periods. After the decline of the Satvahans Paithan lost its
importance.

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Prabhasa or Somnath
Situated on the Arabian Sea about 72 km. south of Junagarh in Gujarat, Somanath
is the name of the famous temple dedicated to Lord Shiva. Somanath is properly
the name of the temple and the city proper was called as Prabhasa. Somnath is also
regarded as the scene of Lord Krishna’s death. Temple of Somnath was destroyed
by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1026 A.D. The present temple was built in 1950 exactly
at the old site.

Puri
Located on the Bay of Bengal, Puri a city in the district of the same name in Orissa
is one of the four holiest places of Hindu Pilgrimage and the abode of Lord
Jagannath. The most famous temple of Puri is the temple of Lord Jagannath known
as the white Pagoda, which was built in the 11th-12th centuries. Besides the temple
of Jagannath, there are also numerous other Vaishnava temples at Puri. The great
Vaishnav Saint Chaitanya also died at Puri.

Rameshwaram
Situated in the Bay of Bengal at a distance of about 19 km. east-northeast of
Mantapam in Ramnathapuram district of Tamil Nadu, the island of Rameshwaram
is an ancient place of Hindu pilgrimage which was used by the epic hero Rama for
his successful invasion of Sri Lanka. The name Rameshwarram is derived from
Ram and the Eswaram the famous temple of Ramnathswami stands at the site
where the epic hero Rama is said to have worshipped the Shivalingam. In terms of
its sculptures and dimensions, the temple of Ramnathswami is one of the finest
temples in India. The corridors of this temple are the world’s longest. The pillars of
this corridor are carved out of solid granite.

Ranthambor
Situated about 13 km. to the North east of Sawai Madhopur town in Rajasthan,
Ranthambor was a great fort of Rajasthan. Ranthambor formed part of the Chauhan
Kingdom. After the defeat of Prithvi Raj-II at the hands of Muhammad Ghori in
1192, his son Govinda founded a second Chauhan Kingdom at Ranthambor.
During the Sultanate period, Ranthambor was the scene of numerous was between
the Sultans of Delhi and the local rulers. One of the most well known Rajput rulers
of Ranthambor was Hammira. The fort of Ranthambor with numerous medieval
temples is one of the strongest forts of Rajasthan.

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Sanchi
Located about 32 km. north-east of Bhopal in Madhya Pradesh, Sanchi was a great
Buddhist settlement teeming the temples, Monasteries and stupas, dating from the
Mauryan to the medieval times. The most important monument at Sanchi is the
great stupa with its four lavishly-carved gateway. The stupa was originally built by
Asoka and was expanded during the Shunga period.

Sanghol
Situated about 64 km. west of Chandigarh, Sanghol is now called as Uchapind. It is
situated in the Ludhiana district of Punjab. The site of Sanghol has considerable
long history from the Harappan period to medieval times, but it has recently come
to light with the discovery of several beautiful and well preserved Kushan
sculptures from this place. The Kushan finds at the site indicate that Sanghol was a
very prosperous town during the early centuries of the Christian era.

Sarnath
Located about 10 km. from Varanasi in U.P. Sarnath is one of the four greatest
centres of Buddhist pilgrimage where Lord Buddha delivered his first sermon. At
Sarnath numerous monasteries, stupas and Buddhist temples were built and the
famous Ashokan pillar with the four lion-capital, now our National Emblem, have
also been found. Sarnath was also once of the greatest centres of north India
sculptures from the mauryan to the Gupta times.

Shravanbelgola
Situated about 12 km. from Bangalore in Hassan district of Karnataka,
Shravanbelgola is a very ancient centre of Jain pilgrimage. The great Jain Saint
Bhadrabahu, a contemporary of Chandragupta Maurya migrated to this place from
Magadh. Chandragupta Maurya during the later part of his life, became a Jain and
retired to this place. Thousands of Jain inscriptions dating from the 4th century
B.C. to the Vijaynagar period have been found from here. The most interesting
monument at Shravanbelgola is the monolithic image of Gomateswara which is
India’s tallest image- its total height from head to toe being 17.5 metres.

Thanjavur or Tanjore
A city and a district of the same name in Tamil Nadu, Thanjavur was the capital of
the great Cholas. Thanjavur owes its greatness to the imperial Cholas who enriched
the city with numerous temples and domes. The most famous monument at
Thanjavur is the Erinadiswara or the Rajrajeshwara temple built by King Rajaraja-I

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(985-1041 A.D.). This temple is a unique repository of illustrations of dance and
music.

Tirupati
Situated about 67 km. from Chittur in Andhra Pradesh, Tirupati is famous abode of
Lord Venkateswara atop the Tirumala hills. Almost all the early medieval and
medieval dynasties of south India, including the Pallavas, the Cholas and the
Pandyas of Vijaynagar greatly enriched this temple.

Trichanapali or Tiruchirapalli (Tamil Nadu)

It is famous for the temple of Ranganathn swami at the centre of a small island,
surrounded by two streams of Kaveri. On March 25, 1987, the Rajagopuram (main
tower) of this temple, which is a 13-tier and 235 feet high tower, was consecrated.
It is the tallest tower in Asia.

Udaipur
Located about 267 km. from Jaipur, in Rajasthan, Udaipur was found in 1559 by
Rana Udai Singh of Mewar after whom the town is known as Udaipur. After the
deservation of Chitor, Udaipur served as the capital of Mewar till its merger in the
Indian Union. “Udaipur has been called the city of Lakes”, “city of dreams”,
“Venice of the east”, “city of sunrise” and so on. Udaipur was founded around the
Pichhola lake. Subsequently, in the 17th century, two unique island palaces Jag
Niwas and Jag Mandir were built almost in the middle of the Pichhola lake.
Udaipur has several medieval Jain and Hindu temples.

Ujjain
Situated on the banks of river Shipra, Ujjain which was the capital of ancient
Avanti, is the modern Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh. From the 4th century B.C. to the
6th century A.D., Ujjain was an important city of the empire of Magadh. From the
9th to the 12th century, it formed part of the Parmar Kingdom. Ujjain was also a
great centre of Sanskrit learning and astronomy. The temple of Mahakala here is
one of the twelve most famous Shaiva temples in India.

Warangal
Situated 148 km. from Hyderabad in Andhra Pradesh. Warangal which means the
city of Stones, is a very ancient city. It was the capital of the Kaktiyas. Warangal
also enjoyed high reputation for the manufacture of carpets. Under the Kaktiyas
Warangal was double walled city and had 4 gateways. Kaktiyas built hundreds of
temples in the city. The Warangal fort, the thousand, pillared temple, the

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Bhadrakali temple, the Ranganath Swami temple, etc., are some of the impressive
monuments at Warrangal.

Indian Art through the Age

India can proudly claim to be the only country, in the world having the oldest and
continued history of art in all possible artistic manifestations- architecture,
sulpture, painting, etc. From the Mauryan (3rd century B.C.) to Modern times,
India has more than two thousand years long history of art. Indian art forms are
classified on the basis of their religious contents- Buddhist, Brahmanical, Jain and
secular and on regional patterns such as the Dravidian, Nagar, Visar and in
Chronological order- Maurya, Shunga, Kusana, Gupta, Pallava, Chola styles etc.
The ancient Indian architecture is broadly classified on the basis of techniques of
construction – rock-out or masonry. Similarly sculptures may be of stone or metals
– particularly of bronze. The history of Indian paintings begins from the Ajanta
wall-paintings. The later schools of paintings are arranged on the chronological
and regional patterns – the Mughal, Rajput, Pahari and their sub-regional variations
such as Jaipur, Kota, Kishangarh, Bundi, Kangra, Bashaoli schools etc.

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