Governors Apparatus

CONTENTS
SECTION PAGE

List of Symbols i

1. INTRODUCTION 1-1

2. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE 2-1

2.1 Experimental Procedure 2-1

2.1.1 The Porter Governor-Basic Characteristics 2-2
2.1.2 The Proell Governor 2-3
2.1.3 The Hartnell Governor 2-3
2.1.4 Demonstration of the Isochronous Condition
2.1.5 for the Hartnell
Controlling ForceGovernor
Curves 2-5
4-4
2.1.6 Governor Sensitivity and Insensitivity 2-7
2.1.7 Governor Stability 2-7
2.1.8 Governor Effort 4-1
2-7

i
List of Symbols

a,b Arm lengths for Hartnell governor

E Governor effort (N)

F Controlling force (centrifugal force)

g Acceleration due to gravity

h Height of governor

k Spring rate (N/mm)

L Length of arm

m Ball mass (g or kg)

M Sleeve mass (g or kg)

N Rotational speed (rev/min)

P Spring force (N)

r Ball radius

ro Ball radius at zero sleeve lift

T Tension in arm or link

X Initial spring compression (mm)

x,y See Figures 2.3 and 2.4

 Angular velocity

,  Arm angles for Porter governor

, ,  Arm angles for Proell governor

ii
1. INTRODUCTION

A governor is a device used to hold the speed of an engine steady irrespective

of changes in load on the engine. An ungoverned engine tends to slow down
if the load applied to it increases, and to bring it back to its original speed
more fuel has to be supplied. Alternatively, a governor can be used to prevent
an engine running too fast or too slowly by controlling the fuel supplied to it.

Car engines are not normally governed because they do not operate at
constant speed for long periods, and the driver is present, both to sense the
need to alter the throttle setting and to made the necessary response.

However, governors are nearly always fitted to stationary engines used to

drive pumps or generators. Consider, for example, the generators which are
used to provide mains electricity. In Britain mains electricity is supplied at a
controlled frequency of 50 Hz ± 0,2 Hz.

Also, an electric clock driven by the frequency of the AC supply is expected to

be within ± 10 seconds of the actual time. The supply frequency depends on
the rotational speed of the generator, so this must be controlled within close
tolerances. However, as the demand for electricity increases (for example
when factories and offices open in the morning), the increased electrical load
slows down the generator. A governor such as that shown in Figure 1.1 senses
the drop in speed and opens the steam valve to feed more steam into the
turbine which then speeds up the generator. Unfortunately, the boiler
pressure then drops and another control system is required to detect the drop
in steam pressure and feed more fuel to the boiler.

Many types of governor are possible, operating on mechanical, pneumatic or

electronic principles. The mechanical governor invented by James Watt
around 1790, is still in use today, although with some variations. There are
two basic types of mechanical governor, depending on centrifugal force or
inertia force for their operation. The TM127 apparatus is concerned solely
with types of centrifugal governor.

The main features of a simple centrifugal governor are shown in Figure 1.1. In
this type of governor, two masses (A) rotate about the axis of a shaft (B) which
is driven through gearing (C) from the engine or generator. The masses are
often referred to as the "governor balls" because in early types of governor
they were spherical in shape.

Page 1-1
 B

Fuel to engine

A A

Page 1-2
D

Figure 1.1
E

Driven by
engine C

Fuel in
Each ball is subjected to a force acting radially inwards, which is provided by
a dead-weight, a spring, or a combination of the two. This force is termed the
controlling force and, for any given equilibrium speed, it must be equal to the
centrifugal force acting on the ball. Any increase in rotational speed will cause
the balls to move outwards until the centrifugal force on the balls is just
balanced by the controlling force. The movement of the sliding sleeve (D) is
used to operate a valve (E) controlling the supply of fuel to the engine. If the
governor speed increases, the valve will reduce the flow of fuel, such that the
engine and governor speeds return to their original equilibrium values.

Inertia governors are designed so that the balls respond to the rate of change
of speed instead of to the change of speed itself. Since angular acceleration
must occur before the speed can change, the inertia governor responds more
quickly than the centrifugal type. In practice, however, problems arise in
ensuring complete balance of all of the moving components and for this
reason the centrifugal governor is more commonly used.

The TM127 apparatus allows investigation of the characteristics of three

different types of centrifugal governor:- the PORTER, PROELL and
HARTNELL governors. The following sections give details of the theory and
suggested experiments for each of these governors.

Page 1-3
2. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

2.1 Experimental Procedure

The following sections detail the procedure for carrying out tests on each of
the governors and for analysing the results. Due to the comprehensive nature
of the apparatus, an extensive range of tests is possible. Also there are a
number of options for analysis and comparison with theory, the level of
which will depend on the course being studied.

A typical initial experiment consists of measuring and comparing the speed

versus sleeve lift characteristics of the three governors. The initial lifting speed
can then be calculated from theory and compared with the results for each
governor (see Sections 4.2.1, 2, 3 and 5). Governor sensitivities could also be
compared (Section 4.2.7).

More advanced work is best carried out on one governor at a time. A typical
experiment would include determining the characteristics for 2 or more
configurations of the governor, deriving speed and controlling force curves,
comparing these with theory and analysing sensitivity, stability and governor
effort. These topics are covered in the following sections.

Page 2-1
2.1.1 The PORTER Governor - Basic Characteristics

1. Remove the perspex dome and screw the governor to the turntable.
Check that the screws are screwed down fully and that the drive belt is
correctly located in the grooves. Replace the dome.

2. Construct a table of shaft speed (rev/min) against sleeve between zero

and 24 mm, in steps of 4 mm.

Allow two columns for speed readings - one headed "Sleeve rising" the
other "Sleeve falling".

3. Start the motor by turning the speed control and slowly increase the
speed until the sleeve just begins to lift. Note the tachometer reading.

4. Slowly increase the motor speed until the sleeve rises to the first mark
on the shaft. This is 4 mm from the base. Note the tachometer reading
(see note, below).

5. Repeat step 4 for each successive mark on the shaft.

Note:-
If the sleeve rises above the mark you are aiming for, do not decrease the
speed so that the sleeve reaches the mark from above. This will give a false
reading due to friction between the sleeve and the shaft. Instead, decrease the
speed until the sleeve falls below the appropriate mark. Then increase the
motor speed until the sleeve reaches the mark from below.

6. When the sleeve is at is highest position, decrease the motor speed

until the sleeve just begins to fall. Note the tachometer reading (sleeve
falling).

7. Slow down the motor until the sleeve reaches the next highest mark
and note the tachometer reading. If you should overshoot the mark,
increase the speed until the sleeve rises above the mark then approach
the mark again from above.

8. Repeat step 7 until the sleeve has reached the base.

9. Plot a graph of shaft speed against sleeve movement. Draw arrows on

the curves to show which correspond to the sleeve rising or falling.

This procedure can be repeated for different values of sleeve mass. The sleeve
Page 2-2
mass can be increased by adding a known number of steel balls (40 is a
suitable number to add for each increment in sleeve mass). Alternatively,
different groups of students could perform the experiment with different
numbers of added balls. The balls should be weighed if results are to be
compared with theory.

2.1.2 The PROELL Governor

The previous procedure can also be used for the Proell Governor. The effect of
increasing sleeve mass can also be investigated in a similar way.

2.1.3 The HARTNELL Governor

There are a number of different options for investigating the characteristics of

the Hartnell Governor. Students may either work through each to investigate
the effects of changing the governor mass, arm length, and spring stiffness, or
separate groups could obtain experimental results for one configuration and
then compare their results.

1. Decide which governor masses are to be used (200 or 300g).

2. Decide which arm length is to be used. Screwing the masses on one

way will give an arm length of 52,5 mm. Reversing them will give a
length of 70 mm.

3. Decide which spring stiffness to use. Place the spring on the shaft and
screw up the adjusting nut until it just touches the spring without
compressing it (it may be necessary to use a spacer when using the
heavy spring). Various amounts of pre-compression can also be
investigated.

4. Follow the instructions in paragraphs 1 to 9 of Section 4.2.1.

5. Change the configuration of the governor and repeat the experiment.

Page 2-3
2.1.4 Demonstration of the Isochronous Condition for the HARTNELL
Governor

Equation 2.27 shows that the governor becomes isochronous if the spring is
initially compressed more than a distance given by

Nominal values for insertion into this equation are given on Figure 3.4.

1. Calculate the pre-compression required to produce the isochronous

condition for each of the two arm lengths (b = 35, ro = 53,5, a = 52,5 or
70 mm).

2. Select one set of governor masses. Screw them onto the arms so that the
arm length is 52,5 mm.

3. Select one of the two springs (it may be necessary to use a spacer when
performing this test with the heavy spring). Screw down the adjusting
nut until it just touches the spring without compressing it. Measure the
free length of the spring. Calculate the spring length required for the
isochronous condition, then screw down the nut until the spring has
been compressed to the calculated length.

4. Remove the perspex dome and screw the governor to the turntable.

5. Replace the dome and start the motor. Increase the speed until the
governor sleeve just begins to move.

6. Observe the governor. If a small change in speed makes the sleeve

move from one extreme position to another, then it is in the
isochronous condition.

7. If you cannot obtain this condition, check your calculations and adjust
the compression of the spring.

Page 2-4
 Note:
The effects of friction may make it difficult to distinguish exactly when the governor
becomes isochronous. Although more time consuming, a better method is to plot speed
versus sleeve lift characteristics for a number of different spring compression's (X).
By measuring the gradients of the curves and plotting them against X, the
isochronous condition can be identified (by extrapolation) as the point at which the
gradient becomes zero.

8. By using the alternative spring, masses and arm length, show that the
value of X for the isochronous condition can be predicted by Equation
2.27 for various configurations of the governor.

2.1.5 Controlling Force Curves

The experimental results for governor speed against sleeve position can be
used to derive the controlling force characteristics of the governor, which can
then be compared with the theoretical prediction.

Experimental Results

1. Construct a table of results as shown:-

Sleeve lift (mm) 0 4 8 12 16 20 24

Ball radius (mm)

Governor speed
 (rad/sec)
Controlling force (N)

2. With the sleeve in its lowest position, measure the distance between the
ball centres. Halve this to obtain the ball radius.

3. Repeat paragraph 2 for each sleeve position.

4. From your results, read off the governor speed corresponding to each
sleeve height. Calculate the experimental controlling force from
Equation 2.5. Note that the units of speed must be converted to radians
per second before insertion into the equation.

5. Plot a graph of controlling force against sleeve lift for each governor.

Page 2-5
Theoretical results (Speed and Controlling Force)

PORTER Governor

The theoretical speed and controlling force curves are obtained by a

tabulation technique.

1. Choose a range of values of r, say from 50 to 70 mm in steps of 5 mm

(or 10 mm if time is limited).

2. Calculate  and  from the geometry of the governor arms and links
(Figure 3.2):-

r  15 r  26
sin   , sin  
85 65

3. Calculate h from h = r/tan .

4. Calculate values of sleeve lift = 138 - 85 cos  - 65 cos  (see Figure 3.2).

5. Calculate  from Equation 2.6.

6. Calculate F from Equation 2.5.

7. Plot curves of the theoretical speed and controlling force on the same
axes as your experimental curves.

8. Compare the theoretical and experimental curves, and explain any

differences between them.

PROELL Governor

1. Measurements x, y and r (see Figure 2.3) have to be found for a range

of sleeve displacements, either by calculation or by drawing. The
details of the method are left to the student as an exercise. (Hint: if
doing this by calculation, start by calculating the angles , ,  for
a range of values of rp - see Figure 3.3).

2. Calculate  from Equation 2.10 for each sleeve displacement.

3. Calculate F from Equation 2.5 for each sleeve displacement.

4. Compare the calculated values with your experimental results.

Page 2-6
HARTNELL Governor

1. Choose a range of values of , say from 0 to 30 in steps of 10.

2. Calculate corresponding values of sleeve lift y = b sin .

3. Calculate P from Equation 2.13, using the appropriate value of X

(usually zero).

4. Calculate  from Equation 2.12 and obtain F using Equation 2.5.

5. Compare the calculated values with your experimental results.

2.1.6 Governor Sensitivity and Insensitivity

1. Calculate the sensitivity of each governor from the characteristic curves

of governor speed against sleeve movement, as defined by Equation
2.15 and shown in Figure 2.5.

2. Calculate the Coefficient of Insensitiveness for a range of sleeve

positions for each governor, as defined by Equation 2.16 and shown in
Figure 2.6.

3. Discuss the results obtained.

2.1.7. Governor Stability

1. For each governor calculate the stability parameter (Equation 2.19) for
a range of values of governor radius.

2. How does the stability of each governor vary with the radius of the
governor?

3. Compare the relative stability of each type of governor.

2.1.8. Governor Effort

1. Use the tabulated results obtained in Section 4.2.5 in conjunction with

Equations 2.29, 2.30 and 2.31 to calculate the effort of each governor.

2. Plot graphs of governor effort against speed and radius.

3. Discuss the results obtained.

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