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UNIT 1 MEANING AND CLASSIFICATION OF
DISASTERS
Structure
1.0 Learning Outcome
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Classification of Disasters
1.3 Global Dimensions of Disasters
1.4 Overview of Natural Disasters in India
1.5 Overview of Man-Made Disasters
1.6 Vulnerability Profile of India
1.7 Environmental Concerns
1.8 Development vs Environment
1.9 Conclusion
1.10 Key Concepts
1.11 References and Further Reading
1.12 Activities
1.0 LEARNING OUTCOME

After studying this Unit, you should be able to:
• Understand the classification of disasters;
• Highlight global dimensions of disasters;
• Have an overview of natural and man-made disasters; and
• Understand the relationship between development and environment.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR) of the United Nations (U.N.)
defines a hazard as “a potentially damaging physical event, phenomenon or human
activity that may cause the loss of life or injury, property damage, social and economic
disruption or environmental degradation.” Hazards could be, natural (geological, hydro-
meteorological and biological) or induced by human processes (environmental degradation
and technological hazards). Hazards can be single, sequential or combined in their origin
and effects. Accordingly, Hazard Analysis entails the identification, study and monitoring of
a hazard to determine its potential, origin and characteristics.
A fine line separates environmental hazards and environmental resources, as between
water out of control (flood hazard) and water under control (reservoir resources). The
18 Disaster Management
atmosphere is considered ‘benign’ when it produces holiday sunshine but ‘hostile’ when
it produces damaging ‘loo’ (Smith, 1996).
A disaster is a result of natural or man-made causes that leads to sudden disruption of
normal life, causing severe damage to life and property to an extent that available social
and economic protection mechanisms are inadequate to cope. Even at the outset, the
conceptual distinction between ‘hazards’ and ‘disasters’ needs to be brought out clearly.
Floods, Cyclones, et al are events in nature until a configuration of factors, which could
be man-made or natural or both, cause the hazard to turn to a disaster. Disaster is the
actual occurrence of the apprehended catastrophe.
Disasters proceed by cause-effect due to endogenous (inherent) and exogenous (external)
factors, which combine to excite the phenomenon into a large-scale destructive event.
Disasters are a result of vulnerabilities, which go on unabated/unchecked over time, which
crystallises finally in a destructive event of great magnitude, which is a disaster.
Disaster is disturbance of ‘equilibrium’ which can be restored/ remedied by proactive
policy in this regard. Hence, traditional perception of disasters as natural phenomena
outside the realm of human intervention is misconstruing the problem; it is giving way to
a ‘systems perspective’, which encompasses, ecological and social perspective to disasters,
whereby disasters are understood as totalising events in which all dimensions of a social
-structural formation involving organised human action in the environmental context in
which it takes place is studied” (Oliver Smith and Hoffman, 1999). As a society interacts
with its environment with its values and perceptions and engages in a series of processes
over which it has incomplete control and knowledge of, for example, development and
planning processes involving production and distribution of goods over long periods of
time; underlying hazards turn to disasters (Oliver Smith, 1999). By systemic understanding,
hazard simply acts as a ‘catalyst’ in that it brings forth underlying tensions that are always
present as potential pressures. Systems’ perspective is therefore rightly applied to
understanding the phenomenon underlying disasters (Watts, 1983).
With this understanding, Disaster Management is an attempt to inquire into the process of
a hazard turning to disaster, to identify the causes and rectify the same through public
policy. Administrative factors, such as poor building in an earthquake prone zone, poor
land use planning in flood prone areas which lead to housing critical facilities in at- risk
zones; allowing habitation in such zones, poor laws that fail to regulate facilities leading
to disasters, such as the Bhopal gas leak, general low risk perception among people,
more significantly policy-makers that hinders interest articulation for preventive policy for
disaster management create conditions that lead to low lying /inherent hazards turning to
disasters. This leads us to the issue of sustainable development since study and research
in the area of disaster management is increasingly revealing human causatives behind
disaster phenomena.
Hence, disaster management is a policy issue. Accordingly, the Tenth Plan included a full
chapter on Disaster Management. Hitherto, it had been treated as a subject of ‘calamity
relief’, hence, classified under non-plan expenditure. There has been a policy shift, post
Yokohama Conference(1994), in that plan allocations would henceforth be made under
respective sector plan heads for disaster mitigation. The reasoning is simple; if disasters
are inherent in the socio-physical circumstances/environment, their manifestation could be
controlled through better management of the environment by reducing the potency of
socio- economic and physical variables that contribute to disaster losses over time.
Meaning and Classification of Disasters 19
1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF DISASTERS

Disasters are classified as per origin, into natural and man-made disasters. As per
severity, disasters are classified as minor or major (in impact). However, such classifications
are more academic than real as major disasters could simply be events that received
relatively more media coverage (Parasuraman and Unnikrishnan, 2005).
High Powered Committee (HPC) was constituted in August 1999 under the chairmanship
of J.C.Pant. The mandate of the HPC was to prepare comprehensive model plans for
disaster management at the national, state and district levels. This was the first attempt in
India towards a systematic comprehensive and holistic look at all disasters. Thirty odd
disasters have been identified by the HPC, which were grouped into the following five
categories, based on generic considerations:
1) Water and Climate
z Floods
z Cyclones
z Tornadoes and hurricanes (cyclones)
z Hailstorms
z Cloudburst
z Heat wave and cold wave
z Snow avalanches
z Droughts
z Sea erosion
z Thunder/ lightning
2) Geological
z Landslides and mudflows
z Earthquakes
z Large fires
z Dam failures and dam bursts
z Mine fires
3) Biological
z Epidemics
z Pest attacks
z Cattle epidemics
z Food poisoning
4) Chemical, industrial and nuclear

z Chemical and Industrial disasters
z Nuclear
5) Accidental
z Forest fires
z Urban fires
z Mine flooding
z Oil spill
z Major building collapse
z Serial bomb blasts
z Festival related disasters
z Electrical disasters and fires
z Air, road, and rail accidents
z Boat capsizing
z Village fire
Depending on the type of disaster, a nodal ministry has been assigned the task of
coordinating all activities of the state and district administration and the other support
departments/ministry. The following table below vividly gives the information:
Type of Disaster/Crisis Nodal Ministry

Air Accidents Ministry of Civil Aviation
Civil Strife Ministry of Home Affairs
Major breakdown of any of the Concerned Ministries
Essential Services posing
widespread and protected problems
Railway Accidents Ministry of Railways
Chemical Disasters Ministry of Environment
Biological Disaster Ministry of Health
Nuclear Accident inside or outside Department of Atomic Energy
the country which poses health or
other hazards to people in India
Source: Manual on Natural Disaster Management in India: NCDM, IIPA.
It is not the classification but the understanding of the term ‘disaster’ itself that is
important. As reported in the World Disasters Report, 2004, heat waves have been
missing from disaster and public health policies, despite mounting death tolls, particularly
in Europe. This is probably because sudden high profile disasters, such as earthquakes
evoke greater dread than road accidents, despite evidence that more people die in road
accidents than earthquakes. The higher the dread factor, the more people want action to
reduce those risks. During August 2003, between 22,000 and 35,000 people died due
to heat waves across Europe. Economic losses totaled over US$ 13 billion. The challenge
for health professionals and disaster specialists is to raise public awareness of the potential
harm caused by extreme temperatures and treat the problem as a disaster.
The problem of migrants is another example. They are an important development
resource for their home countries, remitting about US$ 80 billion per year to developing
nations (compared to US$ 50 billion in world aid). But while many opt to migrate, tens
of millions are forced to flee life-threatening conditions at home and become refugees.
Largely unprotected by international laws and institutions, their plight is a forgotten
disaster. As observed in the World Disasters Report, 2003, over 175 million people now
live outside their countries of birth, double the figure in 1975. Many are economic
migrants, who may be fleeing poverty or severe deprivation.
There is also increasing understanding of man-made causes behind most natural disasters,
which calls for, and has, in fact, effected renewed understanding/perception of disasters.
For both natural and man-made disasters, there is increasing evidence to suggest that both
are in fact ‘policy disasters’ rather than the results of nature’s vagaries or designs of fate.
Increasing evidence suggests that human fallacies, such as inadequate legal framework to
regulate hazardous units, have resulted in tragedies like the Bhopal tragedy and the in-
house Vizag steel accidents where minor fires and deaths of employees due to mishaps
have been reported. Unrestricted felling of forests, serious damage to mountain ecology,
overuse of groundwater, changing patterns of cultivation, etc., has precipitated recurring
floods and droughts. The spate of landslides in the Himalayas in recent years can be
directly related to unchecked exploitation of forests and mountain vegetation and networks
of roads that have been indiscriminately laid in the name of development. As articulated
in the India Disasters Report (2005), lack of policy restricting tobacco and liquor sale has
led to disasters by way of increasing mortality, globally, almost on epidemic proportions.
Tobacco related diseases are increasingly incident, such as oral cancer and heart disease
in young people under 40. It is apprehended that each year, tobacco causes 3.5 million
deaths worldwide, or about 10,000 deaths per day. One million of these deaths occur in
developing countries. By 2020, it is predicted that tobacco will become the leading cause
of death and disability, killing more than 10 million people annually; thus, causing more
deaths worldwide than HIV, tuberculosis, maternal mortality, motor vehicle accidents,
suicide, and homicide combined. India has one of the highest rates of oral cancer in the
world.
Similarly, experience of floods in Rajasthan (1996) and Mumbai (2005) suggests that
more deaths are caused due to epidemic outbreaks following vector proliferation in
accumulated waters rather than the natural disaster of the flood itself. This is clearly
system failure, rather than nature’s ‘retribution.’
Experience of droughts in some pockets of Orissa suggests that unimaginative policy shifts,
such as precocious exposure of farmers to market competition, falling overall standards of
health and nutrition owing to reduced investments in education and health and other
system weaknesses were the real causes of mortality rather than the natural feature of
lack of enough rainfall. Policy-makers in third world countries allegedly seem to respond
more to exogenous policy influences by way of international pressure to liberalise or ‘open
up’ (markets) more than endogenous requirements, which is the real cause behind
increasing vulnerability of people to death and disease in relatively impoverished parts of
India, such as Orissa and Madhya Pradesh (Alternative Economic Survey, 2004-05).
Disasters, therefore, compel a re-look on developmental planning. It is obvious that the
previous developmental policy has given us vulnerabilities in the form of slum creation/
proliferation, insufficient jobs, ecological degradation; though, ostensible growth in sectors,

such as, industry, energy et al could not be denied. It remains a fact and has to be
conceded that the basic needs of a large proportion of India’s population have remained
unmet despite schemes to provision the same. Though the Government of India, Economic
Survey, 2004-05 indicates decline in the number of people below the poverty line (BPL),
from 51.3 per cent in 1977-78 to 26.1 per cent in 1999-2000, it conceded that there
are wide variations across states. Poverty is spatially concentrated in pockets in backward
states such as Orissa though there may have been an overall decline in terms of averages.
Figures never tell the complete picture. These are gross estimations, at best averages that
give only a broad outlook, not the real details. There is endemic malnutrition and
numerous reported incidences of starvation deaths. As per the results of the 55th round
of National Sample Survey Organisation, rate of growth of employment on current daily
status (CDS) basis declined from 2.7 per cent per annum in 1983-94 to 1.07 per cent
in 1994-2000. The decline is largely attributed to stagnation in the agriculture sector.
Share of agriculture in total employment dropped from 60 per cent in 1993-94 to
57 per cent in 1999-2000. Most growth has been recorded in the services sector.
Balanced regional development has also remained an unmet goal. Several states and
regions in the country, such as Bihar, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, are relatively
backward and suffer higher incidence of poverty compared to the national average.
Noticeably, poverty is also widespread in areas more prone to natural disasters, like
flood-prone areas, such as in north Bihar, east Uttar Pradesh, and north Bengal, and
drought-prone areas, such as Rajasthan, Marathwada, and north Karnataka.
Poverty is also exacerbated due to excessive resource use/exploitation, which has caused
depletion of ecological resources. As per the India Disasters Report, 2005, almost 40 per
cent of India’s population currently is forced to survive on depleted resources. Driven to
desperation, they migrate, which has created the problem of unsustainable cities and a
conflict ridden city culture, typically pronounced in slums. Increased pressure has encountered
a crumbling local government structure, inept to manage change. Consequently, vulnerabilities
have got complicated and harder to understand over time. They are increasingly manifest
as conflicts along caste, religious, and ethnic lines and have assumed an endemic nature
(Alternate Economic Survey, 2004-05).
1.3 GLOBAL DIMENSIONS OF DISASTERS

Disaster losses have shown an increasing trend, globally, due to urbanisation and
increasing population. According to the United Nations, in 2001 alone, natural disasters
of medium to high intensity caused at least 25,000 deaths around the world, more than
double the previous year and caused economic losses worldwide of over $36 billion.
The data excludes the many small-scale events that have affected local economies
adversely, and disturbed the life pattern for perhaps always. Some of the major events
were, the Earthquakes that ravaged Gujarat, El Salvador and Peru, floods that ravaged
countries in Asia, Africa and elsewhere, droughts that affected regions in Central Asia;
Afghanistan, Asia and Central America, Cyclones in Madagascar and Orissa, and floods
in Bolivia. Global disaster statistics for 1996-2000 revealed staggering economic costs
estimated at US$ 235 billion and 425,000 lives lost (CRED International Disaster
Database).
Disasters caused by natural hazards alone reportedly affected an average of 211 million
people per year in the past decade. Asia bears much of the brunt. Nearly half of the
world’s major natural disasters, recorded over more than three decades, occurred in the
region. As a result, Asia has become the world’s most disaster-prone region, involving 80
per cent of the total affected populations, 40 per cent of the total deaths, and 46 per
cent of the total economic losses (CRED statistics for 1997-2001).
Disasters have international ramifications in terms of direct and indirect impact (s). Hence
is explained the need for concerted action on the part of the international community to
tackle regional vulnerabilities. Developing countries have suffered more from disaster
events since system capacity to cope with events of such large magnitude is considerably
lower as compared to developed countries, and the vulnerability quotient on account of
physical social and economic vulnerability of the multitudes, significantly higher. Since
1991, two- thirds of the victims have been from developing countries and just 2 per cent
from the developed countries.
Asia is particularly vulnerable to disaster strikes. Between 1991-2000, 5,54,439 people
died in Asia compared to 1, 1159 casualties in rest of the world. Within Asia, 24 percent
of the casualties occurred in India owing to its size, population and vulnerability. Floods
and High Winds account for most deaths in India (Tenth Plan, 2002-07).
Between 1994 and 2003, disasters, both ‘natural’ and ‘technological’, claimed 68,671
Indian lives, affected an average of 68 million people every year, and cost US$1.9 billion
annually in direct economic damage. This toll is worse than for the previous decade, so
the task of supporting the resilience of Indian communities to disasters has never been
more urgent (World Disasters Report, 2004).
1.4 OVERVIEW OF NATURAL DISASTERS IN INDIA

India’s Key Vulnerabilities as articulated in the Tenth Plan, (2002-07) are as follows:
z Coastal States, particularly on the East Coast and Gujarat are vulnerable to cyclones.
z 4 crore hectare landmass is vulnerable to floods
z 68 per cent of net sown area is vulnerable to droughts
z 55 per cent of total area is in seismic zones III- V, hence vulnerable to earthquakes
z Sub- Himalayan sector and Western Ghats are vulnerable to landslides.
The succeeding text analyses in brief vulnerabilities to specific natural hazards in India
(Menon and Kalmadi).
A) Floods
Seventy five per cent of rainfall is concentrated over four months of monsoon (June -
September) as a result of which almost all the rivers carry heavy discharge during this
period. The problems of sediment deposition, drainage congestion and synchronisation of
river floods compound the flood hazard with sea tides in the coastal plains. Brahmaputra
and the Gangetic Basin are the most flood-prone areas. The other flood-prone areas are
the northwest region of the west flowing rivers like Narmada and Tapti, Central India and
the Deccan region with major east flowing rivers like Mahanadi, Krishna and Cauvery.
While the area liable to floods is 40 million hectares, the average area affected by floods
annually is about 8 million hectares.
B) Droughts
India has a largely monsoon dependant irrigation network. An erratic pattern, both low
(less than 750 mm) and medium (750 - 1125 mm) makes 68 per cent of the total area
vulnerable to periodic droughts. A 100-year analysis reveals that the frequency of
occurrence of below normal rainfall in arid, semi-arid, and sub-humid areas is 54-57 per
cent. Severe and rare droughts occur in arid and semi-arid zones every 8-9 years. The
semi-arid and arid climatic zones are subject to about 50 per cent of severe droughts that
cover generally 76 percent of the area. In this region, rare droughts of most severe
intensity occurred on an average once in 32 years and almost every third year was a
drought year.
C) Cyclones
India has a long coastline. There are two distinct cyclone seasons: pre-monsoon (May-
June) and post-monsoon (October-November). The impact of these cyclones is confined
to the coastal districts, the maximum destruction being within 100 Km. from the centre
of the cyclones and on either side of the storm track. Most casualties are caused by
coastal inundation by tidal waves, storm surges and torrential rains.
D) Earthquakes
The Himalayan mountain ranges are considered to be the world’s youngest fold mountain
ranges. The subterranean Himalayas are geologically very active. In a span of 53 years,
four earthquakes exceeding magnitude 8 on the Richter scale have occurred in this region.
The peninsular part of India comprises stable continental crust. Although these regions
were considered seismically least active, an earthquake that occurred in Latur in Maharashtra
on September 30, 1993 of magnitude 6.4 on the Richter scale caused substantial loss of
life and damage to infrastructure.
E) Landslides and Avalanches
The Himalayan, the northeast hill ranges and the Western Ghats experience considerable
landslide activity of varying intensities. River erosions, seismic movements and heavy
rainfalls cause considerable activity. Heavy monsoon rainfall often in association with
cyclonic disturbances results in considerable landslide activity on the slopes of the Western
Ghats.
Avalanches constitute a major hazard in the higher reaches of the Himalayas. Parts of the
Himalayas receive snowfall round the year and adventure sports are in abundance in such
locations. Severe snow avalanches occur in Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and the
Hills of Western Uttar Pradesh. The population of about 20,000 in Nubra and Shyok
valleys and mountaineers and trekkers face avalanche hazard on account of steep fall.
The following map gives the multi- hazard vulnerability of the Indian landmass.
Source: Compare InfoBase Pvt. Ltd.
1.5 OVERVIEW OF MAN-MADE DISASTERS

Man-made disasters refer to non-natural disastrous occurrences that can be sudden or
longer term. Sudden man-made disasters include structural collapses, such as building and
mine collapse, when this occurs independently without any outside force. In addition, air
disasters, land disasters and sea disasters are all man-made (International Red Cross).
The countries in Asia region are densely populated and are low-income economies.
Recurrent disasters, specifically, road and rail accidents, fire outbreaks, deaths of pavement
dwellers due to heat and cold wave conditions etc., cause serious setback to the
developmental process; in fact disasters and development have a chicken and egg
relationship in that one is in fact the primary cause of the other. For example, disasters
exacerbate poverty conditions in affected regions; and the poor are the worst sufferers in
disasters. The fast pace of growth and expansion without comprehensive understanding or
preparedness in urban planning, for instance, has brought forth a range of issues that seek
urgent attention at all levels. Local administrative weaknesses have allowed the situation
to get out of hand. Institutional weaknesses have created system vulnerabilities over time.
In the absence of mitigation measures, growing numbers in our population are at risk of
prospective hazards, such as air accidents, boat capsizing, building collapse, electric fires,
festival related disasters, forest fires, mine flooding, oil spills, rail accidents, road accidents,
serial bomb blasts, and fires. The safeguards within existing systems are limited and the
risks involved high. The situation with regard to road accidents is particularly acute.
A comprehensive document prepared by the Transportation Research and Injury Prevention
Programme (TRIPP) brings out the magnitude of the problem in India and abroad. It gave
the first official data of accidents in 2002, recording 80,118 deaths and 342,200 injuries
on Indian roads but conceded at the same time that many cases went unreported and that
1,200,000 required hospitalisation. Of the worldwide annual average of 700,000 road
accidents, 10 per cent occur in India. The latest annual statistics indicate that over 80,000
people are killed on Indian roads. These figures do not reflect the human suffering and
social problems caused by accidents. Nearly three lakhs per year sustain injuries.
Financial losses are staggering. A decade’s worth of saving the Rs 50,000 million
estimated loss in traffic accidents every year could finance building 7,000 km long, six lane
national highway at today’s rates. The figures are always on the increase, which
corresponds to the tremendous increase in the production and sale of motor vehicles
(Moorthy and Karnick, 2005).
Nuclear, Chemical and Biological threats are apparent in the present scenario. Deliberate
international terrorism or accidental secondary fallouts can be fatal. There has been
considerable agitation in India of late over advanced countries dumping hazardous waste
in India. This falls within the realm of international relations. Rapid and effective response
as also mitigation policy needs intensive research and laboratory support in this regard to
frame convincing legislation, which can ensure internal security without jeopardising
external relations with foreign countries. Globalisation would have to be effectively
managed through legislation regulating Multi-national and Transnational corporation activity,
especially with regard to safety precautions for hazardous facilities. EIAs or environment
impact assessments are already underway in India. There is need for better implementation
of the same. A good EIA needs good data support to base arguments on, which is
presently lacking. Acknowledging the need, Environmental Information Centre (EIC) has
been set up to serve as a professionally managed clearing house of environmental
information that can be used by MoEF, project proponents, consultants, NGOs and other
stakeholders involved in the process of environmental impact assessment in India. EIC
caters to the need of creating and disseminating organised environmental data for various
developmental initiatives all over the country. Regarding oil spills, experts opine that
satellite imagery should be used to mark out vulnerable areas and mitigation measures put
in place, as for example, restricting habitation in the areas.
In India, the man- made disaster category also includes communal riots, which affect parts
of India periodically, as in the wake of the Babri Masjid demolition or unabated violence
against Dalits, the sub-ethnic North-East tangle, and others. Vulnerability studies in this
regard would require empirical unearthing of facts with regard to the socio- economic
profile of the regions with a view to pinpointing the exact cause (s) of recurrent violence
in the area (s). In this regard, generation of awareness among communities, strengthening/
generating positive social capital proactively, through measures like mustering opinion in
support of measures to ameliorate the situation, lending active state support to social
workers involved in movements towards the same would be some of the desirable
activities.
Health is a major factor in disaster management efforts. As reported in the World
Disasters Report, 2004, across southern Africa, HIV/AIDS is combining with food
insecurity, poverty, worsening health care, dirty water and sanitation, uncontrolled urbanisation
and common disease to create an unprecedented disaster that conventional intervention
can no longer contain. The problem is no less acute in India, where figures of actual and
potential victims keep rising. The pace of improvement in health services does not
compare favourably with countries in East Asia and Latin America where life expectancy
is almost as good as developed countries. This is because inter-sector linkages between
sanitation, nutrition, poverty alleviation, education, drinking water supply et al have not
been duly explored. In states where such linkages obtain for historical reasons, or as a
result of deliberate effort in this regard on the part of the government, results in health
improvement are significantly better than other states. Hence, emphasis in the tenth plan
was on improved logistics with regard to drug supply and diagnostics and exploring
systems of health care financing so that essential health care is available to all at
affordable cost (Tenth Plan).
As per the Red Cross, long-term man-made disasters refer to civil strife, civil war and
international war, which are equally pertinent policy concerns. On a national level, this
involves war-like encounters between armed groups from the same country, which take
place within the borders. Such outbreaks of war, besides threatening national security, may
pose large-scale medical problems such as epidemics, lack of water, accumulation of
rubbish, displaced persons, refugees, food shortage, hunger etc. Our country has been
plagued by civil strife in Kashmir and North-East particularly, besides South India and
West Bengal, occasionally. Tensions with neighbouring states have been persistent. As
solution has evaded attempts in this regard, the emphasis in diplomacy has currently
shifted to ‘management’ of the problem with a view to normalising relations on other
counts such as commerce et al instead of insisting on solving persistent political issues,
for instance, the Kashmir issue with Pakistan, first.
Scenario with regard to preparedness, with respect to both internal and external problems,
however, need not be too pessimistic, since, theoretically, transport accidents, terrorism et
al have hitherto not been considered, ‘disasters’ per se; on account of increasing losses
from such events however, the term ‘Disaster’ today is more inclusive in that the above
enumerated are being counted disasters, leading to mitigation policy in this regard and
urgency with which they need to be reviewed. This is significant from the point of view
of Risk Perception in the sense of resource allocation and prioritisation in development
planning. Considering the seriousness with which they are being studied/perceived,
comprehensive mitigation plans expectedly, would now be built into wider development
planning for the future. The World Health Organisation says India scores high on a
number of criteria for disaster-readiness. The country also earned praise from a global
study for its immediate response to the tsunami disaster. India is among the five countries
in South Asia that meet many of the criteria for disaster-preparedness and have a legal
framework in place for the purpose, says the World Health Organisation (WHO).
The other four countries categorised by the WHO as having adequate levels of disaster-
readiness are Bangladesh, Indonesia, Sri Lanka and Thailand. India, Myanmar, Sri Lanka
and Thailand also have a legal framework in place.
Disaster management is now part of plan commitments, which means it is already a

frontline development issue/priority, which improves its position with respect to resource
allocation.
Also, awareness generation is already being attempted with regard to retrofitting and
earthquake resistant structures et al, which is a positive development. It also means
government strategy towards disaster mitigation envisages active cooperation of people,
which has been advocated as an essential requirement by concerned world bodies, like
the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the International Red Cross.
Items high on agenda for administrative reforms, as articulated in the Tenth Plan,
henceforth, for overall/comprehensive disaster management, would be, development of
capacity at local levels through effective decentralisation, improvement in law and
order administration, through modernisation and training, urban development with a
perspective of disaster mitigation planning involving all stakeholders.
1.6 VULNERABILITY PROFILE OF INDIA

Vulnerability is defined as “the extent to which a community, structure, service, or
geographic area is likely to be damaged or disrupted by the impact of particular
hazard, on account of their nature, construction and proximity to hazardous
terrain or a disaster prone area”. The concept of vulnerability therefore implies a
measure of risk combined with the level of social and economic ability to cope with the
resulting event in order to resist major disruption or loss. This susceptibility and
vulnerability to each type of threat will depend on their respective differing characteristics.
The 1993 Marathwada earthquake in India left over 10,000 dead and destroyed houses
and other properties of 200,000 households. However, the technically much more
powerful Los Angeles earthquake of 1971 (taken as a benchmark in America in any
debate on the much-apprehended seismic vulnerability of California) left over 55 dead.
Physical Vulnerability
Physical vulnerability relates to the physical location of people, their proximity to the
hazard zone and standards of safety maintained to counter the effects. For example,
people are only vulnerable to a flood because they live in a flood-prone area. Physical
vulnerability also relates to the technical strength of buildings and structures to resist the
forces acting upon them during a hazard event. The Indian subcontinent can be primarily
divided into three geophysical regions with regard to vulnerability, broadly, as, the
Himalayas, the Plains and the Coastal areas. The topographic and climatic characteristics
of each region make them susceptible to different type of disasters (study along with map
given in the text).
Socio-economic Vulnerability
The degree to which a population is affected by a calamity will not purely lie in the
physical components of vulnerability but in contextual, relating to the prevailing social and
economic conditions and its consequential effects on human activities within a given
society.
Disparate capacities of people are exposed during disasters, which explains differential
vulnerability/losses, which are explained in disaster literature as socio-economic vulnerabilities.
Disaster effects are seen to be directly proportionate to the poverty gap and poverty
intensity in the society/location as it is the poor that normally live in high concentration in
marginal areas (unstable slopes, flood plains) with little infrastructure and fewer resources
to cope. Research in areas affected by earthquakes indicates that single parent families,
women, handicapped people, children and the aged are the particularly vulnerable social
groups.
Bad land use planning in seismic and flood prone zones; unplanned and inadequate
developmental activity in high- risk areas is a cause for increased losses during disasters.
One million houses are damaged annually in India apart from high human, social and other
losses. Urban growth and concentration of limited resources are realities of our times,
while the rural sector faces lack of access. This compounds the problems of disaster
vulnerability, especially during earthquakes. Informal settlements that house most of the
urban and rural poor give way easily to physical stress, during earthquakes and floods,
causing large scale fatalities during disasters such as earthquakes and floods. Single scale
event fast turns into a compound phenomenon as the infrastructure gives way, leading to
fire breaks, deaths due to electrocution, besides making response ever more difficult.
Following steps are imperative for the vulnerability assessment and preparedness
in high-risk zones:
z Identification of various hazard prone areas. Preparation of detailed vulnerability
profiles, mapping food insecurity, aviation hazard, landslide hazard etc.
z Vulnerability and risk assessment of buildings
z Developing disaster damage scenarios
z Developing technical guidelines for hazard resistant constructions
z Upgrading of hazard resistance of existing housing stock by Retrofitting, and
z Crafting techno-legal regime to be adopted for infrastructure development.
1.7 ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS

Nature is an abundant resource but indiscriminate and rampant exploitation creates threat
of destruction. The balance in nature, between man, animal and resources must be
maintained/nurtured. Oil spills; forest fires or nuclear leaks can cause widespread and
irreparable damage to the environment. Time cycles to renew these resources are long
and therefore measures for safety, maintenance and containment have to be strengthened.
Some of the environmental concerns are discussed as follows:
I) Global Warming & Extreme Climate
Global warming is going to make other small local environmental issues seemingly
insignificant, because it has the capacity to completely change the face of the Earth.
Global warming is leading to shrinking glaciers and rising sea levels. Along with floods,
India also suffers acute water shortages. The steady shrinking of the Himalayan glaciers
means the entire water system is being disrupted; global warming will cause even greater
extremes. Impacts of El Nino and La Nina have increasingly led to disastrous impacts
across the globe.
Scientifically, it is proven that the Himalayan glaciers are shrinking, and in the next fifty
to sixty years they would virtually run out of producing the water levels that we are seeing
now. This will cut down drastically the water available downstream, and in agricultural
economies like the plains of Uttar Pradesh (UP) and Bihar, which are poor places to
begin with. That, as one may realise, would cause tremendous social upheaval. Similar
would be problems in the coastal areas where sea level rise would inundate large tracts.
Some of the islands would get submerged.
The changing environmental equilibrium as well as the diverse geographical setting of the
region is leading to extreme weather conditions, often emerging as disastrous phenomena.
A large number of deaths are periodically reported due to heat or cold waves, mostly
from northern and coastal states of the country.
II) Agro-forestry
Sustainable management of the natural resources, of land, water and vegetation is essential
to provide livelihood and environmental security. Ever-increasing demographic pressures
coupled with developmental activities are causing tremendous pressure in the utilisation of
these resources, leading to various kinds of ecological disasters, such as droughts, floods,
cyclones, landslides, mine spoils, siltation of reservoirs, deterioration of water bodies, loss
of biodiversity etc. In recent times, India has witnessed large-scale disasters such as
frequent floods in the Indo-Gangetic and Brahmaputra flood plains, cyclones of the east
coast and Gujarat, earthquakes of Uttarkashi, Latur, Jabalpur, Chamoli and Gujarat; and
small-scale hazards, such as landslides in the Himalayan range, forest fires and desertification.
These natural disasters have not only affected the economy but also taken a huge toll of
human life. The increasing frequency of these disasters is the outcome of excessive biotic
and abiotic interferences, which have resulted in considerable degradation of our natural
resources.
Large scale deforestation across the globe in general, and under-developed as well as
developing countries in particular, coupled with faulty management practices have resulted
in various kinds of environmental degradations, such as wind and water erosion; physical
and chemical degradation of soil, water and biodiversity; and global warming. Deforestation
is a slow onset disaster that contributes to other cataclysmic disasters. The rapid rate of
deforestation in the tropics is the key factor in increasing the frequency of flood disasters.
The greatest and the most immediate danger of deforestation is that gradually diminishing
forested areas contribute to or worsen other types of disasters, such as accelerated soil
erosion, floods, drought and desertification. Deforestation of watersheds, especially around
smaller rivers and streams increases the severity of flooding, reduces stream flows and
dries up springs during dry seasons and increases the load of sediment entering the
waterways. Most hazards in the Himalayan region emanate primarily from the natural
processes of geologic, hydrologic and physiographic nature but are greatly affected by
human interventions. Ever increasing demand for food and fodder has resulted in
conversion of forests and exploitation of fragile and marginal lands into agriculture,
migratory grazing and shifting cultivation practices. Mining and other human activities have
led to over-exploitation of natural resources and consequent occurrence of ecological
disasters. Rapid degradation of the Himalayan ecosystem is posing a potential danger to
the greenery of the Indo-Gangetic basin, causing sporadic floods in some areas and
droughts in others. As a result, more than half of the geographical area of the country is
now partially exposed to various forms of land degradation processes, such as water and
wind erosion, salinisation, water logging, flooding, ravines, shifting cultivation, mining,
quarrying, landslides etc. About two-thirds of the 142 million ha of agricultural land in the
country is drought affected and about 40 million ha area is prone to flooding, of which
about 8 million ha area gets annually flooded. It is estimated that about 56 per cent of
the country is susceptible to earthquake damages.
Human population of India has already crossed the one billion mark and the livestock
population has reached a figure of 445 million. The per capita availability of cultivated
land has declined over the years from 0.53 ha in 1950 to 0.15 ha in 2000 and is
expected to further reduce to 0.12 ha by 2015 A.D. owing to population pressures. The
requirements of food grains, fodder and fuel wood by 2015 A.D. have been estimated
at 275 million tonnes, 1083 million tonnes and 235 million m3, respectively to meet the
requirements of 1225 million human and 600 million livestock population indicating a
shortfall of 73 million tonnes, 570 million tonnes and 195 million m3 of food grains, fodder
and fuel wood at the current level of production. Besides, tremendous pressure on limited
forest resources (63 million ha) and over-exploitation of land resources, particularly the
marginal lands, might further aggravate land degradation and jeopardise sustainability of
these resources beyond retrieval. Agriculture is the mainstay of the rural population in the
country. There has been a spectacular increase in food production since independence,
which has increased four times from 51 million tonnes in 1950-51 to 203 million tonnes
in 2000-01 against three-fold increase in population. However, uneven development of
agriculture across regions and also among different sections of the farming community has
widened the disparity between resource-rich and resource-poor farmers and has resulted
in low levels of productivity, especially in rainfed areas and degradation of natural
resources. Of the 142 million ha cultivated area in the country, 63 per cent (89 million
ha) is rainfed which accounts for only 45 per cent of the total food production while 37
per cent irrigated area (53 million ha) contributes 55 per cent to the national food basket.
Moreover, agriculture on marginal and fragile lands in the hilly regions has resulted in
enormous soil loss. The government has therefore, accorded high priority to holistic and
sustainable development of rainfed areas.
Diversification of land use systems is a necessary strategy for providing a variety of
products for meeting varied requirements of the people, insurance against risks caused by
weather aberrations, controlling erosion hazards and ensuring sustainable production of the
land on a long-term basis. Agro- forestry is a viable alternative to prevent and mitigate
natural disasters. Besides, agro-forestry may be one of the important tools for disaster
management. Agro- forestry may be defined as a technique of growing food crop annuals
in association with woody perennials to optimise the use of natural resources, minimise the
need for inputs derived from non-renewable resources and reduce the risk of environmental
degradation. Agro- forestry, a multiple use concept of land management, is also capable
of meeting the present challenges of shortage of fuel wood, fodder, fibre, timber,
unemployment, environmental degradation, protection and improvement of wastelands and
agriculture land. It has immense potential to ensure stability and sustainability in production
and to provide ecological and economic security. In India, agro- forestry practices are
dovetailed in the various developmental programmes/schemes in the Five Year Plans of
Government of India, either to prevent natural disasters or to overcome the problems of
the affected people during and after natural disasters. These programmes include, Flood
Control/Management Programmes, Multi-purpose River Valley Projects, Agriculture
Development Programmes, Integrated Rural Development Programmes (IRDP), and National
Watershed Development Programme for Rainfed Areas (NWDPRA), Forestry Development
Scheme, Drought Prone Area Development Programme (DPADP) and Desert Development
Programme (DDP). In other words, agro- forestry has a wide and diverse potential to
protect the environment in varying agro-climatic situations. The major environmental
functions of agro-forestry may be summarised as:
z Control of soil degradation

z Control of desertification
z Flood control
z Drought moderation
z Reduction in the pollution of groundwater resulting from high inputs of fertilizers
z Increasing biodiversity in the farming system and watershed scale
z Increasing food security and thereby reduce pressure on land resources
z Checking deforestation and its associated impact on environment
z Reducing pressure on forests through on-farm supply of fuel wood, fodder and other
forest products
z Reduction in the build-up of atmospheric carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases
z Disaster prevention, rehabilitation and reconstruction.
III) Urban Risks
India is experiencing massive and rapid urbanisation. The population of cities in India is
doubling in a period ranging just two decades according to the trends in the recent past.
It is estimated that by 2025, the urban component, which was only 25.7 per cent (1991)
will be more than 50 per cent. The Ninth Five Year Plan estimates India’s population size,
by 2011, to be 1178.89 million with an urban population share of 32 per cent. A
characteristic feature of the urbanisation process is the increasing ‘metropolitanisation’
leading to the creation of huge urban agglomerates.
The trend indicates the continued urbanisation and metropolitanisation in the decades to
come. Some of the urban agglomerations today accommodate more than 10.0 million
people. Their number and sizes will continue to grow. Such concentration trends in the
Indian demographic scenario would surely subject its cities to greater risk of damage to
life and property in the event of a disaster.
Urbanisation is increasing the risks at unprecedented levels; communities are becoming
increasingly vulnerable, since high-density areas with poorly built and maintained infrastructure
are subjected to natural hazards, environmental degradation, fires, flooding and earthquake.
Urbanisation dramatically increases vulnerability, whereby communities are forced to squat
on environmentally unstable areas such as steep hillsides prone to landslide, by the side
of rivers that regularly flood, or on poor quality ground, causing building collapse.
Nature of Risks
Most prominent amongst the disasters striking urban settlements frequently are, floods and
fire, with incidences of earthquakes, landslides, droughts and cyclones. Of these, floods
are more devastating due to their widespread and periodic impact. Fires have more
localised effects but are very frequent in urban areas, leading to heavy losses of life and
property.
Studies indicate that the loss of life and property due to floods has been increasing over
the past decades. The prime reason for this is unplanned urban growth on the banks of
the rivers and in other low-lying areas in the vicinity. The 2005 floods of Maharashtra
bear testimony to this. Heavy flooding caused the sewage system to overflow, which
contaminated water lines. On August 11, the state government declared an epidemic of
leptospirosis in Mumbai and its outskirts (Wikipaedia, 2005). These kinds of disasters
can only be averted with the help of disaster conscious urban planning and development
in flood sensitive areas.
Fires have emerged as a critical issue in urban planning due to the rising frequency of fire
incidents leading to huge losses. Fires are very common in slum and squatter settlements
in large cities and in high-rise buildings. Fire fighting capabilities are indeed very essential,
but these are mostly curative measures. More importantly than these, preventive measures
are required to address this critical issue, effectively and efficiently. Hence, for efficient
control and management of fire disasters, it is essential to have, and implement, proper
land use zoning, land sub-division, and building regulations.
1.8 DEVELOPMENT vs ENVIRONMENT

Developmental activities compound the damaging effects of natural calamities. The floods
in Rohtak (Haryana) in 1995 are an appropriate example of this. Even months after the
floodwaters had receded; large parts of the town were still submerged. Damage had not
accrued due to floods, but due to water-logging which had resulted due to peculiar
topography and poor land use planning. Ad-hoc land use decisions are a common
practice in our system due to immense demand/ pressures for/on scarce land supply. In
Punjab, highly chemicalised canal irrigation has led to large-scale salinisation and water-
logging as well as groundwater contamination. In other parts of India, mega development
projects like dams displace millions of people from their homes, and submerge tens of
thousands of forest acreage and fertile soil. In a parallel development, many of these large
dams with their massive reservoirs may have induced or enhanced seismicity in quake-
rocked areas such as Koyna in Maharashtra.
Disasters have come to stay in the forms of recurring droughts in Orissa, the desertification
of swaths of Gujarat and Rajasthan, where economic depredations continuously impact on
already fragile ecologies and environmental degradation in the upstream areas of Uttar
Pradesh and Bihar. Floods in the plains are taking an increasing toll of life, environment,
and property, amplified by a huge population pressure.
The unrestricted felling of forests, serious damage to mountain ecology, overuse of
groundwater and changing patterns of cultivation precipitate recurring floods and droughts.
When forests are destroyed, rainwater runs off causing floods and diminishing the
recharging of groundwater. The spate of landslides in the Himalayas in recent years can
be directly traced to the rampant deforestation and network of roads that have been
indiscriminately laid in the name of development. It is by now a well-established fact that
human-made structures, including canals, dams and embankments, have worsened the
flood situation in the country (Menon and Kalmadi).
Destruction of mangroves and coral reefs has increased the vulnerability of coastal areas
to hazards, such as storm surges and cyclones. Commercialisation of coastal areas,
particularly for tourism has increased unplanned development in these areas, which has
increased disaster potential, as was demonstrated during the Tsunami in December 2004.
Risks due to Environmental Stresses: Example of Delhi

Every ninth student in Delhi’s schools suffers from Asthma. Delhi is the world’s fourth
most polluted city. Each year, poor environmental conditions in the city’s informal areas
lead to epidemics. In 1995, 423 lives were lost due to dengue fever. Delhi faces air
pollution problems due to three major sources: transport, domestic, and industrial sectors.
The maximum contribution is from vehicles (72%), which are growing rapidly. There are
many factors associated with urban growth pressures. The current population of Delhi is
about 13.8 million and is estimated to rise to 22.42 million by 2021. The major cause
anticipated for this rise is the high in-migration rate due to better employment opportunities
in Delhi in comparison to neighbouring states. The number of registered vehicles has also
increased nine-fold since 1970/71. This rise in registered vehicles is primarily due to the
increase in personalised vehicles, which in turn has resulted in high pollution loads and
large-scale congestion in Delhi. The fast rising trends of industrialisation and trade and
commerce has almost increased the per-capita income of Delhi by 60 per cent since
1993-94.
Delhi has one of the highest road accident fatality ratios in the world. In many ways,
Delhi reflects the sad state of urban centers within India that are exposed to risks, which
are misconstrued and almost never taken into consideration for urban governance.
Pressure on land for housing purposes has increased. Agriculturally productive land is
being used up for residential purposes, which is affecting agricultural employment and
productivity adversely. There is much cultivable wasteland lying fallow and proposed to be
acquired for industrial activity in the future. Water is a major worry. The Delhi government
is eyeing groundwater resources of surrounding areas in Uttar Pradesh, such as Meerut,
which could mean political trouble in coming times. Engineers contend that water in
Meerut if left unutilised could go saline and affect good water further. Arguments on the
other side would have their own logic.
According to the State of Environment Report for Delhi (SoE 2001), sustainable
development is the most important concern in Delhi’s current environmental crisis. As per
SoE (state of environment) reporting, Delhi lacks an integrated system and a relevant
database to measure the environmental quality, to manage it, and also to evaluate the
effectiveness of the management actions. Until such knowledge gaps are plugged, the
action plans to ensure a sustainable Delhi cannot be initiated.
Safety Factor for Human Existence
The quality of life of an individual is determined largely by socio-economic and the
physical environment. From a different perspective, enhancing quality of life necessitates
minimising frequency and intensity of disturbances to average human existence. The core
issue therefore, is to reduce the vulnerability of the community. It is also obvious that the
nature of the vulnerability of the community is largely dependent on the social structures,
the physical structures and the economic assets.
The core issue therefore becomes promoting measures that ensure safety of individuals
against such vulnerability, which often gets manifested as hazards in form of accidents,
illnesses and other factors that could contribute to mortality.
Need for Action
In the contemporary context, a broader approach is required which not just looks into
technology, adaptability and the cost aspects but also on how these aspects could be
imparted effectively to the community. The users in general need to appreciate the high
priority that needs to be given to safer living.
The urban planning, development and management processes have traditionally been dealt
with in a sectoral manner. The safe city concept, particularly due to its participatory
approach, would try to bring about strategic integration of various urban sub-sectors and
present an integrated development framework. This is a need that has also been stressed
by the National Commission on Urbanisation Working Group on Physical Planning in
India, in stating that, “it also provides for checking costs compared to the benefits of
alternative packages of projects aiming at pragmatic goals and permits a much tighter and
more efficient implementation control and evaluation of large scale innovations”.
Risk reduction efforts need to be based as much in urban governance and management
as in urban planning. Good urban governance includes the state, but transcends it by
including the private sector and civil society. All three are critical for sustaining human
development. The state creates conducive political and legal environment. The private
sector generates jobs and income and civil society facilitates political and social interaction,
mobilising groups to participate in economic, social and political activities. Because each
has its weaknesses and strengths, a major objective of our support for good governance
is to promote constructive interaction among all three.
Significantly, post- modernism is impacting urban planning in developed countries. While
modernism dictated city design to increase industrial efficiency and tackle housing shortage
in the twentieth century, the intangibles like isolation, alienation, and stratification of cities
et al were ill-considered. This led to high-density settlements around industrial areas.
Modern cities developed globally in the post- war period as part of the construction
boom. Not much thought was given to city planning, rather to money minting by the
construction sector. Indigenous practices were sidelined, indigenous wisdom ill-considered.
This went along with developments in mass transportation, which furthered the trend.
Post- modern is a converse trend. It seeks to rediscover the city in its historical
heterogeneous form so as to revisit the golden age where people had enough space for
health and recreation. City is not uniform but variegated; an expression of diverse cultures
and traditions that subsist within it. To explain post-modern impact on urban planning in
the words of David McLeod: “In the case of post-modernist planning, “pluralistic” and
organic” strategies are sought for dealing with urban development. Under this “new” way
of thinking, urban development is a “collage” of highly differentiated spaces and attention
is given to “other worlds” and “other voices”. In the context of urban planning, post-
modernism implies a shift to “participatory planning processes and to compact urban
forms, appreciation of historic spaces and return to traditional urban forms (as opposed
to modernist belief in the supremacy of new forms); a search for urbanity, urban identity
and cultural uniqueness (in lieu of modernist functionalism and efficiency); mixing of
compatible land uses and flexible zoning (rather than orderly land use segregation,
enforced through strict zoning); pursuit of human use pedestrian friendly, higher density,
urbane compact forms” (Arbor, 2003). The arguments draw mainly on Ingelhart’s (1997)
theory of post-modernism in cultural ‘transition’.
Some key ideas on post-modernism could be summarised as: diversity in the landscape,
local context; renewal and regeneration, and coping with conditions. Within the framework
of safe urban planning and management, the traditional wisdom of urban planning that was
evolved during the historic Vedic period in India needs to be revived and imbibed in the
current practices. The concept of the ‘Vastu Purusha Mandala’ that dealt with the habitat
space as a living organism was very conscious of the fragile relationship between
development and environment, and this consciousness led to design and development
parameters that were far safer than those followed today. It is especially pertinent, as
high-density settlements increase, and so do the quantum of likely losses. Housing has not
taken the disasters perspective in structural stipulations adequately. Interestingly/conspicuously,
old architecture still manages to withstand earthquakes in old city areas.
Goodchild (1990) has prepared an extensive chart of the differences between Modernism
and Post-Modernism. Parts of it can be selected to highlight differences between these
two approaches to planning.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MODERNIST AND POST-MODERNIST
APPROACHES TO PLANNING
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MODERNIST AND POST-MODERNIST APPROACHES

TO PLANNING
MODERNIST POST-MODERNIST
CONCEPTS OF THE CITY the city as an object; as mass the city as landscape, as an
housing expression of social diversity
THEMES IN URBAN continued emphasis on lower more diversity, more

DESIGN densities and sunlight; emphasis on local context,
functional zoning; mixed mixed land uses
flats and housing
THEMES IN STRATEGIC redevelopment of slums; renewal and regeneration,

PLANNING controlled expansion through containment
suburbs, new town and
greenbelts
DECISION MAKING comprehensive, either piecemeal, "coping with

STYLE blueprint, "unitary" (1940's- conditions"
1960's) or "adaptive"
Urban populations are growing rapidly and the situation is most alarming, since it is taking
place in the absence of well-planned and structured settlements. The civic services and the
general quality of the settlements is of an abysmally low standard, as a result of which,
the urban communities are being subjected to an ever increasing risk of natural as well
as technological disasters. In such a situation, the only viable way to a safer living is
through preparedness to face disasters, since hazards cannot be completely controlled.
This requires concerted efforts on part of the government agencies, voluntary organisations,
and most importantly, the community itself. Risk awareness has to be created, and
preparedness plans formulated, so that the urban populace may live a safer life.
It has been realised that with the introduction of relatively simple, effective, risk reduction
measures (those which ‘reduce vulnerability and increase capacity’) into existing urban
improvement practices, and those which involve communities in decision-making, degrees
of protection can be afforded within the most vulnerable urban settlements, which in the
long-term contribute to both protecting lives and enhancing livelihoods, thus reducing
poverty.
1.9 CONCLUSION
Disaster is an unwelcome guest. It disrupts normal life and puts the developmental targets
out of gear. Disasters can result from natural or man-made causes or a combined effect
of both. The impact of disasters are felt more strongly when the affected community is
more vulnerable, either in terms of physical exposure or vulnerable socio-economic
conditions. Therefore, disaster management is a public administration issue, since
disaster mitigation has to be achieved in time through public policy. In line with post-
modernism, sustainability of progress/ development is being accorded primacy, currently. It
could be termed as coming full circle in some ways. Thus development, as is the
perception now, in itself may not be sustainable if it runs counter to environmental
concerns. Environmental concerns are therefore gaining importance, since environmental
factors are increasingly having the adverse impact of the frequency and intensity of
disastrous events. Sustainable development is being considered largely in terms of
sustainable city growth. More than rural development, it is urban development that has to
be stabilised/regulated through well-meaning/planned policies. Rural development partakes
by way of spin-off effects from public good externalities from nearby/surrounding urban
areas, as rightly pointed out in the Tenth Plan. Areas of concern are urban risks, since
the concentration of populations in urban areas is constantly increasing with inadequate
corresponding investment in safety measures. Disaster management needs to be seen in a
developmental context and pre-emptive action needs to be taken to reduce the impact of
disasters.
1.10 KEY CONCEPTS

Biological Hazards : Processes of organic origin or those conveyed by
biological vectors, including exposure to pathogenic
micro-organisms, toxins and bioactive substances, which
may cause the loss of life or injury, property damage,
social and economic disruption or environmental
degradation. Examples of biological hazards are
outbreaks of epidemic diseases, plant or animal
contagion, insect plagues and extensive infestations
(ISDR).
El Nino : As explained in the Discovery Encyclopedia (Series
One), in a year with normal weather pattern winds
blow westward and push the warm surface water
towards the western Pacific Ocean leading to upwelling
of cold water from lower levels in Ocean. In some
years when the winds weaken, warm water spreads
almost over the entire tropical Pacific Ocean This
warm water prevents the upwelling of cool, nutrient
rich deeper water along the east coast of the pacific.
Fish die and severe climate change takes place. Rain
follows the warm water eastwards causing drought in
Southern Asia and Australia and Floods in North and
South America.
Environmental risks : Release of industrial effluents in rivers, green house
gases in the atmosphere, et al pose environmental
risks like release of harmful chemicals in water bodies

that harm aquatic life, contaminate drinking water,
disturb the PH balance of soil et al. Excess of Green
house gases lead to global warming that is manifest
and increasingly being talked about now.
Geological hazard : Geological hazards include internal earth processes or
tectonic origin, such as earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanic
activity and emissions as well as external processes
such as mass movements: landslides, rockslides, rock
falls or avalanches, surface collapse, expansive soils
and debris or mud flows. Geological hazards can be
single, sequential or combined in their origin and
effects floods, debris and mud floods; tropical cyclones,
storm surges, thunder/hailstorms, rain and wind storms,
blizzards and other severe storms; drought,
desertification, wild land fires, temperature extremes,
sand or dust storms; permafrost and snow or ice
avalanches (ISDR).
Hazard : A precise definition of hazard is difficult. The
International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR)
has defined hazard as a potentially damaging physical
event, phenomenon or human activity that may cause
loss of life or injury, property damage, social and
economic disruption or environmental degradation.
Hazards have both natural and human components.
For example, flood problems may be exacerbated by
fluctuations in climate, such as increased storm
frequency, and also by certain human activities, such
as land drainage and deforestation. The loss of life
caused by a tropical cyclone will depend to some
extent on storm severity but it can be greatly reduced
by means of a warning system. Attempt has continually
been made to employ science and technology to
harness nature and evolve better living conditions.
Hydro meteorological hazards: These hazards are of atmospheric, hydrological or
oceanographic nature. Hydro-meteorological hazards
include: floods, debris and mud floods; tropical
cyclones, storm surges, thunder/hailstorms, rain and
wind storms, blizzards and other severe storms;
drought, desertification, wild land fires, temperature
extremes, sand or dust storms; permafrost and snow
or ice avalanches. Hydro-meteorological hazards can
be single, sequential or combined in their origin and
effects (ISDR).
La Nina : La Nina is the reverse of El Nino. At the end of
December, westbound winds get stronger than usual,
pushing warm water further west than normal. As a

result, there is enhanced upwelling of cold sea water.
This action allows hurricanes crossing the Atlantic to
move farther west and to become more powerful than
usual. However, La Nina is generally good for the
Indian summer monsoon.
Man-made disasters : Accidents, chemical spills nuclear disasters are man-
made disasters since they are caused by human activity.
Natural disasters : Floods, Cyclones, Earthquakes, etc. are natural
disasters since they originate in natural phenomenon/
processes.
Physical vulnerability : Vulnerability of the landmass to natural hazards such
as earthquakes owing to natural factors is explained
as physical vulnerability. Vulnerability of the physical
landscape as well as the infrastructure is included in
physical vulnerability.
Socio-economic vulnerability : Poverty predisposes people to disaster losses/suffering.
The poor mostly inhabit flood prone/multi-hazard prone
areas perforce. These areas are cheaper to access
and also provide certain advantages like fertile land
near volcanoes and flood plains. Poverty also reduces
resilience to epidemics that hit an area along with/in
the aftermath of a disaster.
Urban risks : Risks created due to specific conditions in the urban
environment are termed urban risks. For example,
threat of fire outbreaks, epidemics due to congestion
and poor drainage in slums are urban risks.
1.11 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

Alternative Economic Survey, 2004-05, Danish Books, New Delhi.
Arbor, Ann, 2003, “Measuring Post Modernism: Placing Urban Planning Values in the
Context of a Broader Cultural Values Transition,” Paper Presented at the 2003 Distinguished
Faculty and Student Symposium: Crossing Disciplinary Boundaries in the Urban and
Regional Context, University of Michigan.
Center for Research into the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED), Database, 1997-2001,
Belgium.
GoI, Economic Survey, 2004-05, GoI, Tenth Plan, 2002-07, Chapter 7, “ Disaster
Management: The Development Perspective”.
Goodchild, 1990, “Planning and the modern/post-modern debate”, Town Planning
Review, Vol. 61, No. 2.
Gupta, M.C., Vinod K. Sharma, L.C. Gupta, B.K. Tamani (Eds), 2001, Manual on
Natural Disaster Management in India, National Centre for Disaster Management,
IIPA.
“HPC on disaster management plans” at GISdevelopment.net

Internatonal Strategy for Disaster Reduction at, http://www.isdr.org
International Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, “Man-made Disasters”, at
www.icrc.org
Ingelhart, Ronald, 1997, Modernisation and Post Modernisation: Cultural, Economic
and Political Change in 43 Societies, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.
McLeod, David, 2003, “Post Modernism in Urban Planning”, Planning & Environmental
Information”, at http://www3.sympatico.ca/David.macleod/PINFO.HTM
Menon, Vinod C., and Suresh Kalmadi, “Background and Perspective”, Infochange
Disasters, at, http://www.infochangeindia.org/DisastersIbp.jsp#04.
Moorthy, Krishna V. & Bhaskar Karnick,“I DRIVE SAFELY - Let Peace Prevail on our
Roads,” at http://www.idrivesafely.com
Oliver, Smith, A, 1999, “Peru’s Five Hundred Year Earthquake: Vulnerability in Historical
Context,” Oliver Smith A and S. Hoffman (Eds), The Angry Earth, Rouletdge, New
York.
Parasuraman, S. & P.V. Unnikrishnan, 2005, “Disaster Response in India: An Overview,”
India Disasters Report, Punjablok.
Report of High Powered Committee (HPC) for Preparation of Disaster Management
Plans, Government of India, 2001, New Delhi.
Smith, K., 1996, Environmental Hazards, Routledge, London
State of Environment Report for Delhi 2001: Key Environmental Concerns, at http:/
/www.static.teriin.org
Watts, Michael, 1983, “On the poverty of theory: Natural hazards research in context,”
in K. Hewitt (ed.), Interpretations of Calamity, Allen and Unwin, Boston, London, and
Sydney.
Website of the National Disaster Management Division, Ministry of Home Affairs,
Government of India at http:// www.ndmindia.nic.in
Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia, “2005 Maharashtra floods”, at http://www.en.wikipedia.org
1.12 ACTIVITIES
1) List and discuss the natural disasters that your city or village is prone to. Identify the
sections of society most likely to be affected in a probable disaster.
2) List and discuss man-made disasters that your city or village is likely to experience.
Identify disasters that can happen due to failure of man-made structures or technology
as a secondary result of natural disasters.
UNIT 2 DISASTER MANAGEMENT CYCLE
Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Stages in Disaster Management
2.3 The Disaster Cycle
2.4 Shift to Mitigation and Preparedness Planning in India
2.5 Response Mechanism in India
2.6 Conclusion
2.7 Key Concepts
2.9 Activities

z Understand Disaster Management Cycle with the objective of illustrating the different
situations and actions required before, during and after a disaster, and in non-disaster
times;
z Discuss preparedness, mitigation, response and safe development principles; and
z Appreciate the need for a multi-sector approach to disaster management, and the
importance of disaster mitigation and preparedness for reducing disasters.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The concept of Disaster Management Cycle has entered disaster management efforts over
the past few years, especially since the Yokohama Conference (1994). Hitherto, disaster
management had been perceived as a short-term relief undertaking, which lasted till some
time after a disaster. Other purposive activities undertaken in the pre or post-disaster
stages on the part of civil society or the government towards mitigating the impact of
disasters or tackling long -term vulnerabilities and dealing with newer threats in the wake/
aftermath of a disaster were not included in disaster management activities. They were
rather classified, developmental activities or ‘social action’ on the part of civil society
actors(s), motivated by philanthropic concerns. The concept of Disaster Management
Cycle integrates isolated attempts on the part of different actors, government and non-
government, towards vulnerability reduction or disaster mitigation, within the enveloping
domain of disaster management, as phases occurring in different time periods in disaster
management continuum, though essentially relating to/comprising disaster management.
This has facilitated a planned approach to disaster management in that post- disaster
recovery and pre -disaster mitigation planning are perceived as integrated/related activities
and not separate. Thus, prevention, mitigation and preparedness form pre-disaster activities
in the Disaster Management Cycle and, response, comprising relief, recovery and
rehabilitation are post-disaster activities. Whilst emergency relief and rehabilitation are
vital activities, successful disaster management planning must encompass the complete
realm of activities and situations that occur before, during and after disasters. These
phases can best be represented as a cycle, which if followed through public policy can
obstruct future development of disasters by impeding the vicious cycle of cause and effect.
These activities are implemented at specific times, the length of any one phase depending
on the type of disaster, its breadth and scale. Therefore, one of the key issues in disaster
management planning is the allocation of resources at all stages of the disaster cycle,
which optimises the total effectiveness of risk reduction activity and maximises the overall
impact of disaster management.
This approach has imparted a more holistic perception to disaster management and has
served to integrate disaster management with development planning in that most pre-
disaster activities, involve activities for vulnerability reduction like poverty reduction,
employment provision etc. which are also mainstream development concerns. Thus
disaster management cycle implies development is essentially/conceptually related to
disaster management.
Disasters and Development
Another significant consequence/effect of this concept relates to understanding the inherent
correlation between disasters and development. Development had proceeded with relative
unconcern for environmental issues. The result has been newer vulnerabilities/risks arising
as a result of indirect/direct consequences of development strategies. For example, air
pollution has been caused due to uncontrolled emission of green house gases, water
pollution due to unregulated working of industrial enterprises as also agriculture, leading to
adverse impacts on the environment.
Short- terminism has prevailed in public policy in that long-term impacts have not been
considered at the policy formulation stage. The concept of disaster management cycle is
expected to impart the much needed long-term perspecive /viability to developmental
policy since vulnerability reduction would be factored in mainstream planning to reduce
costs on response efforts when disasters strike. Also, the process preceding policy
formulation, that is deliberation with involved stakeholders nad citizen groups, is likely to
get more particpatory and inclusive of disaster related concerns( Guzmann, 2005).
Impact of disasters has been debilitating, both in terms of economic cost and loss/injury
caused to human life and livestock, and the environment. According to the United
Nations, in 2001 alone, natural disasters of medium to high range caused at least 25,000
deaths around the world, more than double the previous year and economic losses
amounting to over US$ 36 billion. These figures exclude many small, unrecorded disasters
that have hit various parts of the world. Chief recorded disasters in recent years have
been devastating earthquakes in Gujarat, El Slavador and Peru; floods in parts of Asia,
Africa, droughts in Central Asia, including Afghanistan, Central America and Africa. What
are chiefly disturbing are the unabated nature of these disasters and the inability of
governments to check their onset or their impacts. There has been increasing resultant loss
of life and property, recurrence of disasters, which is largely unexplained, though climate
change suggestions have been attempted, which are at best tentative. There is, however,
increasing belief in human causation behind disasters.
Disaster Management Cycle 43
There is increasing realisation, as also explained earlier, of a cause-effect relation between

disasters and development in that development has not factored environmental concerns
sufficiently in mainstream policy and has been predominantly productivity centred. For
example, as brought out in the India Disasters Report, 2005, (Parasuraman and Unnikrishnan,
2005) excessive use of chemical fertilisers has led to salinisation of water in Punjab,
water-logging and groundwater contamination. Elsewhere, large dams have displaced
communities, heightened seismic risk, such as in Koyna, Maharashtra. Large scale felling
of trees has led to desertification of large stretches in Gujarat and Rajasthan and
environmental degradation in upstream areas of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
The World Disasters Report, 2002 categorically states that International development
targets set for the year 2015, such as reducing world poverty and hunger by one half,
will not be reached unless the heavy toll of disasters on the poor is reduced through
effective measures.
In its tenth year, the report published by the International Federation of Red Cross and
Red Crescent Societies, calls for disaster risk reduction targets to be added to the
international development goals for 2015 and beyond. These targets include reducing by
one half, the number of people killed and affected by disasters and increasing the number
of governments with dedicated plans and resources for risk reduction programmes
(IRCRS, World Disasters Report, 2002).
Logically, since/if disasters have human causation, their impact could be minimised by
planned human intervention. These efforts comprise immediate control of the situation in
the aftermath of a disaster, implying disaster response, long-term planning with a view to
curtailing its frequency and impact and curbing its disaster potential, hence losses when
onset, implying mitigation, and preparedness, which is explained/understood as a state of
readiness on the part of administration to swing into action.
2.2 STAGES IN DISASTER MANAGEMNET

Disaster Management efforts are geared towards disaster risk management. Disaster
Risk Management “implies the systematic process of using administrative decisions,
organisation, operational skills, and capacities to implement policies, strategies and coping
capacities of the society and communities to lessen the impact of natural hazards and
related environmental and technological disasters. These comprise all forms all activities
including structural and non- structural measures to avoid (prevention) or to limit
(mitigation and preparedness) adverse effects to hazards” (UNISDR, 2004).
There are three key stages of activities in disaster management:
1) Before a disaster: to reduce the potential for human, material, or environmental
losses caused by hazards and to ensure that these losses are minimised when disaster
strikes;
2) During a disaster: to ensure that the needs and provisions of victims are met to
alleviate and minimise suffering; and
3) After a disaster: to achieve rapid and durable recovery which does not reproduce
the original vulnerable conditions.
Common perception of disaster management, as explained earlier, is limited to emergency
relief and post- disaster rehabilitation. This is so because these two elements are by far
the strongest in terms of high profile visibility, political support and funding provision.
Instead of allocating funds before an event to reduce future disasters, action normally only
takes place after an event has occurred. The situation is similar to that of preventive
health care where curative medicine is relatively well funded whilst preventive medicine is
not.
The focus on emergency relief also depends on risk perception; that is, whether there is
belief that disaster could be avoided. If disasters were believed to be of such a scale that
it is believed, nothing could be done to reduce either the phenomenon or the risk
involved, and risk mitigation would not be pressed for/attempted. However, once belief
develops that disaster losses are exacerbated by human agency, and could be curbed
thereby, disaster risk mitigation would be attempted.
2.3 THE DISASTER CYCLE

The different phases of disaster management are represented in the disaster cycle diagram
overleaf. The Disaster Cycle consists of three stages:
I) The Disaster Event
This refers to the real-time event of a hazard occurring and affecting the ‘elements at
risk’. The duration of the event will depend on the type of threat, for example, ground
shaking may only occur for a few seconds during an earthquake while flooding may take
place over a longer period of time. Disasters have tremendous modifying impact on the
physical landscape. Within a few minutes, an entire region is reduced to rubble in the
event of an earthquake. The recent Tsunami has permanently altered the physiography of
affected coastal areas in Sri Lanka, Andaman and Nicobar islands. The impact leads to
loss of life and property in affected areas; losses being directly correlated to the
vulnerability of the region, physical and socio-economic. Physically weak structures,
especially in illegal/informal settlements give way easily and cause large-scale losses.
Vulnerability is also socio-economic. Weaker sections of society, viz. women, children,
aged and handicapped, mentally infirm, etc., suffer a lot more than their stronger
counterparts. Studies have also unearthed positive correlation between poverty and
vulnerability. The poor inhabit the most hazardous physical areas because they are easier
to procure and offer added advantages, like proximity to sea for fishermen or fertile soil
for farmers near flood prone areas etc., that makes them prone to losses, both of assets
and life. The poor also lack the resilience to recover from shock in the aftermath of a
disaster. For example, fishermen loose their boats, street side vendors, the homeless,
orphans, widows and beggars fall easy prey to epidemics and insidious activities of
unsocial elements like thieves, robbers, pimps, etc.
This brings to light the need for multi-faceted response to disasters, which takes account
of all social political and economic ramifications. Issues to be addressed range from
physical, relating to damaged structures and physical vulnerability of areas and infrastructure
to social and economic vulnerability of weaker sections that suffer more relative to other,
better placed. The following diagram is a vivid description of the disaster cycle.
The Disaster Cycle
II) Disaster Response

A Disaster is a cataclysmic event that has severe modifying impact. Consequences are
both physical and social/ human. Communication is disrupted; infrastructure is affected
adversely, many buildings giving way completely, critical facilities are disturbed, economic
losses accrue, loss of employment, ranging from temporary to permanent occurs,
development is rendered a severe set-back, law and order situation worsens, social fabric
is disturbed, in that parochial tendencies are seen to come forth, such as on caste,
communal, linguistic et al lines, and most importantly, people lose lives. Disaster Response
has to tackle all aforesaid challenges. Disaster response entails restoring physical facilities,
rehabilitation of affected populations, restoration of lost livelihoods and reconstruction
efforts to restore the infrastructure lost or damaged. There are inherent important lessons
to be learnt from disaster response. Retrospectively, it brings to light flaws in efforts
pertaining to policy and planning with respect to location and type of infrastructure and
social schemes to improve the social positioning of the under privileged, particularly with
respect to access to resources of the underprivileged. Disaster aftermath is evaluation time
for the administrative set up in that disaster response exposes system weaknesses. Disaster
is the ultimate test of administrative efficiency, in the sense of positive impact on the
environment, preparedness, procedural simplicity, logistics, speed and expertise. There are
inherent important lessons to be learnt for the future. Strong infrastructure and service
support base is the fundamental and the most important requirement, which is often found
wanting in poor third world countries. Disaster event simply exacerbates the losses that
accrue almost every time/ unabated due to poor health and hygiene arrangements in
vulnerable pockets, inefficient municipal administration, top-down orientation in policy
making and administration, poor institutionalisation of development planning and administration
at the local level, implementation bottlenecks, unchecked poverty, unresponsive
administration, poor informational and logistical arrangements et al.
Such critical evaluation as also articulation of displeasure on the part of the people
through the electoral mechanism is not as effective in third world countries where elections
are fought less on ‘rational’ criterion and more on ascriptive ‘traditional’/ ‘charismatic’,
criteria, which shifts attention/ focus away from performance to rhetoric which are
designed to excite inherent social differentiations based on caste, language or community,
etc., which is political demagoguery. Disaster event brings to the fore such inherent failings
of a system; hence is explained the reliance on outside aid which is often found
misdirected and misused due to lack of familiarity with local circumstances in recipient
countries and rampant corruption in disbursements due to poor administrative infrastructure.
Since Risk Perception of disasters is low in developing countries, pressure for policy in
this regard is not strong enough. Hence, pressure for disaster management policy/planning
in developing countries is articulated externally, that is, on the part of external/ international
bodies like the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, and the UNDP, the
ISDR etc., based in the United Nations which may not always be guided by local
concerns.
Hence, proactive planning for disaster response on the part of governments, especially in
developing countries with regard to administrative reforms is imperative to protect
development and/by lessening the disaster potential of a catastrophe, natural or man-made
or otherwise by way of policy interventions to ensure:
z Better institutional preparedness;
z Countering contrary pulls such as lack of social cohesion owing to irrational
differentiations that effectively impede response, in the sense of self- help and
‘communitarianism’; and
z Long- term mitigation policy to counter vulnerabilities, structural and non- structural
by enabling legal provisions and honest implementation of the same.
Significance of Response
Response has immediate mitigation impact. Disaster losses can be minimised to a large
extent by effective response on the part of government and civil society. Sheer impact of
disasters on life and property endorses the significance of response. Globally, natural
disasters account for nearly 80 per cent of all disaster-affected people. The insurance
industry estimates that natural disasters represent 85 per cent of insured catastrophe losses
globally (World Disasters Report, 1997).
World Disasters Report (2003) focuses on ethics in humanitarian aid. It looks at how
humanitarian agencies and governments can best help disaster-affected communities to
recover, to become stronger and more resilient. It addresses issues like how the gaps
between short-term relief and longer-term recovery can be bridged. There is growing
concern over politicisation of disaster relief. “Millions of the world’s most vulnerable
remain beyond the reach of humanitarian assistance and protection. Saving lives alone is
not sufficient. Respecting people’s dignity and livelihoods is equally important. Humanitarian
organisations bear two responsibilities. They must operationalise humanitarian principles by
developing field indicators to put principles into practice and disseminate good practice in
humanitarian judgement.” Acting in tandem with local communities, particularly the vulnerable
segments, this could be done.
There is also criticism of over-reliance on high-profile aid operations to save lives when
long-term investment in disaster mitigation at the local level has proven to be much more
effective. No international aid effort was necessary when the worst hurricane since 1944
hit Cuba in 2001 but only five people died. Local mechanisms were in place to evacuate
700,000 people from Havana and other threatened areas. Of the 53,000 people rescued
from the flood waters in Mozambique’s two great floods, local people saved
34,000(IRCRCS).
In 1996, 40 million disaster-affected people depended on humanitarian assistance, a 60
per cent increase over the average figure of 25 million in the 1980s. In the first half of
this decade, over US$ 30 billion was spent on humanitarian assistance. The average cost
of natural disasters over the past 25 years stands at over US$ 87 billion a year (CRED,
1999) The average amount spent on humanitarian response is US$ 3 billion a year.
Compared to expenditure on disaster mitigation, the average annual global military
spending is around US$ 780 billion (UNDP, 1998 in India Disasters Report, 2005).
The World Disasters Report of 2002 states that thousands of lives are lost and millions
of people left weakened each year because of donor reluctance to invest in measures that
reduce the impact of disasters. Last year alone, the lives of 170 million people
worldwide was disrupted by disasters.
Investing in mitigation issues like building long- term resilience of vulnerable communities
would better serve the purpose of disaster management. There are reports of widespread
corruption/leakage in disaster relief disbursements. Besides, business interests press on
public policy, as there are huge profits involved in reconstruction activities.
It is also asserted that disaster mitigation as part of the development process can minimise
economic losses from disasters. However, Disaster Mitigation refers to a future perspective
of development. Immediate concern of minimising disaster losses can be attended only by
efficient and quick disaster response.
Governments have been known to suffer political losses in the follow- up elections after
a disaster. For example, the Polish government suffered terrible election loss after alleged
disastrous handling of the disaster situation, following extensive flooding of Central Europe
in 1997. Unprecedented downpour lasted two weeks from July 5 onwards and affected
large masses of people in Poland and the Czech Republic. In total more than 100 people
were killed, countless rendered destitute and about 160,000 people in Poland and the
Czech republic, respectively had to be evacuated. While the Czech and Polish governments
were cash starved, Germany’s handling of the situation was much better due to its better
financial position (Parasuraman & Unnikrishnan, 2005, India Disasters Report). Hence,
preparedness, understood as readiness of the administrative apparatus in terms of logistics
such medical supplies, hospitals, doctors, temporary shelters etc. is crucial for disaster
response.
Issues in Disaster Response
The key word in disaster response is coordination between actors involved, viz. the
government and civil society, including international donor organisations. For effective
coordination, local government infrastructure has to be strong as response effort is
channelised/ concentrated at the local level. Unfortunately, local governance has not been
sufficiently institutionalised in India. That makes service delivery inefficient. Common
administrative problems, like, maintenance of health and hygiene in their respective areas,
good drainage, open spaces in settlement vicinities, largely go unattended. This creates
vulnerability to disease owing to system failure; manifested as water accumulation following
floods, physical vulnerability of informal settlements wherefrom most deaths are reported
during catastrophes like earthquakes etc. Coupled with institutional failure, are negative
sociological dynamics like rural to urban migration, which exacerbate problems like
congestion and poor basic services in urban areas and possibly, ethnic and communal
tensions.
Civil society is contributing significantly to all aspects of disaster management cycle,
particularly, relief. Civil society is the new hope of the new world order in the face of
state and market failure in different respects. It is being seen as the answer/alternate /
counterpoise to globalisation and weakening states. Civil society is hence, the buffer
against state excesses and the market; the latter now developing in collusion with state
governments, hence sharing interests with it, especially in the third world. In the newfound
nexus, citizen could be a mute spectator, unless there are optional protection mechanisms.
Civil society, in this respect offers new hope in that it has fought successfully for human
causes round the world, such as landmine ban, protection of environment etc. It has also
successfully challenged arbitrary political regimes such as Marcos’s in Philippines. However,
there is the darker side, which should not be overlooked. The civil strife in Rwanda
involved civil society organisations in a negative way (Rieff, 1999). Besides, civil society
is an inseparable/organic entity of a culture; the members therefore could be as indoctrinated
as any with flawed perceptions. Also, perceiving civil society as an alternative to State
(roll back of state) would be a fundamental error, as all said and done, State remains the
principal agency for citizens’ welfare and it is to it that people turn in distress situation.
Also, civil society organisations work systematically only under the aegis of the state. Left
alone, they are an amorphous entity; potentially perhaps, chaotic. Also, their international
linkages/origin make them suspect with regard to national security. Behavioural aberration
on their part in the sense of being generally non-cooperative with and distant from the
state is also discomfiting. During the Marathwada earthquake, non-government organisations
were seen to leave work midway and withdraw. They were also not organised and
systematic to the desired degree. They even messed up, creating unnecessary chaos in the
recent Muzaffarabad earthquake. As articulated in the India Disasters Report, 2005, crises
in Marathwada and other places in India showed that the involvement of local people and
civil society groups in rescue and relief was not a clearly defined process. According to
Parasuraman and Unnikrishnan in the India Disasters Report, (2005), the specific arenas
where civil society participation is desirable should be specifically laid down to avoid
chaos and confusion in emergency situations. Those are; training project staff, information
dissemination, programmes monitoring, housing, and social and economic rehabilitation
measures. They, in turn, must be given adequate room to explore and innovate. The
agencies must submit a time-bound plan of action, outline their approach unambiguously,
clearly defining their specific roles, articulating a programme management strategy, and
must establish that they have the necessary resources to see the things through.
The converse picture is equally important. Attitudinal change on the part of the governments
to reinforce participation is also required. The response in the Marathwada earthquake
exhibited that the government views rescue and relief work as a piecemeal business; the
responsibility of its revenue department, and therefore, public support need not be
factored into it. In the absence of a well-defined process of involving people, spontaneous
involvement has often gone misdirected and is viewed as obstruction by the authorities.
The overall perspective of the administration is to view people as passive recipients of
government largesse rather than as valuable partners in any undertaking. This is retrograde
and undemocratic. The general perception is that people impede disaster response, not
facilitate it. The result is too many isolated, ill- coordinated efforts on the part of
individuals and government and non-government agencies with lack of proper coordination
between them. Institutionalisation/strengthening social capital during normal times to be
tapped in readiness during emergencies in the form of organised collective effort at the
level of the society is the right policy stance in this regard. The desideratum of the
discussion is that government and civil society and the private corporate sector should
operate in tandem for effective disaster response.
The most desirable virtue in ‘good governance’ that is often asserted/reiterated in public
administration literature, is peoples’ participation. But it is rather confusing as to participation,
in what way? Studies suggest that participation succeeds only when it is invoked by the
state, such as, government planners eliciting people’s opinion on choice of site for
relocation, or local craftsmen’s in structure design and/or implementation. Even where
major effort is on the part of people in the form of self-help, catalytic state role would
be no less significant. One cannot even say with any degree of assurance that the state
has in fact weakened since the ‘roll back’ got underway. Hence, guarded optimism with
regard to civil society activism is needed. It is a welcome development but needs to be
tempered with justifiable criticism.
III) Recovery
The recovery phase involves implementation of actions to promote sustainable re-
development (reconstruction, rehabilitation) following a disaster. It covers long-term measures
like, rebuilding of houses, assets, infrastructure, school building, hospital buildings, and
other public buildings. It is a process undertaken by a disaster-affected community to fully
restore itself to pre-disaster level. Recovery is the activity that returns infrastructure
systems to minimum operating standards and guides long-term efforts designed to return
life to normal or improved levels after a disaster. Recovery is also sometimes used to
describe the activities that encompass the three overlapping phases of emergency relief,
rehabilitation and reconstruction.
The chief behavioural attribute required in recovery is resilience. As highlighted in the
World Disasters Report, 2004, community resilience is a big factor in disaster recovery.
Recovery is used to describe the activities, which encompass the three overlapping phases
of emergency relief, rehabilitation and reconstruction.
1) Emergency Relief
Emergency relief refers to the period immediately following the disaster when steps are
taken to meet the needs of survivors with regard to shelter, water, food and medical care.
Activities undertaken during and immediately following a disaster, include, immediate relief,
rescue, damage and needs assessment and debris clearance. Rescue and relief are critical
elements of response. As expressed in the India Disasters Report (2005), voluntary effort
on the part of people, if recognised and institutionalised as supplementary to official
government effort, could substantially minimise loss of life if not property to that extent.
This would necessitate institutional/ organisational improvements by way of better delegation
to field agencies, improvements in decision-making and communication processes,
incorporation of indigenous traditional knowledge on warning signs, a cartographic
knowledge of safe and unsafe areas, survival methods, and traditional forms of insurance
built around kinship and families. The most crucial aspect in relief and rescue is
communication across involved agencies. Disaster zone is often equated with a war zone,
where communication is the critical factor, often, crucial, in fact, the deciding factor
between success and failure.
2) Rehabilitation
Rehabilitation implies activities that are undertaken to support the victims’ return to
normalcy and re-integration in regular community functions. It may include the provision
of temporary housing and public utilities as interim measures to assist longer-term recovery
through permanent housing and infrastructure. Besides physical elements, rehabilitation
programmes also include economic rehabilitation through livelihood recovery and support
actions and finding alternate employment options for those who cannot get back to their
original occupations due to irreparable damage. Rehabilitation also includes psycho-social
rehabilitation for those who are badly traumatised and need support in terms of psycho-
social counseling or even medication in some cases.
Rehabilitation therefore includes the provision of temporary employment and restoration of
lost livelihoods. Actual strategy adopted in rehabilitation would be dictated by circumstances,
condition of the physical landscape, state of economic activity, whether relocation of
affected communities is necessary, or whether resumption of normal life could take place
in that region itself. It is important to incorporate past lessons in rehabilitation. Vulnerability
mapping is recommended for identifying areas where access is to be completely restricted
and the safe areas for viable construction activity.
Rehabilitation policies suffer due to short-term perspective, in that they are pursued as
unplanned, ad-hoc measures. Rehabilitation is not factored in wider development strategy.
A study conducted by the UNDP in the 1980s which focused on disaster mitigation
efforts in Bangladesh, Ethiopia, and Ecuador, concluded that disaster preparedness and
prevention is most effective only when it is built into the larger scheme of sustainable
development, which enhances social opportunity and economic growth (India Disasters
Report, 2005). Desired approach was followed in Marathwada with conspicuous benefits.
Those affected by the later Uttarkashi earthquake, or the even more recent Jabalpur
earthquake suffered for lack of policy in this regard. (India Disasters Report, 2005)
Also, people are expected to access regular government welfare schemes for relief in
disaster situations, which is difficult, given the exigent circumstances.
Crucial factor in rehabilitation as borne out by experiences from past disasters is training
of personnel in various aspects of rehabilitation, such as, special concerns of widows and
orphans, with respect to health and livelihood requirements besides community participation
in damage and loss assessment and vulnerability analysis
3) Reconstruction
Reconstruction attempts to return communities to improved pre-disaster functioning. It
includes the replacement of buildings, infrastructure and lifeline facilities such as roads,
bridges and communication links, so that long-term development prospects are enhanced
rather than reproducing the same conditions which made an area or a population
vulnerable in the first place. Mitigation measures can effectively be incorporated into
reconstruction since there is generally”openness” to change and improved safety following
a disaster event. Hence, this is mainly the technocrat’s arena of function/action.
Post-modern thinking, as also referred earlier, is impacting urban planning in a major way.
Instead of ‘modernist’ emphasis on uniformity, diversity is being lauded as the desired
virtue. Accordingly, indigenous knowledge is being incorporated in modern engineering
technology to produce viable structures in earthquake, flood and cyclone prone areas.
Physical vulnerability of structures causes maximum disaster casualties. Hence, stress is
also on retrofitting old structures with a view to making them disaster-resistant besides
making new ones with disaster-resistant technology. Also, instead of the old cluster
approach to housing which, as more in consonance with industrialisation would be

changed for more differentiated housing and open spaces, which would provide for
more aesthetic and safer cities. From a social perspective, modern cities have increased
isolation and alienation of human beings. This has led theorists in the West to talk about
‘social capital’ as it is increasingly getting scarcer in modern societies that are getting
‘atomised’. Social capital is an intangible resource that invests in social ties, which proves
an invaluable resource in recovery during emergences. In simple terms, it means people
reaching out to each other and helping rebuild lives. Isolation is counter- effective of social
capital.
IV) Development
The inclusion of development as a phase in the disaster cycle is intended to ensure that
following the natural disaster, societies factor hazard and vulnerability considerations into
their development policies and plans in the interest of overall progress. The rationale
behind the use of the expression ‘disaster management cycle’ is that disaster and its
management is a continuum of inter-linked activities. It is sometimes also referred to as
the ‘disaster-development cycle’, implying that disasters are periodic phenomena and
occur regularly in such a way that there is development, followed by a disaster, then back
to development till the next disaster. Yet, such expressions are slightly deceiving in that
they suggest that the periodic occurrence of disasters is something inevitable, always
requiring the same response. On the contrary, if effective prevention and preparedness
measures are implemented, natural disasters may be avoided by limiting the adverse
impact of inevitable natural phenomena.
Sustainable development is another term that is useful in this context, implying development
that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations
to meet their own needs. It contains within it two key concepts of ‘needs’ in particular,
to the essential needs of the world’s poor, to which overriding priority should be given;
and the idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organisation on
the environment’s ability to meet the present and the future needs.
Illustration of Disaster Cycle through Case Study
The processes covered by the disaster cycle can be illustrated through the case of the
Gujarat Earthquake of 26 January 2001. The devastating earthquake killed thousands of
people and destroyed hundreds of thousands of houses and other buildings.
The State Government as well as the National Government immediately mounted a large-
scale relief operation. The help of the Armed Forces was also taken. Hundreds of NGOs
from within the region and other parts of the country as well as from other countries of
the world came to Gujarat with relief materials and personnel to help in the relief
operations. Relief camps were set up, food was distributed, mobile hospitals worked
round the clock to help the injured; clothing, beddings, tents, and other commodities were
distributed to the affected people over the next few weeks.
By the summer of 2001, work started on long-term recovery. House reconstruction
programmes were launched, community buildings were reconstructed, and damaged
infrastructure was repaired and reconstructed. Livelihood programmes were launched for
economic rehabilitation of the affected people.
In about two year’s time the state had bounced back and many of the reconstruction
projects had taken the form of developmental programmes aiming to deliver even
better infrastructure than what existed before the earthquake. Good road networks, water
distribution networks, communication networks, new schools, community buildings, health
and education programmes, all worked towards developing the region.
The government as well as the NGOs laid significant emphasis on safe development
practices. The buildings being constructed were of earthquake resistant designs. Older
buildings that had survived the earthquake were retrofitted in large numbers to strengthen
them and to make them resistant to future earthquakes. Mason and engineer training
programmes were carried out at a large scale to ensure that all future construction in the
State is disaster resistant. Since the state is also drought and cyclone affected, building
construction for cyclone resistant housing was propagated in the coastal areas, and water
harvesting systems were given a thrust for drought mitigation.
A preparedness programme was taken up in earnest by the government and the NGOs.
Community awareness campaigns were carried out on dos and don’ts for different kinds
of disasters. These told people what to do and what not to do before, during and after
a disaster. School safety programmes were taken up under which, teachers, students and
parents were trained on how to prepare for a disaster and how to respond to one.
Disaster management plans were prepared for the state, districts, local areas and schools.
A system of drills and plan updating was established. All of this contributed to a higher
level of preparedness in the state.
Subsequently, hazardous events struck the state again. There was a cyclone warning in
2004, which was responded to with a very efficient evacuation implemented by the
government and the NGOs. The community was already aware of the evacuation plan
and was trained how to react. Similarly, major floods hit the state in June-July 2005.
Once again, the role allocation was clear to all the concerned stakeholders in the
government as well as the NGOs and the community too knew how to help the relief
teams help them. Losses were minimised, and the relief and rehabilitation process went
off smoothly.
This case study shows how there was a disaster event during the earthquake, followed
by immediate response and relief, then by recovery including rehabilitation and retrofitting,
then by developmental processes. The development phase included mitigation activities,
and finally preparedness actions to face future disasters. Then disaster struck again, but
the impact was less than what it could have been, primarily due to better mitigation and
preparedness efforts. The disasters were again followed by response and recovery, and
the cycle goes on.
Risk Reduction: Mitigation And Preparedness
The Risk Reduction is chronologically the latest paradigm for mitigating the impact of
disasters. The precursor to the Risk Reduction approach is the Total Disaster Risk
Management Approach (TDRM). Guzmann (2005) explains the essentials of the approach.
The TDRM approach is the immediate forerunner of the Risk Reduction Framework,
which is currently being emphasised. In the Isephan Typhoon in 1959, Japan suffered
heavy losses. A ferryboat sank in Bangladesh in a cyclone on May 3, 2002, killing 450
passengers. These disasters could have been prevented if close cooperation between
concerned organisations had been achieved.
The TDRM Approach

The strategic objectives of the TDRM Approach as explained in the Regional Workshop
on TDRM, held in 2001 at Kathmandu, organised by the Asian Disaster Reduction
Centre (ADRC) and OCHA, Kobe are as follows:
1) “To address holistically and comprehensively the various concerns and gaps in the
different phases of the disaster management cycle by considering the underlying
causes of disasters (that is, the conditions of disaster risks) and the contextual factors
in disaster risk and its management.
2) Enhancement of local capacity and capability, especially in disaster risk management
as part of a decentralised approach and build reliable database for policy reference.
3) To promote multilevel, multidimensional and multidisciplinary coordination and
collaboration among stakeholders in disaster reduction and response. This broadening
involvement of various sectors previously less concerned with disaster reduction and
response is a positive development.”
The proposed implementation strategies for the TDRM Approach are the following:
1) Achieving effectiveness in disaster reduction and response through multilevel, multi-
dimensional and multidisciplinary cooperation and collaboration, engaging all
concerned stakeholders/organisations and political actors. Emphasis is on networking
which can harness positive organisational potential by complementing in strategic
areas and bridging knowledge gaps.
2) Making decisions based on reliable disaster risk information derived from hazard
mapping and vulnerability assessment. The TDRM Approach attaches great importance
to hazard mapping and vulnerability assessment as a fundamental tool for generating
reliable disaster risk information, which serves as basis for making decisions on
disaster reduction and response interventions, including the best use of limited
resources.
3) Enhancing coordination and integration of stakeholders’ action through good
communication and efficient exchange of relevant and reliable information exchange of
critical disaster risk information, which could enhance coordination and integration of
stakeholders’ actions in disaster reduction and response. However, ensuring the
availability and accessibility of accurate and reliable disaster risk information when
required entails an efficient system for information sharing. In this regard, an efficient
disaster risk management information system is important. Moreover, it should be
effectively linked to local early warning systems, local authorities and the media, to
ensure effective use of disaster risk information for public awareness and education,
among other important activities such as strategising for quick response.
4) Ensuring that appropriate enabling mechanisms are in place, including policy, structure,
capacity building, and resources.
The following enabling mechanisms support the successful implementation of the TDRM
Approach:
1) Policy: Establish clear and comprehensive policy that defines the objectives and
commitment of the government, organisation, or community to disaster reduction and
response efforts. This may assume the form of a law, policy guidelines, promulgated
plans, or protocols. A policy developed through a strategic and consultative planning

process could effectively address the identified gaps in the disaster management
cycle.
2) Structures and systems: Establish organisational structures and systems that facilitate
and ensure coordination of stakeholders’ action and puts contributions in place. This
involves the establishment and strengthening of focal points and coordination bodies.
3) Capacity-building: The enhancement of national and local capacity to establish and
implement disaster reduction and response measures, especially for vulnerable sectors
and communities. This is a regular undertaking.
4) Resources: The identification and provision of resource requirements, including funds
and trained human resources. This includes the means to access and use authorised
fund appropriations for disaster reduction and response. These enabling mechanisms
are more effective when sustained by institutional enthusiasm, political commitment,
focal points and committed advocates in government.
5) Implementation: Implement the disaster risk management process from the national
level to the community level in continuation. The disaster risk management process is
a process for good decision-making and for ensuring the best use of limited
resources. It applies standard principles, process and techniques of risk management
to disaster management. The process presents a framework and a systematic method
for identifying and managing disaster risks in six systematic steps, as under:
1) Establish the disaster risk context
2) Identify the disaster risks
3) Analyse the disaster risks
4) Assess and prioritise the disaster risks
5) Treat the disaster risks
6) Lastly, monitor, review and communicate.
In general, this process aids decision makers in determining possible outcomes of risks
and undertake appropriate measures to control or mitigate their impact based on reliable
information and the available resources. In this regard, disaster risk management promotes
good disaster management practice, and therefore, should be implemented in all sectors.
Pertinence of TDRM for Disaster Management Cycle
Based on the above explanation, the TDRM Approach is a purposive approach that
addresses holistically and comprehensively, the various concerns and gaps in the
different phases of the disaster management cycle. It focuses on the underlying causes of
disasters, the conditions of disaster risks and the vulnerability of the community. It also
emphasises multi-level, multi-dimensional and multi-disciplinary cooperation and collaboration
in achieving effective disaster reduction and response. This approach intends to integrate,
complement, and enhance existing disaster reduction and response strategies. Moreover,
the TDRM Approach could serve as a framework for policy action in identifying and
addressing the gaps in existing policies, programs, structures, systems and resources
towards more efficient and effective implementation of disaster reduction and response
activities. Of fundamental importance in the TDRM Approach is hazard mapping and
vulnerability assessment. This diagnosis helps ensure good decisions in choosing appropriate
interventions and in ensuring the best use of limited resources.
Overall, the TDRM Approach presents a creditable disaster management strategy by way
of enhanced efficiency in disaster reduction and response, and cost effectiveness through
sound allocation of limited resources. The challenge at hand is to explore opportunities
and initiatives to pilot the TDRM Approach at the provincial and community levels. It is
also crucial to build consensus and political commitment at the highest level for adopting
the TDRM Approach as a strategy to address effectively, the prevalence of disaster risks,
the current state of disasters, and the existing gaps in the disaster management cycle.
Reducing the risk of disasters involves activities, which either reduce or modify the scale
and intensity of the threat faced or by improving the conditions of ‘elements’ at risk.
Although the term ‘prevention’ is often used to embrace the wide diversity of measures
to protect persons and property, its use is not recommended since it is misleading in its
implicit suggestion that natural disasters are preventable. The use of reduction to describe
protective or preventive actions, which lessen the scale of disasters, is therefore preferred.
Even with effective preparedness and mitigation measures being in place it is realistic to
expect some level of damage from extreme natural forces.
Risk Reduction is the end to which the TDRM is geared. Chronologically, the earlier
approaches to disaster management have been the comprehensive approach, based on
factoring articulated risks in public policy; the integrated approach, stressing inter-sector
administrative coordination and organising work, within organisations, with a disaster
management orientation, through required modifications in structure, such as, rearranging
hierarchy to promote team work, specialist expertise, etc.; the prepared community
approach, stressing harnessing social capital to build disaster resilience through training
workshops, organising volunteer effort et al and the developmental relief approach,
implying administering relief with a long-term development perspective, such as, building
pucca roads, where communication is found wanting and not some temporary arrangement
as a kuccha pathway. The TDRM incorporates all articulated concerns and gears it
towards the ‘end’ objective of Disaster Risk Reduction.
Risk reduction can take place in two ways:
1) Long-term Mitigation
Mitigation embraces all measures taken to reduce both the effect of the hazard itself and
the vulnerable conditions in order to reduce the potency of a future event. Therefore,
mitigation activities can be focused on the hazard itself or the elements exposed to the
threat. Examples of mitigation measures which are hazard specific, include; modifying the
occurrence of the hazard, for example, water management in drought prone areas,
avoiding the hazard by siting people away from the hazard and strengthening structures to
reduce damage when a disaster occurs.
In addition to these physical measures, mitigation should also be aimed at reducing the
physical, economic and social vulnerability to threats and the underlying causes for the
same. Therefore, mitigation may incorporate addressing issues such as land ownership,
tenancy rights, wealth distribution, etc.
Some common mitigation measures are:
z Hazard Assessment
z Vulnerability Analysis
z Risk Assessment
z Vulnerability Reduction/mitigation strategies (structural and non- structural)
z Integration of disaster risk reduction activities in all development activities
z Disaster-resistant buildings and infrastructure
z Awareness among the community
z Preventing habitation in risk zones.
2) Short-term Preparedness
This protective process embraces measures, which enable governments, communities and
individuals to respond rapidly to disaster situations to cope with them effectively.
Preparedness includes the formulation of viable emergency plans, the development of
warning systems, maintenance of inventories and training of personnel. It may also
embrace search and rescue measures as well as evacuation plans for areas that may be
‘at risk’ from a recurring disaster.
Preparedness, therefore, encompasses those measures that are taken before a disaster
event, which are aimed at minimising loss of life, disruption of critical services, and
damage when the disaster occurs. All preparedness planning needs to be supported by
appropriate legislation specifying clear allocation of responsibilities and budgetary provisions
for specific activities.
Some common preparedness measures are:
z Forecasting and warning systems for different disasters
z Emergency management plans for responsible agencies (for monitoring, alert and
evacuation, immediate disaster assistance, deployment of search and rescue teams
and distribution of relief material, etc.)
z Community awareness and education
z Preparation of disaster management plans for the community
z Mock drills, training and rehearsals.
2.4 SHIFT TO MITIGATION AND PREPAREDNESS

PLANNING IN INDIA
The DMTP (Coburn et al, 1994) defines Disaster Mitigation as “a collective term used
to encompass all activities undertaken in anticipation of the occurrence of a potentially
disastrous event, including preparedness and long-term risk reduction measures.” Disaster
Mitigation measures entail planning and implementation of risk reduction measures based
on vulnerability and risk assessments and political decisions based on acceptable risk and
the level of risk perception in society.
The Yokohama Message
Alarmed at increasing disaster losses all round the world, world leaders assembled at
Yokohama in May 1994, to meet the challenge collectively, since environment is an

international concern. The message was to factor disaster mitigation in development policy.
It marked a paradigm shift, since disaster management had been conceived more in terms
of response, post-event, not as something, which could be tackled in initial stages with
policy intervention. The Yokohama principles (1994) for risk reduction are as follows:
1) Risk assessment is a required step for the adoption of adequate and successful
disaster reduction policies and measures.
2) Disaster prevention and preparedness are of primary importance in reducing the need
for disaster relief.
3) Disaster prevention and preparedness should be considered integral aspects of
development policy and planning at national, regional, bilateral, multilateral and
international levels.
4) The development and strengthening of capacities to prevent, reduce and mitigate
disasters is a top priority area to be addressed so as to provide a strong basis for
follow-up activities to IDNDR (International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction).
5) Early warnings of impending disasters and their effective dissemination are key factors
in successful disaster prevention and preparedness.
6) Preventive measures are most effective when they involve participation at all levels
from the local community through the national government to the regional and
international level.
7) Vulnerability can be reduced by the application of proper design and patterns of
development focused on target groups by appropriate education and training of the
whole community.
8) The international community accepts the need to share the necessary technology to
prevent, reduce and mitigate disasters.
9) Environmental protection as a component of sustainable development consistent with
poverty alleviation is imperative in the prevention and mitigation of natural disasters.
10) Each country bears the primary responsibility for protecting its people, infrastructure,
and other national assets from the impact of natural disasters. The international
community should demonstrate strong political determination required to make efficient
use of existing resources, including financial, scientific and technological means in the
field of natural disaster reduction, bearing in mind the needs of the developing
countries, particularly the least developed countries.
Post-Yokohama, there is an increasing awareness of ‘factoring’ disaster mitigation concerns
in mainstream development planning, especially at the local level. Disaster Management in
India, therefore, has now been imparted a development perspective following realisation
of the imminence of such effort to sustain development achieved in /over the years.
Traditionally, disaster management had been treated as a contingency expenditure, which
could be conveniently classified, non- plan. There is an unfortunate tendency on the part
of policy makers to look upon non-plan expenditure as relatively unimportant, when that
is a grievous error from a development perspective. A plan item in a particular year would
be non-plan in subsequent years, when expenditure has to be incurred on maintenance.
Hence, it is illusory to assume that the significance of non-plan expenditure is any less
than plan. Nevertheless, disaster management has been treated “calamity relief,” and
therefore, non-plan. Indirectly, though there are plan schemes for subjects like drought
proofing, drinking water, and afforestation etc., which concern disaster management.
Henceforth, however, there would be renewed commitment and greater role on the part
of the Planning Commission towards disaster mitigation. Need for the same has been
envisaged/endorsed by the Eleventh Finance Commission and the High Powered Committee
on Disaster Management(2001). The attempt/emphasis would be on planning for “safe
national development”.
As articulated in the Tenth Plan, disasters set back development and reduce new
investment, further constricting the growth of the region. Besides, response is a lot costlier
than risk reduction or mitigation. The World Bank and United Nations Geological survey
calculated that economic losses worldwide from natural disasters in the 1990s could be
reduced by $280billion if $40 billion were invested in preparedness, mitigation and
prevention strategies. In China, $3.15 billion has been invested over the past 40 years in
measures to control floods: this is believed to have averted potential losses of $ 12 billion.
UN estimates, the total cost of disasters worldwide during the 1980s at $120 billion. As
per Charlotte Benson (2005), Direct Costs relate to the capital costs of assets (such as
buildings and the physical infrastructure, raw materials, and the like) destroyed or
damaged in a disaster, crop losses included. Indirect losses result from adverse impacts
on businesses that result as a consequence.
For structural mitigation measures, measures like making disaster mitigating, a condition for
financial assistance can be expected. This underlines the regulating role of the state, which
would assume increasing significance in the face of rising newer threats. Mandatory risk
mitigation stipulations for construction companies, for example, are an instance of the
monitoring/policing role of the state that would set to rest most conjectures regarding
‘defunct state’!
2.5 RESPONSE MECHANISM IN INDIA

In India, there is integrated administrative machinery for management of disasters at the
National, State, District and sub-District levels. The primary responsibility of undertaking
rescue, relief and rehabilitation measures is that of the State governments. The Central
government supplements the efforts of the state governments by way of physical and
financial resources, if need arises. The extent/necessity of Central response/assistance
depends on the severity and scale of the calamity and the requirements of Central
assistance for augmenting the financial resources at the disposal of the State Government.
The effort is more in the nature of support to the state governments. Drawing from the
Ministry of Home Affairs’, official document,“ National Policy”, Union government’s
response could be in two ways:
1) Policy Response, provided by the Prime Minister, Cabinet Committees, and the
Home Affairs and/or Agriculture Minister; and
2) Administrative Response
The Central response can be:
i) Policy response, keeping in view the short and long term policy objectives of the
government
ii) Administrative response, broadly relating to:

a) Operational requirements
b) Provision of Central assistance as per existing policy.
Central initiatives are in the form of:
i) Visits of the calamity affected areas by President, Prime Minister and other dignitaries;
ii) Activating the administrative machinery for assisting in relief measures; and
iii) Setting up machinery for implementing, reviewing and monitoring of relief measures.
The operational aspects of the administrative response could, further, be classified into:
i) Primary relief functions, and
ii) Secondary relief functions.
The primary relief functions of the Central Government relate to:
i) Forecasting and operation of warning system
ii) Maintenance of uninterrupted communication
iii) Wide publicity to warnings of impending calamity, disaster preparedness and relief
measures through TV, AIR and Newspapers
iv) Transport with particular reference to evacuation and movement of essential commodities
and petroleum products
v) Ensuring availability of essential commodities at reasonable prices particularly the
commodities through the Public Distribution System
vi) Ensuring availability of medicines, vaccine and drugs
vii) Preservation and restoration of physical communication links
viii) Investments in infrastructure; and
ix) Mobilisation of financial resources.
The secondary functions of the Central Government which supplement the States’ relief
efforts, would relate to:
i) Flood/inflow forecasts from the Central Water Commission
ii) Relief, rehabilitation and restoration through military aid to civil authorities
iii) Contingency plans for crops, cattle preservation nutrition and health measures
iv) Technical and technological inputs for provision of drinking water
v) Technical assistance in the water budgeting and water management for various uses;
and Coordination of the activities of the State agencies and voluntary agencies.
Energising Local Government
Since, efforts at controlling disasters are concentrated at the local level, and much
depends on the initiative at that level, particularly by local people, institutionalising inherent
social capital in panchayat raj institutions and local volunteer groups (civil society) inter
se could strengthen administrative preparedness for disaster response. Following the 73rd
and 74th constitutional amendments, development planning at the local level is expected to
incorporate disaster mitigation, which would make planning and implementation for/of the
same more targeted and cost-effective. Efforts would be made to organise civil society
activity to make it operate in tandem with the state apparatus under the aegis of the local
institutions of self government (Tenth Plan).
Civil society actors at the local level are now proposed to be trained through
mainstream administrative organisations like the Police, for better, more educated effort in
various aspects of disaster management. As articulated in the Tenth Plan, their participation
would be better institutionalised in close cooperation with government agencies. Presently,
as evidenced during the recent Muzaffarabad quake, and also cited earlier, effort is a little
scattered in that it is ill-organised and inconsistent. Efforts are in order through state
initiative for better organisation of effort on the part of these agencies.
Stakeholder Involvement
Apart from national, state, district and local levels, there are various institutional stakeholders,
who are involved in disaster management at various levels in the country. These include
the police and paramilitary forces, civil defence and home guards, fire services, ex-
servicemen, non-government organisations, public and private sector enterprises and the
media, all of who have important roles to play.
The Government of India GoI-UNDP Disaster Risk Management Programme envisages
active association and involvement of all stakeholders in various disaster prevention,
mitigation and preparedness measures. Recognising the potential of the private corporate
sector in contributing to disaster management, it envisages, sensitisation, training, and co-
option of the private corporate sector and their nodal bodies and organisations in disaster
planning process and response mechanisms. The Ministry of Home Affairs has outlined
areas for substantial involvement of the corporate sector; some of the more pertinent of
which are:
z Organisation of sensitisation programmes for building the knowledge, attitude and
skills of the industries in adopting and implementing disaster risk reduction measures
to make the industrial structures and infrastructures, disasters resistant.
z Development of onsite and offsite disaster management (DM) plans by the industries.
The process of developing DM plans is being explained to the industries during
sensitisation programmes.
z Training of industrial personnel in various facets of disaster management and response;
viz. first aid, search and rescue, evacuation, etc.
The objectives of the work plan area to mainstream private sector participation in disaster
management; create linkages between the community and the private corporate sector to
strengthen/facilitate cooperation between some of the major stakeholders in disaster
management (that is, the corporate sector, local authorities and the community).
2.6 CONCLUSION
Disaster management encompasses a range of activities, which are envisaged as a cycle
involving, disaster event, response, preparedness and mitigation in that sequence. In the
immediate aftermath of a disaster, search and rescue and immediate relief activities are
imminent. Long-term risk reduction or mitigation measures include rehabilitation, securing/
restoring livelihoods and infrastructure restoration. Later, development strategy incorporates
lessons learnt from the past, as safe development practices. This is known as mitigation.
In addition, preparedness activities need to be carried out in the sense of instituting
infrastructure and crafting required policy for effective disaster response and vulnerability
reduction for reduced disaster losses in the future. Disaster mitigation includes preparation
of disaster management plans, pre-positioning of equipment and materials, and practice
and drills of response procedures. The cycle is a visual depiction of activities in disaster
management and the logical sequence of their instance. The Total Disaster Risk Reduction
Management discussed above, involves; human resource development, hazard mapping,
vulnerability and risk assessments, information management systems, communication,
coordination and funds, among others, as articulated in the regional workshop on TDRM
held in Kathmandu on Aug. 9, 2002, organised by the ADRC and OCHA, UN.
Disaster occurrences are cyclic phenomena. Hazards exist in nature, which when the
vulnerability conditions allow, turn into disastrous events with devastating impacts on
populations. Following disasters, communities slowly recover and get back to life. Normal
developmental processes set in after some time, till disaster strikes again, setting the cycle
into motion all over again. During or immediately after a disaster, search and rescue,
immediate relief and shelter activities are taken up. In the longer-term rehabilitation,
housing, livelihoods and infrastructure restoration are carried out. Later, during non-disaster
times, it is important to ensure safe development practices so that there is lesser impact
of disasters in the future. In addition to this, preparedness activities need to be carried
out for responding to a disaster. This is put to use when the next disaster happens, and
the cycle goes on.
2.7 KEY CONCEPTS

Disaster Management : As per Coburn, Sspence, Pomonis DMTP, 1994,
“Disaster Management is a collective term,
encompassing all aspects of planning for and
responding to disasters, including both pre and post
disaster activities. It refers to both the risks and the
consequences of disasters.”
Mitigation : Mitigation is a long-term measure to reduce
vulnerabilities, both physical, which is of infrastructure,
and socio-economic, that is, pertaining to social
positioning that predisposes vulnerable sections to
disaster losses. Mitigation is an integral aspect of
planning. Post-Yokohama, countries have been exhorted
to follow the path of mitigation which mandates
dovetailing vulnerability reduction measures in
development planning, through resource allocation with
the added perspective of disasters in sectoral schemes.
It implies treating disaster mitigation as a plan
commitment and not a non-plan contingency issue, as
had been the approach up till now. The rationale for
mitigation comes from repeated occurrence of disasters
in recent times and the unsustainable impacts.
Preparedness : Preparedness is explained as a state of readiness of

the administrative apparatus to respond to a disaster
quickly and in a way that minimises the loss of life
and property that could accrue, implying, minimum
time lag and maximum effectiveness.
Prevention : Disaster Prevention entails measures to preempt a
disaster by controlling a potentially threatening hazard.
For example, water harvesting can prevent droughts.
To that end, it entails advance planning to forestall a
disaster.
Risk Reduction : As per DMTP, 1994, “risk reduction is a long-term
measure to reduce the scale, and/or the duration of
eventual adverse effects of unavoidable or
unpreventable disaster hazards on a society which is
at risk by reducing the vulnerability of its people,
structures, services and economic activities to the
impact of known disaster hazards. Typical risk reduction
measures include improved building standards, flood
plain zoning and land use planning, crop diversification
and planting windbreaks. Disaster mitigation, prevention,
risk reduction are often used interchangeably. Hence,
it is the activity and not the semantics that are/should
be stressed.
Risk Perception : Risk perception is the degree to which people are
aware of disaster risks and willing to budget for the
same. It applies to general people as well as policy
makers in government. Awareness generation through
proactive measures, like television programmes and
door-to-door campaigns improve the level of Risk
Perception in society. Risk perception is generally low
in developing countries and high in the developed
world.
Safe Development : Development should be physically sustainable in that it
should be able to withstand the vicissitudes of changing
environment and disasters. Hence, the ‘safety
parameter’ has to be incorporated in development
schemes. Theoretically, it implies viewing development
as a means to a long and healthy living and not as an
end in itself.

Benson, Charlotte, 2005, “The Cost of Disasters” at www.benfieldhrc.org/activities/
misc_papers/DEVRISK/BENSON.HTM - 20k -
Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED) 1999, EM-DAT:
International Disaster Database, Université Catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium.
Coburn, Sspence, Pomonis, 1994, “Vulnerability Analysis and Risk Assessment”, Disaster
Management Training Programme, United Nations Development Programme, UN.
Guzmann, Emmanuel, M. de, 2005 “Towards Total Disaster Risk Management Approach”,
United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, Asian Disaster
Response Unit, at http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/APCITY/
UNPAN009657.pdf
“ National Policy” National Disaster Management Division, Ministry of Home Affairs, at
http://www.ndmindia.nic.in/manageplan/nationalpoli.htm
Parasuraman &Unnikrishnan in India Disasters Report, 2005, Punjablok.
Regional Workshop on Total Disaster Risk Management, ADRC, 2002, Annual Report,
No.5,
Rieff, David, 1999 “The False Dawn of Civil Society: Civil Society and the Future of the
Nation-State”, The Nation, Ecuador.
UNDP, 1998, Human Development Report, Oxford University Press, New York.
United Nations Disaster Management Training Programme (UNDMTP), 1991, launched
by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the Office of the United
Nations Disaster Relief Coordinator in co-operation with UN Agencies at http://
www.undmtp.org/about, Geneva.
Urban Risk Forum, 2000, Disaster Briefing Notes, Oxford Center for Disaster Studies,
Oxford, UK.
World Disasters Reports, 1997, 1999, 2002, 2003, 2004, International Red Cross and
Red Crescent Society.
2.9 ACTIVITIES
1) Identify the most probable natural disaster in your city or village. Trace its disaster
management cycle, identifying when the last disaster event occurred, what was the
response after it, and which mitigation and preparedness activities need to be taken
up for reducing the impact of a similar disaster in the future.
2) Make a list of agencies that have a role in the Disaster Management in your area
according to the different stages of the Disaster Management Cycle.
UNIT 3 DISASTER MANAGEMENT – RECENT
TRENDS
Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Development Perspective to Disaster Management
3.3 Disaster Management in Mountainous Regions
3.4 Disaster Management in Riverine Regions
3.5 Disaster Management in Coastal Regions
3.6 Trends in Disaster Management
3.7 Conclusion
3.8 Key Concepts
3.10 Activities
• Understand the recent trends in disaster management worldwide;
• Identify requirements in disaster management with respect to specific
natural hazards; and
• Appreciate the significance and importance of disaster management.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Disasters have been increasing in frequency and intensity over the past few
decades. This has been directly linked to the nature and extent of human activities
taking place in erstwhile natural surroundings. Human populations are settling in
areas hitherto left untouched due to those being declared hazard prone. This trend
of increasing disasters has necessitated changes in the disaster management
systems too. The trends in disaster management can be studied with reference to
vulnerabilities of specific regions in India and the requirements of disaster
management in those areas, viz. the Himalayan regions, the Riverine regions and
the Coastal regions. The chief emerging requirement in disaster management is
sustainable development practices, factoring vulnerabilities of each specific
geographic region in development policy. In this Unit, an attempt is made to
apprise the learners with the recent general trends in disaster management, which
pertain to all disasters- natural and man made- affecting us today.
3.2 DEVELOPMENT PERSPECTIVE TO DISASTER
MANAGEMENT
Member States of the United Nations and other States met at the World
Conference on Natural Disaster Reduction, in the city of Yokohama, Japan, from
23 May to 27 May 1994, in partnership with non-governmental organisations,
international organisations, the scientific community, business, industry and the
1
media to deliberate within the framework of the International Decade for Natural
Disaster Reduction, on immense human suffering that has been incident over the
past years, globally, owing/due to natural disasters. It acknowledged increasing
human vulnerability to disasters, especially of the poor and disadvantaged groups
that are least equipped to cope with crises of such serious magnitude. The
correlation between disaster prevention, mitigation, preparedness and relief with
sustainable development policy in general is only too evident to be any longer
overlooked. Hence, the three interrelated concerns of disaster management,
(encompassing mitigation, prevention and preparedness), environmental
protection and sustainable development need to be simultaneously addressed
through ‘all- encompassing’ policy in this regard, for protection of life and
preservation of development in the short run and more importantly, for future
generations over the long run. Therefore, nations have to rework development
strategy to some extent to incorporate these concerns in mainstream development
planning, since these have hitherto been addressed as contingent measures, not
mainstream measures that are treated consistently through adequate policy
responses in this regard on the part of governments. There is another significant
ramification to disaster management, which needs to be taken cognisance of. The
need for international cooperation for integrated action to combat the threat could
not be understated. Since natural disasters are not limited by natural boundaries,
regional and international cooperation is imperative to build capacity of
governments at regional/global scale(s) to combat the threat concertedly.
Particularly, technology transfer to developing countries by the developed to
build capacity to fight disasters was emphasised as an imperative in the
conference. To that end, bilateral and multilateral assistance and financial
resources need to be mobilised by developed countries to support the efforts of
developing countries towards disaster preparedness and mitigation. Hence,
technology transfer to developing countries along with corresponding training
should be attempted as a necessary requirement in concerted disaster
management.
Experience with natural disasters over the past few years has led to the realisation
that disasters are not one off events, rather a result of concretised vulnerabilities,
which need to be addressed/treated over time through sustained public policy in
this regard. Positive correlation has been unearthed through empirical researches
between disaster vulnerability and socio-economic disadvantages stemming from
adverse social positioning due to poverty, unemployment, lack of access to basic
facilities like education, health and hygiene, as has been experienced in recent
experiences with disasters.
While disaster response is limited to short- term relief, long-term strategy is
imperative to curb disaster losses over time, by way of reducing vulnerabilities of
disadvantaged sections; women, children and the disabled in particular. The same
is achieved through building community resilience by way of targeted offensive
at particular debilitating factors such as poverty, unemployment and other forms
of social and economic deprivation, which create/increase susceptibility to losses.
Prevention aims at nipping disaster potential in the bud, hence is essential for
safeguarding development. Hence, disaster vulnerability can be reduced overtime
through planned interventions towards building resilience through public policy.
This necessitates consistent attempts at vulnerability reduction through plan
budget allocations for disaster mitigation with a view to integrating disaster
management with mainstream development planning.
2
In its tenth year of publication, The World Disasters Report, 2003, brought out by
the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, called for disaster risk
reduction targets to be added to the international development goals for 2015 and
beyond. These targets could include reducing by half, the number of people killed
and affected by disasters and increasing the number of governments with
dedicated plans and resources for risk reduction programs.
The World Disasters Report, 2003 contains criticism of over-reliance on high-
profile aid operations, to save lives when long-term investment in disaster
mitigation at the local level have proven to be much more effective. No
international aid effort was necessary when the worst hurricane since 1944 hit
Cuba in 2002, but only five people died. Local mechanisms were in place to
evacuate 700,000 people from Havana and other threatened areas. Of the 53,000
people rescued from the floodwaters in Mozambique’s two great floods, local
people saved 34,000.
Building Community Resilience: Stress on Social Capital
The follow up report, that is, the World Disasters Report, 2004, published by the
International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies has
‘community resilience’ as its central theme. Community involvement and active
participation in vulnerability reduction efforts are being emphasised as essential
strategy for effective policy towards vulnerability reduction. The Report notes
that, building community resilience for coping with disasters is the right strategy
to adopt, instead of misdirected international aid, most of which does not reach
the needy. It has been seen that people have been able to survive most adverse
conditions on the strength of their capacities. Therefore, the aid community is
advised to concentrate on the capacities of the vulnerable communities rather
than their vulnerabilities and aim at building/reinforcing the same as part of
practical strategy to counter- effect vulnerabilities and help people successfully
combat disasters. In the same vein, the Report calls for dispelling the myth of
helpless victims; hence, the requirement of study of the resources and resilience
of vulnerable communities to discover ways to augment them to further
facilitate/strengthen self- help on the part of at risk communities. In Swaziland,
HIV/AIDS and drought are endemic. But Chief Masilela informed Red Cross that
his community would prefer irrigation and seeds, not food aid, to grow crops,
craft their own recovery and retain their dignity. A woman in Mumbai, to quote
another instance, has chosen to reside in a low cost dwelling in a flood prone area
because that would leave her money to finance her daughter’ education (World
Disasters Report, 2004).
This is following realisation of the fact that active cooperation of communities is
vital for achieving real gains in both policy formulation and implementation.
Synergetic partnership between the government and people is essential to have a
clear understanding, for instance, of the cultural characteristics and organisational
requirements in different societies/situations, respectively and accordingly,
specific policy requirements, as per assessed particularities/peculiarities,
following insights into a society’s behaviour and its interactions with the physical
and natural environment, for example, shifting cultivation among tribes in North-
East or burning firewood for cooking among tribal communities and poorer
segments generally, which were recently indicted as major causes of global
warming. This is envisaged as a practical strategy to target vulnerabilities through
‘relevant’ policy, based on articulate concerns by people themselves, in keeping
with the particular requirements of that place. The same is crucial for the success
3
of any policy measure, particularly planned strategies for environment protection,
where community involvement has proven to be a necessary requirement.
There is need for awareness of the fact that unplanned urbanisation is creating
newer risks. It creates a case for general upgrading of administrative services as a
long-term mitigation strategy, particularly building capacities at the local level
with active participation of the people, since, as borne out by experience, national,
or even international interventions are likely to be less effective in tackling
persistent problems like poor schools, poor quality housing, sanitation, drainage,
etc. The same has been realised in successive experiences with disasters around
the world, particularly, during the Bam (Afghanistan) Earthquake, when 34
search-and-rescue teams from 27 countries flew to the city and saved 22 lives but,
meanwhile, local Red Crescent teams pulled 157 people alive from the rubble,
using far fewer 'sniffer' dogs. Investing in local response capacities therefore
saves lives and money; which is the main inference (Ibid).
Post- Modern Trends
Post-modern cultural values premised on democratic pluralism and quality of life
is gaining credence in the post-industrial society facing the ills of development. It
is a political science concept that marks a sharp breakaway from earlier
approaches towards governance and towards life in general, so much so, that it
could be termed revolutionary. Precisely, the trend is towards people-centered
governance, which is participatory and accountable, public policy oriented
towards sustainable development, in that pluralism and decentralisation are
especially espoused virtues; in fact, preconditions for democratic governance, as
is ‘diversity’ in all its forms which should be factored in public policy, as a
necessary requirement for/in good governance. The chief divergence in post-
modernism from earlier approaches is, that aesthetic and spiritual aspects of life
are being emphasised against purely material. In the same vein, protection of
ecology is the central theme in sustainable development. Apart from secular
policy, post- modern influences can be discerned in religious and cultural spheres
as well. It is chiefly manifest in the West’s changed attitude towards ‘indigenous
cultures’ which is different from the insistence on ‘the one right way’, which was
presumably Western. In disaster management accordingly, the trend is towards
respecting indigenous resilience strategies and even construction methodology,
which is in line with post modernism. Merit is being recognised in traditional
building knowledge such as in Marathwada, India. Malwad (timber under
structure) constructions offer several good examples of stone masonry. Many
traditional artisans possess skills in traditional building techniques such as good
quality stone masonry construction, which withstands earthquakes reasonably
well. Common practice is to discard local knowledge as inferior/unscientific.
However, following studies in indigenous practices, there is increasing ‘voice’ for
incorporating the same in modern engineering knowledge to find lasting solution
to physical vulnerability of infrastructure in disaster prone areas (Jigyasu, 2002).
For organisational theory, post-modernism implies a shift of emphasis towards
teamwork rather than strict stipulations of hierarchy with undesirables like status
differentiation, monolithic order et al; cooperation rather than compliance,
participatory management rather than monocentric order, peoples’ participation,
especially regarding choice in service provisioning, etc. To reiterate, this applies
to both secular and religious organisations. This is partly a result of growing
suspicion towards monocentric authority whereby public and private interests are
often confused/diffused; former unknowingly acting as a camouflage for the latter
4
and similar suspicions, not wholly unfounded. Post modernism argues for more
‘political space’ for articulation of myriad concerns which in practice make up
public interest. Post-modernism, in one word, epitomises harmony/balance in the
physical, cultural, material and spiritual senses.
Sustainable Development
Akin to the spirit of post- modernism, sustainable development, in simple words,
means development that can be sustained over time, implying, benefit to the
present as well as future generations. This virtue would obtain only if
development has been ‘balanced’ with respect to other/related concerns. For
example, a dam would lead to power generation, which is its central purpose. But
public policy would demand consideration of ancillary/related issues, or ‘other
concerns’ such as impact on ecology, displacement of population, socio-
economic impact of proposed measure, etc., which would ultimately count
in/decide its success. The Brundtland Commission (1987) defines sustainable
development as “development, which meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”.
According to H. Ramchandran (1990), sustainable development is the latest ‘end’
in a linear continuum of growth concepts. Understanding of development has
progressed from the “simple but nebulous notion of progress to growth (of GNP),
to growth with equity in vertical and horizontal dimensions, to the physical
quality of life and currently to sustainable development or eco development.” The
latter concepts have added to the former ones, not replaced them and hence have
developed as inclusive ideas adding newer dimensions to the understanding of
sustainable development. Thus the concept of sustainable development
encompasses all previous ideas, viz. growth, equity, etc., with the added
dimension of sustainability for future use. Sustainable development has both
ethical and utilitarian value in that preservation of environment is as much a duty
of the present generations as a right for future generations, to lead disease free
and accidents/disaster free lives and touch higher levels of economic
development.
Sustainable development is also a generic idea/concept in that development per se
could be appreciated, applying the premise of sustainability. This broad
understanding is credited to social science theorists who are increasingly
evaluating policy outcomes on the basis of its viability in the cultural, political,
socio economic senses. To elucidate, globalisation has cultural impact, besides
economic and political, which needs to be studied to understand its potential for
apocalyptic change to then question its desirability. The question would be; is a
particular change sustainable? Context could be given here of welfare economics,
where gainers and losers from/in each proposed measure, are identified to
compute net social welfare derived/proposed from the measure. All ramifications
of policy viz. political fallouts, economic impact, pertaining to distributional
aspects, impact on ecology etc. is considered/possibly measured to judge the
sustainability, hence, desirability of a measure.
Science and Technology for Disaster Management
Currently, the All Hazards Approach is being emphasised in America as a holistic
strategy to combat disasters. The understanding that underlines this approach is
that all disasters, irrespective of type can be dealt with on the basis of common
knowledge/expertise based on academic researches and preparedness, based on
information derived thus and constant updating of such knowledge. Its chief
5
reliance is on science and technology for capacity creation. It relies on creating
capacity through R&D in science and technology to deal with any and every kind
of disaster(s), ranging from earthquake to terrorism, based on and converting
R&D to practice readily to attempt new and innovative ways to deal with crises,
whether natural and/or man made. For this purpose collation of science and
technology expertise scattered across institutions within the aegis of a single
agency is necessary that acts as clearing house as well as a coordinating agency
with respect to myriad disciplines/ concerns, even within science involved in
This approach lends a fresh perspective to disaster management in that policy in
this regard, never at any stage, suffers from redundancy. Disaster management
requires a multidisciplinary approach, hence, the need for a single
coordinating/overseeing agency.
The Sub-Committee on Disaster Reduction (SDR) of the National Science and
Technological Council (NSTC) in the United States (2003) has articulated six
important areas that require continued energy and appropriate resources to meet
the challenges of hazard risk reduction. The same may be pertinent for all
countries facing the threat of terrorism, which is the single most horrifying
disaster possibility in recent times.
1) Leveraging existing knowledge of natural and technological hazards to
address terrorism events
2) Improve hazard information data collection and prediction capability
3) Ensure the development and widespread use of improved hazard and risk
assessment models and their incorporation into decision support tools and
systems.
4) Speed the transition from hazard research to hazard management
application
5) Increase mitigation activities and incentives
6) Expand risk communication capabilities, especially public warning
systems and techniques
Kenneth Bloem of the Johns Hopkins University Center for Bio-Defense Studies
has identified a number of parallel streams where preparation for terrorist
incidents can be enhanced by decades of research in traditional disaster areas:
• Wildfires and Arson
• Accidental explosions and bombs
• Floods and dam sabotage
• Chemical spills and chemical attacks
• Epidemics and biological terrorism
Ultimately, effective public policy for disaster management is a result of
deliberation/cooperation between scientists, decision makers and informed
citizens. It should also be remembered that limiting disaster management to a
technocratic perspective would exclude many pertinent issues that fall within the
domain of social sciences, for example, greater relative vulnerability of the poor
and the socially marginalised.
6
3.3 DISASTER MANAGEMENT IN MOUNTAINOUS
REGIONS
The Himalayan range is one of the highest mountain chains in the world.
Himalayas, also known as the Extra-Peninsula, are one of the three main
geological divisions of India. The other two divisions are the Peninsula and the
Indo-Gangetic Plains.
Geographically, the Himalayas extend for about 2400 km, from western Syntaxial
bend-near Nanga Parbat to eastern Syntaxial bend-near Namcha Barwa, and
exhibit a curvilinear disposition.
The Himalayas are classified, from west to east, into four regions:
i) Punjab Himalaya - area between Indus and Sutlej rivers.
ii) Kumaon Himalaya - area between Sutlej and Kali rivers.
iii) Nepal Himalaya- area between Kali and Tista rivers.
iv) Assam Himalaya- area between Tista and Brahamputra rivers.
Presently, Himalayas are divided into three regions: the Western, Central and
Eastern Himalaya. Nepal Himalaya constitutes the Central Himalaya and the
mountainous area to its west and east are known as Western and Eastern
Himalaya respectively. Thus the Western Himalaya includes Punjab and Kumaon
Himalaya covering Himachal Pradesh and parts of Jammu and Kashmir, and
Uttaranchal.
The Uttaranchal Himalaya extends from Tons river in the west to Kali river in the
east and covers an area of about 46,480 sq.km. Garhwal and Kumaon are the two
main regions of Uttaranchal Himalaya.
Major landforms of Uttaranchal Himalaya are arranged in three parallel ranges:
i) Great Himalaya (GH) lies south of Tibetan Plateau and contains the
highest elevations.
ii) Lesser Himalaya (LH) lies south of GH and has elevations between
10,000 and 15,000 ft.
iii) Outer Himalaya (OH) lies south of LH and borders Gangetic Plain.
Altitude varies between 2000 and 3000 ft. and has geomorphologic
depression-the Dun.
Himalaya, in Uttaranchal, can also be divided into four broad geological zones,
each having distinct geological history. These are:
i) Tethys Himalaya Zone (THZ): exposes mainly fossiliferous
rocks of Phanerozoic and lies north of the central axis (line of
highest elevation of CH)
ii) Central Himalaya Zone (CHZ): contains crystalline and
metamorphic rocks which are thrust over the sedimentary
sequences of lesser Himalaya along the Main Central Thrust
(MCT)
iii) Lesser Himalaya Zone (LHZ): exposes largely sedimentary,
unfossiliferous sequences of Proterozoic period, which are
disposed in distinct tectonic belts between the MCT and Main
Boundary Fault.
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Fossiliferous rocks of Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic periods
have very limited extent.
Regionally metamorphosed rock masses occur as Klippe.
iv) Outer or Sub Himalaya Zone (OHZ): This is the southern most
zone and exposes sedimentary sequence predominantly of
Neogene period. The OHZ lies between MBF and Foot Hill Fault
(FHF). FHF is the boundary between the outer Himalaya and
Gangetic Plain.
Hazards in the Himalayan Eco-System

The Himalayan region, characterised by a wide variation in topography, geology,
soil, climate, flora and fauna and various ethnic groups having different socio-
cultural traditions, is a unique geographical entity. All major types of disasters,
prominently, earthquakes, landslides, avalanches, flash floods and forest fires, and
soil erosion hit this region. In high altitude regions (over 3500m), snow
avalanches and glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) are common threats while
flash floods; landslides and mudflows assume disastrous dimensions in the
altitude range from 500 to 3500 m. (Bahadur, 1998).
The Himalayan region with soft weathering rocks, covered with a thin layer of
soil is becoming increasingly susceptible/ sensitive to landslides. Such landslides
cause disruption, create blockades in the road network and river system, which in
turn, cause floods. Interference in the environmental system in the form of
indiscriminate chopping down of trees has disrupted the ecological balance,
thereby resulting in loosening of the soil and consequent soil erosion and frequent
landslides. Over a period of time the eroded soil begins to settle down on the
riverbed resulting in shifting of the river. This is one of the major reasons for
floods.
A very befitting example in support of the above statement is the slash and burn
cultivation technique called ‘JHUM,’ which is practiced in the hilly areas.
Development of the communication system by means of road construction and
mining of rich mineral reserves over a period of time has destroyed the dense
natural evergreen forest cover.
Report of ‘The Central Team on Landslides in Hill Areas of Uttar Pradesh’ during
1998 indicates the damages caused due to hailstorms, heavy rains and the
resulting crop damage in the state during the months of May to September 1998.
The report observed that the Himalayan ecology is extremely fragile and falls
under Seismic Zone V. Another problem is the rapidly growing urban centers
within the Himalayan belt being important tourist basins, both nationally and
internationally. They have grown rapidly, often with very little attention to
building by-laws and planning principles, which are almost non-existent at this
point!
Other main causes for the landslide have been unplanned and unscientific
development activities in the hilly areas, unchecked organised crime that is
involved in illegal felling of trees, poaching, mining, quarrying, construction and
urbanisation which have caused ecological imbalances in the Himalayas.
Increasing pressure of human and animal needs, rapid denudation, biotic
interference etc. have further aggravated the problem of soil erosion, avalanches,
flash floods etc.
8
Every year, landslides in the region kill dozens of people and cause widespread
damage to several villages such that they have now become almost unfit for
habitation. Landslides have caused havoc and the terraced fields have been
destroyed that cannot be easily renovated or made productive again. The road
network remains closed for long periods causing indescribable hardship to the
villagers who get their basic supplies and provisions from the neighbouring areas.
The water source is also disrupted due to landslides as they are breached from
several places and are choked by the debris. The sediment load of rivers has also
increased considerably, causing problems like irregular courses and frequent
breaching of the banks, which create uncertainty regarding the river course and
unexpected floods. More so, the water channels are affected from the up hillside
due to which the villagers are devoid of water for irrigation purposes. This
adversely affects agriculture production in the region.
As explained by Jagdish Bahadur (1998), related problem is that of soil erosion.
The large fluctuation in temperature during the annual cycle generates a severe
freeze - thaw cycle resulting in greater erosion of soil and rock formations.
Another important factor for excessive soil erosion is very intense monsoon
rainfall (from a few hundred mm to thousands of mm in 24 hrs.). Measured
sediment yields range from less than one ton/ha/year to over 100 tons/ha/yr. It is
normally assumed that the sediment yield of Himalayan rivers is about 16.4 ha.m
/ 100 km2/yr, which is about three to five times higher than the value assumed by
the designers of water resource storage projects. These estimates are not totally
representative of the sedimentation regime and represent only the suspended
sediments. No quantitative estimates are available for bed load sediments, which
play an important role for high mountain turbulent streams. Hence, we have to
develop strategies for sediment harvesting (seclude sediments for other uses) for
efficient water resources management for harmonious development of the region.
The region’s agriculture and power generation are fully dependent on the
freshwater supply fed by the discharges of the Himalayan glaciers. In the Ganga
river only, the loss of glacier melt water would reduce July-September flows by
two thirds, causing water shortage for 500 million people and 37 percent of
India’s irrigated land. Perennial rivers could be changed into seasonal streams
giving rise to freshwater scarcity in the summer months when melt waters
contribute the bulk of the water (around 75%) to the Himalayan Rivers.
Several glacial lakes have been formed as a result of glacier retreat due to raised
temperatures, which could lead to catastrophic events like glacial lake outburst
floods (GLOF) in valley’s downstream, resulting in destruction of valuable
resources such as forests, farms, costly mountain infrastructures and even human
life. GLOFs can have devastating consequences for civil works, like bridges,
dams and powerhouses, and communities living downstream.
In order to manage the impacts of climate change on glaciers, the nature of these
impacts with respect to individual glaciers or drainage basins needs to be studied
and understood. In the Himalayas, although there has been research at a large
scale on glacier retreat there has been no work at the scale of the individual
glacier or drainage basin and so current research is too general to drive policy
response (WWF, 2005). Adoption of appropriate soil and water conservation
practices on a watershed basis is considered to be the only way to control soil
erosion and improve the environment in the mountainous regions. The measures
are to be adopted in conformity with the concept of integrated land use planning
for development and improvement of catchment and command area. Efforts must
9
be directed towards utilising the maximum amount of rain to meet the human,
animal and crop needs and at reducing to the minimum, the damage by floods and
soil erosion. Excess water should be stored in the catchments areas, which will
reduce the fury of flash floods, recharge the ground water and improve the
environment. Runoff collection ponds in the catchments, though they might get
silted up in a few years, will be more useful than the measures in the lower
reaches. To prevent rapid siltation of tanks, the contributing catchments (even if
they are not cultivated but used for grazing or forestry purposes) need to be well
managed so that soil erosion is prevented. All common lands should be put under
fuel/fodder trees. Planting of barren areas, especially on slopes, with grass cover
is an important component of integrated watershed management programme.
Grazing should be completely restricted. After the area is completely protected
from grazing, better grasses can be planted. The grasses of industrial importance
should also be planted so that there is some economic return to the farmers as
well. The surface vegetative cover will not only protect the land from the beating
action of rain drops and bind the soil particles but would also decrease the
velocity of flowing water and cause less of soil erosion (Bahadur, 1998).
Availability of fresh drinking water is another problem in the region. Increasing
urbanisation in the area is putting added pressure on water resources, and not
much is being done to replenish the depleting resource. There is no detailed
scientific evaluation available for Himalayan water resources. According to
Jagdish Bahadur (1998), this is partly due to insufficient network of observations
for both precipitation and stream discharge measurements.
Both saline and freshwater natural lakes exist in high altitude regions. Saline
lakes abound in the arid region while those lakes, which are extremely poor in
electrolytes, are abundant in the humid region, being nurtured by the monsoon.
These lakes are situated at altitudes varying from 600m to 5600m and are exposed
to climatic conditions that vary from cold deserts of Ladakh to wet humid of
Manipur. Very few studies are undertaken on the Himalayan lake ecosystems and
the water management programmes are either completely lacking or grossly
inadequate (Zutshi, 1985). The inflow of high silt load from glaciers is gradually
filling these lakes and rendering the lake waters turbid and unfit for biological
activity. The other impact is from pollution from agricultural, industrial, and
human and cattle wastes. Restoration plans for the lake systems should be
undertaken on ecological considerations following their geophysical environment
and annual rhythm in chemical and biological compositions.
To achieve these objectives, the following essential elements for action are
considered necessary, as per Jagdish Bahadur (1998):
i) All efforts should be made for proper assessment of water resources.
ii) A comprehensive framework for water resource management is
considered in preference to sectoral approach.
iii) Interventions in water sector should move from curative to preventive
ones.
iv) A broad range of investments should be made on a continuous basis with
ability to operate and maintain investments effectively.
v) Infrastructural improvements must be complemented with measures to
strengthen institutions, develop human resource and promote public
awareness.
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vi) Promotion of water user's associations and increasing user participation.
vii) The participation of the private sector in water management should be
deliberately pushed forward.
The Fire Menace
Protection of forests is equally important. According to a Forest Survey of India
Report, about 50 percent of forest areas in the country are fire prone (ranging
from 50 percent in some states to 90 percent in the others). About 6 percent of the
forests are prone to severe fire damage). The coniferous forest in the Himalayan
region comprising of fir (Abies spp.), spruce (Picea smithiana), Cedrus deodara,
Pinus roxburgii and Pinus wallichiana, etc., is very prone to fire. Every year there
are one or two major incidences of forest fire in this region. Other areas with
deciduous varieties have also shown susceptibility to fire.
The ecological and socio-economic consequences of wild land fires in India
include loss of timber, loss of bio-diversity, loss of wildlife habitat, global
warming, soil erosion, loss of fuel wood and fodder, damage to water and other
natural resources, loss of natural regeneration, losses in productivity of the land,
impacts on regeneration of species; and deleterious impacts on water shed also
result from forest fires. Estimated average tangible annual loss due to forest fires
in country is Rs.440 crore (US$ 100 million approximately). In India, there are no
comprehensive data to indicate the loss to forests in terms of area burned, values,
and volume and regeneration damaged by fire. One reason to account for the
same is alleged fear of accountability on the part of the forest department, and
hence deliberate understatement of the problem.
According to the Constitution of India, the Central and State governments in the
country are enabled to legislate on forestry issues. The implementation part of the
forest policy/programmes lies with the state government. Thus, fire prevention,
detection, and suppression activities are the responsibility of the state
governments’ forestry departments. The policy, planning, and financing are the
primary responsibility of the Central Government. There is generally no separate
department for carrying out forest fire management in the states. The regular staff
of the forest department in the states carries out various activities of forest fire
management. During forest fire seasons, in some of the divisions, the state
governments recruit firewatchers as a special provision. At the central level, the
Ministry of Environment and Forests is the ministry responsible for forest
conservation and protection. The “Forest Protection Division” of the Ministry,
which is headed by a Deputy Inspector General of Forests, administers Forest Fire
management. The Ministry is implementing a plan called “Modern Forest Fire
Control Methods” in India under which state governments are provided financial
assistance for fire prevention and control. This assistance is being used by the
state governments for procuring hand tools, fire resistant clothes, fire fighting
tools, radios, fire watch towers, fire finders, creation of fire lines, research,
training, and publicity on fire fighting. This project is carried out in fourteen
states and covers more than 70 percent of the forest area of the country.
Community Involvement
In India, Joint Forest Management (JFM) Committees have been established at
the village level to involve people in forest protection and conservation. At
present, there are 36 165 JFM committees throughout the country, covering an
area of more than 10.24 million hectares. These JFM committees also have been
given responsibilities to protect the forests from fires. For this purpose, the
11
Modern Forest Fire Control plan is being revised and JFM is being made an
integral component of the forest fire prevention strategy.
The incidence of forest fires in the country is on the increase and more area is
burned each year. The major cause of this failure is the piecemeal approach to the
problem. Both the national focus and the technical resources required for
sustaining a systematic forest fire management programme are lacking in the
country. Important forest fire management elements like strategic fire centres,
coordination among Ministries, funding, human resource development, fire
research, fire management, and extension programmes are missing.
Taking into consideration the serious nature of the problem, it is necessary to
make some major improvements in the forest fire management strategy for the
country. The Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, has
prepared a National Master Plan for Forest Fire Control. The thrust areas in the
programme would be (Bahuguna &Singh, 2002):
• Prevention of human-caused fires through education and environmental
modification. It will include silvicultural activities, engineering works,
people participation, and education and enforcement. It is proposed that
more emphasis be given to people participation through Joint Forest Fire
Management for fire prevention.
• Prompt detection of fires through a well-coordinated network of
observation points, efficient ground patrolling, and communication
networks. Remote sensing technology is to be given due importance in fire
detection. For successful fire management and administration, a National
Fire Danger Rating System (NFDRS) and Fire Forecasting System are to
be developed in the country.
• Fast initial attack measures.
• Vigorous follow up action.
• Introducing a forest fuel modification system at strategic points.
• Fire fighting resources.
Non-timber forest products such as medicinal plants and herbs, essential oils,
fibres and silks, natural dyes and organic products, off-season vegetables, bamboo
and bamboo products, bees and bee products, and enterprise-based pollination
services can provide the basis for increasing incomes and improving livelihoods.
Likewise, mountain tourism, hydroelectricity and other renewable energy sources,
and the potential for obtaining reimbursement for environmental services,
including carbon sequestration, have demonstrated the capacity to become drivers
of local economic growth if structured in ways that empower local communities
and poor households (Campbell, ICIMOD, 2005).
There is need to adopt a combination of traditional and modern control measures
adopting bioengineering techniques for sustainable development. Integrated long-
term planning is needed with local participation as an essential development
strategy for water resource development of the tallest water tower of the world
(Bahadur, 1998).
According to R.B. Singh (2005), some portion of money earmarked for relief
should be spent in water management practices like creating storages and water
harvesting structures in the upper reaches of the stream. Though floods in the
region cannot be controlled for hydro-meteorological and topographical realities,
12
such measures can modify them to a large extent so as to minimise loss of life and
property in the region. Drought and flood proofing programmes with satellite data
for hazard zoning, survey of past disasters, and damage assessments etc. are
important strategy.
3.4 DISASTER MANAGEMENT IN RIVERINE REGIONS
Several areas in the Hindu Kush Himalayan region (HKH) face flood disasters
almost regularly. In particular, floods affect the Ganges, Brahmaputra, Meghna,
and Indus flood plains every year. This region contains one of the highest
concentrations of people in the world, with a high rate of poverty; population
growth has increased the vulnerability to flood disasters. Flooding is a part of the
growing spiral of poverty. Economically disadvantaged people move to the flood-
prone lowlands because of certain advantages like fertile soil, cheap housing and
also because they lack other options. At the same time, they lack the resources to
respond to and recover from floods. Communities living in the great plains of
India that spread across northern, western and central parts of the country, also
including inland parts of the larger coastal states, are vulnerable to a host of
disasters.
Floods are also a macro concern in that they constrict socio-economic
development opportunities by adversely affecting investment in agriculture,
infrastructure, and industrial production and also retard development. Hence,
flood management is essential both for survival and for long-term growth (SAF,
2005).
As per the Expert Group Report on Employment submitted to the Ministry of
Urban Affairs in 1998, losses from floods are exacerbated by poor drainage
infrastructure, which are choked during heavy rains due to refuse disposal. This
creates a situation referred as, local flooding. The India Meteorological
Department has worked out the probable maximum precipitation values for
different areas, which are worked out on the basis of observation/computation in
24 hrs. Drainages and embankments, which often breach during heavy rainfall,
should be designed keeping in view the probable precipitation values. A
Vulnerability Atlas has been prepared which shows hazard vulnerability in
different areas. Flood prone areas are marked ‘protected’, where protective
measures such as embankments have been provided. The unprotected areas are
high-risk areas where no such effort has been undertaken. Even in protected areas,
though, engineering attempts are put to the real test only when actual flooding
takes place. In Punjab heavy damage was incurred in 1995, when the Sutlej
flooded large parts and embankments usually gave way. The crisis gets worse in
coastal areas where flooding is coupled with storm surges and heavy wind
velocities, which exacerbates the risks manifold. Other vulnerable regions are the
depressions or the poorly drained areas, which are subject to back-flow from
flooded rivers, catchments of choked drains etc., which have random risks of
flooding due to heavy rains. For identification of such areas, contour surveys are
required at the micro level.
Regarding flood hazard, there is emerging consensus that structural mitigation
measures have limited utility. Hence, the emphasis is now on non-structural
mitigation measures, particularly flood monitoring and forecast, besides creating
awareness among people regarding their vulnerable status, significance of
following warnings, easy modes of information dissemination regarding
13
impending disasters, institutionalisation of social capital for better preparedness
and so on.
It is most important to remember that natural disasters are not limited by/to
national boundaries. For effective combating the threat, regional cooperation is
needed. As yet, however, there is no regional framework for such multilateral
exchange, although there are successful examples of agreements for bilateral
exchange of data. Particular concern was voiced during the Second Steering
Committee Meeting of the hydrological research network HKH-FRIEND (Flow
Regime From International Experimental Network Data, part of UNESCO's
International Hydrological Programme) held in April 2000 in Kathmandu. A
regional flood information system is being set up for the Hindukush region. A
number of agencies are involved, prime among whom are, the World
Meteorological Organisation (WMO), supported by the US Department of State
(Regional Environmental Office of South Asia), US Office for Foreign Disaster
Assistance, and DANIDA. The scheme will benefit Bangladesh, Bhutan, China,
India, Nepal, and Pakistan, who have agreed on an initial Action Plan for
Regional Co-operation for Flood Information Exchange (SAF, 2005).
Apart from flooding, the other major problem is availability of fresh water.
According to R.B Singh (2005), most people in the region do not have access to
safe drinking water. Pollution is major concern and there is great biodiversity
loss, both on land and in the inland waterways. Because of erratic rainfall and
unequal distribution across regions, many districts in Haryana, Uttar Pradesh,
West Bengal and Bihar suffer frequent droughts.
Hence, while on the one hand there are floods, increasingly now, because of
global warming induced retreat/melting of glaciers in the Himalayan region; there
is a situation of water scarcity in cities like Delhi, to an extent where water riots
could ensue! Besides, glacial retreat would reach a point glaciers subside and run
off decreases. Hence flood control and water conservation, along with concrete
steps, through legislation for controlling water pollution and good maintenance of
drainage are significant requirements in disaster management in riverine regions.
As per data cited by R.B. Singh (2005), the average run off in the river system in
the country is assessed at 1,869Km3. Of this the utilisable portion by conventional
storage and diversion is estimated, as about 690Km3.In addition there is
substantial replenishable groundwater resource in the country, estimated at
432km3. Presently, there are two strategies being followed; excess water transfer
from surplus to deficit regions through schemes like river linking, and water
harvesting, which is, storing water at the place where rainfall occurs. This two-
pronged strategy is expected to redeem the flood situation and also replenish
aquifers, which have fast receded.
Indian River Systems

The major river systems in the country can be broadly classified into two groups,
viz. the rivers of the Himalayan region and rivers of peninsular India. The melting
snows and glaciers of the great Himalayan range feed the Himalayan Rivers,
during spring and summer, as also by rains during monsoons. They are often
uncertain and capricious in their behaviour. They carry significant flows during
the winter. On the other hand, the peninsular rivers originate at much lower
altitude, flow through more stable areas, and are more predictable in their
14
behaviour. Their flows are characterised by heavy discharges during monsoons
followed by very low discharges during the rainless months.
Nature of Flood problem in various river systems: From the point of view of the
flood problem, the rivers can be grouped under the four regions as under:
(a) Brahampurtra region drained by the Brahmaputra Ganga river system
(b) Ganga region drained by the Ganga river system
(c) North West drained by Indus & its tributaries
(d) Central India & Deccan region drained by rivers like Narmada, Tapti
Brahmaputra River System

The region drained by the Brahamputra and Barak and its tributaries covers the
state of Arunanchal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur, Tripura, Nagaland,
Northern regions of West Bengal and Mizoram. The tributaries have very steep
slopes and shallow braided channels, coarse sandy beds and carry heavy silt. They
bring flash floods because of short distances between their source in the hills and
the confluence. The major problems faced by this system are that of overspills,
drainage congestion, bank erosion, landslides, and aggravation and changes in
river course.
Ganga Region
Ganga has a large number of tributaries. Ganga basin with a drainage area of
nearly 8,61,400 sq. Km. in India covers slightly more than ¼ of the total
geographical area. The tributaries of Ganga are by themselves mighty rivers and
most of them are highly flood prone. The northern tributaries of Ganga rise in the
hills, some in Nepal, causing most of the flood problems on account of heavy
flows and sediment they bring down from the Himalayas. Flooding takes place
mainly in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar & West Bengal. In Haryana, the marginal areas
along the Yamuna get flooded. Even though flood embankments have been
constructed on both banks of the Yamuna, in the territory of Delhi, flooding can
occur due to breaches as had happened in 1978. The danger of such flooding has
increased, with jacketing of river in the upstream reaches, thus denying the
benefit of valley storage.
North -West Rivers Region
Compared to the Ganga and the Brahmaputra river basins, the flood problem is
relatively less in this region. The major problem is that of inadequate surface
drainage, which causes inundation and water logging over vast areas. However
floods are sometimes caused by the Ghaggar River, which used to disappear in
the sand dunes of Rajasthan after flowing through Punjab and Haryana. In recent
years, besides flooding Punjab and Haryana areas, flooding has become active in
Rajasthan also. Jhelum, Chenab and their tributaries also cause occasional floods.
Central India and the Deccan Region
The region does not have very serious flooding problem because the rivers mostly
have well- defined and stable courses. In Andhra Pradesh it is confined to spilling
by the smaller rivers. Tapti and the Narmada are occasionally in high floods
affecting areas in the lower reaches in Gujarat. Godavari and Krishna rivers on
the East Coast have acute drainage problem and face flood particularly in the
wake of cyclonic storms. The small rivers of Kerala when are in spate, cause
15
considerable damage. However, in Orissa, damage due to floods has been
extensive, caused by the Mahanadi, the Brahmani and the Baitarni which have a
common delta where the floodwaters intermingle, and when in spate
simultaneously, cause considerable havoc. The problem is accentuated when the
flood synchronises with high tides.
3.5 DISASTER MANAGEMENT IN COASTAL REGIONS
India has a coastal stretch of 5700 km. Out of this the east coast bordering Bay of
Bengal has a length of 2700 km and the west coast bordering the Arabian Sea has
a length of 3000 km. Though India has a long coastline, stretching across many
states, the states most exposed to cyclone related hazards, including strong winds,
floods and storm surges, are West-Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu
and Gujarat. Destructive natural system events that impact coastal areas can be
either episodic or chronic. Together, these types of events define what is meant by
natural coastal hazards. The destructive potential of such events is often made
much worse by the increasing amount of development along the coastline. A
variety of natural hazards regularly threaten the nation’s coastal inhabitants.
Severe meteorological events such as Tropical Cyclones are particularly harsh on
coastal areas, often resulting in damages from high winds, storm surge, flooding,
and shoreline erosion. Tsunamis, whose destructive force is characterised by
potentially devastating flood inundation, are uniquely coastal events resulting
from offshore seabed earthquakes, landslides, or volcanic activity. Coastal
locations are also subjected to the impacts of long-term hazards such as chronic
coastal erosion, potential sea-level rise, and global climate change. Other hazards
impacting coastal areas include biological events such as Red Tides and Harmful
Algae Blooms.
Coastal hazard events can significantly affect or even alter the natural
environment, but their impacts are generally not considered "disastrous" unless
they involve damages to human populations and infrastructure. Many of the
coastal ecosystems that are particularly fragile and sensitive to the cumulative
impacts of human development are also naturally fluid and generally capable of
adapting to hazard impacts over time. When people and property are not present,
hazards are merely natural processes that alter the environment. When people and
property are present, however, the impacts of hazards on the developed and
natural environments are viewed quite differently. The primary focus is no longer
on the natural processes associated with a major hazard event, but instead on the
disastrous results that can be measured by lives lost, property damages, and
economic and environmental impacts. Hazard impacts on the natural environment
become more devastating because human development has altered the ability of
natural systems to recover from such events. Natural hazard events can also
spawn secondary hazards such as sewage releases or hazardous materials spills
that are particularly damaging to coastal environments.
Among the main reasons for the continuing increase in the loss levels caused by
natural disasters is the continuing growth of the population by unchecked
migration of people to coastal areas that are generally more exposed to natural
disasters. The development of industry in regions that are subject to natural
hazards, without appropriate protective measures, is another reason for the
growing increase in the loss levels caused by natural disasters. In Asia, natural
hazards cause a high number of lives lost, and relatively small property losses in
least developed and developing countries. However, in the relatively developed
countries where disaster prevention and mitigation measures are adequately
16
established, the loss of life is relatively small, but the damage to property is
high. Losses may vary even within a country itself. The effect of natural hazards
on the loss of human lives is directly related to the poverty levels in a country.
Another factor that exacerbates the effects of natural hazards is environmental
degradation, which is taking place in many countries of the region. The damage
caused by natural hazards is higher in countries where environmental degradation
is rampant. Deforestation, erosion, overgrazing, or over-cultivation and incorrect
agricultural practices and degradation of natural buffers amplify the effects of
natural hazards. Coral reefs and mangroves are natural protection mechanisms
against high-speed winds, which are fast eroding. Restoration of the same can
restrict damage from disastrous events to a considerable extent (National Institute
of Oceanography).
Requirements in Coastal Disaster Management
Disaster requirements would differ in case of each specific hazard the coastal
areas are subject to, which have been referred briefly earlier. Major hazards are
Cyclones, Tsunamis, Storm Surges, Coastal Pollution, Coastal Erosion, hazards
related to climate change, besides Harmful Algae Blooms and Submarine
Mudslides.
For curbing the hazard of Tsunamis and Storm Surges, the tide gauge data that has
regularly monitored tides in the Indian Ocean would be studied to trace past
tsunami events and storm surges. Tsunamis have escaped detection, perhaps
because of their infrequent occurrence, implying, a long gap between two events,
or because of their impact having been low, or because the usual practice of
digitising these data at one-hour interval is not enough for capturing tsunamis,
which have a smaller period. Hence, a closer analysis of tide gauge data would be
attempted to track and possibly predict more vigorous events such as storm
surges, cyclones and perhaps, Tsunamis.
Mangroves and forests along the coastlines act as natural buffers against strong
winds and storms. These are being referred as bio-shields and their importance
has been realised post, recent tsunami. It is, however, necessary to quantify the
protection such natural buffer zones, now called bio-shields, provide to coastal
habitation. For example, it is necessary to determine the thresholds beyond which
they cease to be effective and the extent of protection they provide.
Coastal areas are subject to oil spills. Vulnerability mapping would be needed to
identify sensitive ecological zones to plan for emergency and quick evacuation.
To control coastal pollution, which has increased with increasing industrialisation
of these areas, compliance with EIA (Environmental Impact Assessment) would
have to be strictly enforced. There is a need to integrate the results of the EIA
studies to generate a national database, and to determine the “carrying capacity”
of the coastal waters of India. A beginning towards determining the carrying
capacity of Indian coastal waters has been made with the ICMAM (Integrated
Coastal and Marine Area Management) and COMAPS (Coastal Ocean
Monitoring And Prediction System) programmes, but there clearly is much that
still needs to be done.
Eutrophication of waters caused by excessive nutrients, especially nitrogen, leads
to potentially harmful algal blooms (HAB). They result in rapid growth of an
algal species that contains toxins or causes a negative impact on natural resources
or human beings. Though these are natural, pollution exacerbates them. Presently,
17
there is no database for systematic study of algae blooms, their causes, ways to
curb them, etc.
With exploration for oil gaining momentum, offshore structural engineering is
gaining importance. The potential threat to such structures from submarine
mudslides necessitates engineering design solutions to mitigate the impact. Since
poor quality of construction has been identified as one of the causes of higher
fatalities due to natural hazards in India, quantification of these hazards must also
lead to better regulations and viable building codes.
Besides these, considerable parts of India are multi-hazard prone, in that they
might be visited by more than one natural hazard at a time, which poses
significant challenge to disaster mitigation policy/strategy. For example, floods
and droughts have also been affecting these communities on a regular basis.
Floods are experienced almost every year in some state or the other. Major floods
were experienced in 1990, 1991, 1993, and 1994. A large number of deaths also
occur during summer months due to heat waves, particularly in states like Orissa,
that had a drought during 1995-98, and a severe heat wave in 1999. This
documentation however mainly covers cyclone disasters and accompanying
floods and storm surges (Ibid).
Controlling the Cyclone Hazard
Over the warm water (sea surface temperature greater than 26oC) in the tropical
ocean, little away from the equator within the belt of 30oN and 30oS, the
occurrence of tropical cyclones is almost a worldwide phenomenon. However,
their characteristics such as frequency, intensity and coastal impact vary from
region to region. But these have been the deadliest when crossing the coast
bordering the North Bay of Bengal (coastal areas of Andhra Pradesh, Orissa,
West Bengal and Bangladesh), mainly because of the serious storm surge problem
in this area.
On an average, about 5-6 tropical cyclones form in the Bay of Bengal and the
Arabian Sea every year, out of which 2 or 3 may be severe. More cyclones form
in the Bay of Bengal than in the Arabian Sea. The ratio is 4:1. There are two
definite seasons of tropical cyclones in the North Indian Ocean. One is from May
to June and the other from mid-September to mid-December. May, June, October
and November are known for severe storms. The entire east coast is vulnerable to
cyclones with varying frequency and intensity. Along the west coast, the Gujarat
and Maharashtra coasts are more vulnerable compared to the southern part.
Indian scientists are seriously studying the El-Nino effect on weather and the
outcomes of these studies will help in better communication of early warnings as
well as preparedness planning.
3.6 TRENDS IN DISASTER MANAGEMENT
Preparedness
One of the many lessons learnt by victims of various natural disasters is that the
aftermath of the disaster can be worse than the disaster event itself. Thus, there is
a need to acknowledge the need for preparedness towards disaster reduction.
However, people are often surprised by the concept of reducing disasters. How, it
is often asked, can a natural disaster such as an earthquake or a cyclone be
reduced or prevented?
18
Unfortunately, due to rapid population growth and development of human
settlements in disaster prone areas, more and more people and their assets are
vulnerable to natural hazards. The number of disasters was three times higher
worldwide in the past ten years than in the 1960s, economic losses were eight
times higher, exceeding US$ 60 billion a year!
Natural occurrences such as floods, earthquakes, cyclones, etc. simply cannot be
avoided altogether; they are a part of the environment we live in. What can be
done, however, is to take preventive measures at various levels of society in order
to minimise the impact of such natural hazards as much as possible for the people.
The impact of a natural hazard can be reduced; its worst effects can be prevented.
A natural hazard turns into a disaster when it hits a community and disrupts its
normal functioning and causes economic damage. Natural disasters hit all, rich
and poor alike. But it is the poor who will be hurt most. Protecting the poor from
disasters also contributes towards the alleviation of poverty.
The communities actively involved in working on prevention of natural disasters
before they strike belong to all groups of society: international and regional
organisations, national governments or private firms, local administrations or
specialised associations and voluntary organisations.
What is important is to introduce a culture of prevention in all communities, at all
levels: action to save lives must be taken before the disaster strikes.
Principles of Mitigation and Preparedness
Disaster mitigation and preparedness activities need to be carried out well in
advance of any emergency, and are driven by the following principles:
• Risk assessment is a required step for the adoption of adequate and
successful disaster reduction policies
• Disaster prevention and preparedness are of primary importance in
reducing the need of disaster relief
• Disaster Prevention and preparedness should be considered integral part of
the developmental policy and planning at national, regional, bilateral,
multilateral and international stage.
• Early warning of impending disasters and their effective dissemination
using telecommunication are the key factors to successful prevention and
preparedness
• Preventive measures are most effective when they involve participation at
all levels, from the local community to national level to the regional and
international level.
• Vulnerability can be reduced by the application of proper design and
patterns of development focused on target groups through appropriate
education and training
• The international community accepts the need to share necessary
technology to prevent, reduce and mitigate disasters, which should be
made freely available and done in a timely manner as an integral part of
technical cooperation.
Each country bears the primary responsibility of protecting its people,
infrastructure and other national assets from the impact of natural disasters. The
19
international community should demonstrate strong political determination
required to mobilise adequate and make efficient use of existing resources,
including financial, scientific and technological means.
Preventive Planning
Long-term planning and preparedness for disaster mitigation is gradually being
made part of the process of development planning in India. Science & technology
inputs constitute its basic thrust, manifested in development of forecasting and
warning systems, disaster resistant construction technologies and appropriate
cropping systems.
A number of special programs are in operation over many years for mitigating the
impact of natural disasters. As the country has been facing natural hazards over
centuries, the local communities have developed their own indigenous coping
mechanisms. The rich storehouse of this knowledge is our country's proud
inheritance. In times of emergencies, spontaneous mobilisation of community
action supported by non-government organisations adds strength to national
capability towards disaster management.
Accepting the fact that the trend of losses is not indicative of any sign of
improvement in spite of initiation of various disaster mitigation measures, the
country is planning to lay more stress in some vital areas within this field in the
coming years. These include linkage of disaster mitigation with development
plans, effective communication system/ use of latest information technology,
insurance, extensive public awareness and education campaigns particularly in the
rural areas, involvement of private sector, and strengthening of institutional
mechanism and international co-operation.
In recent years, the role of the community and of the voluntary sector comprising
NGOs has gained significance. It is realised that the best and quickest response to
disasters comes from the people on the ground, that is the community and the
community based organisations. Preparation and mitigation efforts can, for the
same reasons, also work best at community levels. It is for this reason that
Community Based Disaster Management is emerging as the most appropriate way
of responding to disasters and for preparing for and mitigating the same.
Mitigation, prevention and preparedness shall be discussed in detail in subsequent
Units.
3.7 CONCLUSION
Disasters have been increasing in their frequency and intensity in recent years.
The primary reason for this is the fact that human settlements and activities are
interfering with natural systems, and populations are being increasingly exposed
to hazards. This can be seen clearly in the Himalayan, riverine and coastal
regions of the country, where most of the disasters strike. The disaster
management system in India is anchored at the Central Government level, with
implementation mechanisms at state, district and local levels. Besides the
government, the role of non-governmental organisations, community based
organisations and the community are increasingly being recognised as very
important.
3.8 KEY CONCEPTS
20
Eutrophication: Eutrophication is a process whereby water bodies,
such as lakes, estuaries, or slow-moving streams
receive excess nutrients that stimulate excessive
plant growth (algae, periphyton attached algae, and
nuisance plants weeds). This enhanced plant
growth, often called an algal bloom, reduces
dissolved oxygen in the water when dead plant
material decomposes and can cause other organisms
to die. Nutrients can come from many sources, such
as fertilizers applied to agricultural fields, golf
courses, and suburban lawns; deposition of nitrogen
from the atmosphere; erosion of soil containing
nutrients; and sewage treatment plant discharges.
Water with a low concentration of dissolved oxygen
is called hypoxic (United States Gecological
Survey).
Storm Surges: Storms form over warm seas (sea surface
temperature should exceed 26 ° C in the Indian
Ocean. The frequency of storms is highest in the
Bay of Bengal. Though storms are tracked better
today owing to satellite and radar remote sensing,
there is need for improvement in modeling of storm
track and intensity because this is today one of the
weakest links in storm-surge prediction. The impact
of a storm as it crosses a coast is caused by the
surge due to strong winds and low atmospheric
pressure, and the high waves riding over the surge.
Submarine mudslides: As on land, mudslides can occur on the continental
slopes; apart from the obvious risk they pose to
offshore platforms, they can also trigger tsunami
(National Institute of Oceanography).
Tsunamis: A Tsunami is caused by vertical displacement of the
water column owing to seabed earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions, and submarine mudslides.
Though they are almost undetectable in the open
sea owing to their low amplitude, the tsunami
waves can reach heights exceeding 10 m in the
vicinity of a coast. The high impact they have on a
coast is due to high water velocity and wave height.
Tsunami is not as frequent as storm surges along
the Indian coast.

An Interim Report of the Sub Committee on Disaster Reduction, July
2003,“Reducing Disaster Vulnerability through Science and Technology,”
National Science and Technology Council, Committee on the Environment and
Natural Resources, at
http://www.sdr.gov/SDR_Report_ReducingDisasterVulnerability2003.pdf.
21
Bahadur, Jagdish, 1998, “Water Resources Management in the Himalayan
Region”, Asia Pacific Mountain Network, Vol. 4, No. 1
Bahuguna, V.K., & Satendra Singh, 2002, “Fire Situation in India”, International
Forest Fire News (IFFN) No. 26.
Brundtland, 1987, World Commission on Environment and Development,
Brundtland Commission.
Bryant, E., 2001, Tsunami: The Under-rated Hazard, Cambridge University
Press.
Campbell, Gabriel, J., 2005, “Diversifying and Enhancing Livelihood Options in
the Himalayan Region”, International Center for Integrated Mountain
Development (ICIMOD), Newsletter 48.
Jigyasu, Rohit, 2002, (Ph.D. Thesis), Reducing Disaster Vulnerability through
Local Knowledge and Capacity: The Case of Earthquake Prone Rural
Communities in India and Nepal, Norwegian University of Science and
Technology, Faculty of Architecture and Fine Art, Department of Town and
Regional Planning, Trondheim, at
http://www.ntnu.no/~rohit/Rohit%20Dr.ing%20final1.pdf.
National Institute of Oceanography, “Understanding the Seas”, at
http://www.nio.org/jsp
Ramchandran, H., 1990, Environmental Issues in Agriculture, Concept
Publishing, New Delhi.
Report of the Expert Group on Natural Disaster Prevention, Preparedness and
Mitigation Having Bearing on Housing and Related Infrastructure, 1998
Submitted to the Ministry of Urban Affairs and Employment, Government of
India, Chapter 3, “Vulnerability Atlas of India”: Expert Group: Anand S. Arya
(Chairman), G.S. Mandal (member), V.C. Thakur Prem Krishna, N.
Lakshmanan, S.K.Chaudhari, (members) T.N.Gupta (member convenor).
Report of the High Powered Committee on Preparation of Disaster Management
Plans, Government of India, 2001, New Delhi.
Singh, R.B., 2005, “Water Resources Sustainability in the Context of Increasing
Disasters in the Himalaya- Gangetic Region”, Department of Geography, Delhi
School of Economics, University of Delhi.
“South Asian Floods (SAF, 2005), Regional Cooperation for Flood Information
Exchange in the Hindukush -Himlayan Region”, at
http://www.southasianfloods.org/members.php
Website of the National Disaster Management (NDM) Division, Ministry of
Home Affairs, Government of India: http://www.ndmindia.nic.in
Website of the National Institute of Disaster Management, Government of India:
http://www.nidm.net
World Disasters Reports, 2003, 2004, published by the International Federation of
Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies.
WWF, “Himalayan Rivers and Glaciers”, at http://www.panda.org
Zutshi, D.P., 1985, “Himalayan Lake Ecosystems”, Seminar on Environmental
Regeneration in Himalayas; Concepts and Strategies, Nainital, 24-26th October
1983.
22
3.10 ACTIVITIES
1) Discuss with elders in your neighbourhood and list disasters or

emergencies that have occurred in your vicinity in the past. Elaborate if
there is any increase in such events in recent decades or years. If there is
no increase, identify those factors that have kept your area safe.
2) Identify and list all government agencies and non-governmental
organisations that have a role to play in disaster management in your city
or village.
23
UNIT 4 DISASTER PREPAREDNESS: INDIAN
CONTEXT
Structure
4.1 Introduction
4.2 International Approach to Disaster Management
4.3 Paradigm Shift
4.4 Disaster Preparedness in India
4.5 Issues involved in Disaster Preparedness
4.6 Capacity Building for Earthquake Vulnerability Reduction
4.7 External Linkages
4.8 Cyclones and Flood Hazard Mitigation
4.9 Conclusion
4.10 Key Concepts
4.12 Activities

z Understand the approach of the United Nations towards preparedness and the
response of the government at all levels in India;
z Analyse the culture of preparedness and quick response as well as organisational
issues involved in preparedness in India; and
z Examine requirements in earthquake risk mitigation
4.1 INTRODUCTION
There has been a marked shift in the global approach to disasters in recent years,
particularly since 1990, which marked the beginning of the International Decade for
Natural Disaster Reduction. Preparedness is not a project driven agenda, and needs very
deep, attitudinal changes in governance, as well as the institutional modalities of participation/
involvement of the civil society.
Hitherto, the approach towards coping with the effects of natural disasters has been post-
disaster management, limited to problems such as law and order, evacuation and warnings,
communications, search and rescue, fire-fighting, medical and psychiatric assistance,
provision of relief and sheltering, etc. After the initial trauma of the natural disaster, which
Disaster Preparedness: Indian Context 87
lasts the first few days or weeks, the phase of recovery begins, involving the activities of
reconstruction and economic, social and psychological rehabilitation. This engages local
people initially, but is eventually taken up by the government authorities. Soon thereafter,
the occurrence of the disaster is generally relegated to historic memory till the next one
occurs, either in the same area or in some other part of the country.
It is not possible to do away with the devastation of natural hazards completely. However,
experience has shown that destruction from natural hazards can be minimised by a well-
functioning warning system, combined with preparedness on the part of the vulnerable
community. Warning systems and preparedness measures reduce/ modify the scale of
disasters. A community that is prepared to face disasters and has received, and
understands the warnings of impending hazards, and has taken precautionary and mitigation
measures, will be able to cope better and resume normal life sooner.
It is becoming increasingly evident now that a relatively smaller investment in disaster
preparedness can save thousands of lives and vital economic assets, as well as reduce the
cost of overall relief assistance.
4.2 INTERNATIONAL APPROACH TO DISASTER

MANAGEMENT
International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR)
Recognising the rapidly rising world-wide toll of human and economic losses due to
natural disasters, the UN General Assembly in 1989 took a decision to launch a far
reaching global undertaking during the nineties to save human lives and reduce the impacts
of natural disasters. With this aim in mind, the decade 1990-2000 was declared as the
International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR).
The objective of the IDNDR was to reduce, through concerted international action, with
focus on developing countries, the loss of life, property damage and social and economic
disruption caused by natural disasters such as earthquakes, floods, cyclones, landslides,
locust infestations, drought and desertification and other calamities of natural origin.
The aim of IDNDR was that all countries should have:
a) Comprehensive national assessments of risks from natural hazards, with these
assessments taking into account their impact on developmental plans,
b) Mitigation plans at national and/or local levels, involving long term prevention and
preparedness and community awareness, and
c) Ready access to global, regional, national and local warning systems and widespread
dissemination of such warnings.
A major conference of the IDNDR programme was held in Yokohama (Japan) in May
1994, where a plan of action for disaster reduction called the Yokohama Strategy was
evolved. The Yokohama Strategy gave guidelines for Natural Disaster Prevention,
Preparedness and Mitigation, shifting the focus and emphasis from disaster management to
disaster prevention and preparedness.
The Yokohama Conference, based on the assessment of the progress accomplished during
the first half of the decade, formulated a strategy for disaster reduction centred on the
objective of saving human lives and protecting property. The strategy called for an
accelerated implementation of a Plan of Action to be based on certain variables such as
development of a global culture of prevention as an essential component of an integrated
approach to disaster reduction, policy of self-reliance in each vulnerable country and
community comprising capacity building as well as allocation and efficient use of resources,
community participation in the disaster reduction process, improved risk assessment,
broader monitoring and communication of forecasts and early warnings.
During the remaining part of the decade, it called upon all countries to unequivocally give
political commitment to reduce their vulnerability through appropriate means. Disaster
prevention, mitigation and preparedness were given emphasis. At the end of IDNDR
(1990-2000), the programme continues in the form of International Strategy for Disaster
Reduction (ISDR).
The Hyogo Framework for Action for a Safer World
The World Conference on Disaster Reduction, held in the city of Kobe in the Hyogo
region of Japan in 2005, brought the global disaster management community together once
again to review the progress on the Yokohama strategy, and to plan a framework of
action for the subsequent ten years. The result of the conference, the Hyogo Framework
for Action, highlighted the following action agenda for the decade 2005-15:
1) Ensure that disaster risk reduction is a national and a local priority with a strong
institutional basis for implementation
2) Identify, assess and monitor disaster risks and enhance early warning systems
3) Use knowledge, innovation and education to build a culture of safety and resilience
at all levels
4) Reduce the underlying risk factors
5) Strengthen disaster preparedness for effective response at all levels
The process started by the Yokohama Strategy and the Hyogo Framework for Action is
the basis for a global shift in disaster management approach from response towards
preparedness.
4.3 PARADIGM SHIFT

In line with the Yokohama message (1994), there is a distinct policy shift in India towards
mitigation and preparedness from limited response and post- disaster relief. The Tenth
Plan (2002-07) includes a full chapter on Disaster Management. Traditionally, disaster
management had been treated as “calamity relief” expenditure, classified under non-plan
expenditure head. Henceforth, there would be greater commitment of plan funds for
disaster mitigation, even in existing schemes dealing with related subjects. There are
various plan schemes in operation, such as, drinking water supply, sanitation, drought
proofing, afforestation et al which are indirectly related to disaster management. External
assistance for post- disaster reconstruction and streamlining of management structures
assistance is also provided under plan head. There is currently, articulation for more
commitment of Plan funds. Accordingly, the 11th Finance Commission and the High
Powered Committee (2001) have advocated a proactive stance on the part of the
Planning Commission for disaster mitigation and preparedness in sector plan heads. The
High Powered Committee has called for earmarking 10 per cent of plan funds at all levels
for disaster mitigation, prevention and preparedness activities.
This follows successive high impact disasters such as the Gujarat earthquake (2001) and
the Orissa Cyclone (1999), which adversely affected the economy, setting back development
several years. Disasters affect businesses in that the investment climate in disaster-hit areas
gets disturbed for long time owing to loss of infrastructure and apprehensions on the part
of the business community regarding similar future losses. As articulated in the Tenth Plan,
in 2001 alone, 12,000 crore worth of property was destroyed. Hence, plan schemes have
to proceed, dovetailing disaster management with development objectives for abiding
gains.
Recommendations of the 11th Finance Commission, were that, henceforth, works of a
capital nature, which can prevent recurrence of calamities, should be met out of plan
funds, besides expenditure on restoration of infrastructure and other capital assets, except
those intrinsically connected with relief operations and connectivity with affected area and
population should be met out of plan funds. The Tenth Plan will commit funds to disaster
management R&D, besides undertaking initiatives towards community mobilisation, human
resource development, establishment of control rooms, and forging international cooperation
in the area of disaster management. Disaster Mitigation attempts would be taken through
mandatory disaster mitigation analysis of project schemes in vulnerable areas. Environmental
protection, afforestation programmes, pollution control, construction of earthquake resistant
structures etc. would be given high priority in plans.
In exigent circumstances, funds need to be diverted from other schemes to disaster
management. The Planning Commission is working out a methodology to make such
decisions expeditious. Besides, state governments are advised to implement existing plan
schemes related to disaster management with greater urgency. The watchword in the Tenth
Plan is planning for “safe development”.
The Twelfth Finance Commission’s terms of reference specifically mentioned mitigation
and preparedness apart from relief and rehabilitation as part of its mandate (The
Tenth Plan, 2002-07). The 12th Finance Commission has categorically stated that
provision for disaster prevention and mitigation would be part of the state plan and not
calamity relief. Definition of ‘calamity’ would include landslides, avalanches, cloudbursts
and pest attacks. It had hitherto been limited to cyclone, drought, earthquake, fire, flood
and hailstorm. There are two windows for meeting relief expenditures following natural
disasters: the Calamity Relief Fund (CRF) and the National Calamity Contingency Fund
(NCCF) following recommendations of the 11th Finance Commission. The latter supplements
the former and caters only to immediate relief requirements. Long-term restorative works
involving capital assets are to be made through diversions from plan funds. As per the
Tenth Plan, there is need to specify arrangements in this regard.
4.4 DISASTER PREPAREDNESS IN INDIA

Significance of preparedness was realised during the Bhuj (Gujarat) Earthquake (2001),
when logistics were found grossly inadequate to deal with the impact of the disaster.
Professionally trained rescue teams were not available, other facilities were also lacking,
like professionally trained dog squads and mobile hospitals. Though teams from foreign
countries reached affected areas, there was precious time lost in saving lives. To make
up for these inadequacies, the following steps are being taken by the Government of
India, as per the Status Report of the Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of
India, 2004:
z Eight battalions of central paramilitary forces would be developed as specialist
response teams, equipped with modern hardware and trained in the use of the same.
They would have the capability to handle any kind of emergency in any situation. It
is also proposed to group them together as National Emergency Response Force.
z All personnel of Central Paramilitary Forces would also be trained in search and
rescue so that nearby battalions can be deployed before the army takes over. To that
end, their training curriculum would be updated/modified.
z States have been asked to set up their own specialist teams.10 per cent of the
allocation from the CRF shall be committed to logistics for these search and rescue
teams (SAR). Training would be provided in search and rescue to state armed
police. Maharashtra, Orissa, Gujarat and Delhi had made the arrangements in this
regard, till August 2004.
z Regional Response centres would be set up across the country. Relief supplies and
other needed equipment would be kept in these centres. Specialist response teams
would be stationed during crises.
z Mobile hospitals would be provided, attached to different hospitals in the country.
These will reach the site of the disaster during crises.
z Hospital preparedness to deal with disasters would be improved. Medicos would be
given training and the subject would be included in the undergraduate curriculum for
medics.
z Incident Command System would be developed. The Lal Bahadur Shastri National
Academy of Administration, Mussoorie, has the onus to develop capacity in this
regard.
z To minimise response time, concerned departments would be asked to prepare
preparedness plans, by way of emergency support plans in advance. They have been
asked to constitute response teams and allocate resources in advance for disaster
response. States have been asked to arrange for pre-contracts of relief items to
avoid delays in procuring relief.
z India Disaster Response Network would be set up which would be a web database
of inventory and controlling officers in charge of items. The database will be available
at State District and National Level.
z States are being assisted with emergency operations centres schemes at state and
district centers. Financial assistance would be provided under GoI-UNDP scheme
and Modernisation of Police Force scheme. These would be composite control
rooms to look after law and order and disaster management issues.
Disaster preparedness planning is a sequential and continuous process. Good planning
requires correct diagnosis, resource evaluation and feedback of policy implementation.
Because of the wide scope of disaster preparedness and the numerous actors involved,
it is essential that a framework for coordination is accepted and provided for. Following
awareness of the same, the government of India proposes to affect the shift from short-
term relief to long- term mitigation, preparedness and prevention through:
a) Institutional changes
b) Policy
c) Enunciation of legal and techno-legal framework
d) Mainstreaming mitigation into development process
e) Funding mechanism
f) Specific schemes addressing mitigation
g) Preparedness measures
h) Capacity building
i) Human resource development(HRD), and
j) Above all, community participation.
Institutional and Policy Changes
The Government decided to enact a central legislation on disaster management in the
aftermath of the tsunami disaster on 26th December 2004. (The Bill has been passed
by both the houses and received Presidential assent in February 2006). Keeping in
view the federal polity, the Act has been enacted under the Entry ‘Social Security and
Social Insurance’ in the Concurrent List of the Constitution of India, since it will have
the advantage to allow the State Governments also to have their own legislation.
The salient features of the Act include, setting up of a National Disaster Management
Authority under the Chairmanship of the Prime Minister; State Disaster Management
Authorities in the States/Union Territories under the chairmanship of the Chief Minister or
Lieutenant Governor or the Administrator, as the case may be; and the District Disaster
Management Authority under the District Magistrate in each district. The National and
State Authorities shall be responsible for laying down the policies, plans and guidelines for
disaster management. The District Authority shall act as the district planning, coordination
and implementing body for all disaster management related functions. These functions will
include mitigation and preparedness measures, besides response, relief and rehabilitation.
These authorities have been constituted to address the multi-disciplinary character/requirement
of/in disaster management. Hence, members from various ministries, viz. water resources,
drinking water supply, environment and forests, urban development and rural development
etc. would be on these bodies. Many States and Union Territories (10 till August, 2004
Tamil Nadu, Arunachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Orissa, Gujarat, Kerela, Nagaland, Delhi,
Andaman and Nicobar administration and Chandigarh administration) had notified such
authorities. Others were in the process of setting them up. The National Disaster
Management Authority has also started functioning at the Centre with the Prime Minister
as Chairman, a vice chairman of Cabinet Minister Rank and other members with the rank
of Minister of State.
A key role has been assigned to the local authority for ensuring training of its officers and
employees, maintenance of resources so that these are readily available for use in the
event of a disaster and ensuring that all construction projects in their area of jurisdiction
conform to the prescribed standards and specifications. The local authority shall also carry
out relief, rehabilitation and re-construction activities in the affected areas.
The Act also seeks to constitute a National Institute of Disaster Management, which shall
plan and promote training and research, documentation and development of national level
information base relating to disaster management policies, prevention mechanism and
mitigation measures. A National Disaster Response Force shall also be constituted for
specialist response. The erstwhile National Centre for Disaster Mnagement (NCDM) has
been reconstituted as the National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM) and is
located in New Delhi.
The Act seeks to constitute Disaster Response Fund and Disaster Mitigation Fund at the
National, State and District level. It mandates that there shall be no discrimination on the
ground of sex, caste, community, descent or religion, while providing compensation and
relief to the victims. The powers to issue directions to the government authorities,
organisations and statutory bodies to facilitate and assist in disaster management have
been vested in the Central government.
The Act seeks to make provision for punishment for obstructing response, making false
claims, misappropriation of money or materials and issue of false warning. However, it
provides immunity to government organisations and officers for action taken in good faith.
Besides, a National Emergency Management Authority is proposed, which would be
designed as per the Secretariat -Directorate structure to make it an integral part of
administration, at the same time, retaining the flexibility of a field organisation. It will have
multi-disciplinary membership with representatives from the Ministries/Departments of
Health, Water Resources, Environment and Forests, Agriculture, Railways, Atomic energy,
Defence, Chemicals, Science and Technology, Telecommunication, Urban Employment &
Poverty Alleviation, Rural Development and India Meteorological Department, under an
officer of the rank of Secretary /Special Secretary, to the Government in the Ministry of
Home Affairs. This authority would meet as often as required to review the status of
mitigation and preparedness measures and warning systems in the country. When a
disaster strikes, this authority would assist the states with macro management aspects,
such as financial, technical and inventory support, coordination of resources and activities
of all agencies involved in relief and rehabilitation, besides taking up any other work
entrusted to it by the government.
State Relief Departments and District Coordination and Relief Committee would now be
restructured to incorporate mitigation, preparedness and prevention aspects to their limited
role of relief and rehabilitation. They would be re-designated, State Departments of
Disaster Management, and District Disaster Management Committees respectively, which
suggests their enhanced area of functioning.
There would be four functional groupings within the state disaster management department:
z Hazard Mitigation
z Preparedness and Capacity Building
z Relief and Response
z Administration and Finance
The changeover has already been reported in 11 states and UTs (reported till August
2004), in Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Bihar, Himachal Pradesh, Rajasthan, Tamil
Nadu, Uttaranchal, Nagaland, Andaman & Nicobar administration, Sikkim and Lakshadweep.
It is underway in other states.
District Disaster Management Committees would invite membership from relevant

departments and would prepare a long-term mitigation plan apart from continuing with the
preparedness and response plans. Since, district heads of departments involved in
mainstream development would be involved in it, there would a natural dovetailing of
district plan with disaster mitigation and preparedness plan. District Disaster Management
Committee is already functional in 256 districts. Other districts in different states are in
the process of following up.
(Note: With regard to administrative preparedness, students are advised to follow up
latest developments through Government Notifications, newspaper records and
periodicals).
State Disaster Management Authorities in Gujarat and Orissa
The existing administrative structure to deal with the ravages of the earthquake was not
found satisfactory and hence the Gujarat Government constituted The Gujarat State
Disaster Management Authority on 8th February 2001 with the Chief Minister as
Chairperson and ten other members. The Resolution spoke of the need for a permanent
arrangement to handle a calamity. It is therefore evident that the existing disaster
management system at the State level is being improved.
The objectives of the Gujarat State Disaster Management Authority (GDMA) are the
following: -
1) To undertake rehabilitation and reconstruction as also social and economic activities
for restoration of the situation.
2) To make efforts to minimise the impact of natural disasters.
3) To make the best use of funds, grants, donations, assistance etc received from the
government of India and other foreign countries or any other institution/persons for
prevention of such natural calamities or handling the after-effects.
The jurisdiction of this authority will be the entire State and it will work as an autonomous
body. It has been registered as a society under the Societies Registration Act, 1860. The
Government of Gujarat has also created a separate Rehabilitation and Reconstruction
Division under the General Administration Department of the State government and the
work of the Gujarat State Disaster Management Authority has been transferred to the
General Administration Department.
Further, the State Government constituted a taskforce to suggest effective measures for
preparation of a long-term Disaster Management Plan, headed by the Chief Executive
Officer (C.E.O.) of the Gujarat State Disaster Management Authority.
The Gujarat State Disaster Management Authority, constituted on the pattern of a similar
authority formed in Orissa earlier, has a C.E.O and two Additional C.E.Os. It has six
Directors and a Chief Engineer who look after different aspects of work relating to
disaster management. The Chief Minister is the chairperson of GSMDA and it meets at
least once a month. It has the powers of the State Cabinet.
Besides this, two committees have been constituted for redress of grievances; one at the
district level, which is headed by the Minister in charge of the concerned district and the
other at the village level headed by an officer not below the rank of the Deputy Collector
or Mamlatdar.
District Collector with the help of Deputy Collector looks after the requirements of the
urban areas and the District Development Officer looks after the rural areas. Reconstruction
cell has been created in each affected district and in every line department chief
coordinators have been designated to smoothen over the problems. It is also proposed
to establish regional centres of and work on:
1) Search and rescue teams to be attached to the regional centres of GSDMA
2) Making inventory of resources.
3) Risk transfer through insurance cover.
4) To shift the focus from relief to reconstruction and disaster mitigation.
5) Disaster planning through creation of task force at the state level.
The setting up of the GSDMA followed the setting up of a similar authority, the OSDMA
in Orissa following the 1999 super cyclone. Thus we see that with the establishment of
the Gujarat and Orissa State Disaster Management Authorities, a nodal authority has been
created at the State level that will take up social and economic activities for rehabilitation
and resettlement of the affected people in the shortest possible time.
The most recent example is of the DMMC (Disaster Mitigation and Management Centre)
established by the Government of Uttaranchal. This is a path breaking initiative as in
contrast to the authorities set up in Orissa and Gujarat, this is an intervention made before
a disaster strikes in a known vulnerable area. Uttaranchal is also the first State in the
country to have a Ministry of Disaster Management.
Following situations such as the Orissa Super cyclone (October, 1999), the Gujarat
Earthquake (January, 2001) and the South Asian Tsunami (December, 2004), the need for
systems to respond at the earliest and in the most appropriate manner has been clearly
highlighted.
Example of SUMA
At the level of the Central Government, the Ministries of Defence, Health, Agriculture,
Railways, Surface Transport, Power and others have a critical role to play. All Armed
Forces should also have a dedicated component of personnel and equipment at the
Command level for disaster management. An appropriate organisational set up at the state
level for expeditious response is also necessary. Such a set up could be formulated on
the lines of the one presented by the SUMA (Supplies Management) model launched as
the collective efforts of the Latin American Countries in order to improve the administration
of supplies in the aftermath of a disaster situation. It provides a solution to the problems
with the arrival of unsolicited supplies thus enabling speedier distribution of relief material
and assistance as the situation warrants in reference to the SUMA Model. This too would
be worked out and incorporated in the Disaster Management Plan in due course.
4.5 ISSUES INVOLVED IN DISASTER PREPAREDNESS

Disaster preparedness works on the assumption that disasters will happen, and that,
given that, measures can be implemented to reduce the effect of the disaster. Community
preparedness, which means actions taken by the community to mitigate the effects of
potential disasters, is one of the most important aspects of Preparedness as the local
community is the first responder to a disaster. Preparedness measures may include:
z Risk assessment (to point out which measures to implement)

z Early warning systems
z Life safeguarding equipment, for example, cyclone shelters
z Resources and emergency kits in anticipation of need
z Maintaining emergency rosters and evacuation plans
z Emergency information and communication systems
z Training to ensure adequate emergency response capacity (particularly amongst the
local populace), maintenance of preparedness levels
z Public education and preparedness campaigns
Disaster Preparedness is given the following framework (Sharma, 1998).
Disaster Preparedness Framework
Vulnerability Assessment Planning Institutional Framework
Information Systems Resource Base Warning Systems
Response Mechanisms Public Education and Training Rehearsals
Explanations regarding each variable, (ibid), are as follows:

Vulnerability assessment is the starting point of disaster preparedness efforts. Assessments
give the vulnerability profile of the area in terms of possible loss of life and property in
an area in the event of a disaster. Data collected gives information on two counts: physical
vulnerability of structures and scale of damage likely from disasters of differing magnitudes
regarding differential vulnerability of segments of population to different disasters residing
in hazard prone areas of differing degrees of susceptibility and type of hazard. Other
related data should also be incorporated. As explained by Sharma (1998), it will not
suffice to declare an area hazard prone; migration patterns, activities pursued by inhabitants,
grading of houses on the basis of vulnerability would be essential related information.
Planning is the central aspect of a disaster preparedness plan. According to Vinod K.
Sharma (1998), the objective is to have agreed upon, implementable plans in place, for
which commitment and resources are relatively assured. Planning for readiness includes
working out agreements between people or agencies as to who will provide services in
an emergency to ensure an effective, coordinated response. There are the following
essential requirements of a workable disaster plan:
z Clearly stated objective or set of objectives
z Systematic sequence of activities in a logical and clear manner
z Specific tasks and responsibilities for involved agencies
z Integration of activities, tasks and responsibilities
z Integrate its activities, tasks and responsibilities to enable the overall objective or
set of objectives to be achieved.
Disaster Contingency Plans do not address the entire disaster management continuum,
comprising recovery, rehabilitation, preparedness, et al (explained as disaster management
cycle in Unit 2), but explore the wherewithal to tackle specific hazards, such as a flood
within a definite time period. Hence, there would be many contingency plans to tackle
hazards, which would comprise the National Strategy to combat disasters. There are
policy dilemmas involved in preparing disaster preparedness plans. For instance, should
the plan be short-term or long-term? Long-term preparedness would demand consistent
resource commitment, which could be difficult for hazard prone, but poor countries like
Bangladesh. However, the extent of damage wrought each year due to floods would
demand a long-term commitment. Besides the nature of hazards, a particular country/
region is prone to, would also determine the character of the preparedness plan. For
example, the hazard could be slow-onset, like drought or sudden/sporadic, like floods,
which would demand different preparedness/mitigation, as considered apt strategies. In the
final analysis, the choice of each country would depend on numerous factors, such as the
nature of hazard, political priorities, risk perception, interest articulation/ lobby pressure in
this regard, etc. The other dilemma is regarding participation in the planning process,
regarding who all should be involved? Though much has been said in advocacy of local
planning, it is fact that it is hard to implement. How should the local people be involved,
how would logistics in this regard be engaged, to what extent would officials be receptive/
tolerant to/of it?, remain some of the persistent questions; then, also whether centralised
or decentralised mode of operation should be opted. The issue chiefly relates to decisions,
and what level of autonomy should be afforded/allowed at the local or regional levels.
Regarding institutional framework, rationalisation of the administrative apparatus and
coordination are essential requirements. Unnecessary proliferation of agencies should be
avoided. As far as coordination is concerned, there is no ‘one way’ of instituting it. Each
State has to work it out as per the facilities at hand, implying scope and the requirements
regarding the same to produce the best possible state. A central coordinating agency
providing for inter-ministerial coordination is a preferred provision in this regard.
Specific definition of roles and responsibilities should not be lost sight of in institutional
delineation. They should be specific and adequate in that specialist competence should
have been duly respected. Assigning functions to an agency lacking in technical know-how
in that respect would be a self-defeating exercise. Similarly, it would be better to leave
interest/need articulation to local leaders instead of assigning the task to a central
government official.
Regarding information systems, information collation is the requirement since information
comes from many sources such as, in the case of India, from the ministries of health and
agriculture, regarding nutritional status and crop production and the meteorological offices
regarding forecasts. There is need for a central coordinating agency in this respect for
speedy response or/and timely mitigation action. Considering the source of such information
and the requirement of constant updating of such information through periodic vulnerability
and risk assessments, to noting changes if any, in vulnerable segments/area et al are other
pertinent requirements. Usually early warning signs from local communities are ignored,
which is perilous. Assessments should include information on available logistics and
inventory such as transport facilities et al to know where additional capacity is required
as per the plan, which is renewed from time to time to incorporate newer/added threats
as anticipated/encountered so that when the disaster strikes, preparedness matches up to
the requirements.
Regarding resources, written agreements should be solicited for surety. Critical issues
involved in this regard, in the words of Sharma (1998), are “special arrangements for the
acquisition and disbursements for funds; policies and arrangements for the acquisition and
disbursements; policies and agreements for the use of other’s equipment and services; and
emergency funding strategies.” A special emergency contingency fund would help, since all
supplies cannot be stockpiled, or there could be unforeseen requirements, which had not
been budgeted; insurance should be a necessary requirement/condition in loans for farmers
for agricultural extension and developments, for example, to shield losses during disasters.
There are administrative issues involved, in that aid from international and internal sources
needs to be coordinated to ensure its timely and proper use and avoid wastage and
lessen scope for irregularities.
Regarding warning systems, governments should look at alternate communication
requirements such as police wireless, amateur radio, as normal communication is disrupted
due to damage to poles, underground cables, etc. Indigenous knowledge regarding
impending disasters, based on factors such as animal behavior, etc., should not be
underestimated. Such knowledge should be built into disaster plans. Also, translation of
warnings in user-friendly terms, preferably in local language is another requirement.
Technical jargon is usually not comprehensible to the locals, who choose to ignore it.
Public education and training in this regard in the sense of awareness of seriousness of
official warnings issued with a view to compliant behavior is necessary. Forewarning is a
crucial component in preparedness. The same should be ensured.
Regarding response, specific activities involved are:
z Evacuation Procedures
z Search and Rescue
z Security Affected Areas
z Assessment Teams
z Activating Special Installations, such as emergency hospital facilities.
z Preparing Emergency Reception Shelters
z Activating Emergency Programmes for Airports, Harbors and Land Transport.
A range of services is required, ranging from basic services like food and shelter, medical
supplies, sanitation to special requirements of vulnerable segments like children to logistics
such as tents, storage facilities, transport etc.
Activation of local governments is deemed an essential requirement for the purpose.
Public education has to cover schools, extension workers in villages and experts such
as engineers and architects, etc. The role of the media is especially emphasised in
generating awareness of disasters and how to deal with them among common people.
Rehearsals are absolutely necessary for effective preparedness. For example, as per news
reports, in Japan, they are rehearsing catching wild animals and serpents that get out of
zoos during earthquakes there. Such kinds of exercises are vital for dealing effectively with
real life situations.
Some Problems
The problem areas in preparedness can be organisational and planning related issues, like
inadequate policy direction, outdated plans and over concentration on recovery and
response activities, which leads to low preparedness. Lack of resources or resource
organisations and unclear allocation of these resources is also likely to create gaps or
overlaps in the preparedness arrangements. Other problems like inadequate coordination
and lack of cooperation at the policy making and implementation level, public awareness
and suitable training for the disaster managers usually contribute significantly to poor
disaster preparedness activities.
Towards Preparedness
Effective disaster preparedness is a dynamic commitment/requirement. It is very difficult to
maintain adequate preparedness levels under circumstances where the disaster threat is
low and/or very infrequent. Some aspects of preparedness are:
z National Disaster Policy: There is a need for a clear and comprehensive national
disaster policy which covers all aspects of disaster management spectrum and which
ensures that preparedness is given proper consideration and priority.
z National Legislation: Special disaster legislation may be necessary to ensure that
preparedness aspects of national policy are adequately covered and implemented.
Disaster legislation also helps to formalise a clear and workable organisational
structure, so that levels of disaster preparedness are identified.
z National Disaster Management Centre/Section: As disaster preparedness is a
dynamic requirement, therefore, there is a constant need of monitoring the preparedness
activities. This can be done through a specialised agency and officers.The Disaster
Managment Act covers all aforesaid requirements.
z Assessment of Preparedness Action: Adequate arrangements for identifying, assessing
and monitoring the disaster threat are also necessary. In turn, this enables a
reasonable forecast to be made of the likely effects arising from the disaster. The
effects may be like casualties, damage and destruction of property, disruption of
services, damage to crops in case of a rural area, damage to national infrastructure,
economic and livelihood loss etc.
z Planning Framework: Fully effective preparedness plans need to be applied at
national, provincial/regional and local government levels. Planning needs to be systematic
and stage wise. This also helps to ensure that the measure can be systematically
monitored and kept up-to-date.
z Utilisation of Resources: If available resources have to be utilised to the optimum
effect, there must be an accurate and up-to-date inventory of all resource organisations,
clear allocation of the roles and responsibilities which resource organisations are
required to do during an emergency; there should be suitable preparedness arrangements
within the resource organisations so that they are able to fulfill their roles desirably
and capacity of the resource organisations should be monitored time to time to
ensure no problems during the emergency.
z Operational Facilities and Systems: Adequate preparedness of the various facilities
and systems, which are required for response operation, is also very important. Such
facilities and systems usually include emergency or stand-by communications, a
warning system, a system to activate and initiate immediate action at the organisational
level and at its resource organisations, emergency operation centres, system for
damage and need assessment and emergency relief arrangements, etc.
z Equipment and Supplies: If stockpiles of emergency equipment and supplies are

held, these need appropriate surveillance to ensure their serviceability and ready
availability during a disaster situation. The equipment should be kept at the level
where it is going to be used first. At the same time, a vendor list should be
maintained in order to quickly procure material at the time of emergency. Also, if
there are some resources within the community, which can be used, such resources
should be identified well before.
z Training: Training is obviously the most important component of preparedness. If
possible, a permanent training programme or system is desirable. This should cover
the needs of both the government and non- governmental organisations. Also, training
is required for persons who are a part of the Disaster Management Programme; they
may be volunteers from within the community.
z Public Awareness and Education: An aware, alert and informed public is a most
valuable asset for preparedness. Public awareness programmes can be presented in
a variety of forms, to suit particular circumstances. Events such as National Disaster
Preparedness Day are helpful in promoting and sustaining public awareness. Inclusion
of Disaster awareness in school programmes usually has a long-term impact.
Resources likely to be involved for disaster prevention and preparedness at various levels
of activities can be:
Activity Resources
Identification and analysis of disaster threats • Academic and Research Institutions

• Technical Authorities
• Government and private agencies having
public responsibility (dealing with land,
sea and transport systems)
• Private sector authorities dealing with
projects or production which may
generate potential threat (chemical
factories etc)
• International Agencies
Need and possibilities for implementation • Government Organisations

• National Planning Authorities
• Disaster Management Authorities
• Specialised Agencies
Implementation • Government Organisations

• Non-Government Organisations
• Military Forces
• International Disaster Assisting Agencies
• Disaster Management Authorities
Sustainability of the programme • Non-Government Organisations

• Public
• Educational Authorities
4.6 CAPACITY BUILDING FOR EARTHQUAKE

VULNERABILITY REDUCTION
A) NATIONAL PROGRAMME FOR CAPACITY BUILDING OF ENGINEERS
IN EARTHQUAKE RISK MITIGATION, (NPCBEERM).
In view of the vulnerability of almost 55 per cent of the Indian landmass to earthquakes,
the National Institute of Disaster Management, Ministry of Home Affairs with a view to
instituting structural earthquake risk mitigation measures, has prepared a National Roadmap,
which charts activities to be undertaken now. The Ministry of Home Affairs is the nodal
ministry for disaster management in the country (except droughts). The transfer of the
subject/responsibility from the Ministry of Agriculture to the Ministry of Home Affairs
marks a shift of emphasis from a hitherto “reactive” relief to “proactive” mitigation and
preparedness. In the last 15 years, India has suffered 6 earthquakes of moderate intensity,
which have caused extensive damage to life and property in the affected regions. The
devastation from the Latur Earthquake of 1993 and the Bhuj Earthquake of 2001 have
once again driven home the point for mitigation policy planning with a view to controlling
the impacts of disasters, particularly for disaster risk mitigation from earthquakes to
prevent/minimise further extensive damages, which would otherwise be wrought, considering
the frequency of tremors in seismic zones IV and V.
With a view to the objective, the following action areas have been identified:
z Institutional Structures
z Disaster Mitigation and Preparedness Projects
z Early Warning Systems
z Preparedness
z Quick Response and
z Human Resource Development
The chief problem/action area is Human Resource Development for earthquake engineering.
Though the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has laid down building standards for
earthquake prone areas, implementation has suffered due to lack of manpower and
technical competence with the State Public Works Departments (PWD) and municipal
bodies.
Specific guidelines/instructions/ attempts with a view to reducing earthquake
vulnerability include:
Setting up a National Resource Centre (engineering institute), to develop training modules
and impart training to select faculty members from 2 or 3 engineering institutes at State/
UT level. Training would be imparted by the National Resource Institutes: The Indian
Institutes of Technology, Mumbai, Kharagpur, Kanpur, Chennai, Roorkee and the Indian
Institute of Science, Bangalore and a few other leading institutes for technical updating and
developing expertise in earthquake engineering. The National Core Group on Earthquake
Mitigation constituted under the Ministry of Home Affairs will designate the IITs and IIS
Bangalore and few other leading institutes and colleges (total 10) as National Resource
Institutes to provide training to the faculty of engineering colleges. The Centre shall advise
each State/UT to nominate (2-3) engineering colleges as State Resource Institutes.

Manpower prepared would be used to train municipal and public works department
(PWD) engineers and the private sector engineers in a phased manner and advise State
governments and municipal urban local bodies on required amendments in state byelaws
for better compliance with BIS standards.
A Hazard Safety Cell will be constituted in each state to ensure compliance with building
byelaws and safe construction practices and creation of a framework to conduct
certification courses for engineers and architects, review building bye-laws, suggest
necessary changes to incorporate in BIS codes in building bye laws and other related
activities. Membership shall be drawn from members selected from state resource
institutes/ retired senior engineers across the state and specialists in the subject matter
under the chairmanship of the State Relief Commissioner. The Central government shall
provide financial support for one non-official member in each state for two years.
State governments have been instructed to review, and if necessary, amend existing
byelaws to incorporate BIS seismic codes and ensure that plans/designs of construction
of government facilities incorporate the standards.
In municipal areas, State governments are required to make it mandatory for builders/
buyers to submit building plans prepared by the structural engineers to get building
construction permission and make structural engineers who have prepared the plan,
responsible for adherence to BIS codes and building bye laws.
States have been advised to enact Disaster Management Acts to provide for adequate
powers for authorities coordinating mitigation, preparedness and response as well as for
mitigation and prevention measures required to be taken. State governments have also
been advised to convert their relief codes into disaster management codes by building into
it the process necessary for disaster management and mitigation plans as well as elements
of preparedness apart from response and relief.
They have been asked to retrofit critical facilities on a priority basis; lay down mandates
for private builders/developers to retrofit multiplexes, cinema halls etc.
There is proposed to be a gradual shift to a certification regime for civil engineers in the
private sector for which advice from the trained personnel of State Resource Institutes
would be sought.
Implementation of the Project
Implementation of the project will be under the aegis of the Ministry of Home Affairs,
which shall be the nodal ministry for the implementation of the project. A Project
Management Board will be constituted under the chairmanship of Secretary, Border
Management to provide overall guidance to the programme. The project implementation
will be overseen by a Steering Committee (SC) consisting of members of a core group
on earthquake mitigation and representatives of various resource institutes across the
country, under the Chairmanship of the joint secretary, NDM. The SC will meet quarterly
to review the progress of the programme.
In each State/UT, a Steering Committee will be constituted out of selected members of
resource institutes across the states and specialists in the subject matter under the
chairmanship of the State Relief Commissioner to review the progress of the programme
at the state level. The SC will meet quarterly to review the progress of the programme.
B) NATIONAL PROGRAMME FOR CAPACITY BUILDING OF ARCHITECTS

IN EARTHQUAKE RISK MITIGATION- (NPCBAERM)
The architect prepares the design of the building. It is only thereafter, that the engineer
supervises its implementation on the ground. Therefore, the role of the architect is crucial
in securing a safe structure. Present constraint is that seismic design is not taught in
architecture institutes at the undergraduate level. Though requisite modification in the
syllabus is now being considered, practicing architects need to be trained in seismic safety.
Hence, there is need to impart training to architects and gradually move towards a
certification regime where, properly trained and educated architects are issued certificates
to carry on their practice. Present regulatory infrastructure of architects in the country is
the IIA or the Indian Institute of Architects, which is a voluntary organisation registered
under the Societies Registration Act, and the Council of Architecture or CoA, which
performs the statutory duty of registration. The IIA studies and promotes the best
practices in architecture from aesthetic and scientific perspectives. It does not register
architects though it is a primary organisation, represented in all major national and
international committees. The CoA oversees the profession from the efficiency and the
ethics perspectives. Anyone desirous of practicing the profession has to register with the
CoA. Hence, in consultation with the CoA, it would be made mandatory for practicing
architects to undergo a one-week training module and submit the certificate with the CoA.
The Project Framework is as follows:
The 110 institutes offering architecture will be networked and developed as training
institutes for the proposed/mandated one-week course.
Faculty from these institutes will be trained at the National Resource Institutes, which
would be about 10 in number, selected in consultation with IIA and the CoA and the
Core Group on Earthquake Risk Mitigation.
Support will be provided to the National Resource Centres for library and laboratory
facilities.
The Ministry of Home Affairs will be the nodal agency for the formulation and
implementation of the project. Programme Management would be under the aegis of a
Steering Committee (SC) consisting of the members of the core group on earthquake risk
mitigation, IIA and the CoA, and various resource institutes across the country, under the
chairmanship of the joint secretary, NDM. SC will meet quarterly to review the progress
of the project.
At the State level, a steering committee will be formed out of the nominees of the Council
of Architecture, selected members of the resource institutes in the states and specialists in
the subject matter under the chairmanship of the State Relief Commissioner/Secretary
Disaster Management to review the progress of the plan at the state level. It will meet
quarterly to review the performance. Financial assistance shall be given to National
Resource Institutes as grants under non-plan head since it is expenditure incurred on
capacity building and not creation of assets.
4.7 EXTERNAL LINKAGES

Though the Government of India makes no formal requests, international organisations
offer suo moto assistance, which is accepted. Linkages exist with the UN Office for
Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UN OCHA), which has been made responsible for
all international disaster response; the UNDP, which is in charge of prevention and
mitigation aspects; and, the UN Disaster Assistance and Coordination System (UNDAC),
(Tenth Plan Document, GoI).
GoI-UNDP INITIATIVE
The following activities are underway as combined GoI- UNDP initiative to build resilience
to earthquake disasters at the State, District and Local levels:
Construction and strengthening of existing Emergency Operations Centres (EOCs) with a
view to providing multi-hazard resistant structures, equipped with latest communication
equipments (provided by the UNDP).
Training of elected representatives of the people at local level, with a view to capacity
enhancement, since they are the first responders to crisis events and also members of
Disaster Management Committees.
Introduction of “Disaster Management” in school syllabi to establish base for development
of subsequent education and training in the subject. CBSE has taken the lead in this
regard by introducing the subject in standard VIII and IX. (it is proposed for standard
X). Delhi, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Sikkim, Mizoram and Orissa have already complied with
the requirement. National Council for Educational Research and Training (NCERT) is
working on a teachers’ training programme to ensure safety, health and welfare (SHW)
of school children.
Formulation of Village Disaster Management Plans and formation of Village Disaster
Management Volunteer Teams as a priority measure would be undertaken. Volunteers will
be imparted training by various line departments like fire brigade, police, civil defence, etc.
States are being requested to dovetail disaster management plans with development plans.
Many States have initiated the process of converting state relief codes into state disaster
management codes.
Urban Earthquake Vulnerability Reduction Project
Under combined GoI-UNDP initiative, specifically for 38 cities in seismic zones 3,4, and
5, there is underway, a GoI-UNDP vulnerability reduction demonstration project (2002-
07), which aims to develop capacities of communities, government functionaries, and all
involved stakeholders in responding better to disasters.
Specific Objectives of the Programme are as follows:
z Development of State and District Disaster Management Plans
z Development of Disaster Risk Management and Response Plans at Village/Ward,
Gram Panchayat, Block/Urban local body level.
z Constitution and training of Disaster Management Teams (DMTs), and Disaster
Management Committees at all levels with adequate representation of women in all
committees and teams at Village/Ward, Gram Panchayat, Block/Urban Local body,
District and State. At the village level, the DMT is a number of village task forces
on various aspects of disaster management.
z Capacity building of DMTs at all levels
z Special training for women in shelter management, rescue and evacuation, first aid,
water and sanitation, etc.
z Capacity building in cyclone and earthquake resistant features for houses in disaster
prone districts, training in retrofitting, and construction of technology demonstration
units.
z Integration of disaster management plans with development plans of local self-
governments.
z Mainstreaming of disaster management in training, capacity building and education
curricula at all levels across the country.
z Thrust would be on involving specialist urban planning institutions in preparing plans
and women.
Broadly, the objectives of the Programme are:
1) Awareness Generation
Create awareness among government functionaries, technical institutions, NGOs, CBOs,
and communities about earthquake vulnerability and possible preventive actions. Information
dissemination would be attempted through available media like the newspapers, television
radio, and interactive sessions with stakeholders and civil society actors, engineers and
architects, dissemination of print material among students, community members, advertisement
campaigns etc., about earthquake resistant housing techniques, critical response activities
such as shelter management, rescue and evacuation, etc., preferably/also in vernaculars.
2) Earthquake Preparedness Plan
Development and institutionalising of earthquake preparedness and response plans and
practice these through mock drills; civil society institutions from the ward to the city level
such as the Lions Club the Rotary Club, disaster management teams, involving state
agencies, NCC and the NSS, etc., will be involved in such drills.
3) Developing a Techno-Legal framework
Development of regulatory framework (techno-legal regime) to promote safe construction
and systems to ensure compliance with safe building norms. Emphasis would be on
developing orientation of safe development practices among policy-makers. Provision of
institutional mechanisms like city specific audit agencies for overseeing safe development
practices, creating empowered community watchdog bodies to review zoning regulations
in old and new city areas, revise building codes, oversee certification system for engineers
and architects, consultation and partnerships with financial institutions and insurance
agencies for disaster resistant features in new buildings and retrofitting in old ones.
Providing for an institutional framework for National/ State level Ombudsman is essential
to ensure compliance with safe building practices, and undertaking academic exercises like
building databases regarding vulnerabilities and risks in specific areas as decision support
and preparing training modules for architects and engineers in ‘earthquake engineering’.
4) Capacity Building
Capacity building for certification by government functionaries and professionals (engineers
and architects) is necessary. It would involve developing expertise in local academic
institutions, training and orientation programmes for state level functionaries, NGOs, local
government, private sector stakeholders, etc. (real estate firms, builders, contractors, etc.)
in preparing vulnerability reduction plans, training of selected government engineers from
prominent engineering departments such as PWD, MES, Urban Development authorities

on seismic resistant construction, code provisions, safety and evaluation techniques,
retrofitting etc. in collaboration with the National Programme on Earthquake Engineering
Education (NPEEE) a programme of the Ministry of Human Resource Development,
sensitising and training community organisations like the Resident Welfare Associations
(RWA) in earthquake preparedness and response plans, assisting with R&D in disaster
resistant technology and vulnerability analysis at the National level, providing support for
setting up resource centres in major cites for technology transfer.
5) Networking
Networking knowledge on best practices and tools for earthquake risk management,
including creation of information systems containing inventory of resources for emergency
operations.
The Government of India and the UNDP are engaged in an information technology (IT)
based project for knowledge-networking across institutions involved in disaster management.
A web based portal has been created for inter-city cooperation on earthquake vulnerability
reduction initiatives to provide a forum for city representatives, project coordinators and
National Advisers to share experiences and learning on urban earthquake risk and risk
management for linking the practitioners involved in the programme. The web portal would
also link various institutions engaged in different aspects of disaster management viz.
prevention, preparedness, mitigation, social and scientific research, academic inquiry etc.,
for comprehensive and concerted effort towards disaster management. Presently, the effort
is piecemeal and dispersed across institutions. Consequently, it becomes difficult to:
z Apply technology where needed because know- how is missing.
z Know about best practices in the subject area.
z Ensure comprehensive not piecemeal effort at disaster management.
z Retrieve knowledge where it is immediately needed since most knowledge is tacit or
implicit, confined to the bearer, and needs to be codified as explicit knowledge. The
catchword is Knowledge Management, explained as all about getting the right
knowledge, in the right place, at the right time.
The intent is to network knowledge across institutions so that organisations collaborate for
information sharing and collation of information hitherto unavailable and enhance their
knowledge base. In the absence of such an approach/effort, institutions operate in their
isolated modes/worlds and administration develops a self-defeating ‘disjointed’ character.
Disaster management is a fast developing field. To keep abreast of latest developments
and access the latest information on issues like, climate change, web connectivity is
absolutely imperative.
The programme also intends to replicate successful experiments elsewhere without loss of
reaction time. Otherwise information lies in a corner, when it is immediately required
somewhere. Hence, reaction time should be minimum in the sense of accessibility of
information. Accordingly, the intent is to keep a record of best practices in disaster
management for quick replication, wherever needed. This would develop the coping
capacity in regions where know-how is lacking.
Develop a data bank for ready access wherever required, regarding facts for decision
making or access to best practices.
Hence, the portal provides information on Knowledge Collaboration Tools and incentive
based tools such as:
z Moderated access and facilitation
z Programme monitoring and methodology sharing tools
z Members workspace for decentralised content management
z Powerful search engines
z Moderated discussion forum for problem solving
z Document management system
z Moderated intra-network e-mail
The portal links departments, statutory agencies, research organisations et al cross-country
at National and State levels to provide comprehensive input for disaster risk reduction
policy and best practices. In this programme, the UNDP would play a supportive role in
that it would provide knowledge of best practices, orient administration at the National
State and Local Levels towards disaster mitigation, specifically with regard to earthquake
risk mitigation, empower communities to enable them to help themselves in times of crisis,
before effective intervention.
Earthquake Vulnerability Reduction in Rural Areas
Seismically safe construction would be ensured under Indira Awas Yojana (IAY) and
Sampooran Grameen Rojgar Yojana (SGRY). This would contribute to popularising
hazard safe construction practices in rural areas. A programme to assist the States and
Union Territories in training and certification of 5000 rural masons has been formulated in
consultation with the Housing and Urban Development Corporation (HUDCO) and the
Ministry of Rural Development. A Committee of Experts has prepared the Training
Module, which would form part of vocational training programme in the Ministry of
Human Resource Development.
4.8 CYCLONES AND FLOOD HAZARD MITIGATION

In order to respond effectively to floods, the Ministry of Home Affairs has initiated the
National Disaster Risk Management Programme in all the flood hazard prone states.
Assistance is being provided to the states in preparation of disaster management plans at
the State, District, Block / Taluka and Village levels. Elected representatives are being
trained in flood hazard mitigation programmes; besides, awareness campaigns targeted at
all the stakeholders involved besides, community members. Bihar, Orissa, West Bengal,
Assam and Uttar Pradesh are among the 17 states, where this programme is being
implemented with assistance from the UNDP, USAID, and the European Commission. A
National Core Group on Cyclone Monitoring and Mitigation has been constituted with
experts from the India Meteorological Department, National Centre for Medium Range
Weather Forecasting, Central Water Commission, National Remote Sensing Agency and
Indian Space Research Organisation as members, besides administrators from the relevant
ministries and departments and state governments vulnerable to cyclones. The Core Group
would look after cyclone warning with a view to making it user friendly, and meet the
requirements of technology up-gradation, coordination between involved agencies, official
and non- official. Besides, Rs.1050 crore project has been sanctioned by the Planning
Commission, which would be implemented with the help of the World Bank. This would
emphasise cyclone shelters, coastal green belts, strengthening warning system, training and
education, etc., that help curb the cyclone hazard.
Likewise, National Core Group has been constituted for Landslide Hazard Mitigation.
Secretary, Border Management will be the Chairman. It would comprise secretaries of
departments of science and technology, road transport and highways, heads of Geological
Survey of India (GSI) and National Remote Sensing Agency. The GSI is the nodal
agency. Through remote sensing, mapping of landslide prone areas would be carried out.
Information from various sources would be collated at the GSI and a landslide mitigation
plan drawn up, accordingly.
4.9 CONCLUSION
It is not possible to do away with the devastation of natural hazards completely. However,
experience has shown that destruction from natural hazards can be minimised by a well
functioning warning system, combined with preparedness on the part of the vulnerable
community. Warning systems and preparedness measures reduce and modify the scale of
disasters. A community that is prepared to face disasters receives and understands
warnings of impending hazards, and has taken precautionary and mitigation measures, will
be able to cope better and resume their normal life sooner. This requires deep rooted and
long-term changes in the approach of the government at all levels, of the civil society
organisations and the community. The traditional view is that the more severe the force
of the phenomena, the greater the losses. There is hence a need for concentration on
disaster response, rather than prevention or preparedness. However, this position is only
partially accurate as the scale of damage and destruction always depends on what might
be affected. The size of the disaster therefore varies depending on the vulnerability, that
is, the number of elements that can be damaged and their ability to withstand the forces
of the phenomena.
It, therefore, becomes important for the global community to lay greater emphasis on
ways and means of preventing and preparing for disasters. This proactive approach is far
better than seeking to restore the community to its pre-disaster status and then waiting for
history to repeat itself. There is a need to examine the relation between environmental
degradation and vulnerability to disasters and their combined effects on both natural and
man-made habitats. There is also a need to co-ordinate efforts to reduce vulnerability to
disasters. While preventive measures will not halt earthquakes or cyclones, they will
minimise the impact of such disasters on the environment. Accordingly, there is increasing
mobilisation of efforts at the international level towards imparting a disaster management
perspective to development. The emphasis has to be on preventing and mitigating disasters
in order to minimise loss of development gains when they strike.
4.10 KEY CONCEPTS

Incident Command System : It is a system of organisational flexibility, which allows
for expansion of an organisation as per need to
handle the contingent situation best. Personnel on the
ground are allowed flexibility to take quick on the
spot decisions as per the demand of the situation.
Another significant requirement is collation of all effort
under an umbrella organisation to attain desired

coherence in functioning. This concept was developed
in the US following inability of traditional organisational
forms to handle frequent wild fires in California.
Plan and Non-Plan : Expenditure that leads to creation of assets is classified
Expenditure plan expenditure; that pertaining to capacity building
and other general maintenance is classified, non- plan
expenditure.
Preparedness : The United Nations Disaster Relief Office (UNDRO)
uses the following definition for Disaster Preparedness:
“Disaster Preparedness may be described as (a series
of) measures designed to organise and facilitate timely
and effective rescue, relief and rehabilitation operations
in cases of disaster…. Measures of preparedness
include among others, setting up disaster relief
machinery, formulation of emergency relief plans,
training of specific groups (and vulnerable communities)
to undertake rescue and relief, stockpiling supplies
and earmarking funds for relief operations”.
Retrofitting : Retrofitting is the process of making existing buildings
disaster resistant by incorporation of disaster resistant
features in their structural and non-structural systems.
Many people fear for existing buildings in the belief
that disaster resistant features can only be incorporated
in new buildings, but this is not so. These can be
effectively and economically introduced in new buildings,
depending on the construction material, technology
and condition of the building. Retrofitting is most
effective in earthquake and cyclone prone areas. The
cost aspects of retrofitting and the long-range benefits
that will be available by adopting retrofitting of existing
unsafe buildings have been researched and documented
the world over. It has been estimated that the cost of
retrofitting would be around 5-10 per cent of the cost
of new construction. Of course, the cost of retrofitting
will vary according to the condition of the existing
structure. In view of the huge losses suffered by the
country in the earthquakes in the last fifteen (15)
years, it has been strongly recommended that retrofitting
of buildings and structures as a component of disaster
management should be adopted as a point of policy
of the Government of India as well as the State
Governments and funding be earmarked for the purpose
urgently.

“Hyogo Framework for Action”, available at United Nations International Strategy for
Disaster Reduction, at http:// www.unisdr.org
GoI- UNDP, Dec. 2004, Disaster Risk Management Programme, Project Management
Board, (PMBNDM), Ministry of Home Affairs.
GoI, Tenth Plan, “Disaster Management”, 2002-07.
GoI-UNDP, Disaster Risk Management Programme, 2002-07, Ministry of Home Affairs,
Government of India and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP).
GoI-UNDP, “Knowledge Management in Disaster Risk Reduction: The Indian Approach”,
Government of India, Ministry of Home Affairs, National Disaster Management Division,
Official Documents, World Conference on Disaster Reduction 18-22 Jan.2005, Kobe,
Hyogo, Japan, at http://www.ndmindia.nic.in/WCDRDOCS/knowledge-manageme.pdf.
Government of India, Ministry of Home Affairs, August 2004, “Disaster Management in
India: A Status Report”, National Disaster Management Division, Ministry of Home
Affairs.
National Programme For Capacity Building of Architects in Earthquake Risk Mitigation-
(NPCBAERM), Government of India, Ministry of Home Affairs, Disaster Management
Division.
National Programme for Capacity Building of Engineers in Earthquake Risk Mitigation,
National Disaster Management Division, Government of India (NPCBEERM), Government
of India, Ministry of Home Affairs, Disaster Management Division.
Report of the High Powered Committee on Disaster Management, 2001, Government of
India, New Delhi.
Sharma Vinod S., 1998, Training Workshop on Vulnerability and Preparedness, National
Centre for Disaster Management, Indian Institute of Public Administration, New Delhi.
“The Twelfth Finance Commission Report”, Economic Survey, 2004-05.
4.12 ACTIVITIES
1) Inquire from the local authorities in your area if there is any disaster preparedness
plan for your district. If yes, study it and list things you should be doing in times of
such crises. If no, make a table of key role-players and their responsibilities, as you
understand them.
2) Make a disaster preparedness plan for your family. Identify the hazards within your
house and its surroundings that can lead to injury or damage in the event of an
earthquake, prepare a list of do’s and don’ts for people living in your neighbourhood.
UNIT 5 DISASTER PREVENTION
Structure
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Significance of Disaster Prevention
5.3 Issues involved in Disaster Prevention
5.4 Hazard Mapping for Disaster Prevention
5.5 Planning for Disaster Prevention
5.6 Prevention Guidelines in case of Selected Hazards
5.7 Challenges for South Asia
5.8 Implications for Humanitarian & Development Agencies
5.9 Conclusion
5.10 Key Concepts
5.12 Activities

• Understand the basic concepts related to Disaster Prevention;
• Learn preventive measures required at each level to minimise the loss of
life and damage during an emergency; and
• Examine the implications for Humanitarian and Development Agencies.
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR) defines
disaster prevention as “activities to provide outright avoidance of the adverse
impacts of hazards and means to minimise related environmental, technological,
and biological disasters. Depending on social and technical feasibility and
cost/benefit considerations, investing in preventive measures is justified,
particularly in areas frequently affected by disasters. In the context of public
awareness and education, related to disaster risk reduction, changing attitudes and
behaviour contribute to creating a “culture of prevention.”
Preparedness includes measures taken to ensure readiness of the administrative
apparatus to respond quickly and efficiently to a disaster in order to minimise the
loss to life and property. Disaster preparedness and prevention require policy and
resources for the purpose. Pertinent questions to be asked in this regard include:
1
What is disaster prevention? What does it mean to us and should we invest effort
in its application? If the answer is “yes”, then what needs to be done, and how is
it to be translated into policy and action? In order to address these questions, the
government would need to allocate resources for disaster management, which
would envelop the aforesaid concerns.
5.2 SIGNIFICANCE OF DISASTER PREVENTION
The continued effects of disasters (man-made and natural) are all too evident to be
overlooked. Recent events alone include the devastating effects of Hurricane
Katrina in America, Tsunami destruction in South Asia and the recent Earthquake
in Pakistan and India, as well as the so-called complex political emergencies
(CPE) in Iraq, Afghanistan and Sudan. Such incidences command large- scale
emergency response, the arena in which humanitarian agencies have the highest
profile. Such events also raise retrospective questions, such as, whether anything
could have been done to prevent or reduce the scale of such disasters. In the case
of CPE, prevention requires the political will of all those directly involved and
able to influence the course of events. For natural disasters, efforts can be directed
at reducing the scale of lives lost and property destroyed.
In the last two decades, reducing risk through the implementation of disaster
preparedness and prevention measures has been gaining ground. The UN named
the decade of the 90’s as the “International Decade for Natural Disaster
Reduction (IDNDR).” Whilst the success of the IDNDR is believed by many to
have been muted through lack of interest and limited funds, organisations
including the European Union, World Bank, DFID, UN and USAID (OFDA) are
all investing resources in disaster prevention. Regarding International NGOs;
IFRC leads, assigning disaster preparedness delegates to several country teams.
Several NGO networks also exist, including the La Red in Latin America,
ADRRN in Asia and a new network funded by DFID in sub-saharan Africa. In
addition, local NGOs and specialist centers such as SEEDS and ADRC are known
for implementing DPP (Disaster Prevention Planning) training and research.
The message inherent in these initiatives is the growing acceptance and action
towards the same by many key players in the international aid business that more
can and must be done to prevent and/or mitigate the impact of disasters to reduce
the risks to vulnerable communities.
To foster a common understanding of the concept of DPP, it is worth looking
briefly at what disaster mitigation and preparedness are. A disaster happens when
a “hazard” (earthquake, flood, drought, fighting, etc) coincides with a
“vulnerable” situation (cities or villages in earthquake/flood prone zones,
impoverished people, etc). This is often written as:
Disaster = Hazard + Vulnerability.
Without the coincidence of both these conditions, a disaster would not occur (a
hurricane at sea affects nobody, volcanic activity in Hawaii is a tourist spectacle).
What this means therefore, is that development actions need to be targeted at
reducing vulnerabilities, which are social, physical and economic in nature,
incident amongst the most vulnerable, which are the poorest communities in
society.
Disaster prevention is analogous to preventive health care. Whilst most efforts are
directed towards post -disaster relief, reconstruction and rehabilitation (where the
need is all too visible), prevention is often the ignored stage of the cycle of
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disaster (the ‘invisible’ side to disaster). There is often little interest or political
will to take measures for preparation for a disaster that hasn’t happened yet. Yet
of course failures to address this can result in enormous losses of life and
livelihoods.
5.3 ISSUES INVOLVED IN DISASTER PREVENTION
Disaster Prevention therefore implies the protective and preventive actions taken
prior to a disaster, directed towards the reduction of risk and the effects of the
hazard, that is, the actions that impede the occurrence of a disaster event and
prevent and reduce the harmful effects of the event on communities and key
installations. Constructing a dam or a levee (embankment) to control floods is an
example of a preventive measure. Preventive Measures may include:
Structural Measures: Engineering or Technical Inputs
Non- Structural Measures: Administrative and Managerial Inputs
According to Udono (2002), five types of information are necessary for any/both
of the above-mentioned categories of disaster prevention:
What: What occurs, what kind of phenomenon occurs? For example, a heavy rain
causes a flood, a landslide or a debris flow. A volcanic eruption ejects a
pyroclastic flow.
Where: Where does such a phenomenon appear? How extensive is the range of
damage?
How: How large is the scale of phenomenon? How intense is it? For example,
there is a heavy rain of 500mm in one day, or lava flow of 3000 m.
How does the phenomenon develop or spread? How does it come up? For
example, there is a scenario of volcanic eruption such as Earthquake → Ash →
Pyroclastic flow → Lava flow.
When: When does a phenomenon occur or when is it likely to occur? What is the
frequency or probability of occurrence? For example, there is a heavy rain that
occurs once in 30 years, or a great volcanic eruption that occurs once in 200
years.
Who: Who suffers from a disaster? How high is the grade of disaster? How many
deaths, building damage or collapse? How much is the total loss?
5.4 HAZARD MAPPING FOR DISASTER PREVENTION

Hazard mapping is explained as “the process of establishing geographically,
where and to what extent, particular phenomena are likely to pose a threat to
people, property, infrastructure, and economic activities. Hazard mapping
represents the result of hazard assessment on a map, showing the frequency or
probability of occurrences of various magnitudes or occurrences”(DMTP, 1994).
3
Two parameters are used in hazard maps, event parameter (intensity of the
hazard), and site parameter (physical characteristics of the area), since the
physical characteristics of the area with respect to that particular hazard determine
the extent of losses that would be suffered in the event of an actual disaster. Event
parameters give the nature of the hazard and site parameters give the impact that
is likely in the event of a disaster.
As per Coburn Sspence and Pomonis in DMTP, 1994, event and site parameters
for prominent natural hazards are:
Natural Hazards Event Parameters Site Parameters
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Flood Area Flooded (Km ) Depth of Water (meters)
Volume of Water (m3)
Earthquake Energy Release (Magnitude) Intensity of Ground Shaking
(modified Mercalli /MSK
intensity) Peak Ground
Acceleration.
Volcano Eruption size and duration Potential to be affected by
ash coverage (m); lava; dust
fallout; debris flow
Strong Winds Wind velocity (Km/h) Area Wind velocity (km/hr)
Landslide Volume of material Potential for ground failure;
dislodged ground displacement
(meters)
Tsunami Height of wave crest Depth of flood water
(meters)
Drought Area affected (Km2) Rainfall deficit (mm)
A flood hazard map will show the maximum impact of floods with different
return periods superimposed on each other. This would give the probability of
occurrence along with the likely impact in different geographical settings.
A volcanic hazard map will give areas of variable risk, though it is comparatively
difficult to quantify volcanic hazard than other hazards. Areas closest to the
summit are permanently prohibited for habitation. Areas around a certain
diameter, for example, 20 km. are subject to pyroclastic (airborne volcanic debris)
surges and lahars (lava flows), which are subject to evacuation during eruptions.
Parts of lower slopes, which are possible mud flow paths; since satellite imagery
has made it possible to trace mud- flow paths based on observation through
remote sensing and past data analysis, are second danger areas.
The critical factor in the preparation of maps is availability of data pertaining to
past events with a view to preparing databases. Knowledge regarding spatial
distribution of some natural hazards, namely, earthquakes, floods and droughts is
now so advanced that it has been possible to account for minor variations in
involved variables like area or population ‘at risk’. Hence, it has been possible to
prepare micro-zonation maps, which give detailed information about the
susceptibility of different areas at risk from these hazards, even in case of multi-
hazard vulnerability of a given area.
According to Odaka (2002), the objective of a hazard map is to provide residents
with information about the range of possible damage and the disaster prevention
4
activities. It is important to provide residents with understandable, clear
information. There are two types of hazard maps:
Resident Education type: This type of map has the main objective to inform the
residents living within the damage forecast area of the risk of danger. The
information on areas of danger or places of safety and the basic knowledge on
disaster prevention are given to residents. Therefore, it is important that such
information is presented in an understandable form.
Administrative Information type: This type of map is used to provide residents
with information about the basic materials that the administrative agencies utilise
to provide disaster prevention services. These hazard maps can be used to
establish a warning system and the evacuation system as well as evidence for land
use regulations. They may be used in preventive works also.
There are certain constraints however in hazard mapping. One is security.
Detailed mapping with regard to information on transportation routes etc. are not
considered feasible from the security point of view. Second, following
information regarding vulnerability, there would be more pressure incident on
administrative authorities regarding preventive measures.
Post-Yokohama, India is committed to policy towards disaster prevention.
The Ministry of Urban Development and Poverty Alleviation, Government of
India (1994) constituted an Expert Group to study the following issues related
to impact of natural hazards particularly with respect to housing and
infrastructure:
• Need to identify vulnerable areas with reference to natural hazards
such as earthquakes, cyclones, floods, etc., having a potential of
damaging housing stock and related infrastructure.
• Preparation of a Vulnerability Atlas showing areas vulnerable to
natural disasters and determination of risk levels of houses.
• Formulation of a strategy for setting up Techno-legal regimes for
enforcing disaster resistant construction and planning practices in natural
hazard prone human settlements.
Accordingly, a National Policy was chalked out declaring the following
objectives:
• Creating Public Awareness about safety from Disasters
• Amending/Enacting legislation for safety from Hazards
• Planning development areas with safety from Hazards
• Protection of habitations from adverse hazard impacts
• Constructing new buildings safe from Hazards
• Retrofitting existing buildings for improving hazard resistance
Apart from a multi- hazard vulnerability map, detailed hazard maps for flood,
cyclone and wind hazards have been prepared. State wise hazard maps have been
prepared, which vividly describe the particular states’ vulnerability to a hazard.
For purpose of illustration, the following maps drawn from the Vulnerability
Atlas (BMTPC, 1994) give the vulnerability of the state of Gujarat, to floods,
earthquakes and cyclone hazards in that order.
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5.4.1 Information Technology For Disaster Prevention
Apart from hazard mapping, science and technology has greatly facilitated
disaster prevention planning. Information technology (IT) has revolutionized
communication, which has significant implications for disaster management.
6
A. Decision Support and Public Awareness
The World Wide Web and the Internet have opened up possibilities of department
specific web sites, which provide information in specialised branches of disaster
management. Some of these web sites are openly accessible to people which
disseminate valuable information for interest articulation and academic
deliberation which lead to fruitful policy. There are specialised web sites on
natural hazards such as earthquakes and cyclones that provide comprehensive
information regarding specific natural hazards. Such web sites also form
‘knowledge bases’ in that a web site on earthquakes would present all information
on the hazard and ways to deal with it. These serve as important decision support
tools that facilitate real time knowledge transfer from the emergency site.
B. Information Sharing
The Information Communication Revolution has made possible the setting up of
local area and wide area networks known as INTRANETS and EXTRANETS
that link up institutions over distant regions and facilitate information sharing
even on a global basis. The integration of information technology (IT) with
telecommunication interface modalities have made possible facilities like video
teleconferencing, which provide for direct interface between aid givers and
official agencies at the emergency site during real time emergencies. These also
provide for ‘knowledge networking’ across institutions, especially research
institutions that facilitates building data base for disaster prevention for different
regions during ‘peace times’.
Another significant development has been the Geographical Information System
(GIS), by which detailed spatial analysis of ‘at risk’ area is accomplished through
satellite imagery. Comprehensive information is collected about the area, which
can be displayed graphically, on a map. This helps in highlighting critical
facilities and communities at risk, available communication infrastructure for aid
provision etc. which guides immediate disaster response in the short run, and
facilitates risk mapping, risk assessment, dissemination of information, public
awareness etc. over the long run, which aid long term policy planning for disaster
mitigation. The GIS has greatly facilitated response effort as strategies can be
devised on the basis of scientific simulation studies and scenario analysis using
information through remote sensing. The India Meteorological Department
(IMD) has commissioned a satellite based communication system called Cyclone
Warning Dissemination System for quick dissemination of cyclone warning in
coastal areas in local languages.
C. Policy Planning
Information Technology has greatly aided planning for disaster response and
preparedness. Information technology has made policy for disaster risk reduction
more fact based and less judgemental /‘a priori’. Even generally, policy making
for traffic, transport, forest conservation, urban congestion etc is facilitated by
spatial imagery through remote sensing.
5.5 PLANNING FOR DISASTER PREVENTION
There is increasing understanding of the fact that disasters may not be unforeseen
events, as has been assumed until now. Advancements in technology now enable
authorities to identify the hazards that threaten a community and to estimate the
areas and the settlements that will be affected. One can then take steps to prevent
the disaster, or prepare for the disaster and substantially reduce, or mitigate, its
7
impact. These actions are known as pre-disaster planning.
As read in Lesson 1 of the University of Wisconsin course on Disaster

Prevention, Frederick Krimgold pioneered the early conceptualization of pre-
disaster planning, which he describes as follows:
”Planning may be defined as the process of preparing a set of decisions for action
in the future directed at achieving goals by optimal means. The stated goals of
disaster relief are the reduction of human suffering, the improvement of material
well- being, and the increase of personal security. It goes without saying that
these goals are best served if disaster, in the first place, can be avoided or
reduced. Thus, the primary goal of pre- disaster planning may be seen as the
prevention or mitigation of disaster. If we refer to the definition of disaster in
terms of the need for outside help, we may describe the goal of pre- disaster
planning as the creation of self-sufficiency in dealing with natural phenomena. In
those cases where prevention is not possible, the goal must be to plan for the
effective application of aid…”
Planning follows risk identification to secure a facility/area from likely risks. A
disaster plan is the result of a wide range of preliminary activities. Disaster
planning is conducted both at the micro (at the level of an institution, involving
instituting fire protection systems, electrical systems, plumbing, and protection
against environmental hazards etc.) and the macro levels, the objectives of which
are outlined as follows by Anil Sinha (2002):
• Forecasting, forewarning of disaster threat and providing the
institutional and organisational setup and logistics, personnel,
inventory, finances, etc., to achieve desired level of preparedness.
• Mobilisation of resources from internal and external sources.
• Taking organisational and administrative steps, including disaster
action plans, regular and periodic updating of plans and projects
securing institutional wherewithal to implement it, providing for a
horizontal and vertical coordination through a network of official and
non official agencies involved viz. government departments, civil
defence military and paramilitary organisations running through the
central, state and field levels.
• Placing on ground, well equipped modern forecasting and warning
system and reliable fast communication system.
• Generating capabilities for prompt and rapid rescue, relief and
rehabilitation work on the other.
• Proper planning for medical assistance and health cover would be a
critical requirement.
• Providing for other miscellaneous needs like stocking and distribution,
food, medicines, shelter, clothing, evacuation, transportation and long
term resettlement and rehabilitation of affected communities.
• Securing water management practices since provision of clean water is
often a problem and a necessity, post disasters.
• Government initiatives implying long term measures identified by the
central government, instituting intensive Training programmes,
8
building data based on documentation of disasters and lessons to be
learnt there from, and, dissemination of information.
• Integration of disaster management with overall development
planning.
• Improving public awareness.
• Investment in R&D, use of modern technology, particularly
information and remote sensing technologies.
Interventions Needed
• Evolve model integrated district/ institution wide disaster action plans that
include all types of disasters, natural and man made, viz. land slides,
accidents, earthquakes, etc., and cover all steps, namely preparedness,
mitigation, risk mapping, relief and rehabilitation;
• Evolve a model state plan to ensure a degree of uniformity of approaches,
actions and systems and their periodic updating, and,
• Training covering local industries and businesses to ensure better
implementation through cooperation of the private corporate sector and
the voluntary sector.
5.6 PREVENTION GUIDELINES IN CASE OF SELECTED

HAZARDS
A. Landslides
According to R.S. Tolia, Rakesh Sharma, R.K. Pande, and J.K Pathak (2001),
apart from natural causes like excessive rainfall, earthquakes, and changes in soil
slope composition, in structure, hydrology or vegetation, anthropogenic
interferences with the environment are also responsible for causing landslides.
For example in Uttarakhand, major landslides occur because of blasting carried
out for road cuttings. Other man- made factors are; construction of dams or
reservoirs, housing schemes, roads, agricultural practices on steep slopes etc.,
implemented without proper environmental impact assessments. Deforestation
also contributes to soil erosion. Even natural causes are not altogether beyond
control, if right impetus is given to research and requisite authority and say
granted to specialists. Preventive and remedial measures are studied within the
purview of environmental geomorphology. To prevent water-induced land
instability, the following measures are recommended (ESCAP IDNDR, 1999) as
per the Bangkok Meeting of the ESCAP:
• Preventing or diverting runoff flows around critical sites;
• De-watering sites using drainage systems;
• Planting trees or shrubs which remove sub-surface water by transpiration;
• Planting deep-rooted vegetation to bind sub-soil material;
• Underpinning foundations to stable rock;
• Battering slopes to stable grades;
• Constructing retaining walls along the toes of critical slopes.
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B. Cyclones
As per IDNDR ESCAP regional meeting (1999), the principal preventive
measures employed to mitigate the destructive and injurious effects of tropical
cyclones include the introduction of building design and construction standards
aimed at improved resistance to the damaging effects of wind and water.
Preventive measures include both structural measures such as channel
modifications, flood detention storages and levees or embankments which are
designed to reduce the incidence or extent of flooding, and non-structural
measures such as flood insurance, flood zoning restrictions, land-use
management, economic incentives, public information and community education.
To protect low-lying coastal areas, against damage from tidal inundation,
principal structural measures involve the construction of embankments strong
enough to withstand the anticipated storm surge heights and forces. Non-
structural measures employ land-use zoning and controls over occupation in high
hazard areas. Building controls are also imposed to restrict building on vulnerable
areas. These controls require that flood heights be set at a safe elevation above a
given datum.
Apart from warning systems, which are absolutely imperative, there is need for
second line unconventional communication infrastructure, since mainline
infrastructure is the first casualty in cyclones. Such facility is known as Amateur
Radio, which has emerged as one of the most important second line
communication systems during disasters. Though the facility as yet is not as
commonly applied in India as it is in Japan and other western developed nations,
the Andhra Pradesh government has taken considerable initiative in this regard.
The National Institute of Amateur Radio (NIAR) has established HAM radio
networks along the coastal belt of Andhra Pradesh. Other measures include
providing cyclone shelters at regular distances to help save lives, natural coastal
shelter belts like mangroves, trees like casuarinas, eucalyptus, tamarind, neem,
etc., which act as natural buffers, building concrete houses to withstand strong
winds and tidal waves, grains that do not shred easily in the face of strong winds,
and securing cooperation of local folks like fishermen providing training and
cooperation of community action groups, which is held imminent now for the
success of any measure. The Andhra Pradesh government has implemented all
these measures successfully. (Naidu, 2001)
C. Droughts
As per IDNDR ESCAP (1999), drought management measures can be considered
in two categories: large-scale measures and small scale or on-farm measures.
Large-scale surface-water conservation measures revolve around the provision of
large water storage reservoirs for the regulation of natural stream-flow and the
delivery of this water to critical areas, sometimes over considerable distances,
through irrigation, stock or domestic water supply systems. Experience with large
dam sites has not been particularly happy, especially in tropical countries, where
adverse environmental and socio- economic consequences have resulted, such as
waterlogging and salinity and large-scale displacement and loss of livelihoods for
the poor. The recommendation emanating from the conference in this regard was
that, where possible, large water storages should be designed and operated as
multi-purpose structures, incorporating where possible and appropriate, irrigation,
flood mitigation, power generation and recreational functions. These may not be
mutually consistent, so that multi-purpose design requires a compromise solution
based on the best overall net benefits to all potential users. Irrigation, stock and
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domestic water supply delivery and distribution systems should also be consistent
with ecological and cultural considerations in that proposed channel or pipeline
routes may traverse areas of natural significance, wildlife habitat or historical or
cultural value. Large agricultural tracts in the ESCAP region, in Australia, China,
India, Pakistan and Thailand have been degraded because of water logging and
salinity due to large irrigation projects. Hence, new irrigation areas need to be
carefully sited and selected keeping in consideration factors such as soil type,
nature of the underlying strata, quality of irrigation water to be used and provision
for proper drainage and disposal system. Good drainage takes care of the problem
of water logging and salinity. Drainage water may be too high in salinity for safe
disposal into a major watercourse, in which case an effective disposal process,
such as transpiration from an irrigated salt-tolerant woodland or evaporation from
an evaporation basin, could provide an effective solution. Besides, efficient
groundwater management is an urgent necessity. Problem of losses through
seepage and evaporation can be taken care of by structural measures like proper
control valves at vantage points, good pipeline delivery, temporary storage
arrangement at the delivery end, recharge arrangements of excess surface water
during floods etc. through permeable seepage arrangements.
Drought is a slow onset disaster. It can be controlled through timely action and
proper monitoring of the drought prone area through remote sensing. Citing the
report of the Central Soil and Water Conservation Research and Training
Institute, Dehradun, Alka Dhameja (2001) feels that topsoil erosion and rapid
deforestation is shrinking the supply of groundwater, leading to hydrocide or
death of rivers. Soil erosion is part of a wider environmental problem of
desertification which is explained as a “ a process of environmental degradation
that leads to the abandonment of irrigated fields and pasture lands because of
salinisation, water-logging or other forms of soil erosion. Dhameja recommends
revival of traditional water storage and harvesting systems such as the Kundis
(saucer shaped concrete structures used to store rainwater) of Rajasthan and the
Virdas (shallow wells dug in low depressions or jheels to collect water) and the
system of temple tanks, as was practiced widely in ancient times in South India
and even now exists in many places there.
Other recommended measures include, planting drought resistant seed varieties,
educating farmers in drought management and powers to the district magistrate
(DM) to intervene at the right time to relieve distress of farmers. It is also felt that
employment generation schemes should be formulated and run at the state level
instead of being dictated and controlled by the Centre, such as the State
Employment Guarantee Scheme in Maharashtra, since it would make timely
intervention on the part of the District Collector possible. The said scheme has
run successfully in Maharashtra.
D. Earthquakes
Though earthquakes cannot yet be predicted, drafting seismic codes, building
regulations to ensure adoption of earthquake resistant technology, retrofitting of
old structures that do not satisfactorily comply with safety regulations and
regulation of informal settlements like ‘jhuggis’ in hazard prone areas are some of
the preventive/mitigation measures that can be attempted. Proper town planning
and effective enforcement of legislation and codes for mitigation can effectively
prevent loss of life from earthquakes. For administrative preparedness for quick
response, regular drills of paramilitary forces, simulation studies, data collection
across quake-hit regions of the world with a view to diagnosing vulnerability can
11
minimize losses during earthquakes. Manpower planning would be required to
create specialist manpower to plan for and implement safe building measures.
E. Floods
Structural measures for flood prevention include construction of levees and
floodwalls. However, they create problems of drainage and seepage of water and
are also susceptible to breaches. Hence, structural safeguards, such as periodic
maintenance of levees, proper side slopes to minimise slumping, ample freeboard
to reduce overtopping of levees are required for desired protection. Other
structural measures are channel modifications to divert excess flow, permeable
groynes and revetments, constructed of piling, rock, concrete, fencing materials,
vegetation or other materials etc.
It is being realised that structural protection measures have unviable side effects
and limited utility. Hence, undesirable side effects of dams and embankments
have shifted focus to non-structural mitigation measures to prevent losses from
disasters. While dams result in large-scale displacement of populations and
environmental degradation of surrounding areas, embankments cause siltation and
water logging problems, creating fresh opportunities of floods rather than
preventing their occurrence. Floodwaters carry a heavy load of sediments, which
rise the riverbed overtime, making it necessary to raise the embankments to
contain the waters. Rainwater is also blocked from flowing into rivers naturally
because of embankments. Seepage of water underneath creates water logging in
adjoining areas (Kulshrestha, 2001). Experts now feel that total flood disaster
prevention is almost impossible in case of floods since costs involved are
prohibitive and information of all possible consequences difficult since
engineering know how is limited. Hence the focus is now on non -structural
measures which aim to reduce susceptibilities such as rehabilitation safeguarding
public health, better crop planning to derive maximum benefit from fertile flood
zones, regulation of construction in flood prone areas as per hazard assessment
and feasibility studies, disaster resistant communication infrastructure, proper
drainage in urban areas for flood mitigation, provision of flood insurance etc.
(Rangachari, 2001).
In case of structural mitigation measures, the emphasis is now on inter-regional
cooperation (for areas such as the Ganga –Brahmaputra- Meghna (GBM) Basin
covers India, Nepal, Bhutan and Bangladesh which are low income countries and
cannot afford disaster losses) in instituting early warning systems, sharing of
hydro-meteorological data, especially in downstream areas regarding upstream
water levels for better forecast of floods, warning, provision of drainage facilities
for easy discharge of excess water from dams and reservoirs, water harvesting for
dry seasons, water management through water storage in common river upstream
areas, regular monitoring of dams for regulating water storage and periodic
release of excess water; and statistical analysis for risk assessment and estimation
of the intensity and hazard occurrence probability with respect to common hazard
threats. To clarify further, as per Rangachari, the terrain of Nepal and Bhutan, as
well as the upper reaches of the GBM basin in India offer excellent sites for
possible storage of water. Bangladesh and the plains of India offer no such
facilities. Similarly, when the rivers emerge into the terrain/plains from the hills,
they spread out, spill and meander. Construction of embankments could create
political controversy. From an engineering perspective as well, cooperation would
be necessary between neighbouring countries for better dam and embankment
facilities and their maintenance.
12
Some Problems
Some problem areas in prevention arise from the traditional outlooks towards
natural disasters. There may be longstanding acceptance of hazards by
governments and communities. For instance a nation may have lived for centuries
with a recurring major flood problem. Therefore, the need for preventive
measures is not recognised. Also cost of some of the preventive measures can be
very high and thus these initiatives are completely ruled out. In addition there are
other national priorities, which are given more attention. Thus Disaster Prevention
may not receive importance in National Planning. Problems like political issues
and no public pressure on the government to take preventive measures add to the
lack of initiative at the national level in this regard.
Towards Prevention
The problem areas in disaster prevention tend to require various forms of counter
measures. However, the nature of disaster prevention is such that the measures
involved usually need to be implemented from the senior levels of government.
The population of a single community or area is unlikely to be able to institute,
for example, a, major flood prevention project (though such populations can
produce pressure through action groups and other means). The possible
approaches towards this therefore have to have these constraints in mind. Some of
the approaches may be:
National Policy: There is need for a clear and comprehensive national disaster
policy, which addresses the total disaster management spectrum, including
consideration of all aspects of prevention. Within this policy there must be
willingness on the part of government to institute preventive measures
regardless of their popularity or interest articulation in this regard.
Legislation: If necessary, there should be resort to legislation to implement
measures for prevention; for example, mandatory building codes.
Assessment and Monitoring: There should be adequate assessment and
monitoring of disaster hazards and vulnerability, so that the need for
prevention is accurately identified and defined. This should lead to accurate
evaluation of all reasonable disaster prevention projects. In this regard, it is
especially important that sensible cost benefit comparisons are worked out; to
know whether, by instituting preventive measures, the nation and community
is going to gain more (bearing in mind project costs), as against the losses
which may arise if nothing is done.
In this context, the establishment and maintenance of a permanent disaster
prevention section or centre can play a vitally important part because on
behalf of the government, the section/centre should keep a constant watch on
disaster management. Thus, it is able to identify the need for preventive
measures, whenever such need arises. It is then the responsibility of the
section/centre to advise the government with regard to needs in the disaster
prevention field, and the priorities, which should apply.
Furthermore, there should be insistence by the disaster prevention
section/center (on behalf of the government) that an effective post- disaster
13
review is undertaken after all major disaster events. This review must include
advice to government on whether, as a result of the particular disaster, further
preventive measures are warranted.
Public Awareness and Education: Public Awareness and Education
Programmes should ensure, among other things, that disaster-prone
communities are kept aware of risks and vulnerabilities, which may apply to
them. In this way, communities are likely to support the need for sensible
disaster prevention, if this becomes necessary.
International Assistance: The maintenance of a continuous dialogue with
international assistance agencies can also be of use. Such a dialogue helps to
ensure that any proposals concerning disaster prevention can be evaluated and
submitted to appropriate assistance agencies.
5.7 CHALLENGES FOR SOUTH ASIA

For long, the link between disasters and development had been overlooked. The
consequence has been a spate of uncontrolled disasters worldwide. Disaster
Prevention seeks to stress the significance of inbuilt strategies for disaster risk
reduction in everyday planning for development, such as construction technology
in hazard prone areas. Sahni and Ariyabandu (2003) outline the challenges in this
regard especially for the South Asian Community, which is among the more
vulnerable areas because of coupling of odds; physical vulnerability to natural
hazards and widespread poverty of the masses and lack of disaster awareness
among policy makers. There is a need to gradually integrate disaster risk analysis
into development plans. The process should desirably be bottom up by way of
infrastructure provision at the grass roots level such as water harvesting structures
in drought prone areas, reviving traditional methods of water preservation,
merging water shed management with forestry programmes, locally appropriate
early warning systems, shelters, etc. with active involvement of local community
based organisations coupled with generation of heightened awareness among
communities to utilising the same as an active policy measure. The International
Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR) programme/ document entails the
following stipulates by way of internationally agreed goals and objectives:
Goals
• Increase public awareness of the risks that natural, technological and
environmental hazards pose to modern societies.
• Obtain commitment by public authorities to reduce risks to people, their
livelihoods, and social and economic infrastructure and environmental
resources.
• Engage public participation at all levels of implementation to create
disaster resistant communities through increased partnership and
expanded risk reduction networks at all levels.
• Reduce the economic and social losses of disasters as measured, for
example, by Gross Domestic Product.
Objectives
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• Stimulate research and application, provide knowledge, convey
experience, build capabilities and allocate necessary resources for
reducing or preventing severe and recurrent impacts of hazards, for those
people who are most vulnerable.
• Increase opportunities for organisations and multi-disciplinary
relationships to foster more scientific and technical contributions to the
public decision-making process in matters of hazard, risk and disaster
prevention.
• Develop a more proactive interface between management of natural
resources and risk reduction practices.
• Form a global community dedicated to making risk and disaster
prevention a public value.
• Link risk prevention and economic competitiveness issues to enhance
opportunities for greater economic partnerships.
• Complete comprehensive risk assessments and integrate them with
development plans.
• Develop and apply risk reduction strategies and mitigation measures with
supporting arrangements and resources for disaster prevention at all levels
of activity.
• Identify and engage designated authorities, professionals drawn from the
widest possible range of expertise and community leaders to develop
increased partnership activities.
• Establish risk monitoring capabilities, and early warning systems as
integrated processes, with particular attention to emerging hazards with
global implications such as those related to climate variation and change,
at all levels of responsibility.
• Develop sustained programmes of public information and institutionalised
educational components pertaining to hazards and their effects, risk
management practices and disaster prevention activities for all ages.
• Establish internationally and professionally agreed
standards/methodologies for the analysis and expression of the socio-
economic impacts of disasters on societies.
• Seek innovative funding mechanisms dedicated to sustained risk and
disaster prevention activities.
In this regard, controlling corruption in the implementation of well- meaning
schemes is the key factor in controlling vulnerabilities through well-
intentioned policy intervention on the part of the government. For instance as
brought out by Janki Andharia (2003), in India vulnerability to disasters is
high, especially as people, lack basic facilities like safe/clean drinking water,
adequate housing/shelter, schools, hospitals, roads et al. Existing vulnerability
is exacerbated/turned to active risk by improprieties like illegally tapping
electricity, which crates conditions for fire outbreaks, dumping radioactive
and other hazardous waste in rivers against regulations, which creates active
threat to peoples’ lives and well being, and other such willful omissions and
commissions on the part of people with or without connivance of official
functionaries which result in malpractices potently threatening life and
15
property over the impacted area/populace. Curbing malpractices would
require proactive policy in this regard with active cooperation of the people.
Citing Cernea (1992), Janki Andharia (2003) brings out the constraints in
articulating the possibility. People centered development and top-down
planning are mutually contradictory, in that they offer two opposing
paradigms and hence, difficult choices. The paradox is explained by the
following three factors or constraints in desired reconciliation between the
government centered and people centered approaches as articulated by
Andharia:
• The expanding role of the public sector in launching programmes
which discourages popular participation since there is no
commensurate effort to evolve mechanisms to involve people.
• The growth of international aid, which amplifies government
programmes, while “increasing the distance between the progamme’s
center and periphery”;
• The recurrent failure in public programmes due to alienation of
intended beneficiaries.
The challenge is to institutionalise people centered approaches in the
‘monopolistic environment’ where the government is the sole provider of
public services generally, also, specifically for those related to disaster
relief /mitigation. There is need for peoples’ involvement in disaster
prevention activities, specifically, since people need to be aware of the
vulnerabilities and also of what is being/needs to be done to ameliorate the
situation with regard to susceptibilities, physical, economic and social to
natural or man-made or any other hazard(s). To that end, right to
information and social activism on the part of people or ‘organised
volunteerism’ with regard to specific issues/concerns. For example, the
foundations of buildings need to be elevated as a general rule in flood
prone zones, and likewise, as per requirements with regard to other
hazards in different areas. There has to be intense articulation in this
regard and sufficient pressure/lobbying for concrete policy, which is
unfortunately lacking in third world countries where people are found to
be largely passive with regard to their rights and there is not enough
activism on their behalf on the part of civil society since level of political
development is low. Hence, active institutionalisation of social capital
inherent in communities on the part of government can empower
communities and give them the channel for articulating their grievances.
There have been encouraging beginnings however, as, following the Latur
Earthquake, the Government of Maharashtra launched the Maharashtra
Emergency Earthquake Rehabilitation Programme (MEERP) in which one
of the most progressive features was the importance given to community
participation (MEERP Information Brochure, 1998).
Participation is desired, as per Cohen and Uphoff (1977) read in Andharia
(2003), with regard to/ in:
• Decision-making, since policy has to ideally respond to articulated
concerns, which involves, identifying problems, formulating
alternatives, planning activities, allocating resources, etc.
16
• Implementation of programmes, carrying out activities with
catalytic assistance from the state, managing and operating
programmes, partaking of services etc.
• Procuring/Deriving benefits, individually and/or collectively.
• Evaluating the activity and its outcomes with bearing on the above
stated preceding activities, viz. planning, implementation and
availing benefits.
Hence project planning for rehabilitation and development must have the
aforesaid built- in features and the onus for the same lies on the project planners
and the politicians since political will to empower passive communities is a major
factor/constraint as has been brought out in researches. Onus for the same is on
project planners who are sometimes reluctant at delegating responsibility or
parting with authority, more pertinently, and on politicians who are diffident for
their own reasons about empowering people.
5.8 IMPLICATIONS FOR HUMANITARIAN & DEVELOPMENT
AGENCIES
Five key reasons why disaster prevention and preparedness (DPP) is important for
humanitarian and development agencies to address are:
1. Disaster risk reduction is one of the biggest neglected development issues.
Since it falls between “emergency” and the “development”, it is ignored on
both counts and misunderstand in both respects. Yet it serves both purposes,
and can provide a powerful force for good governance.
2. Undertaking large development programmes without consideration of

disasters is bad practice. In Bangladesh, reportedly, recent floods have
destroyed ten years of development. The same holds true of the recent
cyclone in Honduras. Smaller everyday disasters, example. fires in markets
also contribute to mounting losses.
3. Humanitarian agencies and their donors have invested huge resources in

emergency response and reconstruction. Why not invest more in prevention?
4. DPP provides a ‘bridge’ between relief and development. Probably the

strongest argument for addressing DPP lies in this. The language of
vulnerability and capacity is the same language of disaster as it is of
development
5. New tools for existing problems. If the argument against DPP is that it is
being done under other names, then the counter argument is that by focusing
interventions according to DPP, new solutions may occur. For example,
community interventions addressing a hazard, for example, a flood or fire, can
provide a perceived neutral threat that all stakeholders mobilise around,
which can lead to other development related spin offs.
17
5.9 CONCLUSION
Disaster Prevention and Preparedness is an integrated approach, which requires

planned commitment on the part of governments. Prevention means measures
designed to prevent natural phenomenon from causing or resulting in disaster or
other related emergency situations. It concerns the formulation and
implementation of long-range policies and programmes to prevent and eliminate
the occurrence of disasters. On the basis of vulnerability analysis of all risks,
prevention includes legislation and regulatory measures, principally in the fields
of physical and urban planning, public works and building. Preparedness on the
other hand means actions designed to minimize loss of life and damage to
property, and to organize and facilitate timely and effectively rescue, relief and
rehabilitation in case of an event. A well-planned, well-implemented and well-
coordinated Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Plan can considerably reduce
the damage and destruction due to disasters
5.10 KEY CONCEPTS

Disaster: Disaster is defined as “a serious disruption of the
functioning of a society causing widespread human,
material, or environmental losses which exceed the
ability of the affected society to cope using its own
resources” (ISDR).
Disaster Prevention: Disaster Prevention is understood as the process of
surveying the work place, identifying areas or
situations which might cause or contribute to a
disaster, and taking action to eliminate or minimize
the areas or situations
(www.epa.gov/records/tools/toolkits/vital/b.htm).
Groynes: Groynes protrude into the channel and are designed
to divert flow away from the bank, whilst at the
same time causing an accumulation of sediment
along the toe of the bank and on the downstream
side of the groyne structure (ESCAP IDNDR,
1999).
Hazard: Hazard is “a phenomenon that poses a threat to
people, structures or economic assets and which
may cause a disaster. It could be either manmade
or naturally occurring in our environment” (ISDR).
Preparedness: The United Nations Disaster Relief Office
(UNDRO) uses the following definition for Disaster
Preparedness:
“Disaster Preparedness may be described as (a
series of) measures designed to organise and
facilitate timely and effective rescue, relief and
rehabilitation operations in cases of
disaster…Measures of Preparedness include, among
others, setting up disaster relief machinery,
18
formulation of emergency relief plans, 5 training of
specific groups (and vulnerable communities) to
undertake rescue and earmarking funds for relief
operation” It therefore concerns immediate
measures to reduce risk just before, during and after
a disaster, and is defined as “measures, which
enable governments, organisations, communities
and individuals to respond rapidly and effectively to
disaster situations.”
Revetments: Revetments, on the other hand, are constructed
along or parallel to the bank, where they serve to
reduce the velocity of flow along the bank, thus
reducing bank erosion and allowing the riverbank to
stabilise (ESCAP IDNDR, 1999).
Risk Reduction: Disaster Management Training Programme
(DMTP, 1994) defines risk reduction as “long-term
measures to reduce the scale and/or the duration of
eventual adverse effects of unavoidable or
unpreventable disaster hazards on a society which is
‘at- risk’ by reducing the vulnerability of its people,
structures, and economic activities to the impact of
known disaster hazards. Typical risk reduction
measures include improved building standards,
flood plain zoning and land use planning, crop
diversification and planning windbreaks. The
measures are frequently subdivided into structural
and “non- structural,” active and passive measures”.
Disaster Mitigation, Prevention and Risk Reduction
have been used interchangeably, more or less to
refer to similar activities.
Vulnerability: Vulnerability is defined as “the extent to which a
community, structure, service, or geographic area is
likely to be damaged or disrupted by the impact of a
particular hazard, on account of its nature,
construction and proximity to hazardous terrain or a
disaster prone area.” (ISDR).

Andharia, Janki, 2003, “Disaster Risk Reduction through Development
Orientation in Disaster Management: The Significance of Peoples’ Participation
in India”, in Pardeep Sahni and Madhavi Malalgoda Ariyabandu (Eds), Disaster
Risk Reduction in South Asia, Prentice-Hall of India, New Delhi.
BMTPC, 1994, Disaster Mitigation & Vulnerability Atlas of India: A Paradigm
Shift From Post-Disaster Reconstruction & Relief to Pre-Disaster Pro-Active
Approach at http://www.bmtpc.org/object.htm
Coburn, Sspence, Pomonis, 1994, “Vulnerability and Risk Assessment”, 2nd
edition, Disaster Management Training Programme, UNDP.
19
Damen, M.C.J and C.J. Van Westen, 2002, “Modeling cyclone hazard in
Bangladesh",
Department of Earth Resources Surveys, International Institute for Geo-
Information Science and Earth Observation (ITC), at
http://www.itc.nl/ilwis/default.asp
Dhameja, Alka, 2001, “Drought and Floods: A Case for Dying Wisdom”, in
Pardeep Sahni, Alka Dhameja and Uma Medury (Eds), Disaster Mitigation:
Experiences and Reflections, Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi.
Disaster Management: A Disaster Manager’s Handbook, 1991, Asian
Development Bank, Manila.
“Hazard Mapping and Vulnerability Assessment”, at
http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/APCITY/UNPAN009857
.pdf.
Kulshrestha, S.M., 2001, “Floods, Embankments and Dams,” in Pardeep Sahni,

Alka Dhameja, Uma Medury (Eds.), Disaster Mitigation: Experiences and
Reflections, Prentice-Hall of India, New Delhi.
Naidu, Raghavulu B., 2001, “Disaster Mitigation Measures for Cyclone Prone
Areas of Andhra Pradesh,” in Pardeep Sahni, Alka Dhameja and Uma Medury
(Eds.), Disaster Mitigation: Experiences and Reflections, Prentice-Hall of India,
New Delhi.
Rangachari, R, 2001, “ Disaster Preparedness and Mitigation in Flood
Management: Cooperation and Networking Among Countries”, in Pardeep Sahni,
Alka Dhameja and Uma Medury (Eds.), Disaster Mitigation: Experiences and
Reflections, Prentice-Hall of India, New Delhi.
Report of the High Powered Committee for Preparation of Disaster Management
Plans, 2001, Government of India, New Delhi.
Sahni, Pardeep and Madhavi Malalgoda Ariyabandu (Eds), 2003, “Introduction,”
Disaster Risk Reduction in South Asia, Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi.
Sharma, Vinod K. (Programme Director), 1998, Training Workshop on
Vulnerability and Preparedness, National Center for Disaster Management,
Indian Institute of Public Administration, New Delhi.
Sinha, Anil, 2002, “Disaster Management: Lessons Drawn and Strategies for the
Future”, Paper Presented in the Training Programme on Disaster Management at
the Department of Public Administration, University of Lucknow.
Tolia, R.S, Rakesh Sharma, R.K. Pande and J.K. Pathak, 2001, “Landslide
Problems in the Uttarakhand Region”, Pardeep Sahni, Alka Dhameja, Uma
Medury (Eds), Disaster Mitigation: Experiences and Reflections, Prentice-Hall of
India, New Delhi.
Udono, Toshiaki, 2002, Regional Workshop on Total Disaster Risk Management
ADRC Annual Report No.5, 2002, at
http://www.adrc.or.jp/publications/annual/02/02eng/Chapter2-2_E.p
20
“Water Hazards, Resources and Management for Disaster Prevention:
A Review of the Asian Conditions”, IDNDR 1991-1999, IDNDR-ESCAP
Regional Meeting for Asia: Risk Reduction & Society in the 21st Century
Bangkok, 23-26 February 1999.
University of Wisconsin, Disaster Management Centre Course on Natural
Hazards: Causes and Effects: Lesson 1: “Introduction to Natural Hazards”, at
http://www.dmc.engr.wisc.edu/courses
5.12 ACTIVITIES
1. List and discuss the possible damage that may happen in your city or
village due to any natural disaster. Also suggest measures to prevent each
of the damage.
2. Discuss how Disaster Prevention and Preparedness can be planned and
implemented at local (city / village level), National and International level.
21
UNIT 6 VULNERABILITY ANALYSIS AND RISK
ASSESSMENT
Structure
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Understanding Vulnerability
6.3 Vulnerability and Capacity
6.4 Vulnerability Analysis
6.5 Risk Assessment
6.6 Conducting Risk Assessment
6.7 Risk Mapping
6.8 Conclusion
6.9 Key Concepts
6.11 Activities

• Discuss the concepts of vulnerability and risk;
• Examine the principles of vulnerability analysis and risk assessment
processes;
• Discuss the need and the means for carrying out rapid assessments; and
• Understand the processes from the point of view of development
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Vulnerability is the extent to which people or buildings are likely to suffer harm
from a disaster, while risk is the likely quantified losses that would result
considering the probability and intensity of a hazard. As such, risk also includes
an element of hazard, the natural or man-made event that can lead to a disaster if
there is high vulnerability. In order to initiate programmes for reducing risk in
any community, it is necessary to understand specific vulnerabilities and to weigh
the resilience against the threats present in the area. This involves a series of
steps, the major ones being the assessment and analysis of vulnerability and risk.
This should influence public policy for immediate and long-term preparedness,
mitigation and vulnerability reduction. Vulnerability and risk assessments are
both science and art since quantitative assessments of probability of risks and
likely damage are attempted using mathematical techniques. Socio-economic
study with a view to studying communities and specific factors that make them
1
vulnerable, is attempted using the insights provided by such assessments and
effective transformation attempted through policy. It is especially important to
recognise that this social vulnerability is much more than the likelihood of
buildings collapsing or infrastructure getting damaged. It is about the
characteristics of people, and the differential impacts of a disaster on people.
6.2 UNDERSTANDING VULNERABILITY
To conduct vulnerability analysis, we need a clear idea about what Vulnerability
is. Vulnerability is defined in the United Nations Disaster Management Training
Programme (1994) as the “degree of loss to a given element at risk (or set of
elements) resulting from a given hazard and a given severity level.” The concept
of vulnerability can be assessed at various levels and from diverse perspectives.
Both physical scientists and social scientists are involved in conceptualising
vulnerability. There has also been growing specialisation in the respective fields
of hazard and vulnerability assessment. While specialisation is welcome, there is
an inherent danger of increased isolation among respective specialists in physical
science and social science streams and even across the two broad categorizations
in that even within the broad specialisation of physical sciences and social
sciences, perspectives are likely to differ with respect to emphasis areas as per
super/sub specialisations. Hence an engineer or a scientist/researcher in related
fields is likely to perceive vulnerability more in terms of Risk, while a climate
scientist, in terms of the likelihood of occurrence and impacts of weather and
climate related events. The biophysical concept of vulnerability is akin to the
concept of ‘Risk’ while the social science perspective defines it more in terms of
socio economic parameters. Experts from the following fields are involved in
study and analyses of vulnerability; climate science, policy development studies,
economics, disaster management, health, and social sciences along with others.
According to Nick Brooks (2003), each of these relates only themselves to a
partial understanding of vulnerability. There is a need to rise above specialisations
and take an across- the- board, interdisciplinary and cross-cultural view of the
issue of vulnerability to present a more complete and holistic analysis of
vulnerability for meaningful interest articulation and policy formulation in the
area. Physical vulnerability has also to be understood in the context of political
conflict, issues of class struggle, unequal access to power and social
backwardness to formulate comprehensive vulnerability reduction approach. The
same should be attempted by integrating, through a conceptual model, through
research, these different and diverse “traditions in a coherent yet flexible
fashion.”
The attempt on the part of all involved specialists/academics is to get closer to the
root causes of vulnerability. The closer the analysis gets to the fundamental
causes rather than the symptomatic aspects of vulnerability, the more difficult and
complex vulnerabilities get/are in fact to address. However, the more
fundamental the vulnerability addressed, the more hazard-resistant the vulnerable
group is likely to become as a result.
As per Terry Cannon (2000), Social vulnerability is the complex set of
characteristics that include a person’s:
• initial well-being (nutritional status, physical and mental health, morale),
• livelihood and resilience (asset pattern and capitals, income and exchange
options, qualifications,
2
• self-protection (the degree of protection afforded by capability and
willingness to build safe home, use safe site),
• social protection (forms of hazard preparedness provided by society more
generally, for example, building codes, mitigation measures, shelters,
preparedness), and
• social and political networks and institutions (social capital, but also role
of institutional environment in setting good conditions for hazard
precautions, peoples’ rights to express needs and of access to
preparedness).
In most vulnerability analysis methods, there is a clear sense of comparability and
convergence in the analysis of vulnerability factors (encompassing the different
components of vulnerability discussed above). There is also a vivid realisation
that vulnerability conditions are themselves determined by processes and factors
that are apparently quite different from a hazard, which is mistakenly held
singularly responsible for losses. These root causes, or institutional factors, or
more general, political, economic and social processes and priorities are
highlighted in much of the vulnerability analysis work that has been done. As
peoples’ livelihood and wider political and economic processes determine
opportunities and their patterns of assets and incomes, vulnerability to disasters is
also a function of this wider environment. All the vulnerability variables are
inherently connected with peoples’ livelihoods (lower vulnerability is likely when
livelihoods are adequate and sustainable), and their innate resilience related with
issues such as poverty (in most disasters) since, it is mostly the poor who are
disproportionately more at risk than other groups, and much less capable of
recovering easily.
Related concepts are sensitivity, resilience and adaptive capacity. Sensitivity
refers to the degree of proneness of a particular ‘element at risk’ to a particular
threat, such as climate risk, land degradation etc. Sensitivity would refer to the
degree of change that would be brought about as response in one variable that is
correlated to the other. Assessing Sensitivity would involve working out the
correlation. Resilience is explained as fortitude in the face of a potential threat. In
one word, it means resistance. Adaptive capacity refers to preparedness through
an ancillary way in that it means how much absorption capacity is here or is
needed by policy intervention in this regard, specifically what, in order to
withstand natural changes and how to adapt to them. For example, retreat of
glaciers in the Himalayas due to global warming, or changes in harvest seasons
that could be possible (grain suffers due to early summer) would need to be
tackled through adaptation measures such as resistant varieties of seeds, manures,
innovative irrigation techniques, etc.
To understand differential vulnerability of different segments of population in a
given area exposed in the same measure to a given hazard, it is important to
inquire into the differential causes of vulnerability. It encompasses poverty,
marginalisation, or other deprivations that accentuate the vulnerability to climate
risks or specific biological hazards that affect particularly the sections of the
population who are disadvantaged, ‘at risk’, or in other ways in need.
Vulnerability involves a predictive quality since it is a way of conceptualising
what may happen to an identifiable population under conditions of particular
hazards. Precisely, because it should be predictive, vulnerability analysis (VA)
should be capable of directing development aid interventions, as also public
3
policy interventions on the part of governments seeking ways to protect and
enhance peoples’ livelihoods, assist vulnerable people in their own attempts at
self-protection, and support institutions in their role of disaster prevention.
6.3 VULNERABILITY AND CAPACITY

There appears to be two separate approaches to Vulnerability Analysis. The first
conceives of them being the two ends of a spectrum, so that people who have a
high degree of vulnerability are low in capacity and vice versa. In this approach,
there is no ‘separate set of factors’ that should be considered as vulnerability
factors or capacities or capabilities; there are simply scales on which high levels
of capacity axiomatically indicate low level of vulnerability. The second
perceives them as two distinct or only partly inter-related sets of factors since
capacity might include institutional membership, group cohesion, or even literacy,
which positions people better to cope with adverse conditions, in relation to
others, vulnerabilities notwithstanding. The implication is that some capacities
may not always be the opposite of vulnerabilities, in that being part of a particular
network may be a capacity, or a denial of capacity to others, as is the case with
cohesion norms based on caste behaviour in India. This is not to construe that the
term vulnerability cannot imply capacities as scalar ‘opposites’. Different
conception is simply purported to facilitate conceptual understanding of
vulnerability, not to confuse it in any way.
The use of the concept of capabilities emerged in response to the supposedly
negative connotation of the term vulnerability, and has been especially stressed in
the World Disasters Report, 2004. Instead of Vulnerability and Capacity
Analysis, or VCAs, the term employed now is CVA or Capacity and
Vulnerability Analysis, signifying the change in approach from vulnerability
reduction to capacity enhancement, as policy focus/emphasis. It has been realised
that a lot more effectiveness in disaster response and mitigation could be achieved
if the emphasis shifted from tackling vulnerabilities singly, to reinforcing
capacities that enable communities to fight disasters and recover after suffering
losses from any such event. It was suggested that to speak of people as being
vulnerable was to treat them as passive victims and ignore the many capacities
that make them competent to resist hazards through self-help.
If we accept that measuring vulnerability includes any factor or process that can
alter the ‘exposure’ of a person or household to risk, then capacities can also be
considered as factors that lead to greater danger (vulnerability) when they are
low, and reduced danger when they are high. As per Palakudiyil and Todd (2003),
Vulnerability/Capacity could be physical/material, social/organisational/ or
motivational/attitudinal.
Physical/Material Vulnerability and Capacity: The most visible area of
vulnerability is physical/material deprivation. Variables include land, climate,
environment, health, skills and labour, infrastructure, housing, finance and
technologies to which the poor are denied access. Poor people suffer from crises
more often than the rich because they have little or no savings, few income or
production options, and limited resources. They are more vulnerable and also
recover more slowly. To understand physical/material vulnerability, one has to
ask what made the people affected by the disaster physically vulnerable, in that
was it their economic activities (for example, farmers cannot plant because of
4
floods), or geographic location (for example. homes built in cyclone-prone areas)
or lack of access to relief resources that made them suffer particularly.
Social/Organisational Vulnerability and Capacity: How society is organised, its
internal conflicts and how it manages them are just as important as the
physical/material aspects of vulnerability, though less visible and less well
understood. This includes ‘formal political structures’ and the ‘informal systems’
through which people get politically empowered/ socially networked which is a
capacity/vulnerability, however the case, which determines access to relief in
disaster times and to livelihood means in general. For example, during the recent
tsunami, it was realised that aid did not reach many because of caste seclusion.
Hence, constitutional provisions/guarantees provided in the Constitution under
articles, 14, 15, 16, 17, 21, that safeguard the rights of the socially marginalised
would need to be invoked in future in such possibilities.
Poor societies that are well- organised and cohesive can withstand or recover
from disasters better than those that are ill- organised or lacking in cohesion on
some irrational principle as divisiveness on race, religion, and class or caste lines.
To explore this aspect in depth with a view to inquiring into the causes of
vulnerability, one has to ask what the social structure was before the disaster
struck and how well it served the people in relief and recovery; one can also ask
what apocalyptic impact disasters had on social organisation, since there has been
evidence of attitudes changing or even new ‘permutations and combinations’
emerging in social alignments in post-disaster situations. This underscores the
significance of research into social networks/attitudes and how improvements
could be affected, possibly through policy interventions to reinforce/discourage
behaviour as aforestated
Motivational/Attitudinal Vulnerability and Capacity: This implies how people in
society view themselves and their ability to protect themselves in the event of
disasters. Groups that share strong ideologies or belief systems, or have
experience in cooperating successfully, may be better able to help each other at
times of disaster than groups without such shared beliefs or those who feel
fatalistic or dependent. Crises can stimulate communities to make extraordinary
efforts. Questions to be asked include; what people’s beliefs and motivations are
how they affect their behaviour during disasters. The more pertinent question
would be: what is the general worldview, implying culture, in that whether
communities place reliance on some metaphysical regulation of life or believe in
human action. Public policy intervention in this case would need to aim at
changing attitudes within communities, since such attitudes could be counter-
productive. Long-term measures in this respect would be education of the masses,
through which cognitive development could be achieved.
6.4 VULNERABILITY ANALYSIS

Once knowledge is gained of the threats in existence, their expected severity and
locations at risk, an understanding of what can be affected by these threats and to
what degree, is required for ameliorative policy in this regard. This activity is
termed vulnerability assessment and is defined as:
5
“The analysis of the vulnerability of various sectors that are exposed to the
natural hazards identified in the hazard analysis exercises. The sectors include
social, livelihoods, economic, physical assets, agriculture, political and
administration.” (DMTP, 1994).
Vulnerability, as has been explained earlier, is the extent to which a community,
structure, service or region is likely to be damaged or disrupted by the impact of a
particular hazard. People’s lives and health are directly at risk from the
destructive effects of hazards. Their incomes and livelihoods are at risk because
of the destruction of buildings, crops, livestock or equipment, which they depend
on. Even if physical loss is avoided, the effects on livelihood, etc. can last a long
time, and often, previous levels of existence are not re-attained; for example, fire
in an informal market may not kill anybody, yet may destroy goods and therefore
livelihoods of market traders. Thus vulnerability assessment aims not just to
recognise who is immediately affected but also who is most or least able to
recover from disasters.
The objective of vulnerability assessment is in particular, to identify who is most
/more vulnerable and why.
Vulnerability Analysis implies/reinforces the political economy approach to
disaster management in that on the state is enjoined the responsibility to undertake
as a vanguard, mobilising efforts for structural mitigation measures for hazard
prevention and create the environment for non-structural mitigation measures
through actions such as institutionalising/strengthening social capital to foster
community self help etc. Tokyo, Japan, and Managua, Nicaragua, are prone to
earthquakes. But the people of Tokyo are far less vulnerable to injury by
earthquakes because Tokyo has strictly enforced building codes, zoning regulations
and earthquake training and communications systems. In Managua, there are still
many people living in top-heavy mud houses on hillsides. They are vulnerable.
Landslides or flooding disasters are closely linked to rapid and unchecked
urbanisation that forces low-income families to settle on the slopes of steep
hillsides or ravines, or along the banks of flood-prone rivers.
Famines can be closely linked to shortages of purchasing power caused by rural
unemployment or a sudden influx of refugees into a country from a strife-torn
neighbouring country.
High numbers of deaths accompanying earthquakes almost always result from
structural collapse of poor, low-cost houses.
In other disasters, such as cyclones and tsunamis, humans can increase their
vulnerability by removing bits of their natural environment that may act as buffers
to these extreme natural forces. Such acts include destroying reefs, cutting natural
windbreaks and clearing inland forests.
The poor countries that suffer the worst disasters are those in which
environmental degradation is proceeding most rapidly. Countries with severe
deforestation, erosion, over cultivation and overgrazing tend to be hardest hit by
disasters.
Natural hazards are agents or trigger mechanisms that can come into contact with
a vulnerable human condition to result in a disaster.
Process of Vulnerability Analysis
6
Each type of hazard puts a different/specific set of ‘elements’ at risk. Most of
disaster mitigation work is focused on reducing vulnerability, and in order to do
so, development planners need an understanding and indication of which
elements are most at risk from the principal hazards, which have been identified.
Vulnerability assessment to hazards usually takes place in the following two-stage
sequence:
1. Making an inventory of what is at risk: Once the possibility of hazards in any
location or area is known, it is necessary to find out what may be affected by
them. Thus base line data is required on the following:
• Population; age, gender, health
• Livelihoods; types, locations
• Local economies
• Agriculture and fisheries
• Buildings
• Infrastructure
• Cultural assets (that is, libraries, museums, historic buildings etc.)
• Local institutions
2. Assessing the vulnerability of elements at risk: After an inventory has been

prepared of the elements at risk, further examination is required as to how
they will be affected by hazards to make accurate assessment of the risk. It
should be noted that whilst a quantification of the elements existing in any
location is relatively straightforward, an assessment of how they will be
affected in a hazard event is harder to assess. It is important to note that it
is often the case that the ‘intangible’ aspects of vulnerability will be as
important as the quantifiable aspects. These should include the evaluation
of socio-economic vulnerability and individual or societal "coping
mechanisms" as well as support systems, which allow some people to cope
with the impact of a hazard and recover from them comparatively faster.
Tangible and Intangible Vulnerable Elements

PRINCIPAL VULNERABLE ELEMENTS
Tangible Intangible
Floods Everything located in flood Social cohesion, community
plains or tsunami areas. structures cohesion, cultural
Crops, livestock, artifacts
machinery, equipment,
infrastructure Weak
buildings
7
Weak buildings and Social cohesion, community
Earthquakes occupants. Machinery and structures cohesion, cultural
their equipment, artifacts
infrastructure. Livestock.
Contents of weak buildings
Landslides Anything located on or at Social cohesion, community
base of steep slopes or cliff structures cohesion, cultural
tops, roads and artifacts
infrastructure, buildings on
shallow foundations
Strong winds Lightweight buildings and Community structures,
roofs. Fences, trees, signs; social cohesion, cultural
fishing boats and coastal artifacts
industries, Crops and
livestock.
Technological Lives and health of those Destruction of the
disasters involved or near the environment. Cultural
vicinity. Building, losses. Possible population
equipment, infrastructure, disruption.
crops and livestock
(Adapted from Primer on Natural Hazard Management, OFDA, 1991)
The most difficult vulnerabilities to address are based on exclusion from social,
economic and political systems, which often decisively determine
capacities/vulnerabilities of people, since these are rooted in the history and
culture of the people. These vulnerabilities may reflect characteristics such as
prejudices based on race, gender, religion, ethnicity, social class, age, etc. These
most fundamental vulnerabilities limit people’s access to resources, opportunities,
services, information and ultimately deny people choice in control over their
lives.
Vulnerability assessment is therefore another complex data collection process to
determine what ‘elements’ are ‘at risk’. These include social, economic and
natural and physical factors. It is always a 'site-specific’ process with a concern
for unique characteristics of a local situation and will always require local
expertise and experience.
6.5 RISK ASSESSMENT

The term ‘risk’ refers to the expected losses from a given hazard to a given
element at risk, over a specified time period. Difference between the
understanding of ‘Risk’ and ‘Vulnerability’ as explained in DMTP (1994) needs
to be noted. Risk combines the expected losses from all levels of hazard severity,
taking account also of their occurrence probability. Vulnerability is the loss to a
given ‘element at risk’ resulting from a given hazard at a given severity level
expressed as a percentage expressed as a percentage loss (or as value, 0 to 1) for a
given hazard severity level. Expression would depend on the element at risk;
accordingly, repair cost for physical infrastructure damaged, ratio in case of
number killed to total ‘at risk’ population, or degree of physical damage on some
8
appropriate scale. For example, average repair cost of 5% experiencing 130km/hr
winds.
Risk presentation is done in aggregate terms as, for example, 75% probability of
economic losses to property experiencing heavy damage or destruction in the
particular town within the next ten years.
Risk assessment is defined as:
"A process of analysis to identify and measure risks from natural hazards that
affect people, property and the environment. This process can also encompass the
assessment of available resources to address the risks."
(Vulnerability and Risk Assessment, DMTP, UNDP, 1994)
Risk assessment forms a crucial early phase in the disaster management planning
cycle and is essential in determining what disaster mitigation measures should be
undertaken to reduce potential future losses. Any attempt to reduce the impact of
a disaster requires an analysis that indicates what ‘threats’ exist, their expected
severity, who, or what they may affect, and why. Knowledge of what makes a
person or a community more vulnerable than another, added to the resources and
capacities available, determine the steps we can take to reduce risk they are
exposed to. Recognition of the need for this diagnostic process is contained in the
first principle from the IDNDR, 1994 Yokohama “World Conference on Natural
Disaster Reduction” which states:
“Risk assessment is a required step for the adoption of adequate and successful
disaster reduction policies and measures” (Outcome of the Conference, Document
A/Conf.172/L.2, page 3, 1994).
Risk assessment is carried out as a series of related activities, which builds up a
picture of the hazards and vulnerabilities, which explain disaster losses.
Information is first collected on the specific location, severity, duration and
frequency of threats that are faced by a society. This is followed by an assessment
of potential hazard impacts on the society’s livelihoods, economy, infrastructure
and key facilities, etc. The scale of these impacts will always be conditioned by
those processes, which either increase or decrease vulnerability, which may be
economic, social, political or environmental.
Risk assessment has two central components:
1) Hazard Analysis: understanding the scale, nature and characteristics of a
hazard; and
2) Vulnerability Analysis: the measuring of the extent to which people or
buildings are likely to suffer from a hazard occurrence.
Any change in either of these two components will correspondingly affect a
change in the nature or size of the risk faced. Once data has been collected and
analysed on both the ‘threat’ and what is/are ‘at risk’ to it, the information has to
be passed on in an appropriate format to decision makers to determine the levels
of ‘acceptable risk’ and what actions should be taken to reduce the risk(s).
Decisions will then be made as to whether risk reduction measures should be
initiated, implying, timing, what level of protection is required and whether there
are other more pressing risks to address with the finite resources at hand.
Understanding risk and taking decisions is therefore a two- part process,
involving both risk evaluation and risk assessment.
9
• Risk Assessment refers to the scientific quantification of risk from data of
past precedents regarding nature of hazards, intensity at which incident,
degree of damage, likely changes if any in any of the factors
involved/mentioned which gives complete understanding of hazard
proneness of the region and the vulnerability of elements, identified as part
of the exercise, to it.
• Risk Evaluation is the social and political judgment about the importance of
various risks faced by individuals and communities, as they perceive it. It
involves prioritising between risks, which are often political, since choices
are involved between competing interests for resource allocation. It involves
weighing risks and benefits in each case, which involves scientific
judgments as also other factors and beliefs.
Risk assessment is therefore mainly a scientific and quantitative process, which
provides input for/impacts public policy for risk mitigation and preparedness. The
data is incorporated in disaster reduction policy/programmes, which depend on
risk evaluation, which is the appraisal or perception of the risk in the context of
other priorities, whether anything can be done to reduce that threat and qualitative
assessment of disaster preparedness to combat the threat. It is therefore logical
that the more accurate the diagnosis of the problem, more successful would be the
strategy, and also cost- effective since resources available to meet it are limited,
even in developed countries.
6.6 CONDUCTING RISK ASSESSMENT
In order to understand and to compare different risks, scientists and economists
usually try to quantify them in terms of their probability of occurrence and the
potential damage/ losses they might cause. This is done by using statistical
analysis to predict the probability of future events by gathering data on the effects
of various hazards in the past that have caused/exacerbated the particular risk.
This identification of effects and the understanding of the processes of disaster
occurrence constitute the first steps in establishing a relationship between hazard
and vulnerability in order to specifically identify the risk.
By using past historical records and an analysis of scientific data estimates can be
made of the likelihood of hazard occurrence and expected severity. When allied
to estimates of what is vulnerable to various hazards, risk can be defined in terms
of the probability, that is, the likelihood of losses and estimation of the proportion
of the population or property, which will be affected.
The purpose of statistical analysis is to arrive at an appropriate statistical model
that relates risk posed by a natural disaster to socio economic parameters. UNDP
carried out an exercise to relate the risk posed by natural disasters such as
earthquakes, tropical cyclones, floods and drought etc. to specific socio economic
factors like HDI (Human Development Index), rate of urban growth etc. that
create losses. The study was carried out under the aegis of the United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP) using data for more than 90 countries over a
period of 20 years.
Statistical analysis is based on two major assumptions; one, that risk can be
measured in terms of the number of victims of past hazardous events, and second
that the equation of risk follows a ‘multiplicative model,’ in that following risk
identification in each case (taking into account the number of people killed) is
arrived at by taking into account the relevant ‘factor’ values in each case, for
10
example, rate of urban growth was taken as the factor that would determine loss
of life from earthquakes, and access to water supply in case of droughts, etc.
Methodology
The exercise has two key assumptions.
The number of people killed by a natural disaster is a measure of Risk
(physical exposure or PhExp)
The equation of risk follows a multiplicative model where the number of
people killed is related to socio economic factors and number of people
exposed to the risk by the following equation
K = C. (PhExp)α. V1α1 .V2α2….VNαN
Where,
K is the number of people killed by the disaster
C is a multiplicative constant
V1-N, are socio economic parameters
α1-N is the exponent of V1-N
{Note: Taking logarithm of both sides transforms this into a linear equation.
Empirical data of natural disasters is taken and relevant socio economic
parameters and their exponents are estimated using linear regression (difference
between actual and desired states)}
For example in case of earthquakes, the socio economic parameter is urban
growth, in case of cyclones, percentage of arable land and human development
index; in case of floods, local population density and gross domestic product; in
case of droughts, percentage of population with access to improved water supply
{further read at,
http://www.undp.org/bcpr/disred/documents/publications/rdr/english/ta/t5.pdf.}
The process of risk assessment is usually conducted in the following sequence:

1. Hazard Analysis: Hazard information is needed on such matters as location,
frequency, duration and severity of each hazard type. Risk assessment should be
carried out, where possible, in relation to all the hazards in a given location. As
explained in the Disaster Management Training Programme, (1994), like risk,
hazard occurrence is expressed in terms of average expected rate of occurrence of
the (specified type of) event or on a probabilistic basis regarding occurrence
probability/possibility. Hazard maps present graphically, the annual probability
and magnitude of the event following intensive geological analysis of the area,
along with a study of past records, sometimes dating a century back or more, as in
case of dormant volcanoes. Other corroborative evidence such as soil composition
analysis to predict landslides or the NDVI (normalised drought vegetation index)
to predict droughts may be used in case of inadequacy of temporal data to predict
the recurrence of an event. Information gathered is collated and depicted on a
hazard map for necessary correlations tracing causes and effects for the purpose
of objective derivations of variables (independent and dependant) involved in the
phenomena and their analysis (statistical methods discussed above). Information
collation is relatively easier for events with relatively regular periodicity.
Corroborative evidence can be gathered from geological ‘hints’ such as silt
11
deposit, high water marks, deposits in case of floods, and past fault lines in case
of earthquakes, and, human records as the main source evidence regarding hazard
probability in all cases. The latter are considered more important and are being
stressed more as compared to geological records by scientists.
The level of severity of natural hazards can be quantified in terms of the
magnitude of occurrence as a whole (event parameter) or in terms of the effect the
occurrence would have at a particular location site (site parameter).
Like risk, hazard occurrence may be expressed in terms of average expected rate
of occurrence of the specified type of event, or on a probabilistic basis. In either
case, the annual occurrence rates are usually used. The inverse of an annual
recurrence rate is a return period. Coburn, Sspence and Pomonis, (1994) state
that:
“There is an annual probability of .08 of an earthquake with a magnitude
exceeding 7.0 in Eastern Turkey. "This is effectively the same thing as saying,
"the average return period of an earthquake of M=7.0 in eastern Turkey is 12.5
years."
Rare events like volcanoes are hard to predict since adequate historical data is not
available. It may be possible for geologists to analyse old lava flows and try to
date the eruption frequency from that.
Smaller more frequent events can also be studied for indications of severity of
future large-scale events.
Knowledge of the consequences of events will be helpful in planning for control
of hazards during the design and operation of the facility by taking proper action
to reduce hazard rate or minimise the consequences, as the case may be, or else
the assessed risk may just be ignored. By evaluating the risk of various hazards to
which the country is liable or potentially liable, it becomes practicable to
formulate strategies to mitigate the impact of hazards in a cost-effective way. If a
community is especially vulnerable to a particular type of disaster, severe risk
treatment measures may be required to reduce the disaster risk to ‘acceptable
levels’.
The other important function of risk analysis is to develop a comprehensive
disaster preparedness plan by providing a clear understanding as to what hazards
exist and what risk(s) they pose to the vulnerable neighboring communities.
2. Vulnerability Analysis: Vulnerability analysis, as has been explained earlier,

starts with creating an inventory of all elements that are 'at risk' to the identified
hazards such as social groups, buildings, infrastructure, economic assets, agriculture
etc. This is followed by an assessment of their susceptibility and an estimation of
damage and losses. Vulnerability analysis includes an assessment of resources or
capacities to meet and recover from hazardous events.
Risk Evaluation and determining levels of Acceptable Risk

Once data on the nature of the hazards and vulnerability have been collected,
synthesised and analysed in the categories noted above, it ideally has to be passed in
an appropriate format to decision makers to enable them to determine levels of
acceptable risk leading to levels of protection. These decisions will be made
12
according to risk perception, knowledge of possibilities to reduce the threat and
other priorities. High level of risk perception determines the amount of money that
would be spent for a flood dyke project or retrofitting of buildings, for example. If
the risk is extreme something has to be done promptly. Acceptable risk implies the
best that can be managed within constraints to protect lives and property to the
maximum extent possible. For example, buildings could be hazard proof to the
extent that they allow enough time for the occupants to escape. They might not be
fully hazard resistant in that they may suffer damage but not totally give way under
pressure. There are resource constraints, which are compelling. Hence, depending
on the level of risk perception and acceptable risk among communities and policy
makers, hazard proofing is attempted.
Following the exercise, Risk Determination involves:
• Hazard occurrence probability, which is the likelihood of a hazard striking
an area;
• Elements at risk, that means the lives and property at risk, and,
• Vulnerability of elements at risk, that is the extent of damage estimated to be
suffered.
Disaster preparedness follows risk determination, since in view of limited resources
only targeted risk reduction has to be attempted. There are subparts of this exercise
of determining risk. For example vulnerability of different elements at risk would
depend on hazard intensity. Hence, preparedness has to take cognizance of differing
levels of vulnerability to varying intensity of hazard. A windstorm would strike with
varying intensity in different time periods. Risk estimation has to factor that.
6.7 RISK MAPPING
Risks can be vividly depicted through maps. Methods developed for near accurate
estimations include f: N curves, scenario mapping, potential loss studies as
explained by Coburn, Sspence and Pomonis (1994) in the Disaster Management
Training Programme, UNDP.
(a) f:N Curves: Here “f” stands for frequency of disaster event and “N”
denotes the number of casualties. Data on the size and frequency of disaster
occurrences for a particular country can be plotted as f: N curves. These involve
plotting the frequency of events causing greater than a certain number of
fatalities. Different numbers of casualties (or magnitude of losses expressed in
some other way) are plotted for different frequency of occurrence on x and y-axis
on a graph respectively. However such relationships always show aggregated
losses for a large region over a period of time. They do not help identify the
geographical distribution of damage, for which risk mapping is needed. In the
diagram given below the first block gives disaster losses due to various natural
disasters in the period 1900- 1975 the second block gives losses due to
transportation disasters; the third block gives losses due to accidents like
industrial fires. It is clear that losses from natural disasters far outnumber those
due to man made calamities like transportation or fires.
13
(b) Scenario Mapping: In scenario mapping, the presentation of the
impact of a single hazard is attempted. Circles and shaded regions on a
map are used to depict settlements and building types, low density and
high-density areas etc. to assess damage likely in particular locations,
based on past experience and development since the last event for
proper assessment in the changed scenario. Hence a scenario map can
identify ‘communities at risk’ and regions at risk. Hot spots thus
located are the foci of restorative and regenerative activities post
disaster. Scenario mapping is used to estimate the resources likely to
be needed to handle an emergency. The number of people killed and
injured and the losses likely with respect to other ‘elements’ are
estimated. From these can be assessed the resources needed for
medical attention, accommodating the homeless and other measures to
minimise the recovery period. For example assessing the state of the
present infrastructure can aid damage assessment in the event of an
earthquake. The diagram given below, adapted from DMTP (1994),
describes a scenario of an earthquake of 7.2 magnitude hitting the
Bursa Province in Turkey. It is not claimed to be predictive. The
authors only claim to describe a situation in case of an earthquake.
14
This kind of exercise helps preparedness planning when an earthquake
strikes. The top block, aside the Mamara Sea gives the Gemlik area
(heavy damage), the left block gives the Mudanya area (moderate
damage), the central block is the Bursa province (heavy damage) and
the right block gives the Yenisihir area of heavy damage.
The following table accompanies the map.
VILLAGES TOWNS BURSA CITY
TOTAL
Villages Towns Bursa City Total
Houses lightly 34,000 21,000 50,000 105,000

damaged
Houses heavily 15,000 9,000 30,000 54,000

damaged
Houses 4,000 2,000 6,000 12,000

collapsed
People killed 2,000 800 1,500 4,300
People injured 6,000 2,500 4,500 13,000
People 73,000 36,000 13,000 122,000

Homeless
15
Key: Complete Dark Circle: >75% of houses heavily damaged
Three-fourth Dark Circle: 50-75% heavily damaged
Half Dark Circle: 25-50% Heavily Damaged
Quarter Dark Circle: 10-25% Heavily Damaged
Empty Circle: 0-10% Heavily Damaged
(c) Potential Loss Studies: Mapping the impact of expected hazard

occurrence probability across a region or country shows the location of
communities likely to suffer heavy losses. The effect of the hazard of each
area is calculated for each of the communities within those areas to
identify the communities most at risk. This shows for example which
towns or villages likely to suffer heaviest losses, which should be
priorities for loss reduction programs, and which are likely to suffer
heaviest losses, which should be priorities for loss reduction programme
and which are likely to need most aid or rescue assistance in the event of
disaster of differing magnitudes.
MAP 1 has been published by the Earthquake Research Institute of Turkey. It
gives the degree of risk in different areas from differing intensity of earthquake.
16
MAP 2 gives the differential vulnerability of big and small towns. Big towns
(over 25,000 population) are shown by circles surrounding dots and small towns
(2000-25000) by simply depicting population density.
MAP 3 shows the physical vulnerability of buildings in the hazard prone zone.
Towards the West are relatively safer concrete structures (complete dark circles)
which is the affluent part of the region. The South East has weak structures
(partly empty circles), which is inhabited by poor people.
MAP 4 gives complete analysis of three preceding maps. Combining information
from map 2 and 3, we get the number of people living in each building type,
which helps us determine exposure to risk, or likely casualties if an earthquake of
a high enough magnitude were to strike.
MAP 1-HAZARD
MAP 2 -ELEMENTS AT RISK
17
MAP 3- VULNERABILITY
MAP-4- CASUALTY RISK
18
(d) Annualised Risk Mapping: The annualised specific risk from any
hazard at any location is the average expected total losses from all events
over a time period. The probability of each level of hazard occurring
within a unit time period is combined with the consequence of that level
of hazard to generate the expected losses probable/expected in that time.
Summing up the losses from all levels of hazards gives the total losses
likely over a time period. Hence an annualised risk map gives the total
losses over both time and space. Areas of concentration of damage over a
year in a given area are depicted on the map. It is expressed as a
proportion of the total value (or number) of the total population at risk.
This could be better understood with reference to the following map,
derived and adapted for this work from the UNDP Disaster Management
Training Programme, 1994.
19
Earthquake Risk: The Dark lines give specific risk (% annual housing loss
based on mean village performance): Dotted lines give specific risk exceeded by
75% of villages.
As per DMTP (1994), tangible and intangible losses or loss parameters in disasters
is represented in a tabular form as follows:
20
LOSS PARAMETERS FOR RISK ANALYSIS
Losses
Consequences Measure Tangible Intangible
Deaths Number of People Loss of economically Social and

active individuals psychological
consequences
Injuries Number and injury Medical treatment Social and

severity needs, temporary loss psychological pain
of employment and recovery
activity by productive
individuals
Physical damage Inventory of damage Replacement and Cultural losses

elements by number repair cost
and damage level
Emergency operations Volume of Mobilisation costs, Stress and overwork

manpower, man days investment and on relief participants
employed, equipment preparedness
and resources capability
expended for relief
Disruption to economy Number of working Value of lost Opportunities,

days lost, volume of production competitiveness
production lost reputation,
Social disruption Number of displaced Temporary housing Psychological social

persons, homeless relief, economic contacts, cohesion,
production community morale
Environmental impact Scale and severity Clean-up costs, Consequences of

repair costs poorer
Environment, health
risks, risk of future
disaster
Adapted from Coburn Sspence, and Pomonis in Disaster Management Training

Programme (1994)
6.8 CONCLUSION
Almost all communities live in situations that expose them to some hazard or the
other. These hazards include natural ones such as earthquakes and cyclones, as
well as man-made ones such as industrial accidents and pollution. Disadvantaged
sections of communities are more vulnerable to the hazards. Vulnerability can be
in terms of poverty, low financial resources, poorly built houses and so on. At the
same time communities also have some inherent capacities, which could be in the
form of strong social grouping, and local infrastructure such as strong buildings
of religious or community places. Vulnerability analysis informs us of the extent
and impact of vulnerability while risk assessment goes a step further to look at the
21
net probability of a disaster occurrence, given the status of hazards, vulnerability
and capacity.
6.9 KEY CONCEPTS

Capacity: The ISDR, UN, defines
Capacity “as a combination
of all the strengths and
resources available within a
community, society or
organisation that can reduce
the level of risk, or the
effects of a disaster. In
general this involves
managing resources, both in
normal times as well as
during crisis or adverse
conditions. The strengthening
of coping capacities usually
builds resilience to withstand
the effects of natural and
induced hazards.”
Coping Capacity: As per ISDR, in general this
involves “managing
resources, both in normal
times as well as during crises
or adverse conditions. The
strengthening of coping
capacities usually builds
resilience to withstand the
effects of natural and human
induced hazards.”
Capacity and Vulnerability Analysis (CVA): Lately, the emphasis has
been on capacities of people
for self-help during disasters
and strengthening of the
same through policy in this
regard. Earlier the emphasis
had been on studying
vulnerabilities and
amelioration of the same
through external measures
like aid et al. It has been
experienced that measures
that strengthen innate
capabilities of people to fight
disasters and rebuild lives is
better disaster response than
humanitarian aid.
22
Elements at Risk: Elements at risk refers to
tangible and intangible
targets such as people,
structures, health, and
livelihoods, likely to suffer
harm from a hazard.
Resilience/Resilient: The ISDR explains it as the
capacity of a system,
community or a society
potentially exposed to
hazards to adapt, by resisting
or changing in order to reach
and maintain an acceptable
level of functioning and
structure. This is determined
by the degree to which the
social system is capable of
organising itself to increase
its capacity for learning from
past disasters for better future
protection and to improve
risk reduction measures.
Risk Assessment: Risk assessment is a
technical exercise to estimate
the hazard potential of
facility/project with a view to
in-built provisioning of
safeguard/protective
measures. Risk assessment is
a quantitative measure of
likely losses in the
eventuality of a disaster or if
the apprehended catastrophe
in case of any individual
facility takes place such as
nuclear plant.
Threat: Threat is different from Risk.
Threat is a more general
concept, while Risk is
specific in that a threat, such
as terrorism, has to be broken
down into specific risks and
communicated to policy
makers for policy in this
regard, mitigation or
preparedness. Threat is
simply an apprehension,
which will not give policy
guidelines.
23
Vulnerability: Vulnerability is susceptibility
to suffer losses; in other
words, weakened resilience
to face the onslaught of a
disaster. Socio economic
vulnerability is owing to
adverse social positioning
due to poverty
unemployment, living in
hazard prone zones, or
dilapidated structures.
Physical vulnerability refers
to engineering weaknesses
which causes structures to
give in easily to pressures
during earthquakes, cyclones
et al, causing heavy
casualties.
Vulnerability Analysis: As explained in the Disaster
Management Training
Programme, (1994), “in
engineering terms,
vulnerability is a
mathematical function
defined as the degree of loss
to a given element at risk, or
set of such elements,
expected to result from the
impact of a disaster hazard of
a given magnitude. It is
specific to a particular type
of structure, and expressed
on a scale of no damage to
total damage. For more
general socio-economic
purposes and macro level
analysis, vulnerability is a
less-strictly defined concept.
It incorporates considerations
of both the intrinsic value of
the elements concerned and
their functional value in
contributing to communal
well being in general and to
emergency response and
post-disaster recovery in
particular. In many cases, it
is necessary to settle for a
qualitative classification in
terms of high, medium and
low or explicit statements
24
concerning the disruption
likely to be suffered.”

Briefing Note on Risk Assessment, Oxford Centre for Disaster Studies.
Brooks, Nick, 2003, “Adaptation: A Conceptual Framework”, Tyndall Centre
Working Paper no 38, Norwich.
Cannon T, 2001, “Vulnerability analysis and disasters”, In D Parker (ed) Floods.
London: Routledge
Cannon, T., Twigg, J. & Rowell, J. ,2002, “Social vulnerability, sustainable
livelihoods and disasters” at
http://www.benfieldhrc.org/SiteRoot/disaster_studies/projects/soc_vuln_sust_live.pdf
Coburn Sspence, Pomonis, 1994, “Vulnerability and Risk Assessment”, 2nd
edition, Disaster Management Training Programme, UNDP.
Palakudiyil and Todd, 2003, Facing up to the Storm: How Local communities
cope With Disaster: Lessons from Orissa and Gujarat, Christian Aid.
“Social Vulnerability, Sustainable Livelihoods and Disasters”, Report to DFID

Conflict and Humanitarian Assistance Department (CHAD) and Sustainable
Livelihoods Support Office, Terry Cannon, Social Development Adviser,
Livelihoods and Institutions Group, Natural Resources Institute, University of
Greenwich; and John Twigg, Benfield Hazard Research Centre, University
College, London; Jennifer Rowell, CARE International (UK), previously Benfield
Hazard Research Centre, University College, London.
“Reducing Disaster Risk: A Challenge for Development”, at

http://www.undp.org/bcpr/disred/documents/publications/rdr/english/ta/t5.pdf
“Risk Assessment”, at http://www.seedsindia.org/risk.pdf
Twigg, J. 2001, Sustainable Livelihoods and Vulnerability to Disasters. London:
Benfield Greig Hazard Research Centre Working Paper 2 http://www.bghrc.com
United Nations, 2004, “LIVING WITH RISK: A global review of disaster
reduction initiatives” Inter-Agency Secretariat of the International Strategy for
Disaster Reduction (UN/ISDR at http://www.isdr.org
6.11 ACTIVITIES
1) List the hazards that can affect your neighbourhood or village, and
identify those facilities and people who are most likely to get affected.
Explain why these are mostly likely to get affected, and thereby
understand their vulnerability.
2) Create three lists – hazards that affect your locality, characteristics of local
people and buildings that make them vulnerable, and qualities of local
people and institutions that will be their capacities in dealing with
25
disasters. Relate the three lists to each other, and write a risk statement for
your community.
26
UNIT 7 RESOURCE ANALYSIS AND
MOBILISATION
Structure
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Types of Resources
7.3 New Directions for Resource Mobilisation: Local Sources
7.4 Corporate Social Responsibility: An Emerging Avenue
7.5 Building Resilience Through Risk Sharing and Transfer
7.6 Civil Society Initiative for Relief
7.7 Resource Analysis
7.8 Conclusion
7.9 Key Concepts
7.11 Activities

z Appreciate the need for consistent and sustained resource flows and the importance
of systematic resource mobilisation efforts on the part of organisations; official and
private;
z Understand how, based on such analysis, resource planning can be carried out and
appropriate resource mobilisation done; and
z Understand traditional and modern innovative means of resource mobilisation being
pursued by organisations.
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Resources are a basic requirement for any organisation. However, some organisations do
not have systematic processes for analysing resource requirements, flows and mobilisation
options. Such exercises are useful for making clear and sustainable work plans, which
have to be based on planned and sustained resource flows. There are different kinds of
resources, and various options for sourcing them. Traditionally, disaster management work
has been based on government or donor funds. Currently, such resources are drying up
and new avenues have to be explored. These include, local resource mobilisation and
corporate social responsibility.
Resource Analysis and Mobilisation 151
7.2 TYPES OF RESOURCES

There are various types of resources required for disaster management. Financial and
Human resources are the primary ones. Financial resources, in fact, form the single
largest concern of organisations as they in turn enable acquisition of other secondary
resources required for operational purposes. Financial resources come from various
sources, including, government grants, loans, institutional grants, and private donations,
product and service charges and mobilisation on the part of communities. Government
grants are based on thematic areas of work, for which different government departments
have schemes for grant making. These include funding of NGOs and community based
organisations through the rural development department, health department etc.. Loans
come in the form of soft loans with low interest rates for purposes such as livelihood
support to vulnerable and disaster affected communities.
Government Finance
Disaster relief programmes are run jointly by the State and Central governments. Disaster
Management is primarily the responsibility of the States. Funds are available to the States
from the Calamity Relief Fund (CRF) and the National Calamity Contingency Fund
(NCCF). The Calamity Relief Fund was set up on the recommendations of the Ninth
Finance Commission though subsequent Commissions have determined the funding pattern
that establishes the relative share of the Centre and the State towards calamity relief. The
break up presently is 75:25per cent between Centre and States, respectively. The
Eleventh Finance Commission recommended setting up the National Calamity Contingency
Fund (NCCF) replacing the earlier National Fund for Calamity Relief (NFCR).
There have been several improvements in the new scheme. In comparison with the earlier
existing Margin Money Scheme, the States now get a higher assistance from the Central
Government for relief expenditure and the response of the State governments to natural
calamities can potentially be quicker than before. The CRF scheme gives more autonomy,
more responsibility and also assigns greater accountability for disaster response activities
(Das and Jha, 2004).
The Twelfth Finance Commission has recommended continuing the scheme of Calamity
Relief Fund (CRF) in its present form with contributions from the Centre and States in
the ratio of 75:25. The size of the fund worked out at Rs. 21, 333 crore for the period
2005-10. The outgo from the fund is to be replenished by way of collection of National
Calamity Contingent Duty and levy of surcharges. The definition of natural calamity is to
include landslides, avalanches, cloudbursts and pest attacks also. Hence, now the
CRF shall be used only for meeting the expenditure for providing immediate relief to the
victims of cyclone, drought, earthquake, fire, flood, tsunami, hailstorm, landslide, avalanche,
cloud burst and pest attack. Provision of disaster preparedness and mitigation is to be
classified plan expenditure and not calamity relief.
As spelt out in the scheme for the constitution and administration of the Calamity Relief
Fund, operative from the financial year 2005-06, the Calamity Relief Fund is constituted
in the Public Account and classified under the head “8235-General and Other Reserve
Funds-111 Calamity Relief Fund” in the accounts of the State Government concerned and
is to be invested as per provisions laid down in this regard. The accretions to the Fund
together with the income earned on the investment of the Fund shall, till contrary
instructions are issued by Government of India, be invested in one or more of the
following instruments:
a) Central Government dated Securities
b) Auctioned Treasury Bills
c) Interest earning deposits and certificates of deposits with Scheduled Commercial
Banks;
d) Interest earning deposits in Co-operative Banks;
The investment of the funds is carried out by the branch of the Reserve Bank of India
(having Banking Department) at the headquarters of the State, or a Bank designated by
the RBI. In the case of Jammu & Kashmir and Sikkim, their bankers shall carry out these
functions. The Accountants General of India and the Comptroller and Auditor general of
India do the accounting and auditing respectively (Ministry of Finance, 2005-06).
A State-level Committee (hereinafter referred to as ‘the Committee’) is constituted by the
State Government to administer the CRF, by issue of a suitable notification in this behalf.
A copy of the notification is furnished to the Ministry of Finance and Ministry of Home
Affairs.
Composition of State Level Committees
The Chief Secretary to the State Government is the ex-officio Chairperson of the
Committee. The Committee consists of officials who are normally connected with relief
work and experts in various fields in the State affected by natural calamities.
Sub-Committee
The State Governments and/or the State level Committees may constitute sub-committees
as may be considered necessary by them in connection with the work of the Committee.
Functions of the State Level Committee
The Committee is to decide on all matters connected with the financing of the relief
expenditure from CRF.
The Committee will arrange to obtain the contributions from the concerned Governments,
administer the CRF and invest the accretions to the CRF in accordance with the norms
approved by the Government of India from time to time. The Committee is responsible
to ensure that the money drawn from the Calamity Relief Fund is actually utilised for the
purposes for which the CRF has been set up, and only on items of expenditure and as
per norms contained in the guidelines issued by the Ministry of Home Affairs. The
accretions to the CRF, together with the income earned on the investments of the Fund,
are used by the Committee to meet items of expenditure covered by the norms contained
in the guidelines. No further financial assistance (beyond the Central Government’s yearly
contribution to the CRF) is ordinarily available for the purpose.
All administrative and miscellaneous expenses of the Committee shall be borne by the
State Government under its normal budgetary provisions and not from the CRF (Ministry
of Finance, 2005-06: Scheme for Constitution and Administration of the Calamity Relief
Fund).
It is being realised, however, that investments are required on a more sustained basis in
infrastructure development to reduce expenditure on calamity relief. In other words, there
has to be a dovetailing of disaster mitigation with development planning. It is also true that
the amount of resource available for disaster mitigation and preparedness work is far less
than the amount available for relief and recovery. Since mitigation and preparedness are
non-events, which means that if mitigation and preparedness are successful then there will
be no visible disaster; there is less interest in these areas. It is widely recognised that
a “stitch in time saves nine”, and that every rupee invested in disaster mitigation and
preparedness saves many rupees in relief and rehabilitation. Still, there is very little media
interest, public involvement, and political will towards disaster mitigation and preparedness.
It is therefore difficult to mobilise resources for these activities. To counter this limitation,
disaster mitigation and preparedness organisations are making increasing efforts to tap
developmental resources on the plea of ‘safe development’ or ‘risk reduction’. However,
it is still a difficult task and requires much effort.
The World Bank and the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) have developed a
proactive policy in this regard. The World Bank seeks to attain the objective through the
following measures:
z Promote sustainable development policies to reduce losses from natural disasters;
z Encourage risk management in member countries as integral aspects of planning and
budgeting;
z Encourage research in long-term consequences of disasters and how cost sharing and
cost recovery affect mitigation;
z Raise awareness of the benefits of disaster mitigation and how constraints could be
removed in its application; and
z Promote mitigation as a standard part of quality auditing process with the project
cycle in each case. For this purpose the Prevention Unit has produced an information
toolkit for World Bank personnel.
Out of efforts of the World Bank, a coalition of governments, international organisations,
academic institutions, civil society and private sector has emerged. The Provention
Consortium has taken upon itself the task/responsibility of promoting the aforesaid
objectives. The mission is, supporting developing countries in understanding risks and
instituting mitigation programmes, especially targeting vulnerabilities of poorest segments in
these societies.
The Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) has also taken a proactive stance in this
regard. As per the new policy announced/crafted in 1999, member states would be
encouraged to provide for vulnerability reduction programmes as an essential requirement
by the following means:
z Establish new financial mechanisms (loans or refundable or non-refundable technical
cooperation services) to help countries undertake and strengthen disaster prevention
and risk management actions;
z Engage in a dialogue with member countries on issues such as risk assessment,
risk management strategies and the use of available IDB instruments for financing
investments related to natural disasters;
z Incorporate risk reduction in the project cycle, including risk analysis and reduction
in programming and in project identification, design, implementation and evaluation.
As part of this project, a series of sectoral checklists for disaster risk management
are being developed to support the drafting of projects in various sectors;
z Identify focal points for disaster management at the institutional level in order
to support countries in preparing risk reduction programmes and coordinating prevention
and response activities; and
z Build partnerships for the establishment of an integrated information and
response network that can assist in coordinating the preparation of pre-investment
studies, as well as investing in prevention and reconstruction and establishing interagency
response protocols.
Accordingly, the salient features of the disaster management policy adopted in India in the
context of the ADB (2005) project report are:
z Recognition of linkages between disaster management and development;
z Connecting of specific programmes like the Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP),
the Desert Development Programme (DDP), and the Wasteland Development
Programme for managing natural disasters;
z Emphasis on forecasting and warning using advanced technology;
z Contingency agricultural planning;
z Ensuring accessibility to food grains;
z Preparedness and Mitigation through specific plan programmes;
z Disaster Management as a continuous and integrated process;
z Setting up of National Centre for Disaster Management (NCDM);
z Setting up of disaster management faculties in states;
z Programmes for community participation and public awareness; and
z Observing natural disaster reduction day.
The Building Material and Technology Promotion Council (BMTPC) in India has come up
with the following recommendations in this regard:
z The extra cost involved in disaster resistant measures provided in new constructions
will automatically form part of the estimated costs, hence form part of development
cost.
z The funding norms of financing institutions should recognise the need of disaster
resistance and should cover the same in their funding packages with mandatory
requirement of safety from disasters, as per the stipulation of standards.
z Upgrading the disaster resistance of buildings may actually require extra budgeting
and will have to be recognised and included as a separate budget item under plan
head of the Central and State governments.
z Since systematic efforts towards disaster preparedness and mitigation will reduce the
need under the category of ‘Relief’ some percentage out of the crisis relief fund may
be earmarked for creating awareness, conducting studies in building typologies,
retrofitting methodologies and cost-benefit analyses, carrying out demonstrative

constructions and pilot projects in some selected districts, prone to earthquakes,
floods and cyclones occurring individually as well as simultaneously.
Protection of Health Facilities
There is considerable stress today on protection of health facilities since it is a major
critical facility in the aftermath of a disaster. Especially during Earthquakes, hospitals
collapse due to the impact, which exacerbates losses manifold. It is estimated that
mitigation investment towards ensuring structural integrity of a hospital would increase
construction costs by no more than 1-2 per cent (PAHO/WHO, 2000). Structural
protection also ensures protection of ‘non-structural’ elements, which is the functional part
of a hospital, that is, power supply, water supply, gas supply, etc., which can prevent
functional collapse of the critical facility that is dreaded in disaster times.
7.3 NEW DIRECTIONS FOR RESOURCE MOBILISATION:

LOCAL SOURCES
The success that NGOs and other civil society organisations have been able to lay claim
to in recent years does not include long-term financial sustainability. Well-endowed NGOs
are few and far between, and many attribute any measure of financial security to the
entrepreneurship of their leaders rather than a clear philosophy on development financing
that is shared by the sector.
Indeed, a few organisations have ‘resource sustainability’ as a major component of their
strategic orientation. Even fewer organisations, including those seeking to establish
endowments, make specific mention of domestic resource mobilisation as a strategy and
a basis for action. Not many civil society organisations seem to manage local sources of
funding and other forms of support from local institutions.
In India, many corporates have set aside resources under their corporate social
responsibility programmes but not many NGOs have taken advantage of this funding
opportunity. It would seem that NGOs have not been motivated to look to local
institutions, individuals or groups for resources; at least not in any serious or consistent
fashion.
Both NGOs and donors ought to share responsibility for the limited understanding of
resource mobilisation and consequently, for the current challenges that NGOs face with
regard to financial sustainability. In the past, donors were happy to allow dependence to
set in NGOs when resources were more readily available. This put them in control and
made them indispensable. But, they were only doing their job by making funding available.
In some cases, the growth of NGOs was so closely associated with the availability of
external funding that “doing well” was synonymous with the ability to attract external
funding. Inevitably, NGOs invested their energies in developing their abilities to attract, not
engage donors and sharpening skills to manage their organisations in order to keep the
funds flowing. NGOs were made, directly/ otherwise, to believe that without external
funding there is no future.
Donors and their representatives, regardless of whatever they may have perceived their
roles, became “task masters”, whilst the NGOs saw their role as implementers whose
basic responsibility was to continue churning out results to justify investments, and
continued funding. Implementing projects and meeting reporting deadlines became demanding
tasks that left time for little else.
NGOs had neither the time to invest in nurturing strategic local relationships nor the space
to reflect on local resource mobilisation and explore its full potential. This was the
scenario a decade or more ago. Sadly, things haven’t changed much since then.
Despite the strides that NGOs have made in almost all aspects of their work; despite the
contribution they have obviously made in providing relief and rehabilitation, and in some
cases, even disaster reduction assistance to their communities, a significant number of
NGOs remain trapped in a mindset that emphasises all else except local resources. The
quality and extent of local resources seem to be seriously underestimated and undervalued.
The pattern emerging from recent trends of resource mobilisation in India, Bangladesh,
Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka confirm the rather familiar picture of over dependence on
external donor funding from the developed nations. Whilst recognising that the developed
nations will continue to be an important source of funding for civil society organisations,
there is worrying lack of effort in the search for alternative sources of funding. Donors
have begun talking sustainability (some have started including it in the criteria for funding
proposals) but they have yet to demonstrate willingness and commitment to diversifying
the funding base and gradually reduce dependence over time, as sudden withdrawal is
clearly not the way to go.
For their part, NGOs are increasingly beginning to accept the need to look to local
alternatives as a basis for future financial sustainability. However, while accepted in
principle as sensible and legitimate, local resource mobilisation as an approach and
strategy remains undeveloped and consequently under exploited. It is hard to single out
any one reason for this but perhaps the following perceptions can help us appreciate the
complexity of the issue:
z Little empirical information is available on the size and potential of local philanthropy.
Local governments and institutions give too little, making local fund raising demanding
and expensive. Local institutions are reluctant to enter into long-term funding
relationships. Local institutions are anxious to avoid funding sensitive initiatives (human
rights, democracy and governance etc.). Donor agency funding is cheaper (a single
proposal can bring in huge sums of money) and therefore more attractive. The
absence of comprehensive research means that there is inadequate information about
local resource mobilisation and philanthropic practice. There is no consolidated
information on who is playing a significant role in local philanthropy in most countries
in the region. Little is known about databases on local resource mobilisation if and
where they exist.
z Equally, there is little research into creative strategies and innovative approaches in
resource mobilisation. Traditional or indigenous forms of mobilising resources represent
an area whose potential can only be fully exploited after indepth analysis. Research
could also yield useful information about the NGO sector, its size, impact and overall
contribution to development in respective societies. This and related information could
go a long way towards building a positive public image of the sector.
z The general impression among NGOs is that local institutions do not often commit
large amounts when they decide to fund NGO programmes and activities. NGOs get
less value for their investment of time and other resources. But why do local
institutions give so little? What is it that NGOs need to do to change this? Most
local institutions such as corporates prefer one-off, event-based support. They are
reluctant to enter into long-term relationships that would entail long-term commitments
even during times when they might not be able or want to continue giving. Local
institutions also avoid funding programmes or activities that are considered controversial,
particularly when these are seen as challenging the status quo.
z By comparison, funding from international donors seems an easier option. In part, this
is perhaps the best way NGOs know to mobilise resources. They have developed
the relevant skills over time and have come to understand the donor community a
lot better than they do those who own and manage local institutions. They have
developed relationships, which they believe can open more doors and bring in more
funds.
z Yet, the reality is that external funding can never be sustainable and, therefore, NGOs
must begin to address the twin issues of local resource mobilisation and long-term
financial sustainability today rather than tomorrow. Many NGOs recognise this and
are prepared to commit and try out new approaches of resource mobilisation in the
context of the current funding climate and indications of future trends.
z To achieve financial sustainability, NGOs will need more than commitment. Applying
techniques, skills and knowledge developed in a different context, and with the
international donor community in mind, to local situations and to domestic resource
mobilisation is unlikely to meet with much success. While there is much that is useful
in what NGOs have learned and mastered in dealing with external donors, there
remains much they need to learn if they are to make any significant strides in
increasing their capacities for local resource mobilisation. NGOs will need to make
conscious efforts to deal with the assumptions and hold stereotypes in check. The
perception that the life of an NGO is not guaranteed in the absence of external
funding must be the first to be trashed.
z Shifts in attitudes and embracing new principles calls for new learning that must focus
on all stakeholders. The learning will be ineffective if it targets NGOs only. To be
effective, the public sector and state, the private sector and donors, NGOs (and
specifically those responsible for mobilising resources) will all need to be targeted.
Through education, training and other forms of capacity building, representatives of
these stakeholder groups can gain new insights and a fresh appreciation and acquire
the skills relevant to local resource mobilisation.
z The content of and approach to this rebuilding process should be based on research
in resource mobilisation, which must constitute the first step towards a new, and
more financially secure future for organisations working in the area of disaster
management.
7.4 CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY: AN

EMERGING AVENUE
Simply put, Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) means a company that complies with
the laws of the land in which it operates is also being socially responsible. CSR initiatives
have seen corporates being involved in funding and participating in social initiatives that
benefit local communities. However, as rightly stated by Twigg (2001), CSR is a broad
concept that is open to interpretations. It can be explained as follows:
“The social responsibility of the private sector goes beyond the sector’s day to day
operation of producing a certain range of products and services in the most efficient and
economical manner. The social responsibility of the private sector (also referred to as
corporate social responsibility) concerns the relationship of a company not just with its
clients, suppliers and employees, but also with other groups, and with the needs, values
and goals of the society in which it operates. All these groups can be regarded as
stakeholders in the company. Stakeholders can be identified as those individuals and
groups of individuals that have an interest, or take an interest, in the behaviour of the
company both within and outside its normal mode of operation. They therefore establish
what the social responsibility of the company, entails or at least, how they perceive it to
be.”
There are three essential elements in CSR (Nelson, 2000):
Compliance: Businesses should comply with national regulations; multinational companies
should abide by laws as per terms and conditions laid out in the contract with the host
nation and ensure that local practices abide by internationally agreed laws, standards and
conventions.
Risk Minimisation: Business, especially hazardous units like chemical factories and
nuclear plants should as a mandatory practice, factor risk management in decisions.
Protection against potential hazards must be ensured.
Value Creation: Besides the above stated essential requirements, businesses should
proactively engage in ameliorative activities through dialogue, expert advice, and assistance
for disaster relief etc. for positive impact on society.
Reasons for corporate social responsibility can be categorised as per motive, into the
following four types:
1) Purely philanthropic reasons.
2) Internal reasons like employee morale and customer and shareholder satisfaction.
3) External reasons like satisfying local communities, goodwill, and publicity and tax
benefits.
4) Enlightened self-interest, wherein a stable social environment and increasing prosperity
means a larger market and hence more profits in the long term.
As per Twigg (2001), types and characteristics of CSR involvement with other actors in
disaster management are given in a tabular form (Table -1):
TABLE - 1
Type of Involvement General Characteristics
Philanthropic/Charitable Donations and grants in ¾ Altruistic (although business

cash or in kind (goods, may derive some other
services, facilities) to benefits; for example. good
other organisations and publicity, this is secondary)
groups, working in
¾ Business controls the
disaster reduction, or
agenda: it decides what to
directly to beneficiaries.
do, whom to assist, and how
to assist.
¾ Typically, one to one
relationship between
business giver (non-profit,
community) and receiver,
other stakeholders not
involved.
¾ May be formal (based on
grant agreement or informal.
¾ Typically short term and
one off interventions, but
may be long term.
Contractual Contracting other ¾ Business controls the

organisations or groups agenda and manages the
to carry out work for resources
public benefit.
¾ Altruistic
¾ Based on formal, legal
contract for work
¾ Typically one to one
relationships; other
stakeholders not involved.
Sponsored Sponsorship of other ¾ Business controls agenda

organisations or groups and manages resources
¾ Self-interested: business
gains through publicity,
provision of goods and
services that meets its needs
(any public benefits arising
from the work are
secondary).
¾ Based on formal, legal
agreement
¾ Typically, one to one
relationships
contd...
Collaborative Working partnerships ¾ Greater emphasis on dialogue,

with other shared aims, mutual respect
organisations and (the extent to which this
groups for public happens in practice varies,
benefit.
¾ More likely to involve a range
of stakeholders
¾ Ideas can originate from any
of the stakeholders
¾ Diversity of partnership
arrangements (formal and
informal).
¾ All stakeholders should
benefit from partnership
(“win-win” scenario but may
not benefit equally).
¾ Control over resources can
give some partners greater
control over resources.
¾ Better opportunities for
longer-term interventions.
Adversarial Business response to ¾ Responsive: driven by other

lobbying about organisations and groups
human and
¾ Public relations more
environmental impact
important than public benefits
about business
activities
Unilateral Business undertakes ¾ More likely to be one off

its own commercial short- term initiatives driven
actions, by urgent need and
independently of compassion and emergency
other actors. relief
Hence, the corporate sector is involved in two contradictory ways in disaster management.
One way, a disaster is a great opportunity to do business, as is post-war reconstruction.
Big houses vie for commercial contracts to build residential areas and commercial places
in war/natural disaster devastated areas. Decisions influence the way international relations
shape between competing countries, thenceforth. Another way, big industrial houses are
expected to, and do come forward in philanthropic activities as adopting certain villages
for reconstruction after a disaster and extending donations, technical/logistic help etc.
As per the University of Wisconsin Disaster Management Centre Course on “Disaster
Response”(Lesson, 3, 1995), the private sector includes enterprises operating on widely
differing scales, from the small artisan to the large corporation. Overall reconstruction
policy determines who will receive relief resources and thus who in turn may prosper, and
it is therefore important to recognise the encouragement that can be given to small or
medium-scale enterprises by giving them priority. Evidence suggests that a major bottleneck
in disaster recovery is the lack of “cash flow” to get goods moving. As a result of this
constraint, rapid delivery of key building materials in some disasters has been the
monopolistic practices of a few large stock suppliers and producers of building materials.
Hence, governments have a key social role in the way they administer credit, grants or
loans to the business sector.
Much of the CSR was initially focused on environment related issues and polluting
corporations set out to do something to reduce the impact of its actions on the local
environment and populations, and be seen as doing so. This area of work has been
rapidly widening and more and more corporate entities are playing significant roles in
social work. They make financial donations, in-kind contributions, and also volunteer staff
skills and time for social work. Corporate-NGO partnerships are also on an increasing
trend. Organisations such as the Business Community Foundation and Partners in
Change work to promote such links and bring the corporate and social development
sectors closer to each other.
In India, important CSR players such as TATA, Reliance, NTPC and others have been
increasing their involvement in disaster response and preparedness related work. The
larger organisations such as TATA also have separate resourceful entities such as their
trusts that oversee their contributions to the social sector. International corporates such
as GAP Inc., Microsoft and Nokia also have sizeable CSR initiatives that support disaster
management related activities.
The corporate sector played a major role during the recent tsunami in relief disbursement
in cooperation with the UN agencies. It used its supply chain logistics expertise in relief
management. One such initiative is the World Economic Forum’s Disaster Resource
Network (DRN), a Swiss non -profit private organisation network that serves as a point
of contact for companies willing to contribute. During the tsunami, logistics providers such
as DHL, Aramex, DNATA and TNT logistics, worked as part of joint airport
emergency teams, which directed the unloading of aircraft, sorting and temporary storage
of supplies and the onward transportation of those supplies to humanitarian agencies (The
Economist, 2005).
Many NGOs working in disaster response and preparedness, have in the recent years,
tapped into CSR pools to mobilise resources for their activities. This is a healthy and
increasing trend that will open new opportunities for resource mobilisation for disaster
management in the future.
However, outward philanthropy should not be counter affected by internal mismanagement
such as non-compliance with safety precautions. It is important to note, that corporate
social responsibility on the part of industrial houses results in gains for them, in the form
of:
z Total Quality Management
z Competitive Edge
z ISO Certification
z Image and Marketing Benefits (SEEDS INDIA, 2002).
The significance of CSR will only grow in the coming years due to increasing stake of
the private sector in business following the neo-liberal paradigm of governance and
consequent dilution of the public sector (Sharma, Gupta, Gupta, 2002, SEEDS INDIA).
7.5 BUILDING RESILIENCE THROUGH RISK

SHARING AND TRANSFER
Disasters divert important funds from development to disaster relief and rehabilitation.
Tools need to be developed that help the poor to manage risks more effectively with
alternative sources of finance, such as Insurance. According to Smolka (2003), beyond

financing future losses, more efforts need to be made towards a more proactive strategy
to reduce and prevent losses. To that end, there is need for a more proactive
collaboration between financial institutions, the state, industry and insured parties to
actively promote risk reduction measures. The private insurance sector has made fewer
inroads into the markets in developing countries, though they could significantly contribute
to developing micro finance options. Even otherwise, the insurance sector has not had
an active role to play in risk management, particular in developing countries, because of
short-term financial perspectives (the time scale for possible positive outcome is too long).
According to Smolka, insurance companies could make risk reduction a condition for
providing insurance. The same was attempted in the United States with regard to
earthquake proofing of establishments with considerable success. The state should also
consider granting tax exemptions to catastrophe reserves of private insurers. Moreover,
banks could set disaster reduction as a precondition for granting loans.
The Asian Development Bank (ADB) in response to a request from the government
has initiated rural finance restructuring and development technical assistance (TA) in
India. One of the issue areas taken up in the project is risk mitigation. The rural poor
require fund assistance for relatively minor concerns such as illnesses but also for major
losses such as from natural disasters like cyclones et al. While the former can be met
out of occasional borrowings or private savings, latter requires outside support in the form
of insurance pay offs or disaster relief. Insurance services have not been widespread in
rural areas for a variety of reasons.
As per the ADB, the scope is enormous since at the aggregate level there are
approximately 85 million rural borrowers as against 300 million rural savers including those
who save at post offices. Rural finance system in India is predominantly state owned.
Private players have had negligible existence, (predominant presence of LIC) and have
had a subsidised window for implementing government schemes. Insurance also has low
penetration among the rural masses. Of the estimated 235 million workers employed in
agriculture only about 45 million, (19 per cent) are covered by group insurance schemes
of the LIC and welfare schemes of the Central and State governments. As of September
2004, there were only 13 private insurance companies in the fray. India has since
liberalised the insurance sector with the enactment of a legislation and setting up of the
insurance regulatory development authority (IRDA) in 1999. The IRDA has come up with
a regulation that casts an obligation on every insurer to address the rural market. The
welcome entry of the private sector now is expected to improve the rural finance scenario
considerably. Key recommendations of the TA group to improve the reach and extent of
rural insurance and other risk mitigation services to the rural poor, women in particular on
a sustained basis concern:
z Deepening life insurance coverage through group micro finance
z Improving health services through public- private partnerships
z Innovative products such as weather derivatives for crop insurance
z Expanding livestock coverage through daily cooperatives and lending institutions
z Rationalising payins and payouts for disaster relief
z Moving from subsidies to a contributory system for social security
z Continuing the directions of regulatory reforms already underway

z Activating and intimately involving peoples’ organisations, cooperatives, self –help
groups, community based organisations, trade unions etc. in developing and distributing
insurance for members.
A study conducted by the World Bank revealed that though there was considerable
awareness about life insurance among the rural poor and also willingness on their part to
avail of the same, high premiums were the deterrent. Hence, focus has to be on offering
low premium products, that is, products that do not have a high investment component.
Certain procedural reforms would also be required in that age proofs are not easily
underwritten in rural areas since there is lack of certainty. In case of uncertainty,
community certification may be accepted. Records of births and deaths at Panchayats
would make things easy in this regard. Insistence on FIRs for claims below Rs. 25000
may be reviewed, as these are generally not recorded as accidents in police stations. Also
definition of accidents may need to be reviewed in that snakebite is not classified
accident, when that is major hazard in case of disasters like floods.
A major area of concern is crop insurance. State initiatives have been unviable. A
beginning was made in 1972, in the state of Gujarat, where insurance was introduced for
a Hybrid-4 cotton variety in a few districts. It was an individual farmer based approach,
and a uniform guaranteed yield was offered to the farmers. Problems arose in fixing the
guaranteed yield and the actuarially fair premium rate for each farmer for each crop and
loss adjustment. Ultimately, it proved too costly, hence unviable. A pilot scheme was
introduced in 1979 but was limited to farmers who took short-term loans from financial
institutions.
A Comprehensive Crop Insurance Scheme (CCIS) was introduced in India in 1985 with
active participation of the state government. The scheme was however unsuccessful for the
following reasons:
1) The scheme was voluntary, leaving it to the state governments to identify the crops
and areas where/in relation to which the scheme would operate. This resulted in
adverse selection of areas/states.
2) There was no uniformity in the basic unit area of operation (district/block /taluka) for
determining the threshold yield and assessment of actual yield in calamity affected
areas.
3) The scheme was too costly, hence not viable, with a premium to claim ratio of 1.5.7
The premium rates were unrealistic and incidence of natural calamities high.
4) The scheme did not include many crops and many farmers.
In crop insurance, besides heavy administration costs, computation processes are highly
complicated. For example, whether individual farmers or an area should be the unit for
assessing losses and premium rates. Area- based approach works out premiums based on
averages. However, that would be difficult for many reasons because the nature of risk
is different for each segment of the farmer population. For example, big farmers may face
the problem of pests and marketability whereas poor farmers suffer mainly from lack of
irrigation facilities. Cash flows of different segments and capacity to pay are also different;
also whether cross subsidies should be granted by way of charging less risk areas higher;
whether insurance should be based on multi-cropping since that would invite low
premiums to farmers since risk would be less etc. A new scheme, which is presently being
administered by the Agricultural Insurance Company of India Limited, is the National
Agricultural Insurance Scheme (NAIS) introduced in 1999. It is an Area Yield Index
Based scheme. It covers both loanee and non-loane farmers, food grains and oil seeds
but excludes horticulture crops. It remains to be seen to what extent it is able to succeed,
given the complications involved.
Another continuing problem has been little scope for risk diversification due to non-
inclusion of civil society and private players. Lack of data for correct estimations of
harvest and possible losses were also major constraints. State owned schemes proved
non-viable since they were too costly.
Notably, NGOs like the Self-employed Women’s Association (SEWA) and the
Tribhuvandas Foundation have done creditable work in the area of health insurance for
poor families. They have developed innovative methodologies like integrating various risks
in one single product, linking of insurance schemes with savings, and covering many
services not provided in market based schemes such as maternity services, transportation
costs in case of riots, floods etc. Even in western developed nations, viable insurances
have developed out of non-profit initiatives. Similarly, Association for Sarve Seva Farms
(ASSEFA) insures livestock, mostly buffaloes, cows and bullocks in Tamil Nadu. Cattle
protection committees provide collateral services like de-worming, vaccinations and periodic
checkup/treatment of cattle. Procedures are also simple. Hence, instead of a state-owned
approach, a state-led approach is being considered more apt for insurance, which is a
vital requirement in building disaster resilient communities. A real integrated partnership
with peoples’ organisations such as cooperatives, trade unions, and savings and credit
societies is important (ADB, 2005).
7.6 CIVIL SOCIETY INITIATIVE FOR RELIEF

Various international as well as national NGOs and institutions make grants for disaster
management related work. These include, institutions of foreign governments that operate
usually through their embassies, such as the Japan International Cooperation Agency,
Department for International Development of the British Government, and United States
Agency for International Development. Besides these, international donor agencies, such as
the Ford Foundation and national donor agencies such as the Tata Trusts give grants for
such work. Some large international organisations such as CARE and OXFAM also make
resources available to smaller local NGOs. Faith based organisations, such as Christian
Aid, Islamic Relief and Gayatri Parivar also raise funds through private donations and
make them available to smaller local organisations for their work. Many organisations
raise funds through private donations from individuals, corporates and institutions. Such
donation based fund raising is the oldest form of raising funds and still one of the most
effective ones. Some organisations also use product and service charges for mobilising
funds. Such initiatives include the sale of greeting cards by UNICEF and CRY, and sale
of publications and giving advisory services by organisations such as Centre for Science
and Environment, Development Alternatives and SEEDS, etc. Lastly, organisations also
raise funds through membership charges.
7.7 RESOURCE ANALYSIS

Resource analysis forms the logical base for planning, mobilising and utilising resources, for
all organisations, government or otherwise.
The following checklist from the Source Book on District Disaster Management,
Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India, and Lal Bahadur Shastri National Academy
of Administration, Mussoorie, can aid resource analysis efforts in orgnisations:
z Who coordinates resources within each organisation?
z Who is responsible for supplying resources beyond the normal capabilities of each
organisation? Who records the costs of resources?
z Have arrangements been made with State or Military organisations for assistance in
times of emergency?
z Is there agreed access to emergency funds?
z Who records the expenditure for future acquittal/repayment?
z What are the limits of expenditure for personnel?
z Unskilled volunteers can safely perform what tasks?
z Who coordinates this work?
z It is likely that some organisations will begin public appeals for donations for
emergency affected persons?
z How can these appeals be coordinated?
z How does equitable disbursement of appeal money to be ensured?
z Who coordinates the requests for assistance for the community?
z What sort of assistance is likely to be required?
z Where is this assistance likely to come from?
z Is there an expected form that the request should take?
z Is the following information available to help outside assistance?
z Lists of organisations working in the country with information on their competence
and capability to be involved in emergency response and recovery activities.
z Is the following information available?
z Lists of essential response and recovery items, with specifications of average costs
and availability.
z Lists of local manufacturers and regional manufacturers and suppliers of response and
recovery items, with information on quality, capacity and capability regarding delivery
items and reliability.
z Information on essential response and recovery resources that will allow a rapid
response, for example,water supply systems, sanitation systems, health networks,
alternative shelter sites and Materials, Tarpaulins, Tents, Ports and Transport Networks.
The key steps in resource analysis are:
1) Assessment of current resource availability and utilisation patterns:
This includes an assessment of the current activities, resources available and how the
resources are being used at present. The assessment should cover concerns like whether
this is the best resource utilisation, and how it can be improved. It should match needs
with availability, identify shortfalls, and assess resource management process to find areas
of improvement.
2) Identification of potential new sources:

This activity involves research on traditional as well as innovative sources of tapping
resources. It can be done by looking at the various activities being carried out in the
region by other organisations and finding out about the interest areas of other resource
agencies working in the area.
3) Assessment of growth trends and projection of resource requirements:
The assessment of current resource patterns needs to be topped up with the growth plans
of the organisation for the near as well as long term future, so that resource planning
actually takes into account future needs.
4) Criteria matching for purpose of tapping potential sources:
Once potential resource contributors are identified and future activity patterns and
resource needs assessed, the process of criteria matching should be carried out to help
focus on selected sources that best match the requirements in terms of interest areas.
5) Operationalisation of resource mobilisation process:
Finally, the resource mobilisation process needs to be operationalised, which too is fast
becoming a professionalised area of work. It includes writing of proposals, preparation of
work plans, logical frameworks and budgets. It also involves identification of parameters
that will ensure sustainability of the initiatives, risks that may be present to the investments
and efforts and how the risks are being covered. Indicators of success also need to be
identified and monitoring and evaluation plans put in place.
7.8 CONCLUSION
There are various types of resources required to conduct disaster management activities;
these include financial, human, social and physical resources. The first requirement is
to understand the resource needs based on programme objectives and the situational
context. This forms the primary part of resource analysis. Resource analysis also includes
the identification of resource gaps and potential sources of support.
In general, it is seen that within the domain of disaster management, resources are more
freely available for post- disaster activities such as relief and rehabilitation, since these are
more visible and attract public, government, donors’ and media attention. On the other
hand, mitigation and preparedness activities find it very difficult to attract resources since
successful mitigation and preparedness is a non-event, and it results in a no-disaster
situation. Such a situation being less noticeable for the media, public and decision makers
is less attractive for donors to invest in.
Governments generally use their plan and non-plan funds to support their disaster
management activities. NGOs accumulate their funds from various sources, which include
government sources but are largely focused on international donor agencies. This leads to
a dependence syndrome, and is not a very sustainable way of working. It is being
increasingly realised that there is a need to find new directions for resource mobilisation,
with more focus on tapping local sources, such as corporate funding under corporate
social responsibility and private funds through direct funding. Another model of financial
resource mobilisation being adopted by some organisations is through chargeable product
and service delivery, such as the funds raised through sale of greeting cards and
handicrafts, or through advisory services, handbooks and magazines. In addition to

financial resources, organisations also tap into direct human resource bases through
volunteer programmes, and physical resource bases through in-kind contribution programmes.
7.9 KEY CONCEPTS

BMTPC : The Building Material and Technology Promotion
Council (BMTPC) is an autonomous organisation under
the Ministry of Urban Employment and Poverty
Alleviation, which is engaged in propagation of cost-
effective and disaster resistant building construction
materials, technologies and techniques. BMTPC has
developed and promoted 32 simple and affordable
manufacturing machines for production of newer
building materials and components with industrial waste
as a major ingredient (fly-ash, red mud, gypsum etc.)
The Council has also contributed significantly to the
development of wood substitutes and composite based
doors and window shutters. It has also brought out
the Disaster Mitigation and Vulnerability Atlas of India.
Financial resources : Taxes, borrowings, savings, credit, grants etc. are
financial resources. Ways are being explored to
augment resources for disaster mitigation through
involvement of the private corporate sector and civil
society and increasing the capacity of local governments
in this regard through improved powers of borrowings
and generating resources through the capital market
etc.
Human and Social resources : Precious human capital is lost during disasters, which
is both social and financial loss. Vital social resource
by way of kinship ties is lost due to loss of lives
during disasters. Negative social capital emerges due
to group cohesions based on the norms of exclusion,
as caste, ethnicity etc.
Physical resources : Physical infrastructure, both natural and man-made is
impacted during disasters. Buildings collapse during
earthquakes. The tsunami has altered the physical
landscape in Sri Lanka, perhaps forever changing the
economic profile of the region.
Resource analysis : Understanding the needs and priorities as per available
resources and working out modalities to avail alternate
avenues, observing fiscal prudence in existing
expenditure, all comes within resource analysis.
Resource base : Resource base refers to physical, financial and human
resources deployed during an emergency. Organisations
with poor resource base struggle to cope. Logistics
and inventory are crucial segments of resource base.

ADB, 2005, Technical Assistance Consultant’s Report, Price Waterhouse Coopers,
“Volume 4: Risk Mitigation”, India Rural Finance Restructuring and Development,
Financed by the Government of the United Kingdom.
Cannon, L., 1999, “Life Beyond Aid: Twenty Strategies to Help Make NGOs Sustainable”,
Johannesburg Initiative for Participatory Development/INTERFUND; South Africa, http://
www.apc.org/apps/img_upload/
Das, Subrat, Nandan Kumar Jha, 2004, Natural Disasters and Relief Provisions in
Indian Institute of Management Commitments and Ground Realities: Draft for
Consultation, A Programme of National Centre for Advocacy Studies, Centre for Budget
and Governance Accountability.
Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), Facing the Challenge of Natural Disasters
in Latin America and the Caribbean: An IDB Action Plan, read in “Protecting new
health facilities from natural disasters: Investing in Risk Reduction Measures” at
www.disaster-info.net/viento/ books/ProtNewHealthFacEng2.pdf –
Muyoya, T.S, “Is Commitment Enough?” available at http://www.resource-alliance.org
Nelson, Jane, 2000, The Leadership Challenge of Global Corporate Citizenship, http://
www.ksg.harvardedu/chg/CSRI/Pub
Norton, M., 1996, The World Wide Fundraiser’s Handbook: A Guide to Fundraising
for Southern NGOs and Voluntary Organisations, London Directory of Social Change.
Pan American Health Organisation (PAHO/WHO), 2000, “Principles of Disaster Mitigation
in Health Facilities”, Mitigation Series, Washington, D.C., in “Protecting new health
facilities from natural disasters: Investing in Risk Reduction Measures” at www.disaster-
info.net/viento/ books/ProtNewHealthFacEng2.pdf –
“Scheme for the financing and administration of the calamity relief fund in India”, at, http:/
/www.finmin.nic.in/the_ministry/dept_expenditure/ plan_finance/FCD/Guidelines-CRF.htm -
41k -
SEEDS, 2002, “Corporate Social Responsibility and Disaster Reduction: An Indian
Overview”, Benfield Hazard Research Centre, London.
Sharma, Anshu, Manu Gupta, Kokil Gupta, 2002, “Corporate Social Responsibility and
Disaster Reduction: An Indian Overview”, at www.seedsindia.org
Smolka, Anslem, 2003, “The Principle of Risk Partnership and the Role of Insurance in
Risk Management,” in Pardeep Sahni and Madhavi Malagoda Ariyabandu (Eds), Disaster
Risk Reduction in South Asia, Prentice-Hall of India, New Delhi.
“Strategies for Disaster Prevention”, at http://www.bmtpc.org/pubs/techno/chapter-10.pdf
The Economist, 2005, The Economic Intelligence Unit Briefing Paper, Sponsored by
DHL-Asia-Pacific, “Disaster Response Management: Going the Extra Mile: Thailand and
Indonesia.
Training Programme on Disaster Management, 2002, Department of Public
Administration, University of Lucknow.
Twigg, John, 2001, “Corporate Social Responsibility and Disaster Reduction: A Global
Overview”, Benfield Greg Hazard Research Centre, University College, London.
University of Wisconsin, Disaster Response Centre, 1995, Lesson 3: “Disaster Response
Roles and Responsibilities”, Madison, USA, at http://www. dmc.engr.wisc.edu/diploma/
index.html
Wilson, E.W., 2001, “Building Fundraising Programmes to Attract Community Support”,
HTML Document.
7.11 ACTIVITIES
1) Identify the major developmental initiatives being carried out by government or non-
governmental organisations in your locality. Select those components that lead to
reduction of disaster risks. Find out and list the sources of support for these
initiatives. Comment on the sustainability of resources in this sector.
2) Identify gaps which need to be abridged to reduce disasters in your locality, but are
not being addressed as of now. Conceptually, identify local resources that can be
tapped to fill these gaps.
UNIT 8 DISASTER MITIGATION
Structure
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Concepts of Disaster Mitigation and Preparedness
8.3 Mitigation Measures
8.4 Problem Areas in Mitigation
8.5 Guiding Principles of Mitigation
8.6 Towards Mitigation
8.7 Resources Relevant to Mitigation
8.8 Contribution of United Nations Agencies in Disaster Mitigation
8.9 Conclusion
8.10 Key Concepts
8.12 Activities

z Outline the major considerations in Disaster Mitigation;
z Understand the concept of Disaster Mitigation, its relation with Preparedness and the
need for systematic planning in this regard; and
z Get an overview of mitigation activities and problems faced while implementing
mitigation projects.
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Disaster mitigation is defined as “Measures aimed at reducing the impact of natural or
man-made disasters in a nation or community”(Carter, 1991).
The United Nations declared the decade of the 1990s as the International Decade for
Natural Disaster Reduction. The aim behind such a move was to mobilise concerted
efforts on the part of the international community with active participation from the UNDP
and the UNDRO towards substantial reduction in disaster-related losses round the World.
These agencies will encourage and assist national governments and non-governmental
agencies to tackle disaster related issues, “through projects focused directly on reducing
the impacts of hazards and through incorporation of risk awareness as part of the normal
operation of development projects”(Sharma, 1998).
Disaster Mitigation 171
Disaster mitigation is an evolving/ developing science. Its rudimentary development could

be traced back to the mid 19th century when governments undertook to eradicate the
threat of epidemics like tuberculosis, typhoid, cholera, dysentery, small pox and other
deadly diseases that were claiming lives in an endemic manner around the world. The
subsequent campaigns of governments against diseases followed realisation of the fact that
diseases were controllable and preventable, and ‘sanitation’ was a significant activity
therein, in that it was crucial in controlling the spread of any disease or preventing its
onslaught. What followed could be termed as a “sanitary revolution” in that considerable
budgetary allocations were committed to specific activities, like cleaning, disposal of
waste, public facilities etc., besides impetus to R&D in treatment and vaccination against
these ‘hazards.’ It demanded considerable administrative reform along with resource
commitment on the part of governments towards public health measures, in that governance
thereafter had to proceed with a fresh perspective, vis a vis diseases and craft adequate
policy responses to tackle the threats involved. Evidently, there has been considerable
success achieved in that endeavour in that many dreaded diseases like plague, small pox,
etc., have been eradicated; though countries still have to carry on with sustained efforts
to achieve the same level of success with other diseases.
Notably, the change in approach was brought about by a demystification of diseases
following understanding of the phenomena underlying epidemics. Similarly, natural hazards
have hitherto been treated with a fatalistic approach. Currently, there is a revision of
attitude/approach, as the ‘mystery’ of natural hazards is being increasingly unraveled
through exploratory research. Accordingly, governments are increasingly investing in disaster
mitigation, preparedness and prevention since there is growing belief that tangible gains
can/will result from such investment. Scientific community as also social scientists are
engaged in understanding hazards from both technocratic and social perspectives, which
imparts a holistic understanding to the phenomena of disasters; hence the development of
capability to tackle them through adequate policy responses (Sharma, 1998).
In India, distinct shift in policy responses towards mitigation and prevention is now
evident. As per Dhar (2002), earlier the approach was geared towards crisis management.
The famine codes, scarcity relief manuals and calamity action plans, wherever these
existed, enabled administration to fight emergencies and provide relief, post occurrence of
a disaster event. Policy shift towards pre-disaster preparedness planning began in the late
seventies, and gradually thereafter, deliberate attempts on the part of the government
towards an integrated approach towards disaster management has been discernible. It
began with drought proofing wherein considerable success was achieved. The Central
Water Commission evolved a model bill for flood plain zoning, though success in this
regard was limited. The main reason was that State governments were lackadaisical or
constrained in enacting the bill and complying with the requirements. Now with added
emphasis, post-Yokohama, and regrettable experiences with disasters like the Bhuj
Earthquake and Orissa Cyclone, renewed impetus has been provided to mitigation
planning. The process is expected to proceed further along desirable lines in the future,
which augurs well for disaster preparedness in particular and administrative reform/
improvement in general which is imperative for disaster management. For instance, granting
more say to specialists has been a much discussed reform issue over the years. Disaster
management as also rural and urban development demand specialist competence, for
which, organisational hierarchy would need to be reconsidered/reviewed.
8.2 CONCEPTS OF DISASTER MITIGATION AND

PREPAREDNESS
Disaster mitigation embraces actions taken in advance of a disaster to reduce its effects
on a community. When used in this sense, mitigation includes those actions, which are
often categorised as being preparedness measures, which means, preparedness is a part
of mitigation. However, a distinction is often made between mitigation and preparedness
whereby:
Mitigation refers to long-term risk reduction measures, which are intended to minimise
the effects of a hazard; for example, dam construction is considered an activity that
mitigates the effects of droughts. Hence, “Mitigation involves not only saving lives and
injury and reducing property losses, but also reducing the adverse consequences of natural
hazards to economic activities and social institutions.”
Preparedness is concerned with measures taken immediately before and after a hazard
event, for example, relating to evacuation plans, health and safety, search and rescue etc.
Hence the crucial issue would be logistics for which advanced preparations are necessary.
Preparedness assumes that certain groups of people or property will remain vulnerable
and that preparedness would be necessary to address the consequences of a hazardous
event’s occurrence.
This distinction between the two terms provides a useful division of actions because it
helps to highlight mitigation as a long-term process, aimed at addressing the explanatory
factors, which convert hazards to disasters. In comparison, preparedness does not aim to
correct the causes of vulnerability, which place communities at risk in the first place, rather
to tackle them through speedy and effective response; hence the emphasis on readiness
in this regard.
According to Coburn Sspence, Pomonis (1994 in the DMTP, UNDP), however, not
much should be read into the distinction. Mitigation is defined as “a collective term used
to encompass all activities undertaken in anticipation of the occurrence of a potentially
disastrous event, including long term preparedness and risk reduction measures…. It
has occasionally been defined to include post-disaster response, which makes it equivalent
to disaster management.”
Significance of Mitigation
Effective measures for mitigation involve understanding of hazards and the likely damages
in the event of a disaster. For example, in earthquakes most fatalities (almost 75 per cent)
are caused due to building collapses, hence prevention would demand earthquake proofing
of structures and retrofitting (engineering modifications) of existing ones. In floods, most
deaths reportedly occur due to drowning in turbulent currents; hence, prevention strategy
would require keeping people out of the track of potential water flows or by preventing
the flows from occurring. Mitigation saves the economy from losses. Industry and
agriculture suffer heavily from earthquakes (damaged infrastructure) and droughts,
respectively. Besides, these are interdependent sectors, which means agro-based industries
suffer if agricultural produce goes down and industries in general, if communications,
power, labour supply et al get affected (Sharma, 1998).
Mitigation is usually not given the same level of priority as preparedness or recovery. This
is because there is a tendency on the part of both economists and politicians to view
disasters and development in terms of “trade-offs,” with needed resources being diverted
from development towards disaster mitigation. The attitude can be expressed as, “we are
too concerned with day to day activities to worry about disaster problems that may not
occur during our lifetime.” This is reinforced when the problems with mitigation elements
are examined; when will the disaster occur? Do we know where it will be? What
percentage of resources shall we spend? Therefore mitigation of disasters is often not
perceived as important to the public or individual domain as other issues such as
economic development, social advancement, health care systems, etc., are.
Yet, disasters undermine development efforts and waste resources, which have been
allocated to different sectors. They interrupt ongoing programmes and divert resources
from their intended use and beneficiaries. Hence, “When disaster-proneness is well
known, failure to factor it into planning represents a serious mismanagement of
resources” (Alceira Kremer, Managing Natural Disasters and the Environment, World
Bank, 1991). Hence dovetailing of disaster mitigation into development planning saves
adhoc measures, which only results in less gain and much waste. Not only can mitigation
protect these other important sectors, but also, if correctly carried out, can often be
justified as being cost-effective in protecting other development gains.
Mitigation is therefore, a process justified and necessary for the protection it offers to a
society’s development as a result of avoidance of damage and losses. It requires
systematic and logical planning processes to ensure that resources allocated adequately
reduce risk, and protect development. To do so, an understanding has to be reached with
regard to what the effects of a disaster are likely to be and what level of protection is
required. From an economic standpoint it appears logical that the amount of mitigation,
which is warranted, is that amount that can be bought for less than the expected
costs of the losses.
However, it is important to note that acceptance of this principle depends on properly
identifying all the costs, direct (death, injuries, capital stock and inventories), indirect (lost
income, employment and services from lost production) and secondary (decreases in
economic growth, balance of trade deficits, etc.) and those associated with preparedness
and emergency relief. Equally important but harder to assess are the immeasurable costs
associated with the political, social and psychological effects of traumatic events and their
conversion into real losses.
Although the initiation of mitigation should be before a disaster occurs, the major
opportunity to develop and implement mitigation measures occurs as the “window of
opportunity” after a major disaster has taken place as politicians and public officials, in
light of public displeasure and the exigency of the situation are ready to allocate resources
for the task. This is usually a short-lived period before interest and attention lessen.
Therefore the opportunity should be rapidly taken up and optimised. For that, dovetailing
of disaster planning with mainstream development planning is imperative.
The Need for Systematic Planning
This establishes the significance of disaster planning. (It has been briefly referred to in Unit
5). Disaster Planning, in the words of T.N. Dhar (2002), “ is an important area of
disaster management that involves technical social, financial, organisational and administrative
arrangements that need to be made in order to be well prepared for disasters…It involves
timely execution of mitigation and prevention (as far as possible) measures. To an extent,
mitigation can be achieved through measures like soil and water conservation, water
storages, protection structures, land use planning and regulation, introduction of building
codes, hazard zoning, risk analysis, advance zoning and relief preparation, creation of
public awareness and enlisting the participation of people. For social preparedness, there
is need for training and motivation and mobilisation of NGOs, Voluntary Organisations and
peoples’ own institutions and sensitising the media…”
Planning for mitigation involves identifying the ‘elements’ at risk, or the physical infrastructure
and people likely to suffer harm in the event of a disaster. If there were no habitations
or buildings, an earthquake would be a harmless event. Hence, coincidence/simultaneity of
a hazard in situations of vulnerability, physical and/or socio economic, result in disasters.
Identification of vulnerable elements is a research exercise, which is undertaken as part of
vulnerability analysis and risk assessment, wherein specialists from both physical and social
sciences are involved, which can be vividly, depicted on/through a map. (Identification of
elements at risk along with recommended mitigation measures has been attempted
subsequently in table 1).
Under the initiative of the Ministry of Urban Development, a Vulnerability Atlas of India
has been prepared for the period 1994-1997, in which earthquake, cyclone and flood
hazard maps for every State and Union Territory (25 states and 7 Union territories) have
been prepared on a scale of 1:2.5 million. In these maps the boundaries of the districts
are clearly shown so that the areas of the districts prone to the various intensities of the
hazards are clearly visible. Also, the vulnerability of the buildings, as per the census of
housing 1991, had been brought out in a tabular form on separate sheets for each district.
This information clearly highlights the risk to the buildings of various types in every district
when subjected to different intensities of the three hazards, particularly. On a larger scale,
state wise vulnerability atlases have also been prepared including an action plan that the
state may adopt for achieving disaster reduction. State-of-the art technologies, such as
Remote Sensing, Geographical Information System (GIS), Global Positioning System
(GPS), Computer Modeling and Expert Systems, and Electronic Information Management
Systems (collection, storage, retrieval and dissemination of information) are being emphasised.
Efforts are on consistently to modernise disaster management control rooms in states.
Database is also being prepared to keep track of past events for retrospective preparedness
analysis, specific areas for mitigation planning, and estimation of the probability of future
occurrence/repeat events (Sinha, 2002).
A High Powered Committee was set up in August 1999 by the Government of India to
prepare a disaster management plan for the country comprising national, state and district
level plans. It deliberated on thirty odd types of disasters including water and climate
related disasters; geologically related disasters, chemical, industrial and nuclear related
disasters, accident related disasters and biologically related disasters. Significantly, the
distinction between natural and man-made disasters was academic, hence not in fact
pertinent. It submitted its report in 2001. Some of the important recommendations for
disaster mitigation, as per the committee, are as follows:
z Promoting and encouraging R&D through creating a network of national laboratories
that can provide support for early diagnosis of infections during/following disasters
and harness the expertise available. Networking of laboratories within the country,
with other countries on bilateral basis was recommended.
z Upgrading of skills of professionals by providing state-of-the-art training and establishing
a public health laboratory training programme.
z Dissemination of information to the general public and professionals was deemed

necessary and desirable.
z Availability of safe drinking water was especially emphasised to control the situation
in the aftermath of a disaster. Enforcement of preventive measures to ensure
unadulterated and hygienic food was stressed. Establishment of a Control Room in
National Institute of Communicable Diseases for information collation in related
aspects was stressed.
z For effective surveillance and rapid response activities, establishment of a national
high-level inter-sectoral committee, quick response medical teams, efficient functioning
of surveillance machinery, developing more effective international surveillance networks
were stressed.
8.3 MITIGATION MEASURES

Once decisions have been made concerning priorities the resources to be allocated to
mitigation measures to protect vulnerable populations and infrastructure can be identified.
Depending on their purpose mitigation measures can be categorised as being either
“structural” or “non-structural” in nature.
Non-Structural Mitigation
Non-structural mitigation measures relate to those activities and decision-making systems,
which provide the context within which disaster management and planning operates and
is organised. They include measures such as:
z Training and education
z Public education
z Evacuation planning
z Institution building
z Warning systems
Structural Mitigation
However, efficient non-structural mitigation measures may be, they need to be complemented
by structural measures for risk reduction to both engineered and non-engineered structures.
These include, constructing or retrofitting buildings and infrastructure to suitable safety
levels, using suitable materials and the incorporation of proper workmanship under correct
supervision. Non-engineered structures are those built by their owners or by builders
lacking formal training.
A typical structural measure is an earthquake resistant building whilst a typical non-
structural element is a seismic building code, training and education, building safety codes,
physical measures, land use planning, public awareness programmes, etc.
Both structural and non-structural mitigation measures may be termed either “Passive” or
“Active”. “Active” measures are those, which rely on providing incentives for disaster
reduction. They are often more effective than “Passive” measures based in restrictive laws
and controls. For example, while codes and land use planning may provide a legal context
for mitigation these tend to be ineffective unless rigorously enforced. Instead, measures
which provide incentives such as government grants or subsidies, a lessening of insurance
premiums for safer construction, provision of technical advice provides a framework for
more sustainable mitigation.
Examples of Mitigation Measures
Mitigation involves implementing long-term risk reduction measures. Measures range from
large-scale flood protection measures (for example, Bangladesh, China) to income generation
programmes, diversifying livelihoods, grain stores, etc., to tackle socio-economic vulnerabilities.
For the purpose of illustration, some simple examples of mitigation measures are as
follows:
z Strengthening buildings to render them more resistant against cyclones, floods or
earthquakes.
z The incorporation of hazard resistance in structures or procedures to be followed in
new development projects.
z Planning certain kinds or varieties of crops that are less affected by specific kinds
of disasters.
z Changing crop cycles so that crops mature and are harvested before the onset of the
flood or cyclone season.
z The adoption of land-use planning and controls to restrict activities in high-risk areas.
z Economic diversification to allow losses in one sector to be offset by increased
output in other sectors.
These approaches can be categorised as development projects, but can serve more than
one developmental aim if planned accordingly. Other intervention areas, which address
disaster mitigation include:
z Policy concerning land regulation, low income housing schemes, environmental
regulations, national food/grain security policies, etc.
z Training involving policy makers, NGO staff, etc.
z Identification of vulnerable groups.
z Public awareness amongst community members, civic groups retailers, etc.
z Information systems for monitoring, documentation, dissemination et al.
z Education in disciplines in construction, architecture, urban planning, agriculture, etc.
z Integrate local disaster management plan with technical and planning principles.
Modifying or removing the causes of the threat or reducing the effects of the threat,
should it occur, can achieve mitigation measures for disaster reduction. The most effective
mitigation measures address not only the nature of hazards but also the vulnerabilities.
The options available for mitigation include, the type of hazard faced, the perception of
the scale of the risk as well as other factors. However, because of the difficulties in
reducing the actual hazard threat itself, most mitigation measures are aimed at reducing the
vulnerability of communities to hazard. It is hard to stop a volcano but it is easier not
to build a house at the foot of one!
Elements at risk in case of each natural hazard and requirements in mitigation with regard
to each are represented below in a tabular form, as per Prof. Sharma (1998) in the
Training Workshop and Vulnerability Preparedness Management Development
Programme)
Table - 1
Natural Hazards Elements at Risk Mitigation Strategies

Disaster Mitigation
Flood and Water Anything sited in flood plains, Earth Buildings or Masonry Main Mitigation Strategies woul
Hazards with water soluble Mortar. Buildings with shallow control and locations planning to
foundations or weak resistance to lateral loads or impact. flood plain being the site of vulne
Basements or underground buildings. Utilities: sewerage, Engineering of structures in flood pl
power, water supply. Machinery and electronics including flood forces and design for elevat
industry and communications equipment. Food stocks. Seepage resistant infrastructure.
Cultural artifacts. Confined/penned livestock and agriculture.
Fishing boats and other maritime industries.
Earthquakes Dense groups of weak buildings with high occupancy. Non- Engineering structures to withstand v
engineered buildings constructed by the householder: earth, Seismic building codes. Enforcemen
rubble stone and reinforced masonry buildings with heavy with building code requirements and
roofs. Older structures with little lateral strength, poor quality of higher standards of constru
buildings or buildings with construction defects. Tall Construction of important p
buildings from distant earthquakes and buildings built on undertakings to high standards
loose soils. design. Strengthening of impo
buildings known to be vulner
planning to reduce urban densities
areas known to amplify grou
Insurance. Seismic zonation a
regulations.
177
178
Volcanic Anything close to the volcano. Combustible roofs of Location planning to avoid areas c
Eruptions buildings. Water supplies vulnerable to dust fall out. Weak slopes being used for import
buildings may collapse, under ash loads. Crops and livestock Avoidance of likely lava- flow chan
are at risk. of fire resistant structures. Engineeri
to withstand additional weight of ash
Land Instabilities Settlements built on steep slopes and softer soils or along cliff Location planning to avoid hazardo
tops. Settlements built at the base of steep slopes, on alluvial used for settlements or as sites
outwash fans or at the mouth of streams emerging from structures. Relocation may be cons
mountain valleys. Roads and other communication lines hazards where possible. Engineering
through mountain areas. Roads and other communication lines withstand or accommodate pot
through mountain areas. Masonry buildings. Buildings with movement. Pile foundations to
weak foundations. Large structures without monolithic liquefaction. Monolithic foundati
foundations. Buried utilities, brittle pipes. differential settlements, Flexible b
Relocation of existing settlements o
may be considered.
Strong Winds Light- weight structures and timber housing. Informal housing Engineering of structures to withsta
sectors and shanty settlements. Roofs and cladding. Loose or Wind load requirements in buildin
poorly attached building elements, sheets and boards. Trees, safety requirements for non- struc
fences, signs etc. Telegraph poles and high-level cables. Good construction practices. Micro-
Fishing boats or other maritime industries. of key facilities; for example, tow
hills. Planting of windbreaks, plant
areas upwind towns. Provision o
buildings (for example. strong vil
community shelter in vulnerable settl
Disaster Management
Technological Industrial plant or vehicle and its employees or crew; Use of fire resistant materials, buildi
Hazards passengers or residents of nearby settlements; adjacent smoke extraction; improving detecto
Disaster Mitigation
buildings; livestock/crops in the vicinity of the plant) up-to systems; preparedness planning
hundreds of kilometers in the case of large-scale release of fighting and pollution dispersal c
airborne pollutants and radioactive materials); regional water emergency relief and evacuation pla
supply and hydrology; fauna and flora. employees and nearby settlemen
passengers in the case of vehicles)
and off site safety plans and co
conjunction with local fire departm
capabilities of civil defense a
authorities. Limit or reduce stora
dangerous or flammable chemicals.
Drought and Crops and Forests; human and animal health, all economic Water rationing; conserving or re
Desertification activities dependent on continuous water supply; entire human water supply by water shed managem
settlements if drought is prolonged. harvesting, construction of dams
aqueducts; conserving soil and r
erosion rates by check dams, leveling
management; reducing firewood
improved fuel stoves, introductio
farming and cropping patterns; pop
education and training programmes.
179
8.4 PROBLEM AREAS IN MITIGATION

From a practical disaster management viewpoint, certain problem areas affect mitigation
adversely:
z There may be long-standing acceptance of hazards by governments and communities,
who may feel that traditional measures (taken over many years) are sufficient. Also,
for instance, a nation may have lived for centuries with a recurring major flood
problem.
z Some mitigation measures can be costly; for example, enforcement of building codes
is likely to increase the cost of buildings. Building dams is costly and takes time.
z In addition, there are other national priorities, which are given more attention. Thus
measures of disaster mitigation may not receive importance in national planning.
Problems like political issues and no public opinion for taking preventive measures
add to the lack of initiative at the national level. There could be less interest
articulation in this regard resulting from low level of risk perception among common
people, particularly social action groups and public policy makers.
z Lack of technical expertise for applying mitigation measures such as retrofitting may
be lacking.
z Resources could be scarce, which would result in inadequate attention given to
disaster mitigation concerns.
z International cooperation, especially among regional groups regarding common
vulnerabilities to hazards is necessary. The same could be impeded due to political
tensions between neighbouring countries.
z Fatalistic perception of disasters precludes consideration of mitigation issues in
development planning. Unless it is believed that disasters could be tackled effectively
through public policy, not much effort is likely in this regard on the part of
governments and communities.
z There could be organisational hurdles like lack of R&D in mitigation activities, or
lack of proper placing of specialists in organisational hierarchy.
In view of resource constraints, certain questions need to be answered in appraising
disaster mitigation options. These questions, as per Coburn, Spence and Pomonis in
DMTP 1994, are:
z What is the appropriate level of hazard for which disaster mitigation measures should
be designed?
z Which facilities should be strengthened and to what level?
z Should certain type of building development be prohibited in certain areas?
z How much should be invested in disaster mitigation or emergency planning measures?
No decision process model can be applied with regard to choices between aforesaid
concerns, though addressing the questions would serve to assess the choices available and
help arrive at a choice. However, it is realised that in the overall, disaster mitigation is
a cost effective alternative. For example, while making a cutting road, steeper angle would
be the cheaper option, but the road will give way easily during heavy rainfall or strong
ground tremor. Cost cutting at the construction stage would ultimately prove costly.
Limitations of Cost- Benefit Analysis (CBA)
Cost- benefit analysis (CBA) is the most widely used method in computing losses and
gains from a proposed project. The important factor in these calculations is that present
losses are borne if future gains are proposed from mitigation measures. Therefore, in
computation of gains and losses a social discount rate is introduced which gives the
society’s preference for present benefits over future benefits. It is a standard rate applied
uniformly in all project assessments. The alternative which scores better with regard to
trade-offs between costs and benefits is preferred over others. However, there are serious
limitations to using CBA. Firstly, there are very large uncertainties about the probable
levels of future losses; Secondly, gainers and losers from such decisions are often not the
same people, hence levying just taxes to arrange for costs is difficult. Thirdly, intangible
costs or benefits are not quantifiable. The very idea of costing saved/saving human lives
may appear to be unacceptable (DMTP, 1994).
Alternate approach is ‘Goal- oriented Risk Reduction.’ As per the level of acceptable
risk, explained in Section 6.6 of Unit 6, the society decides how much resources are to
be spent on disaster mitigation in each particular case/activity. Seismic codes adopted in
California, as per the level of acceptable risk state explicitly that buildings designed
according to the codes should:
z Resist minor earthquakes without damage,
z Resist moderate earthquakes without significant structural damage, but with some
non- structural damage, and
z Resist major or severe earthquakes without major failure of the structural framework
of the building or its equipment, and maintain life safety.
The crucial factor is how to determine acceptable level of risk. In this context, the
concept of ‘balanced risk criterion’ and ‘ cost-effectiveness criterion are discussed. In the
former, risks are equalized in different activities, that is, accepting some basic minimum
level of risk in all activities pursued in society. Another approach is balancing trade-offs
between dangers and benefits, such as fertile soil in flood prone and near volcanic zones,
or capital costs and (versus) saved lives.
The cost- effectiveness criterion attempts to evaluate the unit cost of saved lives in
different protection mechanisms available and then taking the decision. Other attributes are
computing benefits of saved lives separately, in total financial costs and benefits. Different
considerations are weighed separately to make proper choices.
8.5 GUIDING PRINCIPLES OF MITIGATION

The following principles are widely recognised as providing a valuable guide to Disaster
Mitigation:
z Initiation
1) Disasters offer unique opportunities to introduce mitigation measures.
2) Mitigation can be introduced within the three diverse contexts of reconstruction, new
investment and the existing environment. Each presents different opportunities to
introduce safety measures.
z Management
3) Mitigation measures are complex and interdependent, and they involve widespread
responsibility. Therefore, effective leadership and coordination are essential to provide
a focal point.
4) Mitigation will be most effective if safety measures are spread through a wide
diversity of integrated activities.
5) ‘Active’ mitigation measures that rely on incentives are more effective than ‘Passive’
measures based on restrictive laws and controls.
6) Mitigation must not be isolated from related elements of disaster planning such as
preparedness, relief and reconstruction.
z Prioritisation
7) Where resources are limited, priority should be given to the protection of key special
groups, critical services and vital economic structures.
z Monitoring and Evaluation
8) Mitigation measures need to be continuously monitored and evaluated so as to
respond to changing patterns of hazards, vulnerability and resources
z Institutionalisation
9) Mitigation measures should be sustainable so as to resist public apathy during the
long periods between major disasters.
10) Political commitment is vital to the initiation and maintenance of mitigation.
8.6 TOWARDS MITIGATION

Effective mitigation requires a participatory approach, which involves senior levels of
government and private sector as well as at the local levels of government and community
based organisations. Such an approach facilitates identification of needs, the establishment
of practical solutions and a combined sense of responsibility in programme implementation.
Local communities also play a significant role in effective disaster mitigation through
meaningful participation in planning and execution of schemes for the purpose.
Some of the actions/steps desirable towards mitigation are:
z A clear and comprehensive National Disaster Management Policy that addresses all
aspects of disaster management and ensures that mitigation is given proper consideration
and priority.
z Adequate assessment and monitoring of disaster hazards and vulnerabilities, in order
that the need for mitigation measures is accurately identified and defined. Indeed,
effective vulnerability analysis is a primary requisite for mitigation programmes.
z Adequate and accurate analysis of all reasonable mitigation projects. In this regard,
it is especially important to achieve sensible gain/loss comparisons; for instance,
whether by instituting mitigation measures programs, the nation and community are
going to gain more (bearing in mind the cost and restrictions involved), as against the
losses which might arise if nothing is done.
z A permanent Disaster Management Centre or Agency should be created. The
existence of such a centre is vital for coordination and collation of activities and
information respectively in overall disaster management activities.
z Insistence by the disaster management centre or agency that a post-disaster review
is undertaken after each major disaster event. The review must include advice to the
government on whether, as a result of a particular disaster, mitigation measures are
adequate or additional mitigation measures are needed.
z Recognition that mitigation measures can originate from all levels of government, not
only from national level. Since the local levels would be the first responders to any
disaster, therefore mitigation measures are essential and more obvious at this level.
z Specialist programmes may assist large-scale mitigation measures, for example,
agricultural programmes to assist farmers.

z Adequate public awareness and educational prpgrammes, in order assist communities
in playing their appropriate part in mitigation measures.
z Regular monitoring and evaluation: Levels of vulnerability to hazards are constantly
changing, as are the resources available to meet the threats. In some cases, the
probability of hazard occurrence also varies depending on changes in the environment
they occur. To remain effective mitigation actions have to be monitored, evaluated
and if necessary improved against these changes in the risk to populations and
societies
8.7 RESOURCES RELEVANT TO MITIGATION

The main resources, which are most relevant to mitigation measures and programmes, are
given below:
Activity Resources
Identification and Analysis of • Academic and Research
Disaster Risk, Hazards, Institutions
Vulnerabilities and similar • Technical Authorities
Aspects • Departments and Agencies
concerned with hazards (for
example. meteorological,
seismological, hydrological)
• Government and private
agencies having public
responsibility (dealing with
land, sea and transport systems)
• Private sector authorities
dealing with projects or
production which may generate
potential threat (chemical
factories etc.)
• International Agencies
Need and possibilities for • Government Organisations
implementation • National Planning Authorities
• Disaster Management
Authorities
• Specialised Agencies
Implementation • Government Organisations
• Non Government Organisations
• Military Forces
• International Disaster Assisting
Agencies
• Disaster Management
Authorities
Sustainability of the programme • Non Government Organisations
• General Public
• Educational & Training
Authorities
• Media
Special Considerations
Above discussed steps, resources and circumstances for formulating and implementing
mitigation programmes are likely to differ in various countries. Therefore, in addition to the
above, the following considerations are likely to have some general application:
z If possible, a simple broad strategy should be devised to cover foreseeable mitigation
requirements. This strategy should contain component programs, with desirable
priorities.
z The strategy should be interlocked, as far as possible, with national development
planning, environmental considerations and other disaster management activities.
z A system for monitoring and reviewing the strategy should be introduced and applied.
z Responsibilities for overseeing and coordinating the mitigation activities should be
clearly defined.
z There should be a requirement of an annual progress report covering mitigation
activities; this should normally be embodied in an annual disaster management report.
z Mitigation programmes should not be regarded as, or be allowed to become a
separate activity. They should be a part of an integrated national programme.
Sustainability
Mitigation measures should be sustainable so as to resist apathy during the often-long
periods between major disasters. To affect this there needs to be strong level of political
commitment. Measures taken also have to be explained to the public and standards set
for planning etc. need to reflect the reality of normal public behaviour, perception and
prioritisation. Mitigation and its associated costs will only be supported and incurred if the
purpose is understood and it is a reasonable response to the scale of the threat posed.
Should a gap exist between the actual risk faced and a society’s perception of it,
awareness generation based on the reality of the situation will be required. Ways to
maintain mitigation include:
z An active public awareness programme
z Well documented success stories of risks that were reduced in a past disaster
z Institutionalising mitigation into normal government practice
z Updating of risk assessment and cost benefit analysis
z Maintaining commitment
Sustained commitment on the part of governments would result in a new culture in
disaster management standing firmly, in the words of Anil Sinha (2002) on the four pillars
of:
z Culture of Preparedness
z Culture of Quick Response
z Culture of Strategic Thinking; and
z Culture of Prevention
8.8 CONTRIBUTION OF UNITED NATIONS AGENCIES

IN DISASTER MITIGATION
The significance of international cooperation in disaster mitigation could not be understated.
Disasters know no national boundaries and cannot be pre-warned on most occasions.
Concerted efforts alone could save the devastation wrought by the fury of natural
disasters. International cooperation is needed in technical dissemination regarding hazard
control technology, sharing of warning information, common craft of strategies, telling what
works and what doesn’t, which helps other countries facing similar subsequent events. For
example, flood preparedness in Bangladesh would benefit a far off land like Brazil, solely
through information sharing. The United Nations coordinates efforts in this regard. It has
organised United Nations Disaster Management Teams (UN-DMT), in each country to
act as support systems to national governments during times of crises. UN assistance
extends from post disaster rehabilitation and relief to disaster preparedness and mitigation
planning that is, involving all activities in the Disaster Management Cycle. Nature of
contribution is advising governments, mobilising technical and material resources as per
mandate and cooperate with UN Resident Representative or any other coordination
mechanism in place. The following UN agencies are involved in the following ways:
United Nations Disaster Relief Organisation (UNDRO) promotes study of Risks and
their reduction as well as information dissemination to promote disaster management and
planning. It is entitled to utilise up to 50,000 $, following request of assistance from the
government and approval of the same by the UNDRO coordinator.
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) promotes incorporation of disaster
mitigation in development planning and funds technical assistance for all aspects of
development planning. $50,000 per occurrence is sanctioned for immediate relief and up
to $1.1 million for long- term rehabilitation and reconstruction programmes.
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organisation) focuses on agriculture, livestock, fisheries, and
local food production. It monitors availability and possible shortages in the future. It is
authorised to utilise up to $20,000 for a project.
World Food Programme (WFP) provides targeted food aid for humanitarian relief and
supports rehabilitation, reconstruction, and risk reduction development programmes. Fund
allocations are to the tune of $45 million per annum and allocations are made from the
International Emergency Food Reserve and WFP general resources.
World Health Organisation (WHO) provides assistance and advice in all aspects of
preventive and curative health care including the preparedness of health services for rapid
disaster response.
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) seeks durable solutions
for problem of refugees and seeks to assist them in the country of asylum.
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO)
contribute to the duty of geological and hydro-meteorological agencies in particular
besides assessing and mitigating risks from natural hazards in general.
United Nations Center for Human Habitation (UNHCS) promotes incorporation of
natural disaster mitigation concepts in urban planning and management. It attempts to
develop innovative methodologies for hazard and vulnerability analysis.
United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF) assists in child
health and nutrition especially in disaster prone areas.
Other UN agencies, specifically engaged in /for South East Asia are:

The Asian Disaster Reduction Center (ADRC), established in Kobe, Japan, collates
information regarding disasters from different countries within the region and carries out
research and dissemination work.
Asian Disaster Preparedness Center (ADPC) in Bangkok is a focal point in Asia and
Pacific for promoting disaster awareness and developing local capabilities. It is a regional
resource center for promoting best practices in disaster management. It is the regional
focal point for the United Nations International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction
(UN-IDNDR) UN-ISDR for Asia and the Pacific.
Asia-Pacific Disaster Management Center, Manila, Philippines is a non- governmental
agency actively involved in disaster management plans in India.
8.9 CONCLUSION
A successful strategy for risk reduction will eventually incorporate mitigation into development
planning and hence, everyday practice. This also happens in other walks of life, for
example, the requirement of road testing of vehicles to stay on the road, or the adherence
to building codes for safe building in new (formal) construction. A further example is the
way with which preventative medicine has now been accepted as a normal process of
public health care. Pre-requisites to enable this are:
z The commitment to mitigation of key actors including communities, government, its
agencies and NGOs.
z The integration of mitigation to all stages of the disaster cycle, including in particular
the stages of disaster, relief, rehabilitation.
z After risk assessment has taken place there is a need to prioritise mitigation actions
towards protecting key elements within a society. Measures taken will be either
structural or non structural in nature.
z Active mitigation measures which promote rather than enforce risk reduction are
more successful - those at risk need therefore to understand why mitigation is
necessary, a process which can be achieved in part through training.
z Mitigation planning needs regular review and evaluation to meet the threats posed by
ever changing hazard characteristics and vulnerability.
z The normalisation of mitigation within a society is the hallmark of strides towards
effective risk reduction.
8.10 KEY CONCEPTS

Assessment : Assessments are relevant to both pre and post-
disaster situations. Post-disaster, it involves estimation
of direct and indirect losses, short-term and long-term
and how they could be curbed in future events. In the
pre-disaster phase, it involves vulnerability analysis to
different hazards. It is an inter-disciplinary exercise
requiring involvement of experts from various fields,
both science and social sciences, collation of knowledge
under a single umbrella organisations (preferably) and

its communication to relevant decision centers.
Geographical Information : Analysis that combine relational databases with spatial
System interpretation and outputs often in form of maps. A
more elaborate definition is that of computer
programmes for capturing, storing, checking, integrating,
analysing and displaying data about the earth that is
spatially referenced. This definition is attributed to the
Asian Disaster Reduction Center.
Global Positioning System : It is a worldwide radio navigation system that was
developed by the U.S. Department of Defense. It
uses satellite signals to track the location or position
of vehicles or vessels on earth. In addition to military
purposes it is widely used in marine, terrestrial
navigation and location based services. India is using
GPS extensively for surveying, precision agriculture
and environment monitoring.
Mitigation : Mitigation is the aim of all disaster reduction efforts.
It refers to long-term measures taken towards reducing
the impact of inevitable disasters, considering the hazard
proneness and frequency of past events. Examples of
mitigation measures include, flood plain zoning to avoid
habitation in hazard prone zones, building codes to
ensure hazard resistant structures.
Remote Sensing : Remote sensing is the science of deriving information
about the earth’s land and water areas from images
acquired at a distance. It usually relies upon
measurement of electromagnetic energy reflected or
emitted from the features of interest. This understanding
is attributed to Campbell (1987).
Retrofitting : Retrofitting refers to engineering modifications to make
existing structures disaster proof. Retrofitting techniques
include flood proofing, elevation, construction of small
levees, and other modifications made to an existing
building or its yard to protect it from flood damage.
Access more information on retrofitting at
www.msdlouky.org/programs/crssite/fpglossary.html.

Carter, W. Nick, 1991, Disaster Management: A Disaster Manager’s Handbook,
Asian Development Bank, Manila.
Campbell, J.B., 1987, Introduction to Remote Sensing, The Gulliford Press.
Coburn, Sspence, Pomonis, 1994, “Vulnerability and Risk Assessment” 2nd edition,
Disaster management Training Programme, UNDP, United Nations.
Dhar, T.N., 2002, “Disaster Management: Policies and Imperatives”, Paper Presented in
the Training Programme on Disaster Management, Department of Public Administration,
University of Lucknow.
Report of High Powered Committee for Preparation of Disaster Management Plans,
Government of India, New Delhi, 2001 at http://www.nidm.net/HPC/volume/ch3.pdf.
Sinha, Anil, 2002, “Disaster Management: Lessons Drawn and Strategies for Future”,
Paper Presented in the Training Programme on Disaster Management, Department of
Public Administration, University of Lucknow.
Sharma, Vinod K., 1998, (Programme Director), Training Workshop on Vulnerability
and Preparedness, National Center for Disaster Management, Indian Institute of Public
Administration, New Delhi.
8.12 ACTIVITIES
1) Study and organise a group discussion on the case study given below. Note down
all the comments and suggestions that come from the participants. Finally compile the
recommendations that from the view of the students could have helped to implement
the program more effectively.
Case Study
The experience of Tarun Bharat Sangh (TBS) in the past twenty years in Alwar
region has been that the solution to the severe water crisis is in mobilisation of rural
communities to use their rich tradition of water conservation by constructing water-
harvesting structures and managing their natural resources. This region was going
through an ecological breakdown with depletion of resources, forest and wildlife.
However, during the last 18 years, TBS has put in concerted and free spirited efforts
in mobilising the people of the villages to be flag bearers of their surrounding
environment. The traditional water structures are a prime example of the ingenuity of
inexpensive simple traditional technology that is quite remarkable in terms of recharging
ground water of the entire region; Tarun Bharat Sangh has successfully accomplished
this in Alwar with mobilization of the villagers, regenerating 6500 sq. km of land.
Amongst the various issues, the one aspect of this region that has a bearing on
everything else is the water resource or the lack thereof. Taking this as their driving
force, TBS has been responsible for mobilizing villages of Alwar district to build
4,500 johads, anicuts, check dams or water harvesting structures to collect rainwater
in 1050 villages regenerating 6500 sq. km of land. The environment, which was
deteriorating due to intensive and improper use of resources and mining activity, was
revived. As farming activity resumed in hundreds of drought prone villages and self
disciplinary codes were set by the villagers with regards various aspects like cutting
trees and poaching, the revival of the traditional water harvesting structures revived
five rivers Ruparel, Aravari, Sarsa, Bhagani and Jhajwali flowing again after remaining
dry for decades. Nembi and the Sariska region, which were declared “dark zones”,
have been converted into “white zones” thus rejuvenating the environment of the
entire region.
2) Considering the disaster, which your area/village is prone to, try and prepare a
disaster mitigation strategy/plan considering the resources and restraints. Assign roles
to members of the community. Also, include the traditional mitigation measures from
the elderly people in the community.
UNIT 9 COMMUNITY BASED DISASTER
MANAGEMENT
Structure
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Concept of Community Based Disaster Management (CBDM)
9.3 Principles, Strategies and Challenges
9.4 Requirements in CBDM
9.5 CBDM: Approach and Direction
9.6 Features of CBDM: Understanding Through Case Studies
9.7 Examples in Resilience
9.8 Conclusion
9.9 Key Concepts
9.11 Activities

z Understand the significance of community participation in disaster mnagement, especially
disaster planning and disaster response; and
z Understand the modalities for arranging for CBDM.
9.1 INTRODUCTION
The World Disasters Report (2004) has ‘Building Community Resilience’ as its central
theme. It has been realised in experiences with recent disasters that enabling communities
to fight disasters is a much better policy choice than ad-hoc ameliorative schemes for
tackling short-term vulnerabilities. As per the report, the experience with community based
disaster preparedness has been extremely encouraging in the Philippines. Filipinos are
prone to frequent typhoons, floods and droughts, which have impacted the livelihoods of
small farmers and agricultural labourers and adversely affected the economy of the
country. Typhoons bring high winds and heavy rainfall, which destroy crops, livestock and
property, eroding soils and littering farmland with silt and stones.
The Red Cross encouraged community based disaster preparedness by encouraging
people to prepare local preparedness plans and undertake mitigation measures like
mangrove protection and tree planting, seawall and river dyke construction, clearing
irrigation channels, sand-bagging sections of rivers, and building evacuation centres.
Initiatives were planned with the participation of community members and local government
units (LGUs). LGUs help meet the costs or technical requirements. However, the
shortcomings of the approach were soon evident. It was realised that it is not sufficient
to invest in preparedness. It was realised that shift towards vulnerability reduction with
stress on livelihoods is inevitable for lasting impact on peoples’ lives. It was necessary to
provide for sustainable livelihoods which donor agencies were unwilling to commit for. For
example, the donor to a project in Benguet province in the Philippines prematurely cut
back support, after concluding that the project’s income generation elements were not
sufficiently focused on disaster mitigation. However, local participants considered these
initiatives valid because they addressed wider aspects of vulnerability.
Hence, quoting from the report, “the challenge for humanitarian organisations is to avoid
imposing on communities a pre-conceived agenda of physical mitigation measures, to be
completed within donor-driven timelines. Only a careful analysis of both the hazards and
the social, political and economic reasons underlying resilience and vulnerability can
provide the basis for framing the right interventions. Such an analysis will raise far more
problems (and expectations) than any single organisation can solve. So, humanitarian
organisations must cooperate with other agents, from local to international levels, with
expertise in different sectors (IRCRCS, 2004).”
Vulnerability and Capacity Analysis (VCA)
It has been realised through past experience that specialist vulnerability and risk assessments
do not provide all the needed information. It is necessary to supplement expert analysis,
usually undertaken by economists and scientists, by a vulnerability and capacity analysis
(VCA) conducted at the community level, involving community members in analyses and
articulation of their own problems. Vulnerabilities, that is, factors that create the
proneness or predisposition or susceptibilities to risk in the community should be studied
in relation (in opposition) to Capacities (resilience, strengths) to find clues to augment the
capacities and offset the vulnerabilities of communities. Hence, “assessment has to be a
participatory process undertaken in phases, and involving on- the- spot collection of data,
interpreting and analysing the same for information from various sources. It involves
analysis of both scientific and empirical data.”
Cross- categorisation to identify vulnerable communities besides simple categorisation of
‘at risk’ communities on the basis of gender, age, ethnicity, religion or caste has to be
attempted. For example, women and children are vulnerable groups, cutting across caste
and class categories, in disaster situations. Hence, disaster policy has to be sensitive to
such differentiations especially in the matter of involving people in disaster policy and
implementation of the same.
Rationale of Synergy
The concept of good governance demands that government must not only be representative
but also responsive in that people should have a substantive role to participate in
decision-making and implementation. Cohen and Uphoff (1980) regarded participation as
“generally devoting the involvement of a significant number of persons in situations or
actions which enhance their well being”. Paul (1987) defined participation as; “in the
context of development, community participation refers to an active process whereby
beneficiaries influence the direction and execution of development projects rather than
merely receive a share of project benefits”. Disaster risk reduction through participation
addresses four important questions:
Community Based Disaster Management 191
1) Who is participating?
2) How is participation assured?
3) At which stage is participation occurring? And
4) How is participation facilitated?
To grasp all dimensions of participation in sufficient measure, one has to understand the
concept of community, wherefrom participation emerges.
Concept of Community
A natural event becomes a disaster when it causes loss of lives and / or property. Since
disasters affect people as individuals, and community as a collective, both are important
to reduce the impacts of disasters. Community based disaster management, by its very
definition, involves communities in identifying, assessing and acting jointly to reduce
disaster risks. The impact of disasters is increasing in magnitude much beyond the
management capacity of governments and traditional emergency responders. The usefulness
of CBDM approach helps in reducing disaster impacts and calls for its greater recognition
and institutionalisation within the disaster management framework.
“Community is defined as a feeling that members have of belonging, a feeling that
members matter to one another and to the group and a shared faith that members’ needs
will be met through their commitment to be together” (McMillan and Chavis, 1986).
Many people define community in different ways; however, the aforesaid definition is
preferred because it is inclusive. Thus community includes not only the people who live
in a certain location, but also includes the local government, local business sector, local
academic bodies and the NGOs.
Concept of Participation
There is considerable ambiguity about peoples’ participation in governance. What does it
mean? How it is to be secured; in what manner; in which areas? According to Hickey
and Mohan (2003), participation should not be understood as imminent, that is one off/
ad-hoc participation in some programmes but conceptualised in broader terms as part of
the wider concept of citizenship which looks at participation as an immanent socio-
historical process which runs as an undercurrent to all social, political and sociological
processes. This calls for a review of the concept of citizenship itself. There is increasing
talk of the limits of state action for mutual benefit; hence the imminence of responsible
citizenship, which implies increasing involvement of people in governance related issues
as a matter of right. A balanced conception of rights and duties is desired on the part
of each stakeholder, citizen or otherwise, as an imperative for good governance.
Accordingly, “Citizenship can be defined as that set of practices, which define a member
as a competent member of a society, and which as a consequence shapes the flow of
resources to persons and social groups” (Roberts 1992).
Hence, there is need for radical system change as per the theoretical formulation, which
is referred as “critical modernism” by Hickey and Mohan, where initiatives come more
from citizens rather than as one-way traffic from official institutions. To that end,
government has to work proactively to promote such institutional mechanisms that make
real such possibilities. People’ participation has to move a level up from project level to
policy level which can lead to political empowerment of people, rather than adhoc
involvement in some technical studies. Example can be given of participatory rural
appraisals (PRAs) being used currently in disaster mitigation and vulnerability studies, and
participatory poverty assessments, and social analysis which inform policy for poverty
reduction, initiated and promoted by the World Bank, following criticism of aid linked to
conditionalities and being unrelated to actual needs (Blackburn and Holland, 1998).
Hence, participation is not an ancillary but an essential/central concern in good/democratic
governance. Civil society needs institutionalisation. Towards the same, catalytic intervention
on the part of the government to institutionalise social capital in the form of neighbourhood
and resident welfare associations would be necessary for consistent and relevant input for
public policy.
As rightly articulated in the World Disasters Report, 2004, sometimes, outside intervention
helps alleviate social tensions, since it acts as a catalyst in counter-effecting traditional/
inherent negative social capital and promoting positive social capital as organising group
meetings, catalysing interface between members of different communities, especially those
with differences.
9.2 CONCEPT OF COMMUNITY BASED DISASTER

MANAGEMENT (CBDM)
The term “Community-Based Disaster Management” received attention in the development
field in the 1980’s, although community based disaster initiatives were already ongoing in
different parts of the world in formal or informal ways.
Though CBDM has been a popular term in the last several years, in very few cases it
has actually been incorporated into government policy. It has been a common notion that
CBDM is the responsibility of grass root organisations and/or NGOs. There are two
major aspects in this regard: first, the best practices of CBDM initiatives remain local
initiatives and are not properly disseminated. It was observed that even though there have
been good examples of CBDM in specific locations within a society, those lessons are
not transferred to other parts of the country, neither do they reach the adjacent countries
of the region. Second, due to lack of recognition of CBDM initiatives at the national level,
there are often limited resources devoted to these activities. Thus, in most areas, CBDM
is considered in isolation from national disaster management activities. It is also not
included in the national development policies. Therefore, there is an increasing need to
understand the basis of CBDM, and try to formulate a framework for incorporating
CBDM into national policy issues with special focus on sustainability.
The Great Hanshin Awaji Earthquake of 1995 hit the city of Kobe and other parts of
Hyogo prefecture in Japan causing serious loss of life and property. Immediately after the
earthquake, the neighbours and relatives rescued many people from the debris. Statistics
show that 85 per cent of the people were either self-evacuated or were rescued by
neighbours. This indicates the importance of community and neighbouhood immediately
after such an event.
The above case study from Japan indicates the importance of social capital inputs in
communities and neighbourhoods during a disaster. It starts immediately after the disaster
strikes, since the relief and rehabilitation programme incorporates both physical and social
issues. Hence, involvement of people in recovery process is the key to success.
9.3 PRINCIPLES, STRATEGIES AND CHALLENGES

The above discussed cases, and many more from the region, point towards certain key
concepts and lessons, which can be used to derive some basic principles of community,
based disaster management. The basic principles on which CBDM stands are:
z Planning, implementation and management owned by community, led by local champions.
z Interventions start from locally available resources, capacities and partnerships.
z Community considers choices and takes decisions.
z Programmes focus on developing local coping capacities.
z Disaster preparedness approached from a development perspective.
z Sustainability considered as an underlying factor.
z Attention to special vulnerable groups.
These principles are translated into implementation strategies for creating the desired
impact on the ground. Each situation merits a unique solution with a combination of inputs.
However, the principles and the process structure remain universally applicable to all
situations. Most commonly used strategies and actions are described below:
z Public Awareness
Public awareness is the first step towards marketing the concept of CBDM and creating
a demand, locally, for disaster reduction efforts. Once the demand has been established,
programme interventions create enabling environments and linkages with resources for
fulfilling this demand. This could be understood as interest articulation and empowering the
communities to voice their concerns for the same. Public awareness is carried out through
community meetings, events, mass communication programmes organised by non-government
organisations, and activity based awareness interventions on the part of the government.
Almond and Verba (1963) has ascribed the task of political communication to the political
elite. It implies informing the people about government policies and progammes being
pursued/introduced by the government for their benefit and enabling/aiding them access the
same since many programmes have been known to fail due to lack of awareness on the
part of people and inability to access the right sources/power centers. Right to information
is another significant facet of public awareness. Though the bill has been enacted and
Information Commissions established at the Centre and in the States, its successful
implementation would depend on activism on the part of civil society in this regard and
the vigil exercised by the media.
There are standard restrictions on information relating to security, foreign policy, defence,
law enforcement and public safety. But the Freedom of Information Bill also excludes
Cabinet papers, including records of the council of ministers, secretaries and other
officials, which effectively shields the whole process of decision-making from mandatory
disclosure.
z Research and Documentation
Learning processes are critical to the adaptive nature of CBDM. Every situation
demands specific intervention as per sensitivities which need to be periodically studied/
monitored; hence, it is important to constantly document and reflect upon social processes
such as group cohesion based on caste, and other forms of ethnic identifications, and to
draw suitable strategy for intervention for desired social chemistry based on lessons from
past experiences in disaster response. For example, it was experienced in the recent
tsunami, that aid did not reach the backward segments since group cohesion exhibited
negative social capital based on caste considerations. Women and children are also
generally known to lose out because of social biases. Understanding of social dynamics
is crucial to understanding threat in each case. For example, in societies where elders are
left alone, people are more at risk from heat waves, which is what happened in Europe
in the summer of 2006. Hence, studies are needed to gain insights regarding these issues
in case of each particular society.
Physical vulnerability of existing infrastructure needs to be periodically improved and
mapped, which requires constant updating. Baseline surveys, community based monitoring
and evaluation processes, and mapping studies have to go on in tandem. Participatory
appraisals are most useful and also imperative/indispensable for the purpose. Such studies
could give ‘biased’ results if carried out unilaterally by a central authority or an
international organisation. It has to be a participatory exercise where vulnerable communities
articulate their own concerns and also suggest measures, which need to be taken to
improve their resilience/coping capacity. A key concern would be acceptance of any new
measure(s) by the local community. A pilot study of any proposed new project would be
the desired suggestion in this regard (Todd and Palakudiyil, 2004-05).
z Capacity Building
Capacity building implies upgrading the reserve capacity of the communities, which gives
them more staying power during disasters. Local capacity building is a means of ensuring
that reliance on external assistance will not perpetuate, and that communities will
increasingly be able to take care of their recurrent needs. Capacity building is not only
for better emergency response, but also for taking developmental actions that reduce the
impact of future disasters. The World Disasters Report, 2004, rightly points out that
“there is little analysis of how people survive disasters, and even less programming that
builds on their coping strategies… in the field of disasters, most emphasis has remained
on assessing needs, hazards and vulnerabilities at the expense of analysing the strengths,
skills and resources available within communities.”
The report recommends a paradigm shift from the traditional risk reduction approach,
which starts with hazards and risks, then looks for linkages with development to the
sustainable livelihoods approach, where disasters, including the capacity to resist their
impact and bounce back, are part of a wider development framework. For example,
small scale measures like social forestry, fish-farming, drought-resistant crops and rainwater
harvesting can reduce the risk of environmental degradation and hence the threat from
natural disasters like wildfires, droughts and floods
Micro-finance, cash aid and income generation projects are being explored as alternate
strategy in post disaster relief, instead of simply distributing relief items. Rather than
funding and implementing recovery projects themselves, many aid organisations now
ensure affected villagers access government compensation or soft loans to help them
rebuild their homes and lives after disaster. To endorse the argument, in India, local
knowledge of indigenous, hardy seeds has helped farmers recover from the loss of cash
crops devastated by drought and pests.
Capacity building is carried out primarily through skill upgrading exercises, both technical
and management skill sets. Local warehousing for stockpiling supplies, generating alternate
livelihood options for ‘at risk’ communities, would be other essential resilience measures.
Means of sustainability that have been tested and found promising include formation of
local task forces, adoption of an entrepreneurial model for operating community
programmes, linking disaster reduction programmes with livelihoods, and establishment of
local contingency funds.
Six conclusions, which could be treated/understood as policy prescriptions have been
drawn in this regard in the World Disasters Report of 2004:
z Systematic assessment of what enables people to cope with, recover from and adapt
to risks and adversities, at household and community level, is badly needed.
z Strengthening social capital should be the key objective of disaster interventions,
whether in relief, recovery or risk reduction; rather than a by-product.
z People-centred approaches to development provide models that can improve
humanitarian aid and disaster risk management.
z New institutional strategies and cross-sectoral coalitions are required to boost the
resilience of local livelihoods in the face of multi-dimensional risks.
z Good governance is essential to create the environment, in which the more resilient
communities can thrive.
z Scaling up strategies based on the aspirations and capacities of people ‘at- risk’
remains the greatest challenge.
z Networking
The central premise of social capital is that social networks have tangible value, which
cannot be discounted in cost-benefit analyses or policy implementation and evaluation.
Networking is the first step towards establishing partnerships. Partnerships enable communities
to capitalise on directly and indirectly available resources. Partnerships open new avenues,
reduce costs and increase benefits. Partnerships operate at various levels and with
different kinds of stakeholders. Partnerships can be with other communities, local
governments, higher governments, NGOs, academia, corporate entities and technical or
resource groups. Social capital involves in all social ties; modalities are different, as,
between people, between institutions, government and civil society, between region and
countries and so on. The level used to analyse social capital differs widely in the studies
selected. Some studies focus on the social capital of a small community (Kreuter, et al.,
1998), others compare a country’s provinces or regions (Putnam, 2000), while others use
countries as a unit of comparative analysis (Knack and Keefer, 1997). In Canada,
Buckland and Rahman (1999) compared the reaction of three communities that experienced
the Red River flooding in Manitoba in 1997. The research revealed that the two
communities with a higher stock of social capital succeeded in organising themselves more
rapidly and efficiently than the third, which had a lower stock of social capital. Studies
conducted under the aegis of the World Bank indicate the following three indicators of
social capital:
Trust: Two elements of this indicator are trust in others and trust in institutions
(government, police, politicians, journalists, etc.). This is the defining element of social
capital.
Civic Engagement: Civic engagement is a measure of involvement of people in social
and political matters. It implies volunteerism on the part of people and modalities
(provisions) for the same in social and political matters.
Social Networks: Social networks are the third indicator that is frequently found in the
research. They are formed by the person’s immediate environment and by secondary
networks. Networks centred on the individuals include immediate networks (i.e. the close
family, friends and neighbours with whom the person has frequent contact and who
provide support). The secondary networks include those formed through relationships that
individuals establish, especially in the workplace and recreational environments, during
community or religious activities.
z Sustainability
The final determinant of success in a programme is its sustainability beyond the period
of investment and aid. Sustainability is viewed in terms of mainstreaming risk reduction,
and developing a culture of prevention through public policy. A study indicates how,
following the devastating Gujarat earthquake of 2001, villagers from Patanka in Gujarat
state rebuilt their homes stronger than before, with the help of a partnership of local and
international aid organisations. Farmers, left unemployed by three years of intense drought,
were retrained as masons and helped build earthquake-resistant houses for every family
in the village. Building on the success of this initiative, villagers were able to access
government funds to create a new rainwater-harvesting system to improve both their
health and crop yields. Another study conduced in the Samiapalli village in the disaster-
prone state of Orissa, reveals how prioritising risk reduction before disaster strikes
mitigates its impact considerably. During the 1990s, with the help of a local NGO,
villagers embarked on a long process of development, one element of which was to
construct disaster-proof homes. When the super cyclone of October 1999 struck the
village, these houses saved both lives and livelihoods, while tens of thousands of people
in weaker homes perished.
9.4 REQUIREMENTS IN CBDM

The World Health Organisation (WHO) in collaboration with the International Federation
of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies recommends the following activities for disaster
preparedness of communities:
z Exercises in first aid: how to extricate, give first aid to, and transport injured persons,
etc.
z Exercises in providing temporary shelter: organisation of camps for temporary shelter
in event of a disaster.
z Sanitation exercises: Installation and management of water supply points and latrines,
controlled refuse disposal etc.
z Guided visits to volcanoes, seismological observatories, dykes, civil protection centers
(fire stations, forest warden posts etc.) factories, stores of dangerous materials, sites
exposed to risks.
z Mock drills and practice alerts organised by the local authority.
z Strengthening of weak structures in avoidance with the programmes of the local

administration, groups of dwellings can be strengthened with the help of voluntary
workers.
z Flood protection (various means of ensuring that a watercourse does not overflow its
banks.
z Information (exhibitions of drawings, lectures, photographs, films on disaster
preparedness).
z Training of groups of volunteers available to help the community emergency community
in activities when a disaster strikes and afterwards.
Besides, show of camaraderie by means of persistent efforts towards community
preparedness based on:
z Meetings, exchanges, the expression of needs, information and communication,
z Community discussion and action to gain an understanding of the causes of disasters
and associated problems plan the most appropriate measures and put them jointly
into effect,
z A feeling of belonging to the community by making proper use of local cultural
values, forms of social life, resources and products,
z Combating the rejection or exclusion of the disabled, mentally ill, the handicapped
and other persons in difficulty,
z The development of assistance and mutual aid, and
z Meetings with local authorities and collective discussions to resolve community
problems.
Dissemination of warning regarding an impending disaster is vital. The issue in this regard
is proper communication of warnings, avoiding technical jargon, which makes it unintelligible
for the ordinary masses and the wherewithal of dissemination of such warning. An
information management checklist has been provided in the Source Book on Disaster
Management, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India, and the Lal Bahadur Shastri
National Academy of Administration, Mussoorie, as follows:
z Are maps prepared and available to the community (topographic, demographic,
hazard and vulnerability)?
z Is a public information centre/control room designated as the official point of contact
for the public and the media during an emergency?
z Are there provisions for releasing information to the public including appropriate
protective actions and devised responses?
z Have agreements been reached with the media for disseminating public information
and emergency warnings?
z Are contact details for all media outlets (radio, television, and newspapers) available?
z Who is responsible for providing information to the media?
z Who is responsible for authorising information there?

z Who is responsible for emergency assessment and to whom do they report? How
is the information recorded and who relays the information to those concerned?
z Who is responsible for issuing public statements about emergencies?
z Do they have public credibility and adequate liaison with other organisations that may
also issue warnings?
z Who is responsible for providing warnings for each likely type of emergency?
z To whom is the warning supplied?
z At which warning level is action initiated?
z What is the purpose of the warnings and what action is required of the public?
z Who will inform the public when the danger has passed?
z Is there a point of contact for members of the public wanting specific information,
and is this point of contact publicly known? (Control room).
z Is there a referral service for directing people to the appropriate sources of
information?
z Is there a registration and enquiry system for recording the whereabouts of displaced,
injured, or dead persons?
z Is there a system for providing this information to bonafide inquiries?
z Does the community know how to contact the registration and inquiry system?
z Are there plans for establishing public information centers?
z Is the community aware of the existence of these centers?
Preparation of Local Health Personnel
Disease outbreak is a major problem in the immediate aftermath of disasters, as was seen
during the 2005 Mumbai floods. Therefore, the role of local health personnel is crucial
in both mitigation and preparedness as in prevention during normal times. Primary Health
Care Centers (PHCs) are inadequately equipped and are also too few and far between
to handle emergencies adequately. There is also lack of trained manpower. This is a
policy issue, which requires concrete measures on the part of the government. Cooperation
of non-government organisations could be elicited in this specific aspect of disaster
preparedness at the local level (WHO, 1989) in that trained volunteers could be engaged
in this task and specialist competence could be provided by non-government organisations.
Over the long term however, the network of PHCs would have to be improved for
capacity building to tackle disaster vulnerability. As per Alpana Sagar in the Alternate
Economic Survey, 2004-05, Indian data reveal that there is shortfall of infrastructure and
personnel in the rural areas. While the shortfall for primary health centers and sub-centres
is about 7-8 percent; that for community health centers is about 40 per cent. The shortfall
for specialists at the community health centers is anywhere between 90-95 per cent while
there is rarely more than one doctor at the primary heath centre though the ideal number
is two. There is acute shortage of grassroots workers, from 20 per cent of female
workers to 50 per cent shortage of male workers. There is also a shortage of more than
50 per cent lab technicians. Subsequent to the eight five-year plan, there has been only
marginal improvement in manpower and infrastructure for health.
As read in the Economic Survey 2004-05, keeping the requirements and the objectives
of the National Health Policy, 2002 in view, allocations for AIDS control programme and
schemes for control of communicable diseases have been raised during the year by about
Rs. 280 crore. State Health System Development Projects are under implementation in
the States of Karnataka, West Bengal, Punjab, Orissa, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, and
Uttaranchal with World Bank assistance. Up till now, health care administration has
suffered for lack of inter- sector integration at the field level. Hence, there is an attempt
now at convergence of schemes, which had operated hitherto, in isolation. A National
Vector borne disease control programme has been started from 2003-04, through
convergence of three ongoing programmes (Malaria, Kala-azar and Filaria) and inclusion
of Japanese encephalitis and dengue. The main objective of the programme is prevention
and efficient control of vector borne diseases in pursuance of the goals laid out in the
National Health Policy, 2002.
Empowerment of local institutions of self- government is also expected to go a long way
in strengthening health service delivery, in the sense of bringing them under one umbrella,
especially in rural areas, though there is a long way to go since many institutional
adaptations would be required, which would depend on the political will and feasibility in
different states.
Provision for Food Security and Nutrition
Despite the Green Revolution, deaths due to malnutrition are reported from different parts
of India. Problems lie, chiefly, in the distribution mechanisms. The public distribution
system (PDS) was set up to make food grains and other essential items available at
affordable prices to the poor. However, its functioning has been plagued by corruption.
There have been reported malpractices like buying kerosene at subsidised rates from the
PDS and selling them at high prices in the open market, etc. Hence, the current
challenges outlined in the tenth plan are:
z Continue to improve food grain production to meet the needs of the growing
population;
z Increase production of coarse grains to meet the energy requirements of BPL families
at a lower cost;
z Increase production of pulses and make them affordable to increase consumption;
and
z Improve the availability of vegetables at an affordable cost throughout the year in
urban and rural areas.
Hence, the Tenth Plan (2002-07) announces a paradigm shift from:
z Self-sufficiency in food grains to meet energy needs to provide food items needed
for meeting all the nutrition needs.
z From production alone to reduction in post harvest losses and value addition
through appropriate processing.
z From food security at the state level to nutrition security at the individual level.
9.5 CBDM: APPROACH AND DIRECTION

In order to make CBDM an accepted and recognised process for disaster management,
intervention is needed in three broad areas:
1) Cooperation and Capacity Building
Experience shows that disaster management, being multi -disciplinary in nature, requires
wide-ranging inputs from government, non-government, international agencies, universities
and other specialised agencies. Recent examples of effective cooperation between India
and elsewhere in Asia have led to remarkable results. Cooperation has not given just
better results for the community but has also enabled institutions to build up their capacity
based on the expertise and experience of the organisations they have partnered with.
Cooperation and capacity building among various stakeholders working at the grass roots
would provide the most effective mechanism for any policy that is formulated in this
regard.
2) Sustainability and Up-scaling
There have now been many good practices that have taken place in the disaster
vulnerable regions of the world. However, most of these good practices have remained
confined to their local communities. Their potential in influencing attempts to reduce
vulnerability in other parts of the world is enormous, especially since regions that face
similar disasters have similar vulnerabilities and capacities. Lately, various documentation
attempts by various international agencies including United Nations International Strategy
for Disaster Reduction (UN-ISDR) have brought them on to the global centre stage.
However, this is not enough. In order to replicate good practices widely, identifying
factors that can make such practices sustainable and scalable are necessary. A discussion
on sustainability and up scaling of good practices from various communities of Asia and
other parts of the world is the core of the policy framework.
3) Integration of Policy Issues
In large countries such as India, recent disasters have strengthened the need to define a
national policy on management of disasters in the country. Existing developmental policies
are also being examined to incorporate disaster prevention and preparedness. However,
there has been limited debate on the content and thrust of these policy initiatives.
Incorporating grassroots experiences within the possible constraints would provide real
substance to the national policy.
9.6 FEATURES OF CBDM: UNDERSTANDING THROUGH

CASE STUDIES
A review of recent CBDM experiences in Asia reveals that central to each experience has
been a well-understood and coordinated partnership aimed at common interests and goals.
Stakeholders in these partnerships have included, local governments, civil society, corporate
sector, universities and communities themselves.
In spite of the successes, possibilities of further enhancing the benefits of such partnerships
have rarely been seriously considered. The trade-offs are also seldom deliberated upon.
Partners ought to know each other’s strengths and weaknesses. The whole intervention
should be arranged so that all partners get the most out of the cooperation by filling in
each other’s voids, and take constructive advantage of the accumulated force that
emerges from a good partnership.
The CBDM approach attempts to address certain key questions on disaster management:
z How can communities live with disasters, rather than fighting them?
z What local measures can be taken to effectively mitigate the impact of disasters?
z How can preparedness initiatives be sustained over long time periods?
Well documented case studies help considerably in understanding these important aspects
of CBDM. Hence, case studies should be encouraged and shared among the stakeholders
not only in the same country but among neighbouring countries as well.
9.7 EXAMPLES IN RESILIENCE

The following sections discuss how community based disaster management can be:
z Self-driven,
z Led by local champions, and
z Based on partnerships.
Besides these three characteristics, there are many that can be discussed if one gets into
greater details. These could include, among others, the attributes of being low-tech and
easy to understand, affordable, easily replicable and up scalable, developmental and, most
importantly, empowering.
I) Self-driven
CBDM has in a way existed from times immemorial. Communities have depended on
their coping capacities, have developed these capacities over time, and have survived
based on these. The basis of these capacities is that people have observed their
environments, and the changes and reactions taking place therein, and from these they
have learnt to adapt and change their actions so as to live better with nature. The
following case is one such case from modern times where a community has learnt and
acted to protect its environment for reducing disasters.
Chipko: from tree hugging to satellite images
The Uttaranchal region is constituted of Himalayan districts in North India. During the late
sixties, a massive program to develop roads was undertaken in the region, which was part
of Uttar Pradesh then. This brought employment opportunities for the local population.
More importantly, it opened up gateways between the area and the outside world.
Possibilities of flow of technology and materials from outside became real, as did the
means for cashing their own asset, viz., timber. Tracts of forestland were given out on
contracts for tree felling. Contractors employed local people for these operations. The
stretches of the slopes above the road altitude were wiped clean of the trees. The
economy looked up for the time being. Nobody, not even the locals, bothered that the
unscientific clearing of the innumerable trees in a small region was heavily bruising the
crust of the forest land and the ramming of rain water mixed with stones and pebbles was
getting increased to a tremendous extent.
One monsoon night in 1970, the valley of the Alaknanda, a river traversing the state was
the scene of an unprecedented flood. The entire village of Belakuchi was washed away
by the swirling torrent of the Alaknanda, along with several bus loads of tourists. The
flood affected an area spread over a length of 400 kilometres and washed away five
major bridges, hundreds of heads of cattle and several million rupees worth of property.
Those who saw the scene, cannot forget the night when the ‘river was on fire’. The
banging of huge boulders carried by the strong current created deafening thunderous
sounds and huge sparks flew from the river.
Even those in the plains were not spared. The flash flood first washed away what came
in its path, and then left the area heavily silted and boulder strewn. Major canal networks
were clogged. Subsequent desilting operations took so much time that the farm output of
the regions downstream nose-dived that year due to lack of water for irrigation.
It was evident to any local resident that once the forest cover disappeared, the economic
hardships and the terror of man-eating tigers would be replaced by an even more
awesome terror of floods, landslides, and drying up of previously perennial streams.
The Alaknanda tragedy left a deep impression on the hill folk and soon followed an
appreciation of the role that forests play in their lives. They had also watched the slow
replacement of broad-leafed forests by economically important species like the pine and
had slowly felt the deleterious effects of this shift on their cultivation and water supply.
The reaction was spontaneous and simple. Chipko – hug the trees! This was the way
chosen by the local community to save their trees from the saws of timber contractors.
A major break-through for the movement came on March 26, 1974, when 27 women
of Reni village in Chamoli district, under the leadership of Gaura Devi, an illiterate lady
of 50, resorted to Chipko to save 2,451 trees of Reni forests. The women folk of village
Reni got involved in a dramatic way. One day, when their men folk were away, and the
Chipko workers and the students were detained at faraway Gopeshwar town to meet
officials of the forest department, the contractor taking this as an opportune moment
reached the village with his men to begin the felling. However, undaunted by the number
of men, the women of Reni, led by Gaura Devi, barred the way to the forest and
resorted to Chipko, singing “this forest is our mother’s home, we will protect it with all
our might.” They did not allow a single tree to be felled.
The movement has come a long way since then. It gained much acclaim for being a
totally community led initiative, without any involvement of outside agencies, not even
NGOs. Tree felling has since been totally controlled, and afforestation drives have yielded
some positive results in terms of regeneration of forests on the denuded slopes. However,
more important than the achievements of the programme; are its means. There are two
highlighting features of this aspect:
Van Panchayats (forest governing councils) are an innovative institutional instrument that
has been very successful in its purpose. Van Panchayats are constituted on the pattern of
the Panchayats or the rural local governments. The elected Van Panchayat is responsible
for the maintenance of the village forestland. It monitors and controls all activities in the
forest, including woodcutting and even grazing of cattle. An interesting fact is that over the
years, the Van Panchayats have come to be totally dominated by women. This, they feel
is very logical since the hardships of environmental degradation affect women the most
since it is they who are responsible for getting firewood for cooking, fetching drinking
water from faraway sources, and grazing the animals.
The Dasholi Gram Swarajya Mandal (DGSM) is a community based organisation that
came up as a strong local institution after the Chipko movement, and has since been
instrumental not only in promoting forest regeneration activities, but also in encouraging
local resource based entrepreneurial development. It is interesting to note that the DGSM,
comprising totally of local villagers, has been monitoring the success of its afforestation
program through satellite imagery based remote sensing carried out by the Indian Space
Research Organisation. DGSM propagates disaster prevention through safe development,
and organises local campaigns on the theme. It is also the first responder in local disasters
such as landslides, earthquakes and forest fires.
II) Led by Local Champions
CBDM cannot be put into effect through a government order, nor can it be implemented
as a project by an NGO. It has to rise from the ground up; it has to have the
communities in the driver seat; it has to enshrine processes that will make it locally owned
and sustainable. The most appropriate catalysts for this are local champions, who arise
from within the communities, motivate the masses, and lead them through the process of
change from a state based to a community based development and disaster management
approach. The following case is from a sustainable community initiative in the state of
Gujarat, India, illustrating the role of local champions (GSDMA, 2005).
Examples from Gujarat, India
With a population of almost 50 million in Gujarat State in western India, a substantial
proportion of which is at risk to one disaster or the other, it is huge task to reach out
to each and every individual. How then can we create a scenario where the community
as a whole can become resilient to disasters? How does one reach out to every
individual? A viable strategy is to develop appropriate mechanisms for targeting communities
through champions.
The GSDMA (Gujarat State Disaster Management Authority) supported project on
Sustainable Community Initiative for Disaster Recovery and Preparedness in Ranavav
Taluka, District Porbandar, made an attempt on this. The challenge of the project was to
reach out to every village in the Taluka within a limited budget and time frame. The
project implementation agency was SEEDS (Sustainable Environment and Ecological
Development Society) in partnership with UNCRD (United Nations Centre for Regional
Development) and NGOs, Kobe. It adopted an approach that would focus on building
the capacity of local champions: champion-individuals and champion-communities.
These individuals/communities were expected to sustain efforts initiated during the project
for a longer period beyond the duration of the project. These individuals and groups
championed various sectoral causes as described below.
Champions of Safe Construction
The 2001 earthquake had a partial impact on Porbandar, the western district of Gujarat
where the project was piloted. Obviously, while wide consciousness prevailed, there was
very little that the community knew about specific actions to be taken for reducing the
risk from future earthquakes. As part of the strategy to push for safer construction
practices, it was decided to build the capacity of existing masons in the region. Enter,
Ramesh and Maganbhai Thakore, skilled masons from an earthquake affected area who,
having experienced the earthquake and picking valuable skills during rehabilitation, knew
exactly what they need to share with their counterparts in Porbandar!
An intensive process of identification, one-on-one meetings, and encouragement of

prospects ensued. It generated enthusiasm among a small group of masons from
Porbandar, who willingly agreed to enhance their skills. During the process of training, the
main purpose was to build skills in disaster resistant technologies and quality construction
practices. The training involved a combination of theoretical sessions, group interactions,
exercises and demonstrations. The training also was to be a starting platform for a long-
term pool of masons who, with help from SEEDS INDIA and the Government of
Gujarat, would regularly interact through newsletters and meetings. Recently, these masons
have registered themselves as a Mason Association for getting necessary certification for
their skills under a Government of Gujarat programme.
z Water Farmers
Porbandar, like other parts of Saurashtra, has suffered repeated droughts in the recent
past, seriously limiting the scope of the farmers to sustain themselves. With the ingress of
salinity from the Arabian Sea further threatening their livelihoods, the need for increasing
rainwater retention in their fields was felt very strongly.
During the first meeting with the farmers, the SEEDS team offered their ideas on various
water harvesting options. The villagers were expected to partially contribute to the
scheme. On-site training and awareness programmes were organised, clearly explaining the
process of implementation. A reduced scale model of the village was developed and the
water conservation as well as augmentation technique was visually demonstrated. After
initial reluctance, a small group of farmers decided to take up the experiment. The catalyst
to this process was Govindbhai, Headman of Valotra village. A farmer by profession, he
is an excellent leader who takes interest in village development, and his Panchayat (village
council) has won two awards.
Within a short span of time, this small group of farmers has become an active advocate
of the well recharge system, taking out time to travel to nearby villages to convince fellow
farmers about the benefits of the scheme. Govindbhai has been instrumental in the success
of the water conservation movement. He now offers to carry out awareness programmes
in his village and neighbouring areas for safe construction practices and also for water
conservation. A champion in this group, he keeps regular touch with the SEEDS project
team that in turn develops and adapts knowledge resources that can help the farmers by
bringing in new technologies.
z Cultural Ambassadors
Performing arts and theatre have tremendous influence on local citizens. Tired after a hard
day’s work, the people settle down for cultural activities as a means to unwind and
interact. Common cultural activities promote greater understanding and forge unity in the
community. When these cultural activities carry with them important social messages, the
impact is strong and direct.
Devraj Gadhavi, a folk singer, is the cultural champion of Porbandar. Known for his
Dayro styoe of folk music not just in Upleta, the village he hails from, but the entire
region, he is a fail-proof crowd puller. When he performs, he often has an important
message to convey. When the project team met him and shared its ideas on promoting
disaster mitigation, he readily agreed to get involved. During Community Fairs held in the
area since then, he performs to a huge crowd and within his performance he urged
people to volunteer for the sake of others. He said, “True happiness lies in serving
others”. A few words of wisdom, when spoken by a person loved and revered, make
a lasting impact on the lives of the people.
z School Teachers: Agents of Change
Mr. Joshi, the principal of Swaminarayan School, is a well-known teacher with many state
and national awards to his credit. He is also the head of the Scouts and Guides Wing
at Porbandar. He has been instrumental in arranging demonstrations and workshops in
schools. The team led by Mr. Joshi includes his colleague Mr. Waghela, the scouts and
guides, and the members of Junior Red Cross Society.
Mr. Joshi is now ready to share his learning with others. Today, as schools in the region
are conducting rescue drills, children now understand what happens in an earthquake,
cyclone or drought. They know their village environment and what they need to do to
counter disasters.
z Champion Communities
Champions are not limited to individuals alone, communities too become champions.
There are many such champion communities across the regions that have served as
models for others. One such community is the village of Thoyana, where people come
together to promote mitigation not just in their own village, but also with others through
well thought out yet simple disaster resistant activities. These have included water
harvesting, school safety programmes, mason trainings and women’s group activities. For
the project team, the meetings at Thoyana have always been good. Led by their village
headman Vejabhai Odedara, and the teacher Pravinbhai Kasundara, the community at
large is most cooperative and proactive. The women in the village have been active too.
In Community Fairs, the villagers of Thoyana now participate most actively, making a
positive impact on other communities in the vicinity. All sections of the community such
as the village women, the masons, the leaders and the businessmen, have together become
a model community for the region.
These are the local champions, prime movers of the community. They are the key to
building long-term resilience at the community level. Gujarat needs many more such
champions. All vulnerable regions of the country and the world need such champions.
With the government and NGOs acting as facilitators, there is an opportunity for a lasting
change. A change where people, motivated by their own champions, take wise decisions
to bring about development that is sustainable and safe from disasters.
III) Based on Partnerships
The key to the success of community initiatives lies in partnerships. Partnerships between
individuals, families, local groups, and communities make things happen and sustain them
on the ground. Partnerships of communities with NGOs, corporate entities and governments
create engines for development. They also create safety nets that make communities
disaster resilient. The following case from Vietnam illustrates the strengths of such multi-
sector partnerships (UNDP Vietnam, 2005).
Natural Disaster Mitigation Partnership, Vietnam
The Natural Disaster Mitigation Partnership (NDM-Partnership) is an association of
voluntary members of Government, Donors and NGOs who have signed or expressed
their commitment to work through the NDM-Partnership Memorandum of Agreement
ratified in June 2001 by the Consultant Group (CG) of donors to the Government of
Vietnam.
Natural disasters that devastated Central Vietnam in 1999 led to the development of an
institutionalised arrangement for coordinated efforts for disaster mitigation in Vietnam. In
early 2000, a Fact- Finding -Mission and in the mid 2000, a Multi- Donor- Mission was
fielded to the disaster affected Central Vietnam. The data collected during these Missions
provided the basis for developing the concept of the NDM-Partnership for Central
Vietnam.
A Secretariat of the NDM-Partnership was set-up in May 2002 in Hanoi. A quarterly
Newsletter of the Partnership was started in September 2002 for sharing information
among Government agencies, Donors and the NGOs. The website provides updated
information of the NDM-Partnership activities:
The institutional framework for implementing the NDM-Partnership for Central Vietnam
and the partnership cooperation and coordination links to donor and government programs
and projects is explained in the following figure (Natural Disaster Mitigation Partnership,
UNDP, 2004, www.undp.org).
National Donors
Government Policy
(Steering Membership in
NDM - Partnership Committee) NDM-Partnership
Institution National & Provincial
Government Operation
Donors
(Secretariat)
TA & Funding
National & Provincial Donor and Government

Government Programs Donors and International NGO's
Red Cross & (Based on the Government/ TA & Funding
NDM - Partnership National NGOs Multi-donor Mission Report)
Government
Donor & NGO Provincial, District & Donor and Government
shaping Commune Projects and
and Government Donors and International NGO's
Ad-hoc Initiatives
coordination TA & Funding
Red Cross & (In harmony with Programs in the
National NGOs Government/Multi-donor Mission Report)
Output and Impacts

Coordinated Program and Project Packages
Figure: Institutional Framework of NDM Partnership, Vietnam
9.8 CONCLUSION
CBDM finds its roots in traditional community practices, and is based on local coping
capacities of communities. Following the principles and strategies of CBDM in modern
day programming is not without challenges. It requires balancing of stakeholder interests,
optimisation of resource allocations, resolution of conflicts, and restraining aspirations
within manageable limits. Continuation of a programme for a long term is one of the
challenges where many interventions have failed. This has many linked issues, and needs
to be addressed right from the stage of intervention conceptualisation. Within this aspect,
an area of concern is the dynamics of new institutions that get established and individuals
or groups that get empowered. The change in balance of power structures creates
potentially threatening situations, and careful handling and balancing is required. This holds
true for community institutions and their links with other community groups, local political
groups, local politicians and government officials, and even NGOs. Establishing a healthy
partnership between government and non-governmental players is a crucial challenge in the
CBDM process. Finally, it is a challenge to keep interventions from getting carried away
into becoming fancy programmes for high-tech emergency management. What works best
on the ground is a low-tech, people friendly developmental approach that would be
operational on a day-to-day basis and will build local strengths. Simplicity of approach is
a challenge in itself!
9.9 KEYCONCEPTS
Community : Scholars differentiate between society and community
as, the former is naturally ordered and is heterogeneous
in character, whereas the latter is a result of deliberate
networking on the part of people on some homogenous
ground. Homogeneity could be on grounds of
geographic contiguity, ethnicity, religion or caste etc. It
is however, evolving and dynamic in nature, never
static in the sense that configurations change over
time.
Immanent : Inherent or within something.
Imminent : About to happen or threatening to happen.
Participatory Risk : The idea behind participatory risk assessment is that

Assessment all concerned stakeholders including/comprising
vulnerable groups; civil society engaged in ameliorative
works, corporate sector by way of both private
interest (builders in case of vulnerable buildings) and
public interest (corporate social responsibility) and
the government to arrive at a consensus in identification
of elements at risk and also the most vulnerable area,
infrastructures and populace (“Development Planning
and Administration”, 2003). Notable among techniques
of participatory risk assessment are, Participatory Rural
Appraisal (PRA) Participatory Learning and Action
(PLA) and Social Analysis (SA).
Participatory Rural Appraisal : PRA originally stood for Participatory Rural Appraisal,
but its applications are in many other contexts besides
rural and good practice is far more than just appraisal.
It enables others to do their own appraisal, analysis,
planning and action, to own the outcome and to share
the knowledge. The target group could be local; rural
or urban concerning people, women, men or old, or
members of an organisation or group.
Three common elements, found all over the world, in
a PRA approach, are:
z Self-Aware Responsibility: individual responsibility

and judgement exercised by facilitators, with self-
critical awareness, embracing error.
z Equity and empowerment: a commitment to equity,
empowering those who are marginalised, excluded,
and deprived, often specially women.
z Diversity: recognition and celebration of diversity.
Participatory Learning Action : PLA combines:
(PLA) z A set of diagramming and visual techniques originally
developed for livelihoods analysis and now widely
used in Natural Resources departments in development
agencies. They have since been adapted for use in
other sectors including enterprise development; and,
z Underlying principles of grassroots participation from
human rights activism, which involve rethinking power
relations and partnerships between development
agencies, experts and poor people. These are now
being developed further to facilitate negotiations
between different stakeholders in projects and policy
dialogue.
The underlying principles of PLA, include: “embracing
complexity; recognition of multiple realities; prioritising
the realities of the poor and disadvantaged; grassroots
empowerment; from assessment to sustainable learning;
and relating learning to action”.
Social Analysis : Social Analysis is an attempt at incorporating
participation and social analysis into the risk
identification process. It is an attempt at understanding
the social matrix and how it contributes to the
vulnerability of segments such as women and children.
From social analysis emerge guidelines for policy in
this respect.
Social Capital : Social capital is an economic analogy for bonds of
community cohesion, which can translate into tangible
gains. “Social capital refers to the collective value of
all social networks and the inclinations that arise from
these networks to do things for each other; in other
words, “norms of reciprocity”. The central premise of
social capital is that social networks have tangible
value, which cannot be discounted in cost benefit
analyses or policy implementation and evaluation”
(Putnam, 2005).

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GSDMA, 2005, “Plain Truth”, Newsletter, Gujarat State Disaster Management Authority,
Gujarat, India.
Hickey, Sam and Mohan Giles, 2003, “Relocating Participation within a radical politics of
development: Citizenship and Critical Modernism”, Draft working Paper prepared for
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to participation in development.
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Jain, S., “Standing up for trees: Women’s role in the Chipko Movement”, FAO Corporate
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Payoff: A Cross-Country Investigation”, the Quarterly Journal of Economics (4).
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Small Communities, Study conducted by Health 2000 Inc., Atlanta, in cooperation with
the St. Louis University School of Public Health.
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Experience”, Readings in Community Participation, World Bank, Washington.
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Asia”, Report based on proceedings of the international conference held in New Delhi,
India, 24-26 August 2004”, New Delhi, India.
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World Disasters Report, 2004-05, IFRCRCS.
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University of Lucknow.
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Central Vietnam”, available at http://www.undp.org.vn/ndm-partnership/default.htm
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World Disasters Report, 2004, Building Community Resilience, International Red Cross
and Red Crescent Societies: Principal contributors: Yasemin Aysan, independent analyst of
humanitarian and development issues, with additional contributions from Terry Cannon, co-
author of At Risk: Natural hazards, people’s vulnerability and disasters, and Jonathan
Walter, editor of the World Disasters Report, Bruno Haghebaert, Senior Officer, Provention
Consortium Secretariat.
9.11 ACTIVITIES
1) In the case studies in this unit, which community-level solutions have been applied for
mitigating various disasters? Make a table of disasters and coping measures. For
each measure, describe how this has been useful in reducing problems relating to
disasters in each case. List down the key stakeholders involved in each case and
what has been their contribution towards mitigating the disaster.
2) Collect one case study on effective mitigation for any risk in your area. Prepare a
presentation and discuss possibilities of further improvement.
UNIT 10 SEARCH, RESCUE AND EVACUATION
Structure
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Significance of Search and Rescue (SAR)
10.3 Phases of SAR
10.4 Logistics and Methods
10.5 Behavioural Requirements
10.6 Conclusion
10.7 Key Concepts
10.9 Activities

z Understand the concept of search, rescue and evacuation phases of SAR and various
techniques for it; and
z Analyse the technical, organisational and behavioural requirements for SAR.
10.1 INTRODUCTION
Search, rescue and evacuation processes need to be carried out immediately after a
disaster strikes a certain area or building. These are the most immediate critical operations
that are usually performed by the local volunteers, voluntary organisations and the
emergency agencies. Light Search and Rescue is a procedure carried out at primary
stages, initially to find out persons with injuries in lightly damaged buildings, or even
without any injuries and needing assistance, and to help them exit. If the condition
worsens and the local groups are not able to control the situation, then the specialist
groups within emergency agencies have to be called in for professional help, and at times
even the Defence Forces including the Army, the Navy, the Air Force and the Coast
Guard are called on for help.
Primarily, Search and Rescue Operations are undertaken to save the maximum possible
number of victims who are trapped in an area affected by a disaster. The basic aim of
all such operations is to ensure the survival of the maximum possible number of affected
people. A plan is worked out with the help of local people through surveys and then
appropriate steps are taken by the various teams involved to carry out the operations.
Besides physical rescue, the aim is also a systematic and organised approach in a post
-disaster situation riddled with chaos and confusion.
10.2 SIGNIFICANCE OF SEARCH AND RESCUE ( SAR)

Search and rescue, often known by the acronym SAR, is the process of identifying the
location of disaster victims who may be trapped or isolated, and bringing them to safety
and providing them with medical attention after a disaster strikes.
Search and rescue generally involves the local people who are well versed with the local
terrain and can be instrumental in searching and accessing the trapped victims. SAR teams
rely on sniffer dogs that are specially trained to smell out human beings trapped under the
rubble. Heavy machines such as cranes and earthmovers are used to remove heavy
rubble; and special equipment to delicately remove fallen structural elements and reach out
inside heaps of rubble with visual or sound equipment for locating survivors.
In case of floods and cyclones, boats and helicopters are used to carry out the search
and rescue operations by forming teams and carrying out SAR operations in the entire
area systematically, each team covering its assigned sectors.
After the search, rescue and evacuation, some important steps are required to be taken
in order to provide relief to the evacuees.
Prime amongst these are:
z Medical Aid
z Water and food
z Shelter
z Temporary subsistence supplies
z Health and sanitation
z Information, and
z Security.
10.3 PHASES OF SAR

SAR is carried out for different categories of affected people depending on the
complexities of the processes involved. This is illustrated as follows:
1) The immediate stage is searching and rescuing people with injuries among people
trapped in the affected area that we see at first sight.
2) The second stage is the rescue of persons whom we are able to contact but are
unable to reach. These are people who may be trapped under heaps of rubble from
a collapsed building, or people stuck on trees or high-rise buildings, or trapped inside
basements.
3) The third stage includes searching those areas where survivors are likely to be
trapped generally. These are called likely survival points.
4) The fourth stage is the last stage in which debris leading to likely survival points is
cleared.
Search, Rescue and Evacuation 213
10.4 LOGISTICS AND METHODS

Search and Rescue Kits
SAR kits should ideally be kept in central locations in areas of vulnerable buildings. Local
trained personnel can make use of these kits should a disaster strike the area. A typical
SAR kit will comprise the following items:
z Evacuation map of the building or area
z Hammer
z Screw driver (6" flat)
z Axe
z 24" Crow bar
z Spade
z Pickaxe
z 50-foot rope
z Torch
z Spare battery cells
z Hard shoes or Gum Boots
z Helmet
z Hand gloves
z Dust Mask
Simple Rescue Methods
Rescue can be carried out ideally by using rescue equipment but also by ordinary
methods when equipment is not available.
For rescuing an affected individual, there are two types of methods: Single Person
Methods and Two Person Methods.
A) Single Person Methods
z Firemen’s Lift
This method is used when the affected person is unconscious and only one rescuer is
available for carrying out rescue work. In this method, the rescuer first makes the affected
person lie on his or her the abdomen. Then he uses both his hands to lift the affected
person by his armpits. He holds the right hand of the affected person with his left hand
and with his free hand he holds the affected person’s right leg. Now the rescuer lifts the
affected person with both his hands and positions him or her in such a manner that his
or her waist lies just above the neck of rescuer.
z Human Crutch
This method is used when affected person has an injury in one of his/her leg. In this
method, the rescuer first ties the injured leg of the affected person with his opposite leg
with a handkerchief. If the affected person’s left leg is hurt, the rescuer will tie this leg
with his own right leg. The rescuer holds the affected person’s waist with his hand and
then they both can walk slowly with the rescuer supporting the affected person’s injured
leg with his own leg.
z Pick a back
This method is used when the affected person has an injury in his or her leg and is not
able to walk long distances, but can support himself or herself with his or her hand. In
this method, the rescuer first gets down on one knee and allows the affected person to
saddle on his back. The rescuer then holds the affected person at the thighs and the
affected person encircles the rescuer’s neck for support.
z Staircase drag
This method is used when one has to rescue an unconscious person from a floor higher
than the ground floor. In this method, the affected person is laid down on his back and
his hands and feet are tied with a handkerchief. The rescuer holds the casualty’s armpits
and slowly drags him or her down the stairs head, first.
z Firemen’s Crawl
This method is used when the affected person is trapped inside a smoke filled area and
is unconscious. The rescuer first ties the hands of the casualty and then goes astride the
casualty. The rescuer inserts his head in the loop made by the casualty’s hands. Then by
pushing his hand and foot against the ground, he can drag the casualty to a safer place.
z Tow Drag
This method is used when the affected person is lying in such an area where there is very
little space to carry out the rescue. The affected person may or may not be unconscious.
In this rescue method, the rescuer inserts his feet into the casualty’s armpits and then pulls
the casualty out of the confinement area. After taking the casualty out, the rescuer can
lift the casualty with any appropriate method.
B) Two Person Methods
z Fore and Aft
This method is used when the affected person is having an abdominal injury. For carrying
out this method, two rescuers are required. In this method, the affected person is laid
down flat on his/her back. One of the rescuers holds the casualty from the armpits while
the second rescuer holds the legs. Then they both lift the casualty and in this way they
can shift the casualty to a safer place.
z Two Hand Seat
This method is used when the affected person is injured in one leg. For carrying out this
method two rescuers face each other on either side of the affected person. They both
bend and place their inside arms under the casualty’s back just below the shoulders, raise
him and put their outside arms under his thighs, holding each other’s hands with a hook
grip. The affected person can place his/her hands around rescuers’ necks.
z Three Hand Seat Method

This method is used when the rescuers need one hand free to support the affected
person’s injured leg. In this method, if the affected person’s left leg is injured, the rescuer
on the right grasps his own left wrist with his right hand & the other rescuer’s left wrist
with his left hand. The second rescuer will hold the right wrist of first rescuer keeping his
left hand free to support the casualty’s injured leg or any other medical equipment.
z Four Hand Seat Method
This method is used for an affected person who is heavy and who can support her/ his
self with his/ her hand. In this case, each of the two rescuers grasps his left wrist with
his right hand, grasping the other rescuer’s right wrist with his left hand.
z Carry Chair
This method is useful to lift a handicapped or a very old person. The person to be lifted
is placed on a chair, and then, the chair can be carried to a safer area.
z Knots and Lines
A rope is an important part of SAR operations. It can act as a guideline during searching;
it can be used to lift equipment during rescue work or while carrying out fire fighting, and
it can be used for rescuing people. Various knots and lines are used, which are mentioned
below:
– Over hand knot or thumb knot
It is used as a stopper knot. Sometimes it is also known as first aid knot because it is
used to tie the bandage.
– Figure of Eight
It is used to stop a line running through a sheave or a pulley.
– Reep Knot
It is used to join two ropes of the same diameter or thickness.
– Chair Knot
It is used to lower an unconscious casualty.
– Half Hitch
It is used to hoist round object.
– Claw Hitch
It is used to secure a line to a round object.
– Timber Hitch
It is a simple knot with several loops on it, which is used to hoist any odd heavy object.
– Black Wall Hitch
It is used to secure a line to the shank of a hook.
– Draw Hitch
It is used as temporary fastening when we require the knot to be released immediately.
– Single Sheet Bend
It is used to join two ropes of different thickness.
– Double Sheet Bend
It is similar to single sheet bend but with a double hitch round.
– Carrick Bend
It is used to join two lines without the knots forming an obstruction to pass round an
object.
– Sheep Shank
It is used to shorten the length of a line or to avoid any damaged part of the line.
– Single Bowline
It is used for various miscellaneous purposes.
– Round Turn and Two Half Hitch
It is used to secure a line to round objects.
– Cats Paw
It can be used to hoist a hose or a similar object.
– Running Bowline
It consists of a bowline, with the standing line passing through the bight of the line, to
form a running noose.
– Bowline on Bight
It is used to lower a stretcher or an unconscious person.
z Rescue Using Chair Knot
The following safety precautions need to be taken while lowering a casualty with a line:
z Always use a guideline to prevent the casualty from striking with building wall;
z The line should pass hand to hand, and not through hands;
z The line should run over a wooden block or some sack under the point of contact
of line and building;
z Check the area for required space;
z Insert the shorter loop into casualty’s armpits and longer loop into the casualty’s
knees;
z While lowering the casualty assign someone on watch below the casualty.
Search and Rescue Checklist

Finally, the following checklist, as per the Source book on District Disaster Management,
Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India, and National Academy of Administration,
Mussourie can help assess the level of preparedness of search and rescue operation
plans.
z What rescue tasks may need to be performed?
z Who is responsible, who coordinates?
z Are there procedures for detecting and marking danger areas?
z How are search and rescue activities integratedwith other emergency functions,
particularly in health?
10.5 BEHAVIOURAL REQUIREMENTS

Qualities of a Good Rescuer
A good rescuer needs to be physically fit and trained/experienced to be able to effectively
carry out rescue work. Incapable rescuers usually hinder the work on site, and often also
cause more harm by aggravating the situation and causing further injuries to the persons
to be rescued. The following key features are seen when selecting rescuers for a mission:
z Technical ability
z Common sense
z Directional sense
z Effective improvisation
z Proper judgment
z Physical and mental fitness
General Precautions while carrying out Search and Rescue
SAR is a process with high level of risk to the rescuers as well. It is important for the
rescuers to take adequate precautions to keep themselves safe. The following actions are
advised:
z Wearing necessary personal protective equipment
z Always working in pairs
z Before starting SAR, one should always note down alternative means of escape for
oneself
z Using guidelines such as directions for rope use when you enter a confined place,
smoke filled room or a dark place
z Carrying out thorough searches in toilets, storerooms, under tables, in lifts, etc.
Evacuation
Evacuation implies removing all people from a threatened area to a safer place, before,
during or after an emergency. It has been observed that in most disaster events, like
earthquakes, cyclones and fires, a large percentage of total deaths occur due to wrong
evacuation practices or stampede. It is necessary to evacuate using short and safe exits.
Generally, those areas should be avoided that make occupants more vulnerable.
Evacuation in Slow and Rapid Onset Disasters
Mass evacuations are carried out to move people out of impact areas in case of cyclones
or floods, once the warnings have been received. People from expected areas of impact
are moved to cyclone shelters or schools or other public buildings in nearby places that
are designated, emergency shelters. Public vehicles are often organised to make such
evacuation possible. The general public is warned of the coming disaster, and advised to
evacuate themselves or take the help of the government or NGOs working in the area
to move out.
Evacuation is more difficult in very rapid onset disasters such as earthquakes, fires or
accidents. Mass evacuation is not possible in such cases since there is very little or no
warning time available. In such cases people caught in the event can just follow
preplanned evacuation systems and use exit signs, exit routes, meeting points etc. Pre-
planning for evacuation is most critical for such situations. Such planning is discussed
in the following sections:
Evacuation Planning
An Evacuation Plan is a plan that shows the shortest and safest exit routes and the
location of first aid, fire fighting equipment and SAR equipment in a building or area. The
evacuation plan should be prepared in non-disaster times, and should be kept updated.
It should also be used in mock drills.
To check the level of preparedness provided for in evacuation planning, Evacuation
Checklist has been provided in the Source Book on Disaster Management, Ministry of
Agriculture, and Lal Bahadur Shastri National Academy of Administration, Mussourie.
Evacuation Checklist
z Does any person or organisation have the authority to evacuate people?
z Are there designated locations to which evacuees should travel?
z How many people may need to be evacuated?
z In what circumstances should they be evacuated?
z Who will tell people, that it will be safe to return? Who will trigger this?
z Are staging areas and pick -up points identified for evacuation?
z Are evacuees to be provided with information or where they are going and how they
will be cared for?
z Is there security for evacuated areas?
z How are prisoners to be evacuated?
z How are the cultural and religious requirements of evacuees to be catered for?
z Who is responsible for traffic control during evacuation?

z How are evacuees to be registered?
The process of making an evacuation plan is as follows:
z First take the building or area plan as Base Map
z Make separate floor plans
z Remove the unnecessary text or dimension from the map
z Show the Exit Route by arrow signs from each room to the assembly point or points
in easily accessible open spaces. Try to provide maximum number of exits.
z Put ‘Emergency Exit’ labels at the functional exits
z Show the locations of fire extinguishers
z Locate and highlight the site for SAR and First-Aid Equipment
z Mark safe open areas as assembly points
z Locate ‘Danger Areas’ and mark them with red signs with skeleton symbols
z Separately draw room exit plans and display them in individual rooms
z There should be a provision for at least two exits for each room. Locate room exits
in opposite direction to the extent possible.
Importance of Exit Signs
Exit signs help in getting out of a building during an emergency. As we know, during
emergencies people panic and some times forget the exit routes. During such times, exit
signs help people get oriented and exit the danger areas. Getting out is not enough in
itself; getting out safely is important. Often people get injured and stampedes are caused
while getting out. Prominently visible exit signs help people out even when it is dark.
Pre-Planning for Evacuation
An order to evacuate could come at any moment. By planning ahead, individuals can
evacuate quickly and safely without sacrificing life, limb and property. The goal should be
to spend as little time as possible following an evacuation order.
Evacuation Activities
z Lock door and windows and turn off utilities like water taps, cooking gas and
electricity.
z Shut off systems that draw outside air, such as fireplaces and air conditioners.
z If you can provide transportation for a neighbor who has none, do so. Try to
help the aged, disabled and other people around you who may need special
attention, such as women and children.
z In case of fire or earthquake, evacuate immediately. In case of cyclone or any other
evacuation where there is a little time, carry essential items, such as:
z Medical supplies (prescriptions, first aid)

z Money (cash, credit cards, important documents)
z Personal hygiene items (washing, shaving, dental, eye-care, sanitary)
z Clothing, bedding
z Baby needs (food, diapers, favorite toys)
z Portable radio and batteries
z Miscellaneous useful items (matches, flashlights, plastic bags)
z Keep your radio tuned to a local station for emergency news updates.
10.6 CONCLUSION
Casualties happen in disasters because people are caught at the wrong place at the wrong
time. Earthquakes kill when people get stuck inside weak buildings that get damaged or
collapse, burying people beneath piles of debris. Cyclones kill people in their direct path,
even if they are inside buildings if these buildings happen to be weak. Floods kill people
in high inundation areas. It is therefore critical to evacuate people whenever there is the
possibility of a high damage disaster in that area. Mass evacuations are possible before
cyclones and floods, since there is ample warning. Evacuations are more difficult from
buildings before fires and earthquakes, since the warning time is very short. Rapid
evacuation methods have to be used in such cases.
Search and rescue has to be resorted to when there has already been some damage and
people are trapped in affected buildings or areas. Trained search and rescue teams need
to move around to find such people, and then help or carry them out to safety. If such
persons are injured they also require immediate medical attention.
10.7 KEY CONCEPTS

Emergency Agencies : The army, police, fire, medical health professionals
and the local municipality are the crucial emergency
personnel/agencies in the immediate aftermath of
disasters. Presently, there is certain ambiguity regarding
the role of police in disaster management, in that,
whether it should restrict itself to law and order or
undertake more relief tasks required during response.
Evacuation Plan : Simply explained, evacuation plan comprises rapid
and safe way to move every person out of danger to
a place of safety. Evacuation has to be preplanned on
the basis of hazard maps. Evacuation Plan should
clearly delineate the routes prepared through satellite
imagery to know the routes which could be used,
mode of transport required, strength of population,
etc.
Light Search and Rescue : Light search and rescue also requires preplanning. The
team has to be updated regarding the strength of
population in the neighbourhood, number of elderly,

disabled, children etc. Secondary rescue follows,
which involves use of heavy equipment to remove
rubble and deployment of sniffer dogs to trace the
dead and struggling in the debris.
Rescue Method : Rescue method depends on the kind of injury sustained
by the victim, that is whether CPR is needed, what
physical posture is best for the victim, what the first
aid requirements are, etc.

Carter, W. N., 1992, Disaster Management: A Disaster Manager’s Handbook, Asian
Development Bank, Manila.
Cyclone Contingency Plan of Action, 1987, Government of Andhra Pradesh, Revenue
Department, Hyderabad.
Institute of Civil Engineers for Overseas Development Authority, 1995, “Mega cities:
reducing vulnerability to natural disasters”, Thomas Telford, London.
South Asian Regional Report (Proceedings of the SAARC Workshop on Natural Disaster
Reduction), March 1994, Natural Disaster Reduction.
Training Programme on Disaster Management, 2002, Department of Public
Administration, University of Lucknow.
10.9 ACTIVITIES
1) Find out which disaster can strike your area. Prepare family and office evacuation
plans.
2) List agencies that are responsible for search, rescue and evacuation during disasters
in your area. Meet one of the agencies and prepare a report on how they carry out
operations during emergencies.
UNIT 11 TEMPORARY SHELTER,
WAREHOUSING AND STOCKPILING
Structure
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Requirements in Shelter Provision
11.3 Requirements in Warehousing and Stockpiling
11.4 Conclusion
11.5 Key Concepts
11.7 Activities

z Examine the concerns and issues related to temporary shelter and discuss the
importance of community partnership while building shelters; and
z Analyse various types of measures that are required to be taken for maintaining
effective and efficient warehousing and stockpiling facilities during disaster and non-
disaster times.
11.1 INTRODUCTION
Disaster preparedness involves arranging for logistics and supply of essential commodities
during times of crises. Temporary shelter provision is necessary to evacuate people to safe
sites from disaster ravaged areas. Essential items include medical supplies apart from food
and clothing, as disease outbreaks are very probable in the aftermath of disasters. Apart
from physical illnesses that result from diseases like dengue, cholera, dysentery, respiratory
infections and malaria, as these have been found to be most common, psychological
shock also has to be dealt with. Shelter provision is both a response and a mitigation
effort. For example, after the Orissa super cyclone, it was realised that concrete structures
served as emergency shelter during the cyclone. Therefore, after the cyclone, once the
immediate repair and restoration of thousands of damaged schools had been completed,
steps were taken to undertake construction of newly designed school buildings in existing
premises with a view to providing additional classroom space as well as making these
structures double up as emergency community shelters during floods and cyclones in the
coastal areas. Post-disaster situations also provide opportunities for addressing many long-
standing needs and demands of the people and to pay attention to unfinished developmental
tasks. For example, after the super cyclone in Orissa, about ninety go-downs were
constructed for storing food grains in areas highly vulnerable to cyclones and floods. This
was long over due, but their completion after the 1999 cyclone ensured that these were
put to best use during the 2001 floods. This initiative was further amplified by building
small go-downs at the gram ‘panchayat’ level. Again, this came in very handy during the
2003 floods. Pre-positioning of food-grains at district, block and gram ‘panchayat’ levels
ensured timely relief during floods.
Temporary Shelter, Warehousing and Stockpiling 223
11.2 REQUIREMENTS IN SHELTER PROVISION

11.2.1 Temporary Shelter
Shelter means interim housing to meet basic immediate needs of disaster victims, through
provision of tents or quickly assembled houses made of a range of materials including
wood, plastic, tin, etc. It is the primary component of post-disaster rehabilitation.
Designated Shelters is another important term used, which means public building utilisation
and use of any other existing safe facilities before or during disasters to protect people
from destructive forces. These are also called community shelters.
The objective of a temporary shelter is to assure necessary shelter for families in order
to safeguard peoples’ lives from exposure and further sufferings when once a devastating
disaster has snatched their homes from them.
Shelter is also a major requirement during major disaster situations such as wars or
famines which create/exacerbate the refugee problem in significantly large proportions. The
Asian Disaster Preparedness Centre (ADPC) has produced tools and resources for post
disaster relief. As per ADPC, shelter provision has to cater to the following requirements:
PREVENTIVE SITE AND SHELTER MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES
PROBLEM PREDICTIVE PREVENTIVE STRATEGY

INDICATORS
Overcrowding High rate of influx into For contingency planning,

confined area. negotiate suitable sites with
government before influx occurs or
at early stage of refugee situation if
possible, should have potential for
expansion in order to avoid
relocation or increased population
density.
Exposure • Historic or standard • Provision of suitable shelter

weather patterns of rainy for example insulated or heat-
or cold periods. able tents or other structures;
also distribute stoves,
• Lightweight tents or other mattresses, warm clothing,
un insulated structures in blankets or sleeping bags
areas in area with seasonal
cold patterns • Stockpile additional blankets
• Insufficient • Purchase additional
heaters/stoves/fuels heaters/stoves.
• Fuel distribution system
• Fuel stockpile, and/or consider
alternative fuel sources to
bridge gap.
• Relocation of population to
better-sheltered or warmer
areas.
Contd...
Domestic • Overcrowding • Meet minimum space

violence/Social standards for site area and
disturbances • Lack of privacy shelter, space requirements.
• Provide at least visual privacy,
especially for populations
sheltered in communal
buildings.
Fire • Overcrowding • Provide adequate fire breaks

between structures.
• Site area too small for
number of tents/structures, • Provide fire extinguishers in
shelters are very close strategic locations, for
together or are touching example stores/warehouses,
admin, buildings etc.
• Dry windy weather
conditions • Space structures apart to
reduce risk of spread of fire
• Dry combustible shelter
materials and individual • Public awareness campaign
open flame heating or
cooking stoves or areas. • Establish fire brigade
• If possible, stoves/cooking
areas should be protected from
the wind (wind shields). This
will also reduce amount of fuel
required.
• Indoor cooking/heating only
with suitable heaters, open
fires are to be avoided.
• Organise and promote planting
of trees and hedges to reduce
wind spreed. Also helps
reduce dust and wind spread.
Mud/Standing • Pattern of rainy weather • Select site with slight slope (2

Water percent) if possible, regardless
• Flat low lying site of climate, rainy or arid.
• Flood plain location • Use culverts for drainage if
• No other existing roads are improved by raising
structures in fixed assets the road surface.
in the area. • Include drainage plan and
ditching in initial site layout.
• Special attention must be paid
to drainage around water
points.
Source: Compiled by DMC, 1992, UNHCR Emergency Tools Series draft#2, 1992, in ADPC, 2000.
The crux is that shelter rehabilitation concerns spread across the following aspects:
z Socio-economic
Shelter is meant for people. This fact governs the principle that shelter should be designed
to meet the requirements of people without any detrimental impacts on their health, socio-
economic status and lifestyles. This in turn requires that planning and implementation
processes for shelter programmes should be participatory in nature. Participation does not
mean consent; rather it means consultation. Specific issues that need attention are,
beneficiary participation, spatial relationships between families, involvement of women, and
common activity spaces.
z Physical and environmental
Post-disaster shelter reconstruction is a particularly sensitive area of work, since it is
usually carried out under severe time pressure, not providing/allowing enough room for
normal planning processes to take shape. It therefore becomes more important to pay
extra attention to physical impacts, both on the community as well as on the environment.
Issues requiring attention are; relocation decisions, personal open spaces, infrastructure,
and local environment.
z Technical and Structural
Structural compliance according to local hazards is of paramount importance for ensuring
future safety of re-built houses. Poor construction or hazardous location can put people
in such temporary shelter to risk of another disaster. Though this objective is given due
importance in most shelter reconstruction programmes, the means are often not sensitive
enough to the socio-economic and environmental concerns discussed above. Therefore,
technical interpretations, adaptations, and translations gain critical importance. Specific
issues of concern are structural safety, site and services planning, activity space planning,
thermal comfort, protection, and socio-cultural compliance.
z Shelter Location
The first question that arises in a shelter reconstruction programme after a disaster is
whether to rebuild at the same location or to relocate. This is an issue with not just
physical, but also social and economic implications. A number of options have been tried
in the past, and each one of them has its own merits and demerits. The three basic
options are:
1) Rebuilding at the Same Location
This seems to have the greatest advantage. It does not involve issues of land acquisition,
or of conflicts between relocated communities and host communities. Much of the rubble
can also be recycled and used in the reconstruction work, saving on material costs,
transportation costs, and time. This option cannot work when the land or resources at the
original location are damaged or contaminated beyond repair, or if the original location has
proved too vulnerable.
2) Relocating the Entire Settlement
Relocation of a settlement is usually a time consuming process involving land acquisition.
If the community whose land is acquired is unhappy with the situation, it could turn
hostile. While relocating, the entire settlement has to be planned from scratch, since similar
other local sensitivities are involved such as local superstitions and religious/cultural
proclivities. Relocation is a last resort option, and is best avoided as far as possible.
However, if it has to be resorted to, it can provide an opportunity to fill those service
gaps that existed in the old settlement.
An additional issue in relocation is, what happens to the original settlement. Many times
it has been seen that the community continues to occupy and live in the old settlement.
They patch up their damaged houses and live in them, while the new houses
are used for storage. This is highly undesirable because it not only leads to a wastage
of resources, but also leaves the community still living in vulnerable shelters.
3) Relocating Part of the Settlement
The worst of the options, it has often been exercised when opinion within the community
has been divided on the relocation issue. In one sweep, it destroys the social fabric built
over generations. If the community is fractured, the issue first needs to be addressed
through better engagement rather than breaking apart the community.
Ten-point Guideline for Shelter Provision
Numerous agencies are working in the affected areas for shelter provision. Different
approaches are being adopted in different areas, with varying materials, sizes and
processes. A ten-point guideline on temporary shelter provision prepared in the aftermath
of the Kashmir Earthquake of 2005 by Prof. Ian Davis is as follows:
1) Monitor what is going on
Use this disaster to inform the coordination agencies about what goes on in this sector,
at micro and macro levels, such as, who is deciding on shelter approaches; where is the
expertise; what the popular wisdom on shelter is; what are the dilemmas and conflicts?
etc.
2) Tents
The likelihood is that a wide variety of tents, with varied specifications will arrive, some
very appropriate, while others are hopelessly unsuited for the climate or cultural conditions.
Who adopts what specifications and, is there any quality control or standardised
specification? If families tear their allocated tent to use the canvas in creative ways this
can be highly effective, yet in some contexts, some ‘tidy minded’ officials have been
known to banned this adaptive process.
3) Standards
Minimum standards of shelter provision are given under the Sphere Project, and are
accepted around the world. These should be adhered to, and adapted where there is a
need for modifications. The basic principles of the standards should be ensured in all
temporary shelter programmes.
4) Location of Tents
Where possible, families should be allowed to take a tent and put it near their house
rather than on a centralised campsite. Reasons for this are obvious; it would provide for
better care of domestic animals in rural settings, protection of household belongings that
may remain within their ruined dwellings and maintenance or recovery of livelihoods that
may be linked to the home.
5) Shelter Materials
Probably, one of the best policies is to distribute shelter materials, such as blankets,
roofing, sheeting, plastic sheeting, lengths of planed timber, building tools, wire, rope, nails,
etc. Where possible, these can be sold where people have money to avoid dependency,
but where people do not have resources, they can be donated. If the materials for
roofing, sheeting, etc., can come with expertise and the support of skilled volunteers to
assist in building, this will enhance the process.
6) Shelter for Families with Damaged Dwellings
Aftershocks can bring down damaged, but standing houses. Therefore, such families need
to be advised to sleep outside their homes in tents or improvised shelters even if they
spend time in the day in their homes. The risks are very high when they are lying flat,
sleeping and a damaged structure collapses. Rapid damage surveys need to check on
this issue as a vital measure to avoid further losses of lives from aftershocks.
7) Local Advice Centres
Repairs begin immediately, regardless of whether or not the government seeks to stop the
process until structural safety surveys have been undertaken. Small teams can be
assembled, comprising volunteer engineers/ architects/ builders who can be assigned
different areas to offer advice concerning shelters and repair and rebuilding options.
8) Transition Housing
An effective strategy is to seek to help families to create a transitional dwelling that will
eventually develop into a permanent dwelling. This is a preferable approach to providing
expensive rehabs that will later be replaced by another permanent home (In effect this a
wasteful double reconstruction approach). The aim is to use the sheltering process to
accomplish three things: provide shelter, strengthen local livelihoods and aid the psychosocial
recovery process.
9) Debris
In many disaster situations there is often large-scale destruction of building debris during
the clearing and recovery process. Vital timber and masonry debris is destroyed in the
process. It is essential to collect useful building debris for recycling purposes.
10) Shelter Units
Each disaster will attract a community of intrepid inventors or commercial opportunists
who seek to convince officials to place big orders for their novel creations made of
cardboard, plastic, polyurethane, etc. Such designs are essentially innovative answers
seeking a problem. They often cost far more than tents and shelter materials; they can
be culturally and climatically inappropriate and can take ages to deliver. There are better
alternatives available as noted above.
11.2.2 Community Participation

For an economically well-established person, it is obvious that he will get an architect to
design her/his house as per her/his needs and lifestyle. However, for the poor, particularly
in the aftermath of a disaster, this is usually not an option. Since the government or a
donor agency is providing for him, he must accept whatever is handed out. This is why
the rehabilitated arena is dotted with row housing schemes constructed as per a template
designed by a far-away urban architect or designer. There are numerous examples where
beneficiary communities refused to live in such houses provided to them.
Recent improvements in the process have been that the team does a survey and then
designs a few alternate plans, which the community as a group is asked to choose from.
This is still not good enough. Consultations have to go beyond consent.
It must be appreciated that the families receiving assistance still do have a right to decide
what their house should be like, within the given resource constraints. The shelter
provider’s job is to ensure that the new houses and settlements are adequately disaster
resistant.
True consultation often throws up those very small and basic needs that are often
overlooked by remote designers. Though a qualified architect or engineer is surely
competent to create a physically compliant shelter, these small local community based
aspects of shelter are the ones that make it socially compliant.
The inference is that a shelter design is good only if it is acceptable to the families it is
meant for. The way to ensure its acceptability is to design it with the community. There
have been various well-documented examples of this, the world over. Action planning for
housing is an accepted good practice, wherein community groups take part in needs
assessments, prioritisation, consensus building, design, budget analysis, constraint based
design modifications, construction planning, implementation and monitoring.
Participatory design process can be very effective. The role of the qualified designer is
one of facilitation, while the community leads the process. It works well even with illiterate
groups, using symbols, models and articles, around which group discussions and activities
are organised.
As brought out in the World Disasters Report of 2002, people in southern Sri Lanka
fought drought with self-help mitigation measures with assistance from an NGO. For two
years, southern Sri Lanka suffered the worst drought in half a century. Crops failed for
five consecutive seasons. Livestock died, water in wells dropped to dangerously low
levels. Malnutrition rose to dangerous levels, school attendance dropped. An estimated 1.6
million people were affected. The drought-stricken community of Muthukandiya approached
a local NGO about the problem. A mitigation initiative was launched, based on low-cost
“rainwater harvesting” technology, which uses tanks to collect rain channeled by gutters
and pipes as it runs off the roofs of houses. Villagers participated throughout the planning
process. Two local masons received on-the-job training in building the 5,000-litre
household storage tanks. Each system cost US$ 195, equivalent to a month’s family
income. The community, in the form of materials and unskilled labour, provided half the
cost. The NGO contributed the rest. Households learned how to maintain the tanks, and
the whole community was trained to keep domestic water supplies clean. A village
rainwater harvesting society was set up to run the project. Evaluations clearly show that
the 37 households with storage tanks have considerably more water for domestic needs
than households relying on wells and ponds and up to twice as much during the driest
months.
11.2.3 Requirement of Dovetailing Response with Risk Reduction

It should be realised however that temporary arrangements like shelter provision, stockpiling
or warehousing have limited utility if not integrated with the larger/more essential goal of
risk reduction. As rightly articulated in the World Disasters Report of 2002, risk-blind
development is one factor in increasing vulnerability. Another is the absence of effective
disaster preparedness and mitigation measures (for example, flood-proof embankments,
early warning systems, evacuation routes, shelters, relief stockpiles, disaster response
teams, public awareness). Below are some of the barriers to more effective risk reduction,
as brought out in the World Disaster Report of 2002:
z Geopolitics: conflicts of the 1990s dominated the humanitarian agenda, pushing aside
the problem of vulnerability to natural hazards.
z No coherent risk reduction “community”: professionals trying to mitigate disaster
impacts are fragmented along institutional boundaries.
z Risk reduction is seen as a separate sector, when it should be mainstreamed
into development and humanitarian programming. As a result, risk reduction concerns
are marginalised or forgotten.
z Risk reduction is viewed as a technical problem with technical solutions. But the
underlying factors that compel people to live in insecure conditions are rarely
addressed.
z Lack of resources: donors dedicate far fewer resources to risk reduction than to
relief. The European Community’s Humanitarian Office (ECHO), for example, spent
just 1.5 per cent of its aid budget on disaster preparedness on an average.
z Invisibility of risk reduction spending: development programmes may include
mitigation, but it is rarely reported in donor accounts (Twigg and Ariyabandu, 2002).
11.2.4 Environment and Infrastructure

Sustainable development refers to the Green Agenda and the Brown Agenda. Green
agenda deals with environmental issues related to clean air and water, a healthy and
natural environment. Brown agenda deals with provision of services including water
supply, sanitation, drainage and solid waste disposal.
Rehabilitation shelter needs to be brown and green too. While browning apparently
happens well with most construction programmes visible in ensuring taps and toilets and
drains, many rehabilitated villages look like models made of concrete blocks, with not a
single tree or green patch in sight. Clean looking paved surfaces replace the earthy ground
with grassy patches and the shade giving trees. The dying village pond finally gives way
to the overpowering overhead water tank. Ambient temperature rises, and cool breezes
turn hot. Things are definitely not green. Greening is the least expensive of the shelter
construction components. Usually, it requires almost no expenditure.
It is said that the brown agenda also needs careful adaptation. Many a times it is seen
that utilities and services are cut and paste from an urban setting. In such cases, users
may not take to the technologies offered, or pour-flush systems may be too water
intensive and unviable, or drainage systems may have too less water for self-cleansing
velocity. While planning for utilities and services, it is important to use technologies
appropriate to local environmental conditions. It is equally important to do a reality check
with socio-cultural practices and acceptability. Sometimes, technical interventions may
require a long run-up of social mobilisation and education.
The initiation of this entire process can happen from some universal principles laid down.
The SPHERE project standards are for humanitarian assistance given for minimum
standards of basic infrastructure provision, including those needed under various shelter
programmes. Other factors can be taken from similar sources, or derived empirically.
One more consideration that can be kept in mind while doing this is incorporating disaster
mitigation and preparedness aspects. Shelter and site planning components in themselves
should be based on sound principles of structural mitigation. From this can emerge non-
structural mitigation elements such as selection and placement of infrastructure and furniture
etc. The green agenda can incorporate elements of nature in ways that ensure sustainable
and safe habitat.
11.3 REQUIREMENTS IN WAREHOUSING AND

STOCKPILING
For effective relief distribution, it is essential that the relief material is procured, transported,
stored and distributed efficiently. Based on the experience with the December 2004
tsunami in Thailand, the USAID recommended the use of strategic transit points as the
Uttapao air base in Thailand for stockpiling of relief material. The USAID however
criticised the government’s decision to source needed supplies such as tents, blankets and
high protein biscuits from existing aid stockpiles in Europe and the Middle East. Local on
-demand purchase of these items would have been timelier. Most relief agencies have tie-
ups with supply companies in this regard, which makes stockpiling redundant. However,
certain goods are not easily transportable, like tarpaulins and tents; besides communication
is disrupted which reiterates the benefit of stockpiling of certain goods (The Economist,
2005). Therefore, warehousing and stockpiling form a very important component during
the relief phase.
Planning Stockpiling and Warehouse Requirements
Stockpiling and warehouse requirements should be worked out in detail and preferably in
advance so that these can be adhered to right from the beginning. It is more difficult to
organise a warehouse once the material has been dumped in it.
z A warehouse must provide proper secure storage in terms of capacity and the
preservation of the quality and quantity of the items stores. Cool, dry storage facilities
are optimal. Warmth and dampness encourage infestation and growth of microorganisms.
Every effort should be made to prevent supplies from being exposed to sun, rain,
humidity or high temperature.
z Open storage areas should not be used, except for very short periods for goods that
will not be affected by exposure.
z The necessary capacity for a proposed warehouse depends upon the number of
beneficiaries to be served and the quantity of goods to be stored and distributed.
Make provision for anticipated reserve and buffer stocks, but avoid ordering and
holding contingency supplies for indeterminate future needs. Consider consumption
rates and shelf life, and request supplies in manageable quantities.
z Warehouse buildings should be conveniently located and provided protection from
rain, flash floods, dampness, solar heating, rodents, insects and birds. A single large
building is better than several small ones. The warehouse must be secure against
theft, with adequate fencing, lighting, and security personnel. The area surrounding the
warehouse should be cleared and made to provide good drainage and easy access.
Provide a special storage area for small, high-value items, with parking and loading/
unloading area adjacent to the warehouse.
Stockpiling Facilities
Storage facilities are located at key points. Significant losses can materialise due to poor
planning. Most of the following damages can be minimised by proper storage:
z Spoilage caused by inadequate protection during inclement weather;

z Stockpiling at wrong locations, which also leads to loss of time in delivery;
z Poor warehousing practices and facilities;
z Lack of proper security and supervision; or
z Prolonged warehousing supplies.
Stockpiling Practices
Stockpiling is a scientific process. Best stockpiling practices are based on scientific
principles that help in increasing the life of the material and in easier and more efficient
handling:
z Each stockpiling facility requires a stockpiling plan to allocate sufficient space for
goods before a consignment arrives. Ideally the floor of the warehouse is laid out in
a painted grid pattern, and each item marked in chalk to designate the area for
each stack. In addition, a chart is maintained of the stockpiling plan, to identify
available space at a glance and to locate stored supplies and their date of receipt
easily.
z Goods should never be stored directly against walls; pipes, pillars, roof trusses or
partitions because stacks place unacceptable stress on them, become inaccessible and
subject to dampness. Stacks should be separated using straight aisles, at least one
meter wide, to provide access for inspection, cleaning and loading. Foodstuffs should
be well separated from other supplies to avoid damage from contamination. Fuels,
lubricants and other hazardous substances should be stored in a separate building or
a designated, protected area outside the main warehouse.
z A cleaning plan for the warehouse should be prepared, laying down the tasks, timing
and assigned duties of the staff. Specific cleaning duties should be included in the job
description for each warehouse staff member, and follow ups should be done to
ensure that the work is done thoroughly, as scheduled. All the dirt should be
removed daily.
z Supplies and food commodities should be neatly piled on pallets placed on a clean
floor. Pallets should never project beyond the bottoms of the stack. Different items,
different packages and consignments arriving at different times should be kept in
different stacks. Stacks should be built carefully to ensure stability, maximise available
space and facilitate stocktaking. With rectangular bags or boxes, the simplest method
to pile the stock is to orient layers in different directions. This will prevent the stack
from falling over.
z Goods must be issued in the order in which they were received. This should be kept
in mind when planning the stack layout, so that stacks placed earlier at the rear of
the warehouse are easily accessible when the time comes to issue them.
z Stacks should be positioned so as to benefit them most form available light and
ventilation. Good, natural or electrical lighting will make inspection easier. Ventilation
and good air circulation is best for quality preservation, in hot, dry climates.
Ventilators should not be obstructed.
z Stack height should be limited to prevent excessive floor loading or pressure damage
to the packing or the contents. Packages can be crushed or split by compacting
caused by the weight piled above.
z Individual stack dimensions at the floor should not exceed 6 mt. x 6 mt., to facilitate
inspection and cleaning.
z Packages should be piled in their upright position.
z Damaged goods should be piled separately. Different types of damaged goods should
not be stacked together. Repairing or repacking should be done if possible. These
repacked or repaired goods should be issued first if they are usable.
z In tents or improvised shelters, stacks should never be allowed to touch the fabric
of the tent or the walls or roof of the shelter. In open areas, stacks should be kept
away from the perimeter fence.
Suitability of Available Warehouse
Warehouses are often not easily available in post -disaster situations. Many times, make-
shift arrangements have to be made in existing buildings such as schools or in the open
or under tents if no suitable building can be found. The following conditions need to be
kept in mind while identifying a warehouse:
z Easy access by road, rail, or water to facilitate receiving and issuing supplies.
z Sufficient capacity to meet forecast requirements for temporary or transit storage,
reserve and buffer stocks.
z Sufficient floor area to permit easy stock handling and access to all stacks for
inspection, stocktaking and pest control.
z Sound construction and dry and well ventilated building. The construction should be
leak proof and there should be no broken windows. Doors should close securely
with no gaps. Walls should be clean and whitewashed.
z Office space for warehouse supervisor, staff and warehouse records.
z Garbage disposal facilities.
z Lighting inside and outside the building; and making security fence necessary, if
isolated.
Receiving, Handling and Issuing Stocks
The process of receiving, handling and issuing material at a warehouse location is a
complex one as it involves different processes and different personnel. If the warehouse
itself is the location of distribution, the issuing stocks also involve the arrival of a large
number of people who are not aware of the warehouse processes. The following aspects
need to be kept in mind in such a situation:
z Ideally, larger warehouses should have separate doors and work areas for receiving
and issuing supplies. This arrangement will eliminate any confusion and potential
scheduling problems when these activities occur simultaneously.
z Every consignment arriving at the warehouse must be counted and inspected carefully
as the goods are being unloaded. Damaged packaging or commodities, should be
checked for:
z Packs with holes, or split bags
z Broken or partially open crates
z Dented, buckled or leaking drums or cans
z Signs of wetness or stains on the surface of bags or cartons
z Signs of insect infestation or decay
z The quantities received should match with those listed on the waybill, stores
requisition or packing list. Where tampering is evident, carefully check the contents
of packages for missing items. Sample bags should be weighed of bulk commodities
to confirm unit weights. Random samples of commodities should be taken to check
for quality, when appropriate.
z The number of units/weight of the goods received and any amount, which has been
damaged or lost, should be recorded. Consignment receiving reports should be
submitted to the appropriate authority or agent, noting damage, shortage, excess or
non-conformance, quantities, conditions and any extenuating circumstances. Insurance
claims and follow up on claims documentation should be initiated where necessary.
z Proper instruction should be given and timely supervision of the porters handling
goods in the warehouse should be done, to ensure that the goods are moved and
stored efficiently with minimum damage. Loading or unloading should never be done
in the rain. Provision of suitable equipment should be made with trained operators,
for large or heavy consignments. Use of trolleys should be made if these are
available. Goods must not be dragged along the floor, dropped or thrown. Porters
should not be permitted to use hooks which damage packaging and bags.
z Only authorised officials may sign a written release order to issue supplies from
storage. On receipt of a release order, the chief storekeeper confirms that the
supplies are on-hand and supervises their turnover to the receiver’s agent taking
delivery. Stored goods are issued on a first in first out (FIFO) basis, that is, the
stores received first are issued first because they have been stored for the longest
period. This rule is applied consistently, except for usable damaged goods, which are
always issued first, regardless when they arrived. The issue is recorded in the
warehouse records.
z A Store Requisition/Issue Voucher is prepared in three copies for each release order,
with the receiver’s agent signing to acknowledge receipt of the goods. Two copies
accompany the issued consignment to their destination, while the original is filed with
the release order. The receiver’s agent obtains the signature of the receiver at the
destination, returning one copy to the warehouse for matching with the original Stores
Requisition/Issue voucher to confirm final delivery.
z In long-term warehouses, periodic physical inventory of all supplies and food aid
should be conducted to verify that the quantities on hand agree with the quantities
shown on the Store Card and Stack Record Cards. Any shortages should be
reported to the senior official responsible for warehouse operations, and investigation
for the reasons for these shortages should be carried out. Quantities from the store’s
records should not be deleted without proper authorities to do so.
Fire Protection and Safety

Proper fire protection measures should be taken up in the warehouse complex to ensure
safety from possible fire accidents. The following tips may be adopted:
z Define in advance the responsibilities and actions to be taken by individual personnel
in case of a fire outbreak.
z Ensure that fire-fighting equipment is readily accessible both inside and outside the
building and also that these are in working condition.
z Provide water and sand buckets, plus foam extinguishers if fuel and oils are present.
Instruct personnel in the use of extinguishers.
z Strictly control smoking by all personnel whenever they are in the warehouse
premises.
z Never store flammable material in the main place. All combustible waste should be
discarded in metal bins and they should be cleared out regularly.
z Insure the warehouse against possible fire outbreak.
z Ensure good electrical wiring within and outside the warehouse.
Recommended Warehouse Cleaning Plan
Cleaning of the warehouse is very important to maintain hygiene and to keep the material
from being wasted due to decay or pest infestation.
Before using the warehouse:
z Thorough cleaning of floors, walls, ceilings partitions, support beams, windows, doors
and frames should be done. Treatment with insecticide is advised.
z Clearing of weeds and rubbish in the area surroundings the warehouse building
should be done, to remove potential food sources for rodents and to eliminate places
where insects may breed.
z Prompt cleaning of any spillage, especially foodstuffs and oil is needed.
z Each day, sweeping of the floor and disposal of the sweepings should be done.
z At the end of each week, cleaning of the building walls and the sides of each stack
should be done. Cleaning up of weeds and rubbish in the area surrounding the
warehouse should also be done.
z In case of long term warehousing, at the end of each month cleaning of the entire
warehouse thoroughly, from top to bottom, should be done.
Periodic cleaning can be scheduled for:
z Sweeping the walls, stacks, and floor, wall/floor joints and all corners
z Cleaning of the roof beams and tops of the walls
z Cleaning of doors, frames and door channels
z Cleaning in sequences, from top to bottom, and from the farthest point inside the
warehouse towards the door(s)
z A logbook should be maintained for the periodic maintenance and cleaning activities.
Record Keeping Procedures
Since large volumes of material are being handled and many personnel may be involved
in the process, good record keeping procedures are important for maintaining accountability
and for efficiency in ensuring that stocks are available when required. The following
procedures are advised:
z Use of Stock Control Ledgers, Store Cards and Stack Record Cards.
z Recording all receipts, issues and balance on hand. Retaining a copy of the receipt/
issue voucher or waybill for verification.
z Recording all inspections and pest control treatments.
z Verifying records by conducting a physical stock count periodically.
z For any stocked item lost or disposed of, recording the quantity, and an explanation
of the loss or the reasons for disposal and the method.
z Submitting a periodic summary to the senior official responsible for warehouse
operations.
Stores Inspections: What to look for
Stores inspection is an important task for ensuring that systems are being followed and
there are no losses or risks of losses to the material being stored. The following
inspections should be carried out:
Building and Area Inspection, comprising;
z Roof leakage or signs of flooding
z Broken windows or ventilators
z Badly fitted or damaged doors
z Cracked walls or floors
z Dirty or dusty interior
z Signs of rodent entry
z Damaged fences
z Broken or burnt out lights
z Inoperative or missing equipment
z Presence of garbage, discarded items
Stores Inspection Activities
z Checking for spilled commodities;
z Inspection between bags or packages in the stack, along seams, for signs of insects
(webs, cocoons, etc.) or rodent damage;
z Looking around the stack base and under pallets for signs of insects (webs, cocoons,
etc.) or rodent damage;
z Looking around the stack base and under pallets for signs of insects or rodents (for
example, nests, droppings);
z Looking for water damage, fungus, caking, discoloration, stained bags or packaging
leaks;
z Examination of stacks for damaged items mixed in with regular stock. Checking that
damaged goods are stacked separately in the warehouse;
z Checking expiry dates on items with limited shelf life;
z In stored grain stacks, by lifting the top bag and feeling the bag underneath for
heating, which can indicate germination/infestation in the stacks;
z Looking for swelling or rusting cans;
z Looking for flying insects that are usually a sign of heavy infestation;
z Watching for signs of theft;
z Checking in dark places using a good flashlight.
11.4 CONCLUSION
While building temporary shelters, along with the expertise from specialised agencies, local
wisdom and traditional coping mechanisms should be considered while planning for
temporary shelters. It is quite probable that traditional systems for temporary shelters are
available in the area. Also, using the traditional system will be cheaper than an external
design altogether. In any case, it will be useful to consult the community.
For warehousing and stockpiling, proper selection, supervision and control of warehouse
and storage facilities cannot be left to the storekeeper alone. All officials in the field or
attached to the operation must assume an active role to ensure that the supplies stored
are adequately protected until they reach the beneficiaries. Warehouse protocols should be
scientifically laid down and implemented.
11.5 KEY CONCEPTS

Temporary Shelter : In the immediate aftermath of a disaster, it may not
be possible to evacuate people immediately to officially
designated shelters since road communications may be
severely disrupted, as during floods, cyclones and
earthquakes. Temporary shelters have to be set up, in
the form of tents. Since stockpiling may not be
available, food and medical supplies are airdropped in
case of events such as landslides.
Designated Shelter : Many existing structures at safe sites or otherwise
well constructed structures such as schools, religious
institutions, and hospitals, etc. can double up as

designated shelters. Using hazard maps, official shelters
are also created as part of disaster prevention on safe
sites, which could be at some distance from the
hazard site. All essential requirements are provisioned
at such shelters.
Warehouse : Warehouse refers to a large building where materials
can be stored. The Indian equivalent of a warehouse
is a ‘go-down.’ Both, however, mean the same.
Stockpile : Stockpile refers to the stock of essential commodities,
comprising perishable and non-perishable items which
are needed using an emergency. Though stockpiling
is indispensable; alternate arrangements are being
worked out, such as, companies and non-profit
organisations engaged in disaster response in contract
with suppliers who ensure timely delivery at call.
Protocol : Protocol refers to the formal procedure or the rules
and regulations that govern daily administration of an
organisation. Breach of protocol results in bad
precedents and hence, undermining of the organisation
itself.
Inspection : Inspections have to be carried out periodically
regarding stockpiling in warehouses to check for safe
practices. Perishable items should be replaced on time
and fresh supplies requisitioned.

Manual on Disaster Response, a Handbook for Emergencies, Church’s Auxiliary for
Social Action (CASA) at http://www.christian-aid.org.uk/indepth/0307stor/
04stormappendices.pdf
Ten-point guideline for shelter provision by Prof. Ian Davis, prepared in the aftermath of
the Kashmir earthquake, 2005.
Twigg and Ariyabandu, 2002, World Disasters Report, International Red Cross and Red
Crescent Societies, John Twigg and Madhavi Ariyabandu (Intermediate Technology
Development Group, South Asia).
UNHCR Handout, “Tools and Resources for Post Disaster Relief”, reproduced by Asian
Disaster Preparedness Centre, 2000, at, http://www.adpc.at.in
World Disasters Report, 2002, Chapter 1- Principal contributors: John Twigg (Honorary
Research Fellow, Benfield Greig Hazard Research Centre, University College London)
and Charlotte Benson, an economist specialized in the economic aspects of natural
disasters.
11.7 ACTIVITIES
1) Contact organisations or government departments who are key players for relief
operations during any emergency in your area. Study their mechanisms of stock piling
and warehousing. Make a visit to the warehouse and interview the in charge.
Compile your observations and prepare a report. If there is no disaster warehouse
in your area, you can visit any large material storage facility and compare their
systems with those discussed in this unit.
2) Make a list of facilities and items a family like yours will need if it has to live in a
temporary shelter away from home for a few days. Make sure you include items of
need for each family member. Identify special need items for children, old people and
women.
UNIT 12 DISTRIBUTION OF RELIEF MATERIAL
Structure
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Steps in Relief Distribution
12.3 Types of Programmes and Distribution Systems
12.4 Logistics
12.5 Problems in Relief Administration
12.6 Conclusion
12.7 Key Concepts
12.9 Activities

z Highlight the modalities of relief material management and distribution;
z Understand various types of relief activities and planning required for relief operations;
and
z Explain the process of relief in detail, including issues like logistics.
12.1 INTRODUCTION
Relief means meeting the immediate needs for food, clothing, shelter and medical aid for
disaster victims. It provides assistance to save lives and alleviate suffering in the hours,
days and weeks following a disaster. For high impact rapid onset disasters like earthquakes,
relief operations have to be launched at very short notice and at very large scale. For
creeping disasters like droughts the relief period may prolong to months or even years.
The two-dominant/critical issues in relief distribution are politicisation of relief and the
problem of ‘scarcity amidst plenty’. In this Unit, there shall be an endeavour to
understand the two problems and explore ways to evolve a better mechanism of relief
distribution/procurement by understanding of constraints in the present arrangements.
12.2 STEPS IN RELIEF DISTRIBUTION

z Planning for Relief Distribution
Keeping in mind the panic that arises during any disaster, it is essential to plan before
hand to ensure that the distribution of relief material in the immediate aftermath of a
disaster is efficient and effective. An effective relief operation is more realistic if correlated
with an efficient disaster preparedness plan. Every major disaster’s impact could be
contained effectively to a certain extent and the loss minimised if a good preparedness
plan is in force. Given below are some of the steps that should be taken before the
disaster.
1) Establishment of Early Warning Systems
Science and technology in India have advanced and developed considerably to a state
whereby early warnings in case of disasters like floods and cyclones are a reality. All
agencies involved in disaster relief operations should monitor the information discharged by
the early warning system and should be in touch with the concerned government agencies
at regular intervals for up-to-date information on the setting-in and the progress of
disasters like cyclones and floods. This would facilitate relief agencies to get prepared and
ready for effective disaster relief operations. Agencies working in the areas should monitor
the updates from the forecasting and warning agencies and should pass the information on
to the others.
2) Liaison at the District Administration Level
Liaison with the various concerned departments at the district level in the disaster-prone
areas prior to the manifestation of the disaster would open up better opportunity for the
coordination, preparedness and relief operations. Coordination with the local government
agencies is very essential for an effective operation and for the related formalities. A
healthy relation with the government departments would also ensure the possibility to avail
the infrastructure back up available with them. Entry into a disaster zone, if declared
prohibited due to some reasons, would be easy if a healthy and positive relation is
maintained with the district administration and they are aware of the credentials and
capabilities of the organisation.
3) Planning with the “population-at-risk”
Planning with the ‘population- at- risk’ is very important in disaster preparedness and
relief activities. This would enable the identification of the local resources, capabilities and
existing facilities of the target or hit-areas. An interaction with the ‘population- at- risk’
would also generate a confidence in them to play a positive role in the relief operations
in the aftermath of a disaster. A positive attitude thus generated within the population itself
would contribute towards the disaster preparedness. It would also enable the planning of
an effective relief operation, should the need arise.
4) List of Contact Persons
List of contact persons is an important element of disaster relief preparedness. List of
responsible people from various concerned fields of operation in the probable disaster
zones will help the coordination of the post-disaster activities there. Most of the relief
agencies that rush to the disaster areas find it difficult to establish themselves during the
first few days. Local contacts will enable a smooth entry to the disaster zone. The list
of contact persons may be drawn from local emergency organisations, nodal government
officials, non-governmental and community based organisations, prominent citizens of the
locality who are interested in the issue, or those who are employed or involved with
educational, religious and social service organisations.
5) Pre-Stocking
Pre-stocking of relief materials is always useful in making relief operations effective
immediately. Pre-stocking will avoid the last minute rush to procure the materials, which
Distribution of Relief Material 241
invariably would be in short supply after a disaster and will require time to procure, pack
and transport. Materials for pre-stocking may include food grains, blankets, basic medical
supplies, clothing, utensils, tents and other back-up equipment.
6) Alternate Routes
Alternate routes for the movement of the relief materials form other parts of the district,
state or country into the disaster zone should be well worked out in advance. There is
a chance that the direct route linking the disaster site with the regional centres would be
cut off or else choked with traffic of outbound survivors or inbound relief teams.
Continuous supply chain of the relief materials to the field teams is very critical and must
be ensured through back-up routes.
7) Training And Education
Training and education is a very important component for ensuring sound disaster relief
preparedness that will help make relief operations efficient. Training and education is
essential both for the population ‘at- risk’ and the implementing personnel. The training
and education aspect will have to be of a continuing nature to keep the system operational
at its most efficient level at all times by keeping people reminded of their roles and by
training and educating any new people that join at any time.
8) Mapping
Mapping is useful for coordination as it provides spatial distribution of information items
including hazards, vulnerabilities and capacities. Maps should be prepared and maintained
in an updated state in advance, with the following information marked on them:
z Hazards
z Natural features
z Settlement details with housing and other activity areas
z Vulnerable areas (high density, poor buildings, low-lying, etc.)
z Availability of materials
z Communication routes: Road/Rail/Air/Water
z Alternate routes
z Areas for evacuation
z Locations for potential relief camp sites
z Source/alternate source for water/food
z Location for warehousing/facilities
The Maps may be prepared at the following levels:
z Village/neighbourhood level
z Taluk /mandal/ town level
z District level
z State level
z Zonal level
z National level
z Time Factor
Time factor is an important aspect to be considered in an immediate disaster relief
operation. An effective relief operation should be launched within hours and may need to
continue for up to a few weeks, depending on the intensity of the disaster. A speedy
operation would be more beneficial to the disaster victims since their very life and survival
is at stake after a disaster.
12.3 TYPES OF PROGRAMMES AND DISTRIBUTION

SYSTEMS
I) Feeding Programmes
Feeding programmes aim to provide individuals with free food to make up the difference
between supplies at hand and basic needs. Where feeding is considered necessary for
particular population groups, it may be provided in the form of cooked meals or dry
rations. In practice, if feeding is necessary at all, an integrated package of measures
should be envisaged, which is appropriate to local socio-economic situation as well as
observed nutritional needs. The very clear separation, which is often made between
general, and supplementary feeding, may not always be appropriate. The feeding
programme, either the distribution of dry ration or arrangements for the distribution of
cooked food, should be limited to the shortest possible duration. The duration may be ten
days to fifteen days after the onset of disasters like floods and cyclones. For drought, a
different strategy may be adopted, whereby a long-term food support programme may be
necessary.
There are three types of feeding:
z General Feeding: Basic food/meals are provided for all members of all households
within particular population groups affected by the disaster. Locally available food
and which is more acceptable is provided. General feeding can be of two types: (1)
Distribution of dry ration, (2) Distribution of cooked food.
z Supplementary Feeding: Additional food is given to select nutritionally vulnerable
individuals to compensate for specific deficiencies. Usually, supplementary feeding is
given to children and expectant/lactating mothers. Supplementary feeding can be in
the nature of distributing high-energy biscuits/cakes or powder mix. However, proper
instructions for the consumption or dosage should be well explained to the beneficiaries
before distributing the same.
z Therapeutic Feeding: This type of feeding is usually undertaken for nutritional
rehabilitation. Special intensive feeding is provided under close medical supervision for
severely mal-nourished persons, usually children and old persons.
II) Distribution of Dry Ration
Distribution of dry ration is suitable where the disaster victims can cook themselves. It is
also good since it involves the beneficiaries and keeps them busy instead of their sitting
idle and thinking of their trauma. It is better that the distribution is limited to ten to fifteen
days’ ration. Taking the logistic considerations, it is advisable that the ration quantity for
the whole intended period is given to the victims at a time.
The procedure for the distribution may be as follows:
z Survey door-to-door in the target area/village and distribute tokens to each household
against their acknowledgement on the beneficiaries list;
z Seek the help of local level government and local leaders while surveying. This will
help eliminate duplications and identify the genuine beneficiaries;
z Ask the beneficiaries to collect the ration against production of the token handed
over to them, collectively from the distribution point at an appointed time and place;
z Ensure that the distribution is made in the presence of a local government worker
deputed by the District Administration. This is to facilitate transparency with the
community as well as government authorities;
z Enforce strict crowd management while distribution takes place. If necessary seek the
assistance of police;
z Distribution sites may be a public institution in the area, centrally located or the base
camp office.
III) Distribution of Cooked Food
Logistic and management problems are more while attempting the distribution of cooked
food to the disaster victims. It is always a healthy practice if victims themselves can
organise the cooking and distribution process for their community. Distribution of cooked
food should be resorted to only when there is no capacity in the families to cook their
food, and it should be continued for the shortest possible time. The procedure may be
as follows:
A) Where community cooking/feeding is possible:
z Organise the disaster victims to formulate a committee and assess the food/cooking
requirements for the community to be fed;
z Concentrate on simple diet consisting of food items that are easily available in the
market or at least in the district headquarters;
z Assess the number of days for which food aid is necessary and supply the
community with at least 5 to 7 days of food stock and cooking requirements at a
time;
z Cooking vessels may be purchased and provided to the committee. The community
may use these vessels in the future for common purposes;
z Enforce strict supervision in regard to hygiene during cooking of the food and its
distribution. Enforce discipline and crowd management systems;
z Ensure availability of good drinking water and maintain all sanitary/hygiene aspects in
the kitchens;
z Open the kitchen for feeding at pre-determined timings only; and
z Food to be cooked should be on a thorough calculation of the required quantity in

order to avoid wastage.
B) Where community cooking and feeding is not possible:
z Cook the food in a central kitchen and transport the same to the community;
z Food may be transported in bulk in vessels and distributed to the victims in the
vessels they bring;
z Ensure that the vessels used for transportation of the food are properly closed during
the transportation to avoid contamination;
z Also ensure that the vessels the beneficiaries bring to collect the food are clean. If
necessary, arrange a drum with water to wash them before collecting their food;
z The food may be packed into required packets and the packets transported to the
community and distributed to each individual;
z Seek the assistance of the community representatives in the cooking, transportation
and distribution process;
z Cooked food should be distributed at the earliest to the beneficiaries, to avoid
spoilage and bacterial contamination. It should be ensured that the beneficiaries
consume the food soon;
z If packed in individual packets, the packets should be of good quality material and
packing done in very clean environment;
z Every food packet should have a uniform quantity of food, as per planned ration
rate;
z It is always advisable to prepare one type of food, avoiding varieties in order to help
easy management of cooking process. However, it should be a different type of food
at the next distribution round;
z Records have to be maintained as to how many people benefited from the feeding;
a beneficiary list may be developed.
IV) Distribution of Standard Relief Material
Post-disaster material distribution should be very appropriate and need based. Instead of
doing many rounds and giving random items on ad-hoc basis, complete family kits should
be prepared and distributed in one go. One standard relief set usually consists of the
following materials:
z Clothes for adult male and female, appropriate to local climate and culture;
z Clothes for male and female children, appropriate to local climate and culture;
z Mats and blanket/bed-sheets depending on local weather;
z Basic utensils for cooking, storing and eating;
z Tent or tarpaulin if needed;
z Dry rations to last for two weeks;
z Essential commodities like torch, footwear, storage bags;

z Soap, and toiletries based on needs and local practices; locally appropriate materials
for women’s sanitary needs; and
z Special provisions for families with infants.
All the above items are packed into one set and handed over to each household. The
distribution process may be as follows:
z All the affected families in the selected disaster area should be considered for the
relief assistance, irrespective of caste, creed and religion.
z The distribution process should not be influenced by religious or political motivations.
z Staff and volunteers will do door-to-door survey of the area affected by the disaster.
z Assistance of the local officer and local leaders/elders should be sought while
undertaking the survey. Identification of the beneficiaries along with the help of local
leaders will eliminate possible duplications and identify the genuine victims. It will also
avoid complaints of biases.
z If there are doubts or complaints, names of the beneficiaries should be verified with
the latest voters-list or with the village/municipal list at the village/municipal/ district
office.
z In cases where the group is very large or confusion is anticipated in the distribution
process, a distribution token system should be used. After verification of the name
of the beneficiary, her/his name should be written in the beneficiaries list with all the
particulars required therein. Her/ his signature should be obtained in the list against
her/ his name and a serially numbered token issued. The token should be countersigned
by the issuing officer.
z The beneficiary should be requested to collect the relief packet from the distribution
point at the pre-determined time against token issued to him/her.
z At the distribution point, the relief packet should be issued or released to the
beneficiary against the token produced. The token may be collected and cancelled
to avoid double distribution against one token.
z As a general policy, either all equally deserving victims at a distribution center should
get relief, or none of them.
V) Distribution of Other Material
Materials, other than the standard relief packets also could be distributed, provided:
z Material or item to be distributed is identified as needed and vital for survival
z Materials are available in the market to avoid delay in supply
z Logistic arrangements are made for procurement, delivery and distribution within the
shortest possible time frame.
The distribution procedures could be the same as in the distribution of the standard relief
packets.
Distribution Procedures
Time
Relief distribution should be carried out at the earliest possible, after the disaster. The first
seventy-two hours are most critical for the community to survive due to exposure, injuries
etc. This is the time within which they may need material support to cope with the shock.
However, there may also be some local resources like retrieved items and local aid that
may support them with food and basic items for this duration, and these may run out after
the first two or three days. Hence, essential commodities should reach immediately, and
longer-term material aid should reach within seventy-two hours. When following the token
system for distribution, material should be distributed to the beneficiaries within twenty-
four hours of the distribution of the tokens to them. If there is too much of a time gap,
the beneficiaries may lose their tokens. This is likely since they are living in ruins or make
shift camps in times of crisis and confusion.
Point
The distribution point may be sited in a convenient location. It is always better to fix the
distribution point at a public place like a school or a community centre. Distribution for
one or more nearby villages or hamlets or urban neighbourhoods may be arranged in one
place. This would avoid transportation of the materials to various centres and thus save
considerable time and money. However, the selected place should be within walking
distance from all target-settlements.
Process
At the completion of the survey, the number of sets that are to be distributed would be
known. The supplier agency office is then informed about the requirement of the materials,
the point of distribution and time, through a material requisition form. Once the distribution
decision is finalised, the following tasks need to be carried out:
z At the appointed/ fixed time, the required quantity of relief materials should reach the
distribution point. Logistics for the same are to be organised systematically when
there is more than one distribution point;
z The token holders or the beneficiaries should queue up and collect the materials
against production of the tokens at the distribution points;
z Material or the relief packet should be handed over to the beneficiaries against the
collection of the token. The token is then cancelled to avoid reuse of the same to
collect the relief packet again;
z The collected tokens should then be counted and verified against the beneficiaries list
and the number of packets distributed;
z After the distribution is over, the beneficiaries list should be verified once again, and
the distributing officer or staff and local elder or leader as a witness, sign over it,
declaring that the materials have been distributed. The representative of the local
government revenue department also signs as a witness of the process; and
z This list is then produced at the local government revenue office and a distribution/
utilisation certificate obtained from the officer-in-charge.
12.4 LOGISTICS
Logistics is the practical art of supplying material support to a defined group of
beneficiaries. Supplies and food aid must be delivered to the beneficiaries who are often
located in remote geographical areas. Local transportation and communication infrastructures
may have to be reinforced and a process of control and information feedback must be
introduced to ensure that the material supplies reach the beneficiaries at the destination in
the quantity and quality provided/prescribed. The field logistics systems must deal with the
linear flow of material assistance from the origin to the final destination. It involves the
transportation of supplies and their storage at key transit points, with control throughout
the system until they are finally distributed to the beneficiaries.
Components of Logistics System
The necessary hardware to move and store the goods, including transport fleet, rail
wagons, boats, barges, airplanes or other transport units, warehouses and other storage
facilities constitute the relief logistics system. In addition, the following things are also
covered:
z Records and reports to control the flow of goods through the system, including
dispatch challans, requisitions, release orders, issue vouchers, take over certificates,
stock registers, stock control cards, receiving reports and distribution reports.
z Personnel to monitor the system by conducting checks and inspections to manage
and supervise the operation at key control points, and adequate support staff.
z When material is obtained locally, suppliers should deliver them to the control point
in the logistics system nearest the location where the goods will be needed. In this
way, local supplies into the main logistics system can be controlled from the receiving
point also.
Considerations in Logistics Planning
Development of a planning formula for estimating future overall supply is needed. The
system may not be designed to react to only the immediate needs, so it should be known
where the system would be needed and for how long. The following issues need to be
kept in mind:
z Plan alternate routes for transportation in case of local disruption such as destruction
or collapse of roads and bridges.
z The logistics system should be simplified in order to reduce transit time, to minimise
the number of stops and transfers and to consolidate facilities.
z Locating warehouses centrally in the areas they intend to serve.
z Maintaining of buffer stocks. Enough supplies should be kept available to meet the
needs when logistics operation cannot keep up with demand.
z Contingency plans should be made before the situation arises. Development of
alternate routes and readiness should start using them as soon as the problem is
evident on the primary route. It is imperative to have alternate routes planned in
order to avoid disruption in the delivery.
Transport by Road
When moving supplies inland, trucks generally provide greater flexibility than rail wagons,
water barges, boats or aircrafts in terms of capacities, scheduling and routing. Depending
on whether destinations can be reached by road or track, appropriate vehicle selection
is determined by:
z The condition of the terrain and weather that will be encountered en route;
z The nature and quantity of goods to be transported;
z The time-frame and frequency of each trip and the duration of the supply requirement
at particular destination;
z The availability of fuel, spare parts and servicing facilities;
Drivers transporting supplies should check their load carefully to ensure that the quantities
and condition of the cargo coincide exactly with the information in the dispatch -challan.
Otherwise they may be held responsible for damage or shortage. The receiver of the
shipment must sign the truck challan to acknowledge delivery. Any loss or damage should
be noted on the challan, indicating that the carrier is held liable for such losses.
Transport by Rail
If an adequate rail network exists between the disaster site and the place of procurement,
rail is usually the cheapest alternative, especially for transporting large bulky consignments
such as food. Whereas trucking rates vary with changing market conditions, rail rates are
usually fixed for the given period. However, rail terminals and depots are rarely located
exactly where they are needed. Rail transportation usually also requires road transportation
at both ends to pick the material from its origin and deliver it to the distribution point.
Transport by Water
Navigable waterways often go where there are no rail and road routes, and the only
remaining option is expensive airlifting of supplies or moving beneficiaries to the more
accessible location. Relief supplies to small islands mostly have to be transported by
boats.
Selecting this mode of transport depends on:
z Existing practices and current use of waterways;
z Availability of cargo carrying boats, their number, capacity and state of condition;
z Availability of personnel to handle boats;
z Docking facilities and personnel at the point of departure and destination for mooring
and for handling, storing and transporting the cargo;
z Documentation requirements and permits to carry the cargo;
z Constraints and seasonal considerations;
z Cost and contractual options; and
z Availability of necessary insurance coverage.
Transport by Air
Aircraft are the fastest, most reliable means of transport, but airlifting supplies is
expensive, and should only be considered as a last resort, when supplies are urgently
needed in a location where no other solution is feasible. Transport by air may be used
to supplement land or water transportation where the disaster site is geographically vast
and land routes or waterways are long. Air transport is used for movement of high
priority personnel and high value, low-volume supplies. In emergencies, airlifting may be
an initial response to the situation, but funds are better spent providing the means to move
much larger quantities of supplies using other modes of transport.
12.5 PROBLEMS IN RELIEF ADMINISTRATION

Problem of Over-Response
Though recent trends show an increased availability of resources for disaster response, it
is not so for all disasters and for all aspects of disaster management. The belief that there
were increasing resources available for disaster management was based on the outpouring
of resources in the immediate aftermath of the South Asian Tsunami of December 2004.
In the following months, the resources that flowed from all parts of the world broke all
previous records of funding for disaster response, and also for the first time, the amounts
from private sources exceeded government funding for disaster relief. However, this was
an exceptional event and thus it prompted exceptional response. In the following months,
when hurricane Katrina, a devastating tropical cyclone, hit New Orleans or when a killer
earthquake hit the Kashmir region, the extent of response from the world donor
community was far less. It must thus be carefully considered that resources will normally
be far less than required, and therefore, careful planning and execution is needed for
mobilising and utilising them in the event of emergencies.
Disasters are generally understood as events, which occur in the face of inadequate
coping/response activity on the part of the sufferers. There are five main reasons that
explain the problem of over-response during disasters (Training programme, 2002,
Lucknow):
z The resources surviving in the disaster stricken community are greater than expected.
z People react to disasters with a spirit of concern and generosity. Assuming that
disasters are deficient and the community is incapacitated; outsiders send resources
into the disasters area in large amounts even if they have not been specifically
requested.
z The determination of responsibility and establishment of procedures for assessing the
overall resources needed are often neglected.
z Because of lack of clearly defined contact points, absence of compatible radio
frequencies, non-functional or overloaded telephone circuits, and communication
overload, it is often difficult for those offering help to contact someone who can tell
them whether or not they are needed. Assuming that it is almost certain that help is
needed and that too many resources are better than too few, they choose in favour
of responding.
z It is often difficult for the recipients of unsolicited response to refuse it.
Problem of Scarcity amidst Plenty

Well-targeted relief, however, can provide a secure platform from which the disaster-
affected can begin the slow process of recovery. Most of the development relief is ill-
directed and too much. There are instances of corruption as well. It is now felt that
instead of unplanned relief, relief could be administered with long-term resilience in view,
which mandates honest and transparent administration.
Red Cross ‘developmental relief’ in Orissa, for example, included distributing saline-
resistant seeds (plus the tools, fertilizers and agricultural training needed to make them
grow) and promoting disaster-resistant housing for the most vulnerable. Communities
themselves selected who should receive a ‘model’ house and villagers were taught how
to construct them by skilled local masons. Rather than courting donors and governments,
humanitarian organisations must advise and inform them, lead them to where the need is
greatest, argue the case for assistance, and mobilise public opinion simultaneously. If
donor or host government interest is misguided, agencies must be honest and courageous
enough to say so (Sparrow, 2001).
Plugging the leaks means paying for labour and resources locally, instead of buying in
ready made replacement infrastructure, housing and services from outside contractors.
Plans for disaster recovery need to be employment-rich and locally rooted, rather than
relying on flying in aid from abroad. Small, locally-based enterprises will be at the heart
of rebuilding infrastructure and services. They also help absorb and retain incoming
financial assistance.
If all the aid going into a post-disaster region is spent on externally supplied goods,
services and consultants, then new money will quickly leave the area. If it is spent on
services that are locally supplied, then aid will continue to circulate in the local economy.
The International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (in The
Economist, 2005) has made the following recommendations to donors, especially logistics
companies to make relief a viable enterprise:
z The organisation structure of most agencies involved in disaster reduction efforts
suggests that relief and development are two divorced activities. That should be
suitably remedied to promote integration of the two functions/divisions.
z Innovation should be promoted in reporting and evaluation mechanisms, which speaks
of a developmental approach.
z Local structures should be strengthened, promoted, and worked through, to avoid
antipathy that might possibly arise in case of mismatch.
z Constant learning and development approach should be adopted by all relief agencies
with a view to bettering organisational functioning through periodic reviews.
Politicisation of Aid
Commercial and philanthropic interests often clash, which are being exacerbated by
globalisation. Impacts of globalisation and climate change are draining recovery resources.
Deregulation of investment is making it harder for host countries to keep profits in the
place they were created. The poorer and more risk-prone a country is, the higher is the
rate of return demanded by investors – up to 30 per cent in Sub-Saharan Africa.
Meanwhile, factors boosting disaster resilience (for example, strong health and education,
diverse local economies) are undermined by the structural adjustment programmes that
poor nations are encouraged to pursue. These programmes squeeze social-sector resources
and concentrate on economic specialisation and primary commodity exports (Simms,2001).
Recent United Nations (UN) research suggests global warming could raise sea-level
appreciably, thereby submerging or inundating many major cities. Poorest regions are most
at risk, as agricultural yields drop and disasters increase. Estimates for the costs of
weather-related disasters over the next 20 years range from US$ 6 trillion to 10 trillion,
ten times the likely aid flows. Meanwhile, aid to the world’s least developed countries has
fallen a third since 1991. The poorest are most exposed to disasters, yet their
contributions to warming the atmosphere are negligible. Hence, pulling people out of the
poverty spiral is the best safeguard against disaster. Since livelihoods are being threatened
by the current tide of globalisation, deregulation and hence, unfair market competition,
generating sustianable livelihoods by proactive action in this regard would be the viable
answer to the problem. Sustainable livelihoods may even hold the key to peace in war-
torn countries. The poorest can best recover from today’s disasters and conflicts on the
foundations of strong, inclusive and diverse local economies, rather than trusting to the
vague promises of the global economy.
Problem of Volunteers
To quote a section from the World Disasters Report of 2004 as per Milligan (2004-
05);
“Too much help made a mess here,” explained one spontaneous helper who drove to
Golcuk, Turkey, following the 1999’s massive earthquake, which killed 17,000 people.
Hoping to bring relief, thousands of ‘volunteers’ created a 20-mile traffic jam obstructing
rescue vehicles and equipment. Four years earlier, an earthquake destroyed much of
Kobe in Japan, killing 6,400. The quake prompted over one million Japanese to
spontaneously volunteer. Kobe’s volunteers organised themselves. But the flood of Turkish
helpers overwhelmed emergency services. Coordinating volunteers is a key challenge in
rapid-onset disasters.
Rita Chick of the American Red Cross (ARC) says it’s essential to match these
volunteers with needs in affected areas. Following Hurricane Mitch, some first-time foreign
volunteers, lacking language skills or training, were a burden. Local students proved far
more useful and saved many lives. Some local Red Cross volunteers responding to recent
disasters in Latin America found themselves more vulnerable than those they were helping.
Yet they were denied food and plastic sheeting for their homes. Says one delegate:
“Because they are volunteers they are treated as second-class victims” (Chapter 7, World
Disasters Report, 2001).”
This brings to light some of the problems faced with and by volunteers during disaster
relief operations. Successful disaster response depends on good volunteer management
systems, which include identification, recruitment, retention, involvement and recognition.
There are three essential requirements in volunteer management: understand exactly why
an organisation needs volunteers; design meaningful volunteer assignments; and elaborate
a recruitment strategy. When the disaster is over, they leave. To retain volunteers,
organisations must recruit them to other, more permanent tasks. Attracting volunteers
means showing people a pressing need and how they can make a difference. Retaining
them requires ongoing training, strong supervision, feedback and recognition.
12.6 CONCLUSION
Disasters strike with little or no warning. They leave destruction, suffering and turmoil in
their wake. The survivors need immediate support in terms of physical assistance and
relief material. For efficient relief distribution, advance planning and preparedness is a
must. There should be early warning systems, liaison with the government, involvement of
the community, local contact lists, identified alternate routes and basic training and
education to the local support personnel or volunteers. Distribution can include feeding
programmes, distribution of dry rations and distribution of cooked food. Under non-food
items there are standard relief kits comprising essential commodities for families. If the
need is felt for other items, these are also distributed depending on the capacity of the
relief agencies. The relief distribution procedure has to take into account issues of timing,
distribution methodology, and location. Relief logistics is a highly systematic process of
ensuring smooth transportation of personnel and handling of relief material from its point
of procurement to the point of distribution.
12.7 KEY CONCEPTS

Food distribution : Food is an essential requirement in the immediate
aftermath of disasters as home and essential
requirements are all ‘under siege’, be it war or natural
disasters. Maintaining uninterrupted food supply is the
most important requirement in the post disaster situation,
as on it depends the number of people who will
survive the difficult time.
Logistics : Logistics involves materials management, including
procuring, supplying and distributing goods. Logistics
is an essential aspect of disaster management. Two of
the widely accepted definitions are given below:
“The organisation of any project or operation, including
transportation and housing, for example, the
warehousing of goods as they are being transferred
from one country to another (www.scottish-
enterprise.com/sedotcom_home/help/help-glossary.htm)”.
“The management of both inbound and outbound
materials, parts, supplies, and finished goods. Includes
such activities as; production scheduling, forecasting,
customer service, order entry, inventory control, and
product allocation among customers”
(www.crowley.com/glossary/default.asp).
Non-food items : Non-food items include, clothing, medical supplies and
other essential items like blankets, heaters, and tents,
etc., which are necessary for disasters resilience.
Population at risk : Population at risk depends on vulnerable segments
that are at relative greater risk due to physical or
socio economic vulnerability. Certain segments may be
more pone to suffer illnesses like malaria, dengue etc.

because of their physical location and poor socio-
economic status.
Standard Relief Kits : Standard relief kits contain certain minimum essential
items requirements that are commonly applicable in
case of any/every kind of disaster, for example,
common drugs, such as antibiotics, pain killers, first
aid equipment such as cotton wool ointments for
dressing wounds, vaccines for inoculation against
diseases etc.

“Resource Management”, Training Programme on Disaster Management, 2002,
Department of Public Administration, University of Lucknow.
Church’s Auxiliary for Social Action (CASA), Disaster Response: A Book for Emergencies
Milligan, Jean, 2004-05, in World Disasters Report, IFRCRCS.
Simms, Andrew, et.al, 2001, “The Ecology of Disaster Recovery”, Chapter-2, World
Disaster Report, 2001, International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies,
Geneva.
Sparrow, John, 2001, in World Disasters Report, International Red Cross and Red
Crescent Societies.
The Economic Intelligence Unit Briefing Paper, Sponsored by DHL-Asia-Pacific, 2005
“Disaster Response Management: Going the Extra Mile: Thailand and Indonesia, ” The
Economist.
12.9 ACTIVITIES
1) Considering that you have to plan a relief operation for an earthquake hit area with
50 families in one village, draw a flowchart of activities that will need to be done
to complete a successful relief operation of two weeks duration. It must start from
the initial assessment of the area up to the final distribution of relief material.
2) For your village or neighbourhood, prepare a map and put the following information
on it:
z Natural features
z Vulnerable pockets (buildings and areas that are more likely to get affected in
terms of building damage, water logging, fire, etc.)
z Availability of relief materials (markets, places of worship, community centres)
z Access routes from outside
z Alternate routes
z Possible locations for relief material storage sites
z Possible locations for relief distribution sites.
UNIT 13 EMERGENCY OPERATIONS CENTRE
Structure
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Features of the Emergency Operations Centre (EOC)
13.3 The Incident Command System
13.4 Organisational Set-up of EOC
13.5 Non-Disaster Time Activities of the EOC
13.6 Problems with EOCs
13.7 The Multi-Agency Coordination System (MACS)
13.8 Conclusion
13.9 Key Concepts
13.11 Activities

Know in detail, the organisation and operation of the EOCs, including facilities,
decision support system and telecommunication features; and
Discuss the Incident Command System and the Multi-agency Coordination System.
13.1 INTRODUCTION
An EOC is the physical location where an organisation comes together during an
emergency to coordinate response and recovery actions and resources. These centres may
be alternatively called command centres, control rooms, situation rooms, crisis
management centres, or using other similar terms. Regardless of the term, this is where
the coordination of information and resources takes place. The EOC is not an incident
command post; rather, it is the operations centre where coordination and management
are facilitated. Emergency Operations Centres are needed in addition to command posts
in case of disasters with multiple site impacts and in case of large complex disasters that
demand significant involvement/mobilisation at macro scales, that is, the Central and State
levels. Unlike a command post, an EOC is established away from the disaster site, often
near government offices, like the local government / district or state headquarters,
depending on the scale of the response needed. The main tasks of the EOC are;
establishing priorities for the distribution of resources among the various sites and handling
other off incident concerns, such as interaction with off site facilities such as shelters;
ordering of resources from distant jurisdictions or through state or central jurisdictions, and
overall coordination and communication between agencies handling different aspects of
Emergency Operations Centre 255
emergency response. The idea of EOC is originally, a civil defence concept, though it is
now adopted for peacetime activities as well. It holds special significance for disaster
response which is no less an exigent situation than war, as it warrants mobilisation of
manpower and material on an equally large scale (Training Programme, Lucknow, 2002).
Requirements in a National EOC
An EOC is always maintained in a state of readiness for being operationalised instantly
at the onset of an emergency situation. Once a warning or a First Information Report is
received, the EOC will become fully operational. During an emergency situation, the EOC
is operational round the clock. The EOC is under direct command of the head of the
disaster management agency.
The EOC stays operational throughout the year in a preparedness mode, working to take
care of the extended preparedness activities of data management, awareness and training,
which is essential for the smooth functioning of the EOC during crisis situations. During
an emergency, the EOC gets upgraded and representatives of all emergency stakeholders
man it round the clock.
EOCs can be at various levels of operation: National level, State level, District level
and at Organisational level. The set up and scope of activities for each of these may
vary as per the strength and the context of the area of operation but the basic aim of
these is the same.
Proposed National EOC shall be the hub of all the activities related with disaster
response in the country. For the effective management of resources, disaster supplies and
other response activities, nodal points or centres will have to be established. These points
will have to be well networked starting from the centre to the state and finally, to the
disaster site. EOCs at the Centre and the State and Field Coordination Systems at the
disaster site are the designated nodal points that coordinate overall activities and the flow
of relief supplies from the Centre.
13.2 FEATURES OF THE EMERGENCY OPERATIONS

CENTRE (EOC)
Planning, Organising, Staffing, Directing, Coordinating, Reporting, Budgeting (POSDCoRB)
activities including principles of organisation including authority and responsibility, unity of
command govern the efficient management and operation of Emergency Operations
Centres (EOC). The basic features in an EOC to make it fulfill its operational requirements
are:
Flexibility: There is need to plan operations and adapt operational space to meet
the needs of hazard events. For example, it is essential have sufficient space,
equipment, furniture, administrative supplies, telecommunications, computer support,
etc., available to satisfy mission requirements.
Sustainability: It should be able to support operations for extended duration; for
example, could be 24 hours/seven days a week during all emergency situations
without interruption; to the extent practicable, be located in a place that is not a
high-risk area for known hazards such as flood zones, other natural hazards, nuclear
power plant, hazardous material sites, etc.
Security: It should be guarded against potential risks and its operations should be
protected from unauthorised disclosure of sensitive information. There should be
sufficient security and structural integrity to protect the facility, its occupants,
communications equipment and systems from possible threats/ hazards.
Survivability: It should be able to sustain the effects of a realised risk and continue
operations from the EOC or a fully capable alternate location. This implies that there
should be an alternate EOC that can be activated and used if the primary one is
destroyed, damaged, or is not accessible for some reason.
Interoperability: They should be able to share common principles of operations and
exchange routine and time-sensitive information with other EOCs, that is, they should
be able to communicate with local government EOCs and emergency response teams
at or near an incident site from the State EOC. Hence communication modalities
such as radio codes, web connectivity et al should be primarily considered.
Aim of the Emergency Operations Centre
The aim of the EOC at the National level is to provide centralised direction and control
regarding any or all of the following functions:
Emergency operations,
Communications and warning,
Requesting additional resources during the disaster phase from areas neighboring the
affected area,
Coordinating overseas support and aid, and
Issuing emergency information and instructions specific to Central and State agencies,
consolidation, analysis, and dissemination of damage assessment data and preparation
of consolidated reports.
Location of the Emergency Operations Centre
The EOC is set up at a suitable location with the entire infrastructure according to the
given layout.
The Central or State government or its designee initiates the activation of emergency
services of the EOC;
Activation of the EOC should immediately follow the threat perception;
The individual who declares the emergency announces the location of the EOC;
The individuals staffing the EOC are responsible for establishing communications with
their respective departments through radio and telephone etc.;
The EOC Chief or designee will determine what staff he/she deems necessary to
effectively operate the EOC apart from the prescribed staff; and
The designated officers of the police provide security at the EOC.
13.3 THE INCIDENT COMMAND SYSTEM

The Incident Command System (ICS) provides a management structure and system for
conducting emergency operations. It is applicable to small-scale daily operational activities
as well as major mobilisations. The ICS provides EOC and operational staff with a
standardised operational structure and common terminology. Because of this, ICS provides
a useful and flexible management system that is particularly adaptable to incidents involving
multi-jurisdictional or multi-disciplinary responses. ICS provides the flexibility needed
to rapidly activate and establish an organisational format around the functions that need
to be performed. It uses the concept of ‘modular organisation’, that is an organisational
structure that waxes and wanes as per changing/altering requirements. The concept of the
Incident Command system originated in the USA, where traditional organisations could not
tackle effectively, the California wild fires in the 1970s. It was part of the FIRESCOPE
programme that was conceptualised/ originated as a result. The other part of the
programme was the MACS or the multi agency coordination system that would be
discussed subsequently (Section 13.7 of this Unit).
The Incident Command operates on modern management concepts such as Management
by Objectives (MBO) for multiple capabilities in that an organisation should be equipped
to handle multiple/complex emergencies; in the specific case of disaster management,
different kinds of disasters; fires floods, earthquakes, man made disasters et al through
technical capability and trained manpower. Principles of Organisation, notably, are kept
flexible, implying span of control, unity of command, line and staff, specialisation,
functional division, organisational structuring, communication, planning, staffing, finance et
al. This also refers to the concept of modular organisation, in that the organisation is
facilitated in expanding as new work is added and can contract when an organisational
unit or work function is no longer needed. This dispenses with organisational rigidity that
impedes mobilisation and performance of traditional organisations during exigent times.
Resource sharing between involved organisations is an important part of the Incident
Command System. It is attempted under the aegis of an umbrella organisation. No activity
suffers resource constraint at any point, which often determines success/failure (Irwin, 2002).
Back-up EOC
It is always desirable that an alternate EOC is also established. This EOC should be a
mirror image of the primary EOC and serve as a back-up to handle any eventuality,
should the main EOC be rendered in operational due to any accident, disaster or any
other reason. The main EOC may be established at the nodal agency, which is
responsible for emergency management in the state, since it is the focal agency. The
backup EOC may be at another location and be used during non-disaster times as a
training centre for main EOC operations.
Event Information Tracking
Managing response and recovery operations involves tremendous amount of information.
The EOCs job is to collect this information and to manage and control event information,
information collation and dispersion as per requirements and response activities. Typically,
the information flow will look something like this:
Incident occurs
Notification is sent to the staff
Status is evaluated by EOC managers
EOC is activated
Tasks are assigned according to plan

Resource allocation is done
Task performance is laid out in terms of stipulations
Status briefings and updates to stakeholders
Information Management
All of the information received during an emergency response operation will need to be
managed and documented. A strong information management system is thus a must at the
EOC. Emergency managers need to provide a robust command, control, and monitoring
function that will:
Above all else, be easy and efficient to use;
Collect failure information to allow rapid and early contingency response;
Track multiple incidents and resources;
Communicate activities across the system; and
Provide documentation capability.
Good information management tools can greatly help contingency managers in creating and
organising their plans as well as in exercising and executing them. While contingency plans
often end up in binders or files, a good information management system can make plans
and supportive materials easily available to managers, thereby making disaster response
functional.
EOCs should be able to perform all of the following functions:
Operate an alert network
Incident logging
Team tasking
Resource deployment and monitoring
Managing status notice boards
Executive briefings
Documentation
EOC Decision Making
Strong management is needed during EOC operations. EOCs should be activated as soon
as possible to ensure rapid decision making. During the incident response phase, the real-
time tracking of incidents and response resources is critical. Resources may be in short
supply while multiple requests for services pile up. An operations log is needed to fulfill
the requirements of documenting, tracking, and managing the response to an infinite
number of concurrent incidents.
13.4 ORGANISATIONAL SET-UP OF EOC

EOC comprises the following:
1) EOC In-charge
The in-charge is the primary role-player in the EOC, and is responsible for the overall
coordination and decision-making in the organisation. He also reports the status of the
EOC operations and the disaster situation to the Central and State authorities/agencies.
2) Operations Section
The Operations Section ensures smooth and planned functioning of the EOC. It will fulfill
the following functions:
Handle requests for emergency personnel, equipment and other resources;
Designate responsibilities and duties for management of the EOC;
Manage storage, handling and set-up of incoming equipment and personnel;
Ensure medical care, feeding and housing for EOC personnel;
Maintain documentation of resource inventories, allocation and availability; and
Manage finances for EOC operations.
3) Representatives of Line Ministries
Representatives of the following line ministries or departments normally need to be present
at the EOC to take part in the operations and facilitate quick coordination between the
EOC command and their parent organisations towards ensuring quick information availability
and decision making for disaster response:
Information and Communications
Health
Transport
Public Works
Home
Defense
Agriculture and Livestock
Rural/Urban Development (depending on areas affected)
Irrigation
Environment
Finance, and
Others, depending on the nature and location of the disaster
Suggested EOC Staff
Besides the departmental representatives who will participate in the EOC, certain specific
staff positions are needed to conduct the basic functions of the EOC. These include:
Emergency Management Director

Chief Executive (s)
Public Information Officer
Communication and Warning Officer
Liaison Officer
Radio Operators
Telephone Attendants
Disaster Assessment Officer
Police Liaison
Fire Liaison
Hospital Liaison
Shelter Operations Liaison
Messengers
Resource Officer
Security Officer
EOC Layout and Design
A properly designed EOC should serve as an effective and efficient facility for coordinating
emergency response efforts. An EOC may serve a number of uses including, operations,
training, meetings, accommodation and other uses. The EOC can optimise communication
and coordination by effective information management and presentation.
The EOC must be sized to handle the maximum anticipated staff that would be called in
the event of a major disaster. A minimum of 5 square metres per person is essential/
required (10 square metre preferred) including restrooms, etc. The EOC should have the
following features in a user-friendly layout and disaster resistant building:
Projection Systems and Screens
Operations Section
Dormitories
Recreation Room and Canteen
Toilets
Communication and Power Backup Control Room
Store
Equipment Requirements
The EOC will need to operate round the clock, and may itself be subjected to adverse
conditions due to the impact of the disaster. It needs to be equipped with the following
hardware and software for its efficient functioning:

Resource Inventories and Databank of maps and plans at District, State and National
level on a GIS platform for quick retrieval and analysis,
State-of-art communication equipment for staying linked with the head office,
headquarters of line ministries, field teams, media, and national and international
support agencies,
A mobile command vehicle with communication equipment,
Work stations and communication lines for all representatives of the line ministries,
Radios and television sets tuned to different news channels,
Video conferencing facility,
Projection equipment and screens,
Emergency power backup, and
Stock of drinking water, food, medicines, bedding and essential items required for
personnel manning the EOC for long time durations under stressful conditions.
Resource Inventories
Resource inventories are useful in quick retrieval of vital information regarding availability
and sources of rescue and relief material and personnel during times of emergency.
Resource inventories are essential elements of EOC operations. Such inventories need to
be prepared and maintained through regular updating at the national and state levels.
Inventories include the following basic elements, and other locally relevant information:
Contact details of all personnel and organisations concerned with emergency
management;
List with specifications and availability procedures, of all equipment that may be
useful for responding to an emergency. This will include communication equipment,
transport vehicles, earth moving equipment, cranes, tools etc. that are available with
agencies within the jurisdiction;
List with specifications and rate schedules, of relief material that can be sourced from
local aid agencies and markets. This will include dry rations, tents and beddings,
clothing, utensils, first-aid items and other basic necessity items.
Field Coordination System
The state and local authorities have to play an efficient role at the local level to support
the EOC’s requirements for field information and coordination. The EOC also needs to
field its own field teams and through them, establish a Field Coordination System. The
system will comprise:
Field command
Field information collection
Inter-agency coordination at field level
Management of field operations, planning, logistics, finance and administration, and

Rapid Assessment Teams and Quick Response Teams.
13.5 NON-DISASTER TIME ACTIVITIES OF THE EOC

Non-Disaster time activities of the EOC are very crucial for the efficiency of its response
in a disaster situation. These activities include:
Ensure through appropriate statutory instruments that the relevant Disaster Management
Plans are operationalised;
Ensure that standard operating procedures for various actors are operationalised;
Ensure that funding mechanism for operationalisation of the plans are established;
Encourage sub-units in jurisdiction to prepare their respective Disaster Management
Plans;
Carry out specific vulnerability studies;
Identify and interact with research institutions to evolve mitigation strategies;
Serve as a databank to all line departments, planning agencies and others with
respect to risks and vulnerabilities;
Upgrade and update the disaster management plan according to changing scenario in
the region;
Carry out post-disaster evaluation and update the disaster management plan accordingly;
Disseminate the disaster management plan to all stakeholders;
Prepare personnel and organisational directories as well as resource inventories and
keep them updated;
Monitor preparedness measures undertaken periodically, and specially before the
onset of known disaster seasons;
Monitor training imparted to government officials, NGOs and other stakeholders;
Monitor public awareness campaigns on disaster mitigation and preparedness;
Receive reports and documents, warnings, and first information reports and submit
the same to the head office for appropriate action; and
Ensure that warning and communication systems in EOC infrastructure are in good
working condition.
EOC Activation Procedure
1) On receipt of a disaster warning or a first information report, and after verification
that the situation merits activation of the EOC, a meeting is convened to plan
immediate steps;
2) Based on the ratification of the group, further course of action is determined;
3) The EOC, till then operating in the preparedness mode, is upgraded to the
emergency mode. Concerned line ministries and departments are informed to post
their representatives at the EOC on a round-the-clock basis with immediate effect.
Rapid Assessment and Quick Response Teams
Quick response teams of specialised personnel will have to be sent for effective
management of the disaster situation. Depending on the magnitude of the disaster, two
different types of teams may be fielded by the EOC:
Rapid Assessment Teams
Quick Response Teams (Search and Rescue Teams)
Rapid Assessment Teams
The Rapid Assessment Teams are multi-disciplinary teams comprising of four or five
members. They mainly comprise senior level specialised officers from the fields of health,
engineering, search and rescue, communication and one who has knowledge of the
disaster affected area, physical characteristic of the region, language etc. These officials
should share a common interest and commitment. There should be clear allocation of
responsibilities among team members.
Quick Response Teams
Deployment of search and rescue teams can help reduce significantly, the numbers of
deaths that would otherwise accrue. A quick response to urgent needs must never be
delayed because a comprehensive assessment has yet to be completed. The following
teams must be sent to the disaster site or disaster affected area as early as possible:
First Aid Team
Search and Rescue Team
Communication Teams
Power Team
Relief Teams
Shelter Teams
Water and Sanitation Teams, and
Transport Team
All other nodal department will keep ready their response teams, which may be deployed
after receiving the rapid assessment reports.
Reporting Systems
Representative of the affected community directly informs either the nearest district
administration office or any government official or an NGO, who then informs the district
administration. If the information comes directly to disaster management agency, then the
incharge will verify information. The disaster management agency, would call the State
head of the affected State and the neighboring states to verify the scale and intensity of
the disaster. Based on the information available, the EOC activation process will be
initiated if deemed required.
First Information Report

The main aim of the first information report (F.I.R.) is to confirm the occurrence of the
disaster event. It specifies the perceived scale and magnitude of a disaster and its effect
on the local area and the people. It also talks about the steps that have been taken by
the local administration to control the situation, the type of relief that may be required and
the resources and services required for immediate emergency measures.
Initial Assessment Reports
The clear and concise assessment of damages and needs in the aftermath of a disaster
is a pre-requisite for effective planning and implementation of relief and recovery
measures. The objectives of damage and needs assessment are to determine:
The nature and extent of disaster
Damage and secondary threats
Needs of the population
Two types of assessments that may have to be carried out are:
Initial Assessment
Technical Assessment
Technical Assessment Report
Rapid Assessment Teams will carry out the Initial Assessment. Line ministries will send
specialist teams and prepare the technical assessment report to assess the losses and
restoration of services. The following aspects will be covered in most disaster situations,
but these may be determined by the EOC in accordance with the situational requirements:
Health
Housing
Social impacts
Food and drinking water
Power
Agriculture and livestock
Telecommunication
Transport
Environment
Industries
Leading ministries directly concerned in the given situation will set up their emergency
operating center and update the EOC with regard to their activities. After the initial report
and the technical report stages, the EOC incharge will reassess the situation of the site
for deciding on further action.
Emergency Support Functions

Emergency Support Functions (ESF) is a thematic emergency management node comprising
various coordinating agencies, which manage and coordinate specific categories of assistance
to an emergency management effort. Each ESF is headed by a lead organisation/ministry
responsible for coordinating the delivery of goods and services to the disaster area,
supported by numerous other organisations. These ESFs form an integral part of the
EOC. Extension teams and workers of each ESF will be required to coordinate the
response procedures at the affected site, and with the parent organisation while representing
the ESF at the EOC.
Primary and Secondary Agencies
The designated primary agency, acting as the nodal agency will be assisted by one or
more support agencies (secondary agencies) and will be responsible for managing the
activities of the ESF and assisting the EOC in the rescue and relief activities and ensuring
the mission is accomplished. The primary and secondary agencies have the authority to
execute response operations to directly support the EOC.
13.6 PROBLEMS WITH EOCs

In most cases, EOCs have worked well. Even where/in which case an EOC has not been
planned/provisioned for in disaster planning, one is likely to come up anyway/spontaneously
in case of an emergency as a central hub of activity. Though a study of 180 local
disasters has brought to light the high success rate of emergency operations centres,
certain problems are inevitable (Training Programme, 2002, Lucknow).
The Number of EOCs
A number of EOCs are likely to emerge in different areas, which might make the disaster
situation chaotic. Outside agencies, such as private business or civil society might not
know whom to contact, where and when. Inter- organisational coordination might become
an insurmountable problem. Therefore, if a disaster strikes some districts in one state,
state would be the appropriate level for an EOC.
Alternative EOC Sites
Provision is seldom made for an alternative site in case the original facility could not be
used or was abandoned due to damages from flooding or earthquake, etc. It has been
estimated that in as many as one-fifth of disasters the necessity of moving the center
became a problem. In at least three cases, it was due to flooding. Such possibilities
should be explored, using floodplain maps.
Knowledge about EOC Location
Case studies have brought out incongruities as key people and organisations not being
aware about Emergency Operations Centre, because, either, they did not figure in disaster
management plans, or because its location was not specifically known as it did not even
feature in disaster management drills.
EOC Management Responsibility
Responsibility regarding management should be specifically stated in the disaster plan itself.
Often problems arise regarding what space or communications equipment should be
allocated to which organisation; that should be allowed access to the EOC, whether,
VIPs, or the media, non-governmental organisations, etc.
Presence of those with Decision- making Authority
Manpower deployed in Emergency Operations Centres usually comes from the middle
rungs of relevant/respective organisations. These personnel are oriented to following orders
of their superiors strictly rather than exhibiting leadership, innovation and creativity, which
are required during emergencies. Hence, it is opined that high-level personnel from
involved/concerning organisations should be involved.
Organisations represented at an EOC
Certain crucial private sector organisations such as the Red Cross and private utility
companies tend to get excluded from the EOCs. Hospitals are another crucial service not
included in the EOCs. Certain non-local groups, operating at the state or regional/national
level are also not included as by the time they approach, perhaps the initial response
phase is over or the membership has already been decided.
Also, the phase in disaster management during a particular time period must be a factor
in deciding membership; for example, in the pre- disaster phase, agencies responsible for
rehabilitation and reconstruction may not need to be mandatory participants, rather those
involved in warning, preventive, preemptive planning/activities may be engaged. Hence, the
scope of activity and participation should be need based and therefore flexible.
13.7 THE MULTI-AGENCY COORDINATION SYSTEM

(MACS)
The MACS and the Incident Command System originated in the FIRESCOPE programme
after traditionally managed fire services failed to control the wild fires in California in the
1970s, as explained earlier. (The Incident Command System has already been discussed
earlier in Section 13.3 of this Unit).
While the Incident Command System (ICS) was designed primarily for on-scene
coordination, the MACS were mandated with region wide functions, as:
Information Management;
Situation Assessment; and
Resource Allocation.
The MACSs house computer databases, which connects them with the incident command
post and all other agencies involved in fire control. It is administered through an operation
coordination centre (OCC), which acts as the central resource and information coordination
point.
For Situation Assessment, the following information is needed by the OCC:
Geographic Information; including topography, fire risk, and man made structures
Current usage and availability of fire fighting resources from the various agencies
Current and predicted weather conditions
Current and computer predicted wildfire involvement, including damages sustained;

estimates of property threatened; and involved access, terrain and vegetation
Current and predicted effectiveness of fire suppression activities.
Resource needs are assessed by involved organisations for separate operations at the
incident command site. Resource allocation decisions are taken jointly at the OCC. The
administration of the MACS and decision-making are organised in such a way that it does
not usurp the functions/authority of other organisations; rather participants from various
involved organisations run it.
13.8 CONCLUSION
Emergency Operations Centres are essential for effective direction, control, and coordination
of emergency response efforts. They may operate at national, state, local or organisational
levels, yet at each level, the basic purpose of an EOC is to coordinate the multi-sector,
multi-agency, multi-level response activities during or immediately after an emergency.
An EOC has a clear command structure, with one-person in-charge and a team of
technical support staff and external stakeholders. The line ministries and other departments
that are responsible for functions critical to response are also represented at the EOC.
These are in the form of Emergency Support Functions, under which again there may be
a number of agencies involved as primary and secondary agencies.
The EOC needs to be in a physically strategic facility, with a disaster resistant building,
and with all required facilities such as communications, power, security, meeting facilities,
and support facilities for the staff manning the EOC.
13.9 KEY CONCEPTS

Emergency Support Functions: Transportation and communication, et al, which are
secondary but nonetheless crucial, or delivery of
mainline services, are termed support functions.
First Information Report : First Information Report is the official complaint filed
with the police by the victim of threat to person or
property or any other unlawful activity of which he
may be a victim. The police commence investigations
with the filing of the first information report.
Initial Assessment Report : The Initial Assessment Report will give the immediate
picture about the damage scenario. The immediate
first aid, search and rescue will depend on the initial
assessment report. Since disaster involves many
agencies, it would be a multi- disciplinary effort.
Technical Assessment Report : After the initial assessment report, detailed reporting
would be attempted by various line ministries, through
their specialist personnel, such as health and housing
who would assess the situation from their perspectives.
Rapid Assessment Team : Rapid assessment teams carry out initial assessments.
These comprise specialists from various technical
agencies such as health, engineering et al to

communicate a quick review of the situation and the
resource needs.
Quick Response Team : Quick Response Teams comprise trained personnel
who are kept in a state of readiness to meet
emergency situations. They are equipped with state-
of-the-art technology. Their preparedness is kept
updated with drills and exercises.

Government of India Report of High Powered Committee for Preparation of Disaster
Management Plans, 2001, New Delhi
“Resource Management During Disaster Response Operations”, Training Programme on
Disaster Management, 2002, Department of Public Administration, University of Lucknow.
Carter, W., Nick, 1991, Disaster Management: A Disaster Manager’s Handbook,
(Asian Development Bank) Manila.
Irwin, Robert, 2002, “Incident Command System,” Training Programme on Disaster
Management, Department of Public Administration, University of Lucknow.
UNAMA, 2005, Report of the Workshop on National Disaster Management Plan,
Department for Disaster Preparedness, Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, at, at http://
www.seedsindia.org/afghanistan/Images/pdf/NationalWorkshop.pdf -
13.11 ACTIVITIES
1) Imagine that there is an earthquake of high magnitude. Plan how the Emergency
Operation Center will work, how the staff members will perform their duties and
finally handle the situation successfully. List the primary Emergency Support Functions
required in the EOC for responding to an earthquake situation.
2) Prepare a detailed flow diagram after doing the above exercise indicating how the
information flows during emergency operation, and discuss the shortcomings in the
operation of the EOC and how the performance of the EOC can be made better.
UNIT 14 DAMAGE ASSESSMENT
Structure
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Essential Features of Damage Assessment
14.3 Types of Damages
14.4 Damage Reports
14.5 Conclusion
14.6 Key Concepts
14.8 Activities

z Understand the concept and significance of Damage Assessment; and
z Get an overview of the various levels and types of assessments, types of reports and
reporting formats.
14.1 INTRODUCTION
Damage assessment is an important tool for retrospective and prospective analysis of
disasters to assimilate the extent of impact of a disaster. This forms the basis for future
disaster preparedness and preventive planning. It is essential in determining: what happened,
what the effects were, which areas were hardest hit, what situations must be given
priority and what types of assistance are needed, for example, Local, State, or Union?
Emergency response can be more effective, equipment and personnel can be better used,
and help can be provided quicker if a thorough damage assessment is performed
beforehand. The basic objectives of damage assessment could be summarised as follows:
z To make a rapid assessment of areas affected to know the extent of impact for
purpose of immediate rescue and relief operations;
z To prepare estimates for the amount of relief to be provided and the mode of relief,
be it food, clothing, medicines, shelter or other essential commodities;
z To make a detailed assessment regarding requirements for long-term relief and
rehabilitation planning; and
z To identify focus areas for the purpose of ‘retrofitting’ actions in similar future
situations.
Damage Assessment is therefore a prerequisite for effective disaster response effort. For
effective decisions, officials responsible for organising post-disaster relief operations should
be properly informed of the damage/possible damage should the event repeat itself some
time in the future, so that they can know the needs, current, as well as prospective, in
precise terms. They must have appropriate and timely information about: what happened,
what needs to be done, and what resources are available? Their decisions can save
lives; minimise injury, damage and loss; prevent any further escalation; prevent secondary
hazards and inform people who need to know. Well-organised response will also help in
building confidence and enhancing the credibility of the administration.
Relief operations are essentially about the management of information and resources,
which is based on assessments and reports carried out from time to time. Information is
needed at all levels of administration but the nature of the information required varies from
one level to another. Good assessment and reporting require forethought; hence, the
assessment and reporting system should be established during the preparedness planning
stage.
Damage assessment is also a multi-disciplinary exercise involving officials from a cross
section of experts and administrators from police, fire, health, engineering, public works,
social scientists, non-profit organisations, community et al to get a comprehensive account
of losses for adequate future mitigation planning. Some of the data required is already
available in the form of baseline data (maps, population statistic etc.), which however must
also be supplemented by real time information regarding the extent/nature of on going
damage during a disaster event, from the damage site (mostly in the form of incoming
reports from various sources after the disaster, (from the disasters scene) as pre- disaster
estimates, however accurate, may not provide sufficient information.
14.2 ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF DAMAGE ASSESSMENT

Flow of Information
There is a clearly defined sequence to managing information:
z Converting raw data to useful information;
z Information input;
z Sorting (grading, collating, discarding what is unreliable);
z Evaluation;
z Decision making;
z Information output (dissemination); and
z Action
For example, specific objectives for damage assessment in the aftermath of cyclones and
droughts, as per the University of Wisconsin Disaster Management Centre (Cuny,
1995), would include:
z Identification of the extent of damage or loss
z Identification of the types of assistance needed
z Identification of crops that can be grown as an interim substitute
Damage Assessment 271
z Determination of the amount of seeds, fertilizer and tools needed, the resources
available in the area, and the amount of supplies required from outside the affected
area
z Identification of local institutions that could carry out the program and their capabilities
z Identification of the level of farming skills in the affected community
z Determination of technical assistance requirements
z Determination of the receptivity of local institutions and the public to proposed
agricultural rehabilitation activities.
Data would be required regarding:
z Identification of the predominant food and cash crops, cropping patterns, and normal
production levels.
z Likely losses, such as; if whole or part of a crop is likely to be damaged, if any
portion could be salvaged by timely mitigation, the quantum of insurance that would
suffice, keeping in view, estimated losses.
z Identification of land problems to identify the extent of erosion, landslide zones,
flood-prone areas, and areas where desertification could occur. Also note agricultural
land forms such as terraces or contour farming (or lack thereof).
z Identification of water supply problems as certain disasters create special problems
in water supply, for example, salt water flooding in cyclones can pollute local water
wells and leave irrigation water salty; droughts dry up aquifers; wave action can
destroy irrigation channels and desert windstorms can erode or fill shallow irrigation
channels in arid zones.
z Determination of supply needs meaning, a determination should be made whether
additional seeds, tools, fertilizers, etc., or alternative seeds could be planted immediately.
For example, replacing traditional varieties of rice with a fast-growing variety may be
possible in some cases, yet this might require introduction of needed fertilizers.
z Determination of local farming practices since it is important to identify the social,
cultural and traditional aspects of farming, especially in the low-income and subsistence
farming sectors. The time needed to plant certain crops, the normal growing season,
and information about seasonal availability or constraints to certain types of crops is
vital. It is also important to identify traditional responses to the disaster such as crop
diversification, growing alternative varieties or alternative crops, altering cropping
patterns, growing “famine foods,” or building food reserves.
z Determine the status of drought animals to check total losses and determine whether
the losses will delay rehabilitation. Check to see if animals need emergency feeding,
and determine whether farmers would have to sell them off.
z Institutional preparedness, studying ministries/departments engaged in disaster
management, whether, disaster plan, contingency funding, official maps are in place,
etc.
Utility of Damage Assessment

The information would enable:
z Quantified assessment of losses that would accrue to farmers and the likely impact
on food supply in the market.
z Planning interim assistance like insurance needs of identified vulnerable segments,
which are mainly, small-scale farmers, repairing irrigation systems, contouring, farmland
repair etc. that would help further mitigation efforts.
z Alternate supportive projects; also possibly for how long; leading to articulation of
long-term strategy for generating sustainable livelihoods and therefore achieving risk
reduction in the area.
Levels of Assessment
Damage Assessment is required at two basic levels of intervention. Firstly, it is required
for emergency relief measures in which quick assessment of damage is the basis for the
amount of relief material and food stocks that reach the disaster area. This type of an
assessment is called Rapid Damage Assessment. At the second level would be, a
detailed technical analysis of damage for long-term restoration and rehabilitation works.
From a long-term perspective, damage assessment scrutinises the mechanisms of failure
that took place during the disaster. It is called Detailed Damage Assessment. These
studies are very useful for all prevention and mitigation efforts for disasters in the future.
Rapid Damage Assessment
The official agency for reporting estimates of disaster damages is usually the Revenue and
Relief Department of the state government, as they are also the authority for distributing
relief to affected persons. As usual, there is a hierarchy of officials who report from the
lowest level of Villages/Panchayats through Blocks/Revenue Circles, Tehsils/ Talukas, and
Sub-divisions and finally to the districts and then to the state headquarters. However, relief
agencies including NGOs also have their own damage assessment systems and teams to
carry out the assessments. The basic items covered in rapid assessment are:
z Name of the place
z The causative disasters
z Date and time of disaster strike
z Area affected
z Total number of villages or neighbourhoods affected
z Total population
z Population affected in terms of number of people and households
z Details of local bodies (panchayats or wards/municipalities) affected
z In case of floods, area still under water
z In case of an earthquake or cyclone, buildings damaged
z Infrastructure affected (transportation, power, social infrastructure)
z Estimated number of deaths and injuries

z Estimated loss of property
z Closest sources of emergency aid.
Detailed Damage Assessment
Detailed damage assessment goes further than the rapid assessment, and it includes the
following additional information regarding disaster damage:
z Verified number of human lives lost and number of injuries
z Livestock lost
a) Number
b) Estimated Value
z Details of damage to crops in hectares and estimated loss of produce in quintals
a) Hectares completely damaged
b) Hectares partially damaged
c) Hectares likely to be replanted or re-sown
d) Extent affected in percentage
e) Crops lost in quintals
f) Estimated value of crops lost in rupees
z Houses damaged or destroyed
a) Number
b) Estimated value
z Loss to public works and utilities including local bodies property
a) Name of the work and utility
b) Nature of damage
c) Estimated value of damage
d) Estimated cost to restore work or/and utility
z Rough estimate of the total financial loss in rupees
14.3 TYPES OF DAMAGES

In order to perform effective damage assessment, one must know various types of
damages that are required to be taken into consideration. Among others, the important
ones are mentioned below:
Damage to Buildings
The damage caused to buildings by the various disasters may be categorised as loss
under the following heads:

z The loss of the main building
z The loss due to failure of other components whose damage is attributed to the main
building damage
z Area covered by the collapsed structure
z Death or injury to life due to building collapse
z Loss incurred in terms of debris removal and restoration
z Loss of revenue during the idle period
In addition to these, there would be socio-economic costs as a consequence of the
disaster, which would add to the loss under the heads listed above. Building damages, on
the wider scale, usually are most relevant in terms of damage to houses, more than other
buildings. Damage to house property is estimated in terms of the number of households
affected, reporting percentage damage, and estimated repair cost per household. This
estimation is needed for all houses, but under classified categories of Kutcha Houses,
Pucca Houses, and Semi-pucca Houses. This is required in order to carry out a value-
based assessment.
Besides the house structure damage itself, there is also an aspect of household asset
damage, which has to be taken into account. Damage to house structure can cause
resultant damage to household goods, artisan assets and other productive assets stored in
the house. These need to be accounted for in terms of average value of damage per
household, in rupees.
Damage to Land
Damage to land due to disaster could be short-term damage, as in land rendered useless
due to coverage by debris of silt, and loss of standing crops, or else it could be long-
term damage as loss of productivity of land. The most important in the immediate post
disaster scenario is the aspect of agricultural loss through land destabilisation.
Crop damage is assessed in terms of percentage of households reporting damage under
the following heads:
z Area damaged per household (ha.)
z Production loss per hectare (quintals)
z Production loss per household (quintals)
z Value of production loss per hectare (Rs.)
z Value of production loss per household (Rs.)
Besides the damage to direct land attributes such as crops, there is also long-term impact
on the productivity of the land itself, which is felt long after the disaster, mainly in case
of floods, after the waters recede. The long-term impact on crop production could either
be favourable or unfavourable. The favourable effect would be in the form of deposit of
silt on land resulting in rise in the fertility of the soil, which manifests in crop yields. The
unfavorable effects would be in the form of sand castings rendering the land unfit for
cultivation. This generally affects the production of Rabi crops after the floods. This effect
can be assessed in terms of variation in production of the crop after floods, in terms of:
z Yield per hectare (quintals)
z Normal yield per hectare (quintals)
z Percentage variation in yield
Impact on Human Lives
The most disastrous and immediate impact on human lives is in terms of loss of lives by
deaths that may occur due to the direct impact of the disaster, or through indirect impact
as in the case of building collapses, fires etc. Injuries are the second level of impact of
a disaster on human lives, and result from the same sources as deaths. The impact on
lives in terms of deaths and injuries has to be estimated not only in numbers, but also
in terms of the expenses incurred due to death or injury, as also the loss of productivity
of the persons affected due to death, illnesses or disability, etc.
In a longer-term perspective, the impact of the disaster is also manifest as/in morbidity.
Usually after a certain gestation period, which may be about two weeks after the disaster,
diseases start to set in, due to unsanitary conditions resulting in contamination of drinking
water and food. The affected persons, who may be housed in makeshift relief camps,
might have no access to proper civic services, and as a result, vector borne diseases
affect them, which may take the form of an epidemic if left unchecked.
Once again, the impact of the sickness due to disaster is felt in terms of expenditure on
treatment and loss of employment during the sickness period. This may be assessed under
the following heads:
z Total number of sample households
z Percentage of households reporting sickness, and the kind of sickness
z Average number of persons reporting sickness per household
z Average duration of sickness (days)
z Average expenditure on treatment per household (Rupees)
z Average employment lost per household (days)
z Average loss of income per household (Rupees)
Besides the physical impact of death, injury and morbidity, and their resultant financial
implications, there is also a purely economic impact on human lives, which is in terms of
loss of employment due to dislocation and disruption of routine activities due to the
disaster. For assessment of this impact, it is necessary to first collect information on the
total number of households, number of households reporting wage employment, and
average number of wage earners per household in the affected area. An inventory has to
be prepared enumerating the following factors:
z Average employment days per household
z Average earning per household (Rupees)
z Average earnings per earner (Rupees)
These factors have to be accounted for in the disaster scenario context, as actual figures
in the post-disaster scenario, as well as in the situation in case there was no disaster. The
comparison of these two scenarios would give a gross loss in employment due to the
disaster.
The loss of employment can be further classified according to the nature of employment.
In a typical regional setting, the classifications adopted could be:
z Agriculture
z Dairying
z Fisheries
z Non Agricultural Labour
z Artisans
z Business/Trade
z Service
z Others
Damage to Live Stock
The damage to livestock, namely cattle, other animals and poultry, which are a very
important asset for rural households, is generally assessed in terms of the number of
households reporting loss, and the per household value of livestock lost in terms of
rupees. It is generally observed that loss of livestock takes place because they are not
moved out at the time of disaster threat, or else because people flee the area, leaving
their livestock tied up or enclosed, with no means of escape. In this light it has been
observed that in case of the floods, the loss of livestock is usually low in areas with high
flood zones, because the people expect a disaster, and move out their livestock in time.
Losses are high in low flood zones where severe floods are not so frequent, and when
they come, they take the people by surprise, and they are not able to move their
livestock out in time.
14.4 DAMAGE REPORTS

There is a clearly defined sequence to the process of managing information. In this
sequence, each step is as important because on it depends the effectiveness of the
subsequent step. The information at various stages of the disaster assessment process is
in the form of different reports. The reports vary in terms of their timing and detailing.
The Major Types of Reports are:
Flash Report (sometimes called First Information Report or SOS Report)
Flash Report should be submitted very quickly. Its purpose is simply to confirm that the
disaster has taken place and that steps are being taken to cope with it and to give a first
indication of the sort of external relief that might be required, and to inform the sources
that further reports would follow shortly.
Initial Report
Initial Report should follow the flash report as soon as possible (within a matter of hours).
Its purpose is to inform the recipients of the severity of the disaster and, more
importantly, by relating the severity of the disaster to coping capacities, provide the
information needed to start mobilising resources from outside the affected area for timely
help. The report should therefore, briefly summarise:
z The severity of the disaster (without necessarily providing precise figures)
z Actions being taken locally
z Local coping capacities (including locally available resources)
z The immediate priorities for external relief, where it is required and in approximately
what quantities
z The best logistical means of delivering that relief, and
z a forecast of possible future developments including new risks.
As per the situation, the needs and priorities will change over time. An assessment only
describes the state of affairs at the time the assessment is made. An initial assessment
should, therefore, also establish the system for subsequent reports.
Interim Report
Interim Report should build on earlier reports providing additional and more precise
information. To begin with interim reports should be submitted every 24 hours at the same
time every day (the time being determined by the recipient according to needs) and
thereafter, at intervals decided by the recipient. As time goes by, the emphasis of interim
reports shifts from the needs for relief to the needs for rehabilitation and reconstruction
(for example, repairs to damaged structures, restoration of agriculture, animal husbandry,
fisheries and industrial production). It is not necessary to repeat what has already been
said in earlier reports unless the earlier details require updating. Interim reports should
provide forecasts (with inputs from specialists and people who have experience of
previous disasters) and highlight information, which may not otherwise be obvious to the
recipients, for example:
z Potential problems
z Changes, patterns, trends and indicators
z Particulars of especially vulnerable groups, and any other special concerns.
Specialist or Technical Reports
They provide supplementary technical details by/for specialists (for example, engineers and
officials responsible for emergency health care).
Final Report
This will be a summary of:
z What happened;
z How the response was managed; and
z The lessons learned
In preparing a report, the writer should put himself in the position of the people to whom
he is reporting and ask himself, “What do they need to know in order to meet their
responsibilities and to make the right decisions?” A report should not be packed with
unnecessary data, nor should it be delayed because of insufficient information. It is better
to say, “we do not have as much information as we would like but, on the basis of what
we do know and our experience, in broad terms, the situation is as follows and we
estimate the needs to be in the following range… we shall provide more details as soon
as we can”. The details provided in reports should be consistent. Conflicting reports from
different sources can cause confusion. Desirably, reports from one level of administration
to another should be in a consolidated form.
Reporting Formats
Given that reports will be received from many sources, it is essential that their formats
be standardised so as to facilitate the process of analysis and collation. Likewise, there
should be a common understanding of the terminology used. It is therefore better, that the
recipients rather than the writers design the formats. This will ensure that the information
is presented in the way that is most helpful to the people who have to act upon it.
Reports should be a balance of narrative, data and graphics, and they should be
formatted so that they can be transmitted electronically. Formats should be as simple as
possible and should, like check lists, guide the reporter (who may be inexperienced in
organising disaster response operations) through the sequence of stating the problem,
identifying the current status of the response, identifying unmet needs (shortfalls or gaps)
and decision-making.
To keep the formats simple it is better that they are presented in a series of separate
parts. This will also make it easier for the recipient to distribute the parts for action by
different desk officers. Suggested parts might include:
z Evacuation
z Search and rescue
z Protection
z Medical and Health
z Shelter and clothing
z Food (including cooking utensils and cooking fuel)
z Water
z Sanitation
z Lifeline systems (communications, power supplies, transport, etc).
The person responsible for completing each part should be clearly designated. Each part
should indicate the need for relief workers, supplies and relevant logistical requirements.
Unless otherwise stated, the provider should assume that the relief he supplies must be
sufficient (for example food and accommodation for relief workers, transport and drivers,
fuel, storage, maintenance, etc). It is often helpful to indicate what is not needed (which
also shows that that particular item has not been overlooked).
Quantification of Needs
Needs should be communicated in as precise terms as possible, possibly quantified. As
articulated in the Asian Disaster Preparedness Report on Damage Assessment Needs,
(2000).
z X Search and Rescue Teams per Y missing people
z X items (plastic sheeting or cooking sets) per family
z Shelter for xpercent of homeless people (on the assumption that many will have
found their own shelter with neighbours or family members further a field)
z X grams of staple food per person for Y days
z X grams per child per day for Y days (for supplementary feeding)
z X litres per person for Y days.
z X tons/litres to create reserves.
The terminology used should be precise, for example, ‘damaged’ should refer to some
predetermined criterion to describe the degree of destruction to a specific ‘element; it
should not be a generalised description that does not communicate the real damage.’ For
example, in terms of usability, it could be:
100 per cent damage: Structure is unusable; cannot be repaired.
> 75: Major structural damage, Unsafe for use, Repairable within 1 month.
> 50: Significant structural damage, hence, unsafe for use. Repairs will take more
than one week.
> 25: Some structural damage but safe for limited use, Repairable within 1 week.
< 25: Minor structural damage: usable.
Correct estimations should be communicated to international donors so that right kind of
assistance in requisite measure reaches the needy. Timing is important since procedural
formalities such as customs clearance, etc. take in time. Officials carrying out assessments
should be properly trained in the job.
Example from Aceh, Indonesia
The International Organisation of Migration and its partners conducted a damage assessment
of 600 villages in 28 sub-districts at the request of the government of Indonesia in the
aftermath of the December 2004 Tsunami. Select portions from the report are produced
(IOM: 2005):
Housing and Settlement Areas
z Total Inspected Settlement Areas: 2976.49 hectares (15.8percent of which was
totally destroyed and 14.6percent suffered major damage).
z Total Inspected Houses: 91,118 units (16.8percent destroyed and 21.3percent sustained
major damage).
Public Buildings
z Total Inspected Health Facilities: 359 units (22.3percent destroyed and 26.5 per cent
sustained major damage).
z Total Inspected School Buildings: 1,065 units (35.2percent destroyed and 36.2 per
cent sustained major damage).
z Total Inspected Religious Buildings: 2,175 units (54.8percent totally destroyed, 22.1
per cent suffered major damage).
z Total Inspected Government Buildings: 468 units (22.9 per cent destroyed, 25 per
cent sustained major damage).
z Total Inspected Markets: 196 units (53.6 per cent destroyed and 22.5 per cent
z Total inspected shops: 1,013 units (48.3 per cent destroyed and 16.4 per cent
14.5 CONCLUSION
Damage assessment is an important tool for information regarding the extent of a
disaster’s impact, and forms the basis for immediate rescue and relief operations, as well
as long-term rehabilitation and recovery programmes. Rapid assessment techniques are
applied for quick assessment and immediate relief. Detailed damage assessment is a follow
up activity that is more elaborate and helps plan longer-term interventions. Damage is
mainly in terms of Human lives lost; Injuries, Disease, Livestock lost, Land and its
attributes such as crops and structures, Infrastructure, including buildings and roads etc.
Assessment of damage is required in terms of area covered, intensity of damage,
households affected, and finally all this has to be converted in terms of economic loss,
and represented in terms of rupees lost and required for restorative activities. Damage
assessment reports are prepared at various stages of the disaster response process, and
provide various levels of details depending on the timing of assessment. It is always
advisable to have advance preparedness of damage assessment and reporting systems,
and to have consistency in the approach and the formats of the damage reports. This
goes a long way in ensuring good information communication leading to rapid and efficient
disaster response.
14.6 KEY CONCEPTS

Assessment report : Assessment Report gives information about the nature
and extent of damage to specific ‘elements at risk’,
animate (human and livestock population), and
inanimate (houses, buildings, infrastructure) to
communicate precise requirements to the government
and other national and international agencies involved
in relief, and long term preparedness.
Damage scenario : Description of the location of the impact of a disaster
and description of the extent of damage from it, to
each specified element at risk, involving physical
infrastructure, people and livestock make up the

damage scenario. Real time data regarding disasters is
communicated from the site of impact which aids/
forms the basis of subsequent disaster preparedness/
planning.
Detailed assessment : Assessments are not attempted in terms of gross
averages, rather in terms of detailed figures as, for
example, the number of houses damaged; to what
extent; repairs/replacement required; number of injured;
kinds of injuries suffered; in exact figures; the medical
assistance required accordingly, etc.
Rapid assessment : Base line data (existing information) on disasters is
combined with real time information from the impact
scene during disasters to communicate needs and
procure supplies on time from different sources, national
and international. Rapid assessment requires good
logistics and expertise of personnel.
Rehabilitation plan : Based on needs articulation with active ‘consultation’
with communities, rehabilitation plans are prepared as
per feasibility and practicability. Rehabilitation plan is
important since vulnerability conditions need to be
rectified, henceforth, and not reinforced as might
happen in case of unplanned restoration, in settlement
types and construction, site selection etc. Livelihoods
have also to be arranged for. Hence, both physical
and socio economic vulnerabilities are tackled in
rehabilitation plans.
Reporting format : The sequence in which information in a report is
communicated is called the reporting format. Format
is significant because needs are to be arranged as per
criticality and communicated to aid agencies, in order
of priority such as: evacuation, search and rescue,
medical, protection, if law and order were disturbed,
shelter and clothing et al.
Rescue and relief plan : Based on real time data, subsequent rescue and relief
plan can be organised. In case of lack of preparedness
on the part of the administration, rescue and relief is
a hastily arranged /unplanned undertaking. However in
subsequent disasters, planning is imperative, to minimise
loss of life at least, if not property.
Silt : Silt is fine dirt that is suspended in water. Siltation is
the build-up of silt that is suspended in rivers or other
bodies of water.
www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/rainforest/glossary/
indexs.shtml

Asian Disaster Preparedness Center, 2000, “Post-disaster Damage Assessment & Needs
Analysis Reporting”, at http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/APCITY/
UNPAN019544.pdf
Cuny, Frederick, C., 1995, (Text Writer), Lesson 9: “Initial Disaster Procedures for
Agriculture Damage and Needs Assessment”, University of Wisconsin Disaster Mnagement
Centre, Madison, USA.
Institute for Resource Management and Economic Development, 1997, Scientific
Assessment of Flood Damages, New Delhi.
Shanmugasundaram, J., N.Lakshmanan and P.Harikrishna, 1994, Post-disaster Damage
Survey: 1993 Cyclone near Karaikkal, Tamil Nadu, Research Report, SERC, Madras.
The International Organisation for Migration, 2005, “Post Disaster Damage Assessment in
Nias and Simulelle,” at, http://www.iom.int/tsunami/news/indonesia/
Nias_Damage_Assessment_7July.pdf.
14.8 ACTIVITIES
1) With the guidelines given in the Unit, prepare a rapid and a detailed damage
assessment form. List the skills required in the assessment team members to be able
to carry out the assessment as per your forms.
2) Prepare specimens of Flash, Initial, Interim and Final report. Discuss how the
depth of information increases with time, and how the teams need to get more
specialised and require more resources for reporting.
UNIT 15 REHABILITATION AND
RECONSTRUCTION
Structure
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Concepts of Rehabilitation and Reconstruction
15.3 Types of Rehabilitation
15.4 Guiding Principles of Rehabilitation and Reconstruction
15.5 Post-Disaster Story: The Tsunami Aftermath
15.6 Problem Areas in Disaster Recovery
15.7 Interlinkages between Recovery and Development
15.8 Conclusion
15.9 Key Concepts
15.11 Activities

After reading this Unit, you should be able to:
z Understand the concepts of rehabilitation and reconstruction;
z Explain the types of rehabilitation;
z Throw light on the progress of rehabilitation work in the Tsunami aftermath;
z Examine the problems underlying the process of long-term recovery;
z Discuss the guiding principles of rehabilitation and reconstruction; and
z Analyse the interlinkages between disaster recovery and development.
15.1 INTRODUCTION
Rehabilitation and reconstruction are at the heart of disaster recovery phase. The
rehabilitation and reconstruction activities, which follow the disaster response stage, aim at
achieving long-term recovery. Disaster recovery is a very significant stage in the disaster
management cycle, as this is when the support of governmental and non-governmental
agencies in the disaster aftermath usually starts receding and the affected community has
to fend for itself. At this stage, the role of the community and self-help groups becomes
paramount since they can make or mar the crucial link between disaster response and
disaster recovery.
It also needs to be kept in view that the entire rehabilitation and reconstruction process
has to be attuned towards developmental goals. Unless we understand the relationship
between recovery and development, issues and challenges facing the rehabilitation and
reconstruction process cannot be met. This Unit examines the pertinent issue of disasters
and development. It throws light on the concept and principles of rehabilitation and
reconstruction that must make way for larger disaster recovery process by examining the
post-tsunami aftermath. It also analyses the problems faced by planners and implementers
in the rehabilitation and reconstruction process.
15.2 CONCEPTS OF REHABILITATION AND

RECONSTRUCTION
As we all know, the disaster recovery stage in the disaster management cycle falls
between the disaster response phase and the overall development phase. Thus, it is
necessary that vital interlinkages between all the three phases be established. This could
be achieved through systematic planning and implementation of a long-term recovery
programme in the disaster aftermath.
Rehabilitation and reconstruction operations are integral to disaster recovery. They provide
a direct ‘connect’ between disaster response and long-term development. The two
activities, however, do not have similar connotation. Rehabilitation involves restoring local
services related to the provision of immediate needs. It implies a systematic return to pre-
disaster status. It refers to actions taken in the aftermath of a disaster to enable basic
services to resume functioning, assist victims’ self-help efforts to repair physical damage,
restore community facilities, revive economic activities and provide support for the
psychological and social well-being of the survivors. It focuses on enabling the affected
population to resume more or less normal patterns of life. It may be considered as a
transitional phase between immediate relief and major long-term development.
Reconstruction, on the other hand, represents long-term development assistance, which
could help people in the affected areas to rebuild their lives and meet their present and
future needs. It takes into account reduction of future disaster risks. Rehabilitation may not
necessarily restore the damaged structures and resources in their previous form or
location. It may include the replacement of temporary arrangements established as part of
emergency response or the upgradation of infrastructure and systems from pre-disaster
status.
For instance, following a damaging hurricane, the rehabilitation of the power lines would
aim to restore the system as rapidly as possible so that the essential services would
continue to function, whereas, reconstruction of the power lines would aim to rebuild the
rehabilitated system to a higher or safer standard than before, so that the future risks to
the power lines from a similar damaging event could be reduced. Reconstruction must be
fully integrated into long-term developmental plans, taking into account future disaster risks
and possibilities to reduce them by incorporating appropriate measures. As we have
mentioned before, the term recovery is used to embrace both the rehabilitation and
reconstruction activities. Both the activities may be required in the aftermath of disaster.
One does not essentially exclude the other.
It should also be remembered that rehabilitation and reconstruction do not always
safeguard full recovery. In the disaster aftermath, it may take longer to return to
‘normalcy’ or in some situations, total recovery may never be possible. It is, therefore,
Rehabilitation and Reconstruction 285
not possible to suggest a ‘model’ time frame for rehabilitation, reconstruction or recovery
stages.
The distinction between rehabilitation and reconstruction is not watertight, but they have
to be well-incorporated into a long-term disaster recovery plan. A comprehensive
rehabilitation and reconstruction or a broad recovery plan should take into consideration
both physical and non-physical requirements of the communities. Failing to address long-
term recovery could have adverse consequences. For instance:
i) It may simply result in large investment in infrastructure without the necessary inputs
to help the victims to become psychologically fit, socially ready and economically
self-sufficient; and
ii) The necessary links between physical, social and psychological recovery may be
ignored
Thus, we can say that processes of rehabilitation and reconstruction are essential for long-
term disaster recovery, even though they need not always lead to recovery. Problems
underlying rehabilitation and reconstruction can even go on to stall the recovery process.
We will read about this aspect in Section 15.6 of this Unit. Suffice it to say over here
that rehabilitation and reconstruction are complex processes that are determined by varied
parameters. The nature of rehabilitation and reconstruction largely depends on the intensity
of damage caused by a disaster in terms of losses to lives and infrastructure.
There are several factors that need to be taken into view while designing a long-term
disaster recovery plan entailing rehabilitation and reconstruction. These are economic,
social, political and cultural. While economic, social and cultural factors will become clear
by reading the following Section, it is important to understand the political factor over
here. Disasters, as we all know, are great electoral opportunities for political parties,
especially when elections are round the corner. Politicians derive political mileage out of
announcing huge sops and incentives through their recovery package. The recovery plan
finds smooth execution if there is political will behind it. The political environment of the
disaster aftermath, therefore, needs to be considered by planners of long-term recovery.
15.3 TYPES OF REHABILITATION

Since social, cultural, economic and political factors provide the contours of a thorough
recovery plan, we could deduce that there are three major types of rehabilitation, namely,
physical, social and psychological. Let us discuss them briefly:
Physical Rehabilitation
Physical rehabilitation is a very important facet of rehabilitation. It includes reconstruction
of physical infrastructure, such as, houses, buildings, railways, roads, communication
network, water supply, electricity etc. It also comprises short-term and long-term strategies
towards watershed management, canal irrigation, social forestry, crop stabilisation, and
alternative cropping techniques, job creation, employment generation and environmental
protection. It involves policies for agricultural rehabilitation, rehabilitation of artisans and
small businessmen as well as rehabilitation of animal husbandry.
The short-term and long-term physical rehabilitation measures should take into view:
provision for subsidies, farm implements, fertilizers etc., establishment of seed banks, grain
banks and fodder banks, scope of employment generation, availability of livelihood

generation and alternative technologies, along with development of houses and infrastructure.
This type of rehabilitation is economic in nature and is broadly geared towards an
alternative livelihood approach that can enable the communities to withstand the disaster
aftermath.
Developmental measures involve expenditure. These relate to collection of information,
hiring of specialist staff, implementation and evaluation of development programmes.
However, these developmental costs should try to reduce the economic, social and
political costs that are likely to be incurred in the event of a disaster. For a systematic
physical rehabilitation plan, the economic environment of a disaster-affected area needs to
be kept in view.
Attention needs to be given to disaster-resistant house construction. Earthquake resistant
buildings must be planned on sites of hard bedrock. The sites chosen should not be
steep, narrow and clayey. They should not be anywhere near loose sands and heavy
faulting areas. Cyclone shelters should not be planned at low elevation land, which lacks
natural outlet to discharge water. Land at the foot of slopes should also be avoided for
cyclone resistant housing. To guard against landslides, recovery plan should include
planning for houses that are stable and away from areas near quarrying activity. Flood
resistant reconstruction planning must focus on areas that are not low lying. Wetlands,
lagoon mouths, edges of island, lake, flood plains, downstream banks, and narrow gorges
should be avoided.
Rehabilitation and reconstruction package must also incorporate acquisition of land for
relocation sites, adherence of land use planning, flood plain zoning, retrofitting or
strengthening of undamaged houses, and construction of model houses. Thus, disaster-
resistant housing will have to be systematically included in physical rehabilitation plan. It
should comprise identification of hazard prone areas, vulnerability and risk assessment of
buildings, outlining of disaster scenarios, technical guidelines for hazard resistant construction
and adoption of technical-legal regime.
Social Rehabilitation
Social rehabilitation is an important part of disaster recovery, but this dimension is often
assumed to be a community function and neglected in most post-disaster programmes. As
we are all aware, disasters can render some groups such as the elderly, orphans, single
parents with young children, etc., much more vulnerable to disaster aftermath due to lack
of adequate support. In the post-disaster phase, family support systems can break down
due to physical and mental trauma resulting from losses of life and property, physical
dislocation, and migration of some members of disaster affected communities.
These vulnerable groups would need special social support to survive the impact of
disaster. Thus, construction of infrastructure such as community centres, day care centres,
anganwadis, balwadis, old age homes, etc., is a vital part of social rehabilitation. There
has to be an adequate provision for building this infrastructure wherever it is non-existent
or has been destroyed by the disaster. A realistic recovery plan has to take note of this
social dimension of the disaster-affected area.
Psychological Rehabilitation
The psychological trauma of losing relatives and friends, and the scars of overall shock
of the disaster event can take much longer to heal than the stakeholders (planners,
governmental agencies, NGOs, international agencies, self-help groups, community) in

disaster management often assume. It is, therefore, essential, that social welfare and
psychological support programmes be considered immediately after a disaster event so
that they could be made a vital part of recovery programmes.
No recovery plan can be successful if it does not take cognisance of the psycho-cultural
milieu of the affected site. This means that it must give due respect to the tradition, values,
norms, beliefs and practices of the disaster-affected people. The cultural dimension of
recovery plan is most wanting in the area of housing and shelter. As we will read later
in this Unit, the recovery plan is often drafted and executed with utter disregard to basic
issues such as availability of water, access to toilets, health and hygiene, privacy of
women folk, etc. Housing designs are imposed on the victims without taking into
consideration their lifestyles, cultural mores and preferences. A good recovery plan must
make a note of these factors.
For a proper rehabilitation of persons suffering from ill-health, there is a need for a
systematic Epidemiological Surveillance and Nutrition Centred Health Assessment to
monitor the spread of disease. A comprehensive health recovery plan should be in place
to deal with the problems of psychological rehabilitation. Physical discomfort and illness
could have multiple psychological repercussions. Besides, the chances of post-traumatic
stress disorder are high in disaster aftermath. Efforts should be made to arrange for crisis
intervention, psychological debriefing (semi-structured crisis intervention), trauma counselling
and panic management.
The victims’ response to a disaster passes through various stages, for example,
‘impact’(disaster event phase);‘inventory’ that follows immediately after the disaster event,
‘response’ and ‘recovery’. Each stage evokes a different response. The disaster managers
and rehabilitation workers must understand the psychology of victims at the recovery stage
and respond accordingly. Priority needs to be accorded to utilising human resources from
the affected area itself and only the expert help should be sought from external sources.
15.4 GUIDING PRINCIPLES OF REHABILITATION AND

RECONSTRUCTION
In order to meet its objectives, rehabilitation and reconstruction programme needs to draw
upon certain guiding principles. We can infer from our previous Sections some of the
guiding principles that are part and parcel of an effective approach towards long-term
disaster recovery. The broad priorities in a situation of disaster rehabilitation are:
z Provision of emergency relief to be operationalised by the way of mobilising human
and material resources on a war footing, comprising food security, construction of
temporary shelters and other basic needs
z Rehabilitation of all the displaced people, restoration of basic and alternative means
of livelihood along with community-based infrastructure and institutions; and
z Initiation of long-term development interventions, which would lead to sustainable
community-based actions (Medury and Dhameja, 2005).
Let us have a look at some of the guiding principles that reflect these priorities:
Treating Communities as Heterogeneous

A systematic rehabilitation plan must not regard the affected communities as a homogenous
group. The needs and requirements of disaster affected community would vary from one
group to the other within the community, and also from one individual to the other within
the group. The requirements of affected farmers will be different from small traders or say
professionals like teachers and government workers. Again, the requirements of children,
women and elderly will be different from each other. A recovery plan has to prioritise the
different requirements and set its objectives accordingly.
Striking a Balance between Economic, Social and Psychological Needs
Just as the needs and requirements of the affected community are largely dependent on
what its various groups desire, the economic, social and psychological needs also vary
from one group to the other within the affected community. These needs have to be
carefully scrutinised. Satisfaction of one need or requirement does not automatically lead
to the satisfaction of other needs. For instance, the loss of agricultural land due to a
disaster, even though compensated in monetary terms and in terms of new occupational
opportunities under rehabilitation, cannot fulfill the psychological loss of being a landowner
in the victims. The nostalgia of the ancestral place also cannot be overcome easily.
This reality, is a part of the social status characteristic of traditional culture and people
derive gratification from it. Established livelihood, social relations, social status, kinship
etc., are sources of satisfaction. Any change or blockage, even though temporary, towards
fulfillment of these needs results in varying degrees of tensions and stress in different
people. A good recovery plan must not lose sight of this aspect. Recovery actions can
be therapeutic in assisting the victims to rebuild their lives and livelihoods if they are
contextual and rooted in local values. Likewise, they also need to strike a neat balance
between the different types of requirements of victims.
Focusing on Key Issues
Minimising the adverse effects of disasters forms the key focus for achieving the efficacy
of various objectives of rehabilitation projects. The success of these projects depends
upon the way a disaster is managed and the way the affected population perceives the
various rehabilitation programmes as appropriate means of meeting their requirements. This
makes it imperative to plan, design and implement rehabilitation programmes to cope with
specific aspects of a disaster at appropriate stages to meet the key issues.
These key issues pertain to assessment of damage, fixation of responsibility, prioritisation
of requirements, execution of major mitigation strategies, monitoring of development
process as well as evaluation and review of projects. It has to be seen that no affected
group is left out of the rehabilitation operations in order to avoid social tensions. Disaster
management should be addressed in a political, economic and social context, otherwise,
the groups who cannot voice themselves may be left out of provisions of disaster
recovery.
The focus on key issues makes for an effective rehabilitation and reconstruction plan. In
order to realise these issues, attempt has to be made to institutionalise all recovery efforts.
Rehabilitation measures cannot be sustainable if they are not institutionalised. Efforts have
to be made to establish and sustain the local institutions that are involved in disaster
recovery such as grain banks, fodder banks, day-care centres, ‘anganwadis’, ‘bal
mandals’, ‘mahila mandals’, ‘pani panchayats’, etc.
Encouraging Flexibility and Adaptiveness

A recovery plan has to be adaptive in nature so that it can change as per the demands
of a new situation. Flexibility norms in terms of structure, processes and finances need to
be ingrained in the plan. Disaster management needs a strong political commitment for
erecting an effective planning and coordination process at the governmental and societal
levels. A process with a clearly defined authority as well as an appropriate budget to
maintain an effective disaster plan is needed.
Disaster recovery plans should be comprehensive in scale and operational in style, as
disaster management planning is a sequential and continuous process. Effective planning
requires systematic diagnosis, resource evaluation, and continuous feedback towards
fulfillment of the goals of disaster reduction. Since the scope of disaster management is
quite wide and the actors involved in the process fairly numerous, it is essential that a
legal and formal framework for coordination is accepted and provided for.
Management is needed at all stages of a disaster viz., the disaster preparedness and
mitigation phase, the disaster event phase, the response phase, and the recovery phase
comprising rehabilitation and reconstruction processes. Only a flexible and adaptive
disaster management plan can achieve it. The recovery plan has to imbibe similar features.
Promoting Systematic Damage Assessment
Damage assessment is a precondition for effective disaster management. Unless we are
clear about the nature, extent and intensity of damage in the aftermath of a disaster, we
can never plan out, implement or evaluate the disaster management plans and strategies.
Thus, the recovery plan can also be ill-conceived in the absence of systematic damage
assessment. There is a need for a methodical damage assessment so that the strategies
of livelihood creation and infrastructure development are incorporated in the recovery plan.
Damage assessment could take recourse to sample surveys (simple random, systematic,
cluster, stratified), and make use of traditional means as well as modern technology
damages. The concept of knowledge management is an emerging field, which is soon
catching up as an important tool of assessment and recovery. India has its own space
based Earth Observation Programme, and expertise is built up in a wide variety of
Remote Sensing applications. Emerging information technologies in the area of Remote
Sensing and Geographical Information Systems offer immense potential for efficient
damage assessment that needs to be urgently harnessed.
Aerial Photography, as a form of Remote Sensing, is an important tool of damage
assessment. It refers to the use of satellite with imaging systems that produce computer
generated images. Possible uses of Aerial Photography include hazard mapping, vulnerability
analysis, disaster assessment and reconstruction planning. Remote Sensing and Aerial
Photography can provide an impression of a large area over a short period of time.
Another important step towards damage assessment and reconstruction of infrastructure is
the ‘feasibility study’. The basic objective of a ‘feasibility study’ is to generate the data
necessary to have a complete plan for reconstruction vis-à-vis its economic viability. It
also helps to complete the application of formalities for construction grant for ‘infrastructure
rehabilitation programme’ after any disaster or even in normal times.
Risk management is another dimension of damage assessment. There are three different
stages of managing risks: perception, assessment and mitigation of risks. Risk perception
is very important at all levels, that is, the local residents, the NGOs, the donors, should
all have adequate perception of the risk. Risk assessment is more of a technical word and
is rather the responsibility of the academicians or professionals to quantify the risk in that
area or community, which aids in mapping its vulnerability. The last step is that of risk
mitigation. It focuses on policy level decision-making, which is a collective effort. The
community, government and NGOs have a collective responsibility based on co-operation
and capacity building towards resource mapping and social mapping that are essential
components of damage assessment. These aspects of assessment must go into the
recovery planning stage for effective results.
Supporting Transparency, Efficiency and Effectiveness
The recovery plan must be clear, structured, objective, accessible, accountable and
responsive. This is possible if transparency is maintained at each level of recovery plan.
Continuous monitoring and evaluation (M&E) could ensure transparent, efficient and
effective plans. The basic objective of an M&E exercise is to ensure whether the project
is proceeding as originally intended. This is done using indicators.
In case of a post-disaster exercise, M & E could strive to check if all the rehabilitation
needs of the affected victims are being met. It could follow the SMART (Specific,
Measurable, Attainable, Relevant and Time-bound) tool of indicators, which have to be
set at the planning for recovery stage itself. However, the constraints in the process that
range from reluctance of project teams to expose themselves to evaluation, inability in
understanding the process and impact indicators underlying the M & E, difficulties in
collecting data, managing the complexity and extent of the M & E process, and most
importantly, keeping objectivity in the process need to be addressed. Viability of a
disaster recovery policy depends on responsible monitoring and review. A good recovery
plan should strive towards this guiding principle.
Ensuring Financial Recovery
One of the most important components of rehabilitation and reconstruction is that of
infrastructure development, which largely depends on financial support. Governments at the
Central as well as state levels have specific schemes and strategies for providing funds for
disaster management activities, be it relief, rehabilitation or reconstruction. The Calamity
Relief Fund (CRF) is one such arrangement at the central level. Even though, the
disbursement by the CRF is meant to supplement relief funds, a sizeable portion is
earmarked for all phases of disaster management pertaining to six natural calamities
namely cyclone, drought, earthquake, flood, fire and hailstorm.
Other financial arrangements include National Calamity Contingency Fund, Prime Minister’s
National Relief Fund and Member of Parliament Local Area District Scheme (MPLADS).
Even the Insurance Schemes could be regarded as an important source for resource
generation. Schemes such as Swarnajayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojna, National Agricultural
Insurance, Seed Crop Insurance, Kisan Credit Card, etc., should be encouraged as
practicable options of disaster mitigation. The Eleventh Finance Commission has
recommended the extension of agricultural insurance to all crops, and the Twelfth Finance
Commission has also emphasised on the need to link the developmental projects with
disaster mitigation. This positive fillip should be sustained to strengthen financial recovery.
Some funds from government’s developmental programmes such as Drought Prone Area
Programme, Desert Development Programme, Integrated Afforestation Scheme, Eco-
development Scheme, Watershed Development Programme, Indira Awaas Yojna, Sampoorna

Grameen Rozgar Yojna, etc., could be diverted towards disaster mitigation and recovery.
There is a need to incorporate recovery planning into preparedness planning. In order to
ensure smooth inflow of funds, the stakeholders should act swiftly and maintain the interest
of the influence groups in disaster recovery.
The UN agencies: World Health Organisation (WHO), United Nations Children’s Fund
(UNICEF), United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO),
World Food Programme (WFP), International Labour Organisation (ILO), United Nations
Population Fund (UNFPA), and also the International Monetary Fund (IMF) as well as
the World Bank working through International Development Association, International
Finance Corporation, Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency can also provide legitimacy
to recovery process, and encourage donors to provide finances and seed capital for
disaster recovery projects.
Developing Disaster-resistant Buildings
As we read in Section 15.3, physical rehabilitation calls for construction of disaster
resistant structures and retrofitting of existing ones to make them disaster resilient.
Different types of resistance components will have to go into earthquake-resistant,
cyclone-resistant or flood-resistant structures. A recovery plan should have adequate
provision for building disaster-resistant structures as a guiding principle.
Earthquakes are no strangers to India, as 55 per cent of the country is prone to seismic
shocks. Several earthquake-prone regions in the country have traditionally built houses that
minimise the damage to life and property, and stand up well in the wake of the quake.
The traditional wisdom and attention to details can be applied to modern materials as
well. These techniques are based on the use of traditional materials, for example, timber
and bamboo for building houses. The structural system needs to be tensile and the
material should be flexible, as is the case with timber, steel and bamboo. It also helps
if the structure is constructed in a way that it vibrates as one unit and sways together.
The recovery plan has to lay emphasis on disaster resistant construction techniques as
most new constructions with heavy roofs (slate tiles or Reinforced Concrete Cement or
RCC) supported by weak walls (random rubble in mud mortar) have performed badly in
the recent past. Older houses in mountain regions have roofs held together by timber and
tie-bands, horizontal timber beams spanning across the entire building, connecting the
entire structure and giving it the character of a cage. Such houses have suffered little
damage despite their mud and stone masonry. These types of constructions need to be
promoted.
Quake resistant houses should have tie-bands just above the level of the floor, the level
of the doors and windows, and another at the roof level. Corners are the most vulnerable
and thus ought to be strengthened. Elasticity of the structure can be enhanced with flexible
steel rods or wood batons at corners. Doors and windows should be few, small and
symmetrically placed away from the corners. In short, properties of symmetry, ductility,
deformability, rectangularity and simplicity have to be followed to build disaster resistant
houses.
The performance of earth or stone or brick buildings is generally very poor in earthquakes
if tie bands and timber are not used. Wooden buildings perform better but most
dangerous aspect of wooden buildings has been their poor fire resistance and therefore
a high danger of catching fire during earthquakes, due to short-circuiting of electric wiring.
Even stone and brick buildings have not had a good track record. As far as flood-
resistant housing is concerned, structures need to be erected on a higher elevation on best
bearing soil and raised mounds using concrete cement and waterproofing. Building failure
occurring due to cyclones is mainly confined to the roof. Cyclone resistant structures thus
need to be sturdy, wind resistant and concrete in texture. Mangalore tiled and RCC roofs
help in this regard. The guidelines for housing in a good recovery plan should make a
note of all these aspects.
A good recovery plan should identify and promote them. The role of Building Authorities
and Research Institutes such as National Building Construction Corporation (NBCC),
Building Materials and Technology Promotion Council (BMTPC), Housing and Urban
Development Corporation (HUDCO), Structural Engineering Research Centre, etc., is
very important in this regard. Their activities have to be rightly networked in order to
derive advantages from their work and experience in disaster-resistant construction.
Building Resilient Communities
No rehabilitation package, as we read earlier in this Unit, can succeed without taking into
view the psychology of those affected by disasters. Human psyche comes into play at
every stage of disaster management cycle, be it mitigation, rescue and relief or reconstruction
and rehabilitation. A participatory disaster recovery programme that involves the local
people, civil society organisations and grass roots agencies at decision-making and
implementation stages would go a long way in shaping a more humane and feasible
disaster rehabilitation programme. A good recovery plan must aim at building resilient
communities. This can be ensured through four major strategies (i) Community Participation,
(ii) Education and Training, (iii) Stress Management, and (iv) Positive Role of the Media.
Let us discuss these now:
Long-term counter disaster planning should be based on building the resilience of victims.
A number of Community Based Disaster Management (CBDM) projects are coming up
in different parts of the world. Some of these have worked well, while others represent
good examples towards making of success stories. Though, almost in all cases, the
successes have been driven by external, international and national agencies.
The World Conference on Disaster Reduction held from 18 to 22 January 2005 in Kobe,
Hyogo, Japan has adopted a Framework for Action (2005-2015) on “Building the
Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters”. It is a positive step, as the
Conference has provided a unique opportunity to promote a strategic and systematic
approach to reducing risks and vulnerabilities to hazards.
There is certainly a need to give due importance to self-help and people’s participation
in building resilient communities. A recovery plan should incorporate provisions of creating
Village Task Force, Disaster Task Force and Pani Panchayats, etc. It would facilitate the
process of capacity building as well as people’s resilience and self-sufficiency.
Education and training are means of learning, and play a significant role in building resilient
communities. Education and training have an important role to play in planning and
implementing disaster recovery strategies at both the pre-disaster and post-disaster stages.
Sustenance of disaster education is dependent on well-formulated training and research
strategies.
In fact, education and training are interdependent concepts. The foremost goal of all
training and educational programmes should be to target the community. No disaster
management programme can achieve its objectives unless the affected community participates
in the formulation, implementation and evaluation of disaster related tasks. Adequate
community participation is the key to effective disaster recovery. The entire approach to
disaster education and training is dependent upon volunteers, social workers, functional
specialists and the people at large. They should be assigned clear cut functions and
responsibilities. Demarcation of stakeholders in disaster recovery must form a part of
recovery plan.
Counseling for stress management is a continuous exercise. The process does not end
with the first session of talking to the victims. Healing requires time, and the counsellor
may be called upon time and again, sometimes to listen to what has been said before,
sometimes to discuss specific problems, and at others to just offer reassurance and
support. Stress management is a long drawn process. At every stage, the counsellors have
to exhibit empathy and concern, care as well as caution. Dealing with victim’s psychology
is a very sensitive issue and must be dealt with in the same manner. The provisions for
psychological rehabilitation have to be incorporated in a recovery plan.
Rehabilitation programmes should make use of available skills and talents and also focus
upon providing new skills and competencies to the affected population to equip them to
face the outer world. Efforts should be made to develop commitment to self-support and
sustenance, to eliminate dependency syndrome at the onset itself through psychotherapeutic
health programmes implemented in the form of family counselling and stress reducing
exercises. Community programmes, and other socio-occupational programmes should form
an essential component of rehabilitation package.
The media also play an important role in building disaster resistant communities. As an
important channel of communication, they transmit facts from a disaster site to the general
public and specific target groups. The relationship between the disaster recovery managers
and media people could be proactive as well as reactive. Well-planned interactions with
the media could be of critical importance in strengthening rehabilitation work and
increasing the awareness of levels of affected community. In disasters, where warning is
possible, accurate, timely and consistent information dissemination by the media could be
a useful contributor to disaster recovery. Media can and should suppress rumours actively
because rumours demoralise and reduce resilience.
Suitable policies are needed to incorporate the paradigm shift from crisis management to
community-based preparedness at the recovery stage. This should include adequate
provisions for education, awareness and training, people’s participation at the decision-
making and implementation levels, networking of NGOs and other relief organisations, and
participative endeavours based on indigenous approaches of coping with disasters.
Upholding the Norms of Equity and Social Justice
Since disasters often hit the least developed areas and the most disadvantaged groups the
hardest, rehabilitation and reconstruction programmes should aim to change the vulnerable
conditions of the high-risk population through development programmes. There is a need
for a more humane paradigm of disaster management. The goals of equity, justice and
balanced development have to be ingrained in the disaster management policy right at the
outset.
The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has a vision on human development,
which treats development not merely in terms of mere rise or fall of national incomes. It
envisages a space in which people can develop to their full potential and lead productive
and creative lives in accordance with their needs and interests. This idea of human
development has to be translated into action to uphold the values of equity and justice
in the disaster recovery exercise. The guiding principles of rehabilitation, as we read
earlier, speak of focus on key issues, vulnerable sections, and objective handling of needs
of affected community. These factors define and seek to meet the objectives of equity and
justice.
It is also important to introduce gender analysis into recovery planning in order to avoid
further marginalisation of women and the other disadvantaged groups. A gender sensitive
approach helps to identify differing vulnerabilities of men and women to crisis situations
as well as their different capacities and coping strategies. Besides, social and economic
costs of all development programmes need to be analysed and incorporated in the
recovery plan so that the vulnerable are not affected negatively.
Respecting Traditional Wisdom
Even though, we have a tradition of living in harmony with nature, this balance is being
disturbed in the present context. People have always followed traditional practices of
coping with disasters, but are becoming too dependent on external agencies to withstand
the disaster aftermath. Traditional practices of water conservation such as ‘Kuhls’ of
Himachal Pradesh, ‘Kundis’ and ‘Rapats’ of Rajasthan and ‘Palliyals’ of Kerala have held
people in good stead against low intensity droughts. ‘Sumers’ and ‘Chaukhats’ of
Rajasthan are inimitable earthquake resistant structures from our rich heritage.
These traditional practices are being abandoned to make way for new technologies. At
the time when we need a thoughtful amalgam of the ‘old’ and the ‘new’, we are slowly
losing our traditional wisdom to a haphazard approach to modern technology. A systematic
recovery plan should make way for a right mix of traditional practices, modern ways of
living and technological development.
Disseminating Good Practices and Lessons Learned
Advancements in the field of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) have
made the concept of global village a reality. A proper communication system can be of
enormous use in effective disaster management. It can be instrumental in generation of
awareness and dissemination of information during disaster preparedness and disaster
recovery. The use of modern communication is of relevance not only to disaster managers
but also at grass roots levels, though low-cost options such as HAM (amateur) radios,
wireless, loudspeakers, folklore, nukkad nataks, market fares, posters are also effective.
These must find a place in recovery plan for proper information dissemination on
disasters.
Existing developmental policies are also being reexamined to incorporate disaster prevention
and preparedness. However, there has been a limited debate on the content and thrust
of these policy initiatives. The crucial question that needs to be addressed is: How can
the public policy enable the transfer of good practices and research to the most
threatened communities? The success stories of Ralegan Sidhi, greening of Arvari River in
Alwar, rejuvenation of Sukhna Lake in Chandigarh, Mission Ground Water in Madhya
Pradesh, and Build Your Own Check Dam in Suarashtra are waiting to be replicated. The
lessons from these case studies have to be woven coherently in order to build some kind
of knowledge base on disaster recovery. Incorporating grass roots experiences, with its
indigenous initiatives and constraints, into the developmental policies would provide real
substance to the disaster recovery policy. Education and training could play an important
role in this regard.
Protecting Environment
Disaster management and environmental protection should go hand in hand. As we all
know, the frequency, intensity and impacts of disasters can be attributed to flawed
environmental policies. Greenland’s Glaciers are melting twice as fast as previously,
pointing towards a scary reality. The Earth’s oceans are rising fast and by 2050, cyclones,
tsunamis, submerging islands would become headline news everywhere (Saxena, 2006).
The beaches of a third of the 200 islands of the Maldives are being swept away. A
quarter of all species of plants and land animals could be driven to extinction. Sea ice
in the Arctic Ocean has decreased by 10 per cent. Coastal areas of the US, China,
Bangladesh and India are threatened. Globally, the Earth’s climate is warmer today than
it has been at any time in the past 140 years (ibid.). These are alarming statistics and
their mitigation must form a part of disaster recovery.
There are many International Environmental Treaties such as Kyoto Protocol, United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Basel Convention on Trans-boundary
Movement of Hazardous Wastes, Convention on Biological Diversity, Convention to
Combat Desertification, Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES),
Convention on the Law of the Sea (LOS), and Montreal Protocol on Substances that
Deplete the Ozone Layer. These Treaties and Conventions have set good and practicable
guidelines for environmental protection. The relationship between environmental degradation
and disasters thus needs to be clearly surveyed. The recovery plan must keep this aspect
in view and assimilate environmental protection measures wherever required.
Endorsing Sustainable Development and Alternative Livelihood Strategies
In order to create long-term vulnerability reduction conditions, a ‘sustainable livelihood
framework’ is urgently required. The livelihood approach advocates an increase in
economic opportunities of work without degrading the natural environment. It seeks to
understand the many factors influencing people’s choices of livelihood strategies and
reinforcing their constraints. Creation of livelihood options is a crucial component of
community vulnerability reduction. It is an important step towards capacity building.
Sustainable development involves more than growth. It requires a change in the content
of growth to make it more equitable in its impact. The main objective of sustainable
development is to prevent acts of nature from becoming disasters. The main focus of
sustainable development is to mitigate the conflict between development and environment.
While at first glance, this may seem unrelated to disaster prevention, the truth is that they
are intricately entwined (Dhameja, 2001).
A sustainable livelihood programme needs to analyse the existing socio-economic conditions
prevailing in the area before the occurrence of a disaster, examine the occupational pattern
in the affected area, survey the prevailing infrastructure facilities, adjudge the awareness
levels of the people; and gauge the mindset of the people, their culture, attitudes,
traditional beliefs and practices.
A sustainable livelihood framework needs to recognise the premise that the community’s
relationship with the environment is a basic unit for all planning and implementation
activities. Self-reliance should be promoted and administrative interventions should follow
a ‘rights-based’ approach, so that people are not treated as mere beneficiaries, but are
integrated in the total development process. This kind of approach could be really
beneficial in creating sustainable livelihood conditions and the recovery plan should make
a note of this.
The United Nations (UN) commitment to promoting sustainable development and mitigating
disaster losses, as we all know, is strong. The World Bank and the regional development
banks have also begun to engage with issues surrounding the relationship between disaster
risk reduction and economic development. The World Bank’s Board of Executive
Directors has endorsed viable Environment Strategy on July 17, 2001.
The Strategy has three interrelated objectives: improving people’s quality of life, enhancing
the prospects for quality of social and economic growth, protecting the quality of the
regional and global environmental commons, rational and planned growth of agricultural,
industrial and tertiary or services sectors of the economy, creating employment opportunities,
programmes for the youth, women and physically handicapped, promoting alternative
cropping patterns, irrigation and water harvesting techniques, social and farm forestry, and
skilled labour. An effective recovery plan has to be sustainable and must therefore give
credence to creation of sustainable livelihood opportunities and alternative technologies.
Integrating Recovery with the Larger Development Process
It is clear from our discussion in this Unit that disaster recovery has to be integrated into
larger development process. The basic justification for Linking of Relief and Rehabilitation
with Development (LRRD), the new approach to disasters and development, is quite
simple. Disasters are costly in terms of both human life and resources; they disrupt
economic and social development; they require long periods of rehabilitation; they lead to
separate bureaucratic structures and procedures, which duplicate development efforts by
the institutions involved.
At the same time, however, development policy also often ignores the risks of disasters
and the need to protect vulnerable households by helping them to develop ‘coping
strategies’. If relief and development were to be linked, these deficiencies could be
reduced. Better ‘development’ can reduce the need for emergency relief; better ‘relief’
can contribute to development; and better ‘rehabilitation’ can ease the transitional process
between the two.
The “backward” and “forward” linkages between political, developmental, relief and
rehabilitation operations constitute a complex network of relationships, which have to be
examined within the global policy framework or strategic planning policy, which is a
dynamic function of the specific situation of each country or region. In other words, the
components of the LRRD and their design are highly situation specific, and should be
considered in the light of the ‘contextual’ realities of the country or region concerned. A
good recovery plan should keep into view the interlinkages between all the stages of
disaster management, as well as the ‘connect’ between disaster rehabilitation, reconstruction
and the larger developmental planning. The recovery plan has to, therefore, be holistic and
comprehensive.
15.5 POST-DISASTER STORY: THE TSUNAMI

AFTERMATH
There are many case studies on the rehabilitation work that have been undertaken by the
governments, NGOs, self-help groups, international agencies in various parts of the
country in the aftermath of different types of disasters such as the Latur Earthquake,
Malpa Landslide, Orissa Cyclone, Bhuj Earthquake, Muzzafarabad Earthquake, etc. These
Cases speak of the problems, issues and challenges of the rehabilitation phase. In this
Unit, we will talk about the Tsunami aftermath in order to have an in-depth understanding
of the complex problems involved in the process.
Tamil Nadu bore most of the wrath of the Tsunami that struck the Indian Peninsula on
December 26, 2004. At least, 13 coastal districts of the State were devastated.
Nagapattinam and Cuddalore were the worst hit. Around 7995 people and innumerable
livestock were consumed by the killer waves. The relief and rehabilitation work was
collectively carried out by the central and state governments, NGOs, international agencies
and community groups.
The Joint Assessment Mission comprising the World Bank, the Asian Development Bank
and the UN Organisations have put the damages and losses at $838.32 million. This
includes the losses in fisheries, agriculture and livestock, micro-enterprises, housing, rural
and municipal infrastructure and so on. From day one, the State Government took speedy
action to provide relief, which was completed by the end of January 2005. In the
rehabilitation phase, which commenced soon after, the affected families were given a
sustenance package consisting of cash, and other provisions to see them through the initial
months.
By May-June 2005, most of the fishermen had gone back to the sea. The Government
gave assistance for replacement and repair of boats and board motors, as well as for the
purchase of nets. The central government gave 100 per cent subsidy for catamarans (that
is., boats with twin hull in parallel), 50 per cent subsidy for Fibre Reinforced Plastic
(FRP) boats and 35 per cent subsidy for mechanised boats. The NGOs also contributed
substantially to the replacement of boats and other fishing implements.
Apart from fishermen, agriculturalists, agricultural labourers, small businessmen, small
traders and several others having other occupations were affected. The government took
note of the requirements of each of the sectors and provided different packages to suit
their needs. Those owning small-scale industrial units also received assistance. Students
who were affected received new textbooks, notebooks and uniforms. Assistance was
given to agriculturalists to treat their lands that had become saline.
Tsunami Farmers’ Self-help Groups (SHGs) were formed and they are still undertaking
activities relating to recovery and reclamation of soil. Many women who were widowed
have received the ex-gratia payment of Rs.1 lakh from the government, and 250 of these
women who were eligible for the destitute widow pension have been granted pension.
Children, adolescent girls and unmarried girls above 18 years of age who were orphaned,
have been given a special package of assistance in the form of financial assistance,
vocational training, capacity building and psychological support (Sridhar, 2006).
The State government had undertaken a Disaster Risk Management Programme in 2005
with the support of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). The Programme
has been implemented in six districts (Thiruvallur, Kancheepuram, Cuddalore, Nagapattinam,

Kanyakumari and Nilgiris), and two cities (Chennai and Coimbatore). These areas have
been identified because they are multi-hazard prone. After the Tsunami, the State
Government has asked the Union Government to extend the programme to other coastal
districts (ibid.).
Unlike Tamil Nadu, the fury of the Tsunami in Andhra Pradesh was diffused and coastal
villages were soon able to return to normalcy. The Tsunami left 107 dead in Nellore,
Prakasam, Guntur, Krishna, West Godavari and East Godavari districts, and damaged
property worth lakhs of rupees. Reconstruction work by the State Government has since
then mainly focused on Prakasam and Nellore districts, which bore the maximum brunt
of Tsunami. The Central Government sanctioned Rs. 100 crores towards reconstruction.
Official figures show that less than 7,500 out of 40.000 houses planned have been
completed. Out of 34,000 fishing nets sanctioned, 27,000 have been procured by the
fishermen. While 8,657 damaged boats have been repaired, getting new boats is a
promise yet to be fulfilled. In short, rehabilitation has miles to go and Tsunami phobia still
haunts the fishermen (Krishna Kumar, 2006).
Rehabilitation efforts were taken up in full swing in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands
which were badly affected. Over there, in spite of the intensity of the disaster, the locals
showed great resilience in bouncing back to life. Liberal contributions to the Lieutenant
Governor’s Relief Fund helped speed up relief and recovery efforts. NGOs took up a
Livelihood Restoration Project in this region. The media played a very positive role in
complementing the efforts of the administration in this region.
In Pondicherry, the State Government came out with a policy for permanent rehabilitation
through Government-NGO participation. Agreements were reached with 12 NGOs and
the Government of Maharashtra for construction of 4,947 houses. Though 78 NGOs had
initially proposed to participate in the process, many withdrew after Government insisted
they deposit 25 per cent of the Project costs. Except in the coastal villages in northern
Pondicherry, land acquisition for rehabilitation was completed. A Committee was formed
to facilitate the process. The construction of 500 houses in Pannithittu, Pudukuppam and
Mandapathur was completed. Another 2000 houses are in various stages of completion.
The Government has formed a Project Implementation Agency to rebuild infrastructure
using Rs. 4.2 crores, which is being given by the World Bank (Sridhar, op.cit.).
The Pondicherry Multipurpose Social Service Society (PMSSS) is the NGO that is
building the houses in the Tsunami affected regions. It has distributed several Catamarans,
FRP boats (some fitted with outboard engines) and nets, apart from repairing fishing
equipment. PMSSS has conducted various activities not traditionally known to these
communities, in order to enhance their earning capacity. For instance, school and college-
going children have been taught to handle computers. About 160 women have been
trained in tailoring and another 120 are undergoing training. Many of them are now
supplying stitched fabric for a garment export unit based in Pondicherry (ibid.).
The NGO has also organised several self-help groups (SHGs) to make and trade
products such as prawn pickles or to set up shops in the village. Women have also been
increasingly active in the panchayats after the Tsunami. Thus, we can see that many
sincere efforts have been made in the aftermath of Tsunami, which are gradually yielding
results. A lot is being done in the area of physical and social aspects of rehabilitation, but
much more can still be done. Psychological rehabilitation is an area that needs more
attention. Plus, there are many other problem areas that need to be looked into. Let us
now discuss some of the major problems usually facing the rehabilitation and reconstruction
process in the aftermath of a disaster.
15.6 PROBLEM AREAS IN DISASTER RECOVERY

Haphazard Planning
Adequate recovery plans are never laid down. Components such as planning for shelters,
health recovery, financial provisions, and coordination amongst agencies involved, monitoring
and evaluation are never systematised. Enumeration of affected families is not done
properly. While rehabilitation help is extended, victims just keep trickling in. It has also
been noticed that temporary structures are often not planned properly. As a result, core
facilities of water, electricity, and food are never met adequately. The shelters in the
disaster aftermath are sometimes not worth living. Food packets distributed are often stale
and inconsumable. Even basic health and hygiene are not maintained. It has been seen
that many a time the relief shelters become permanent dwellings of victims for want of
reconstructed and retrofitted houses. Many a time, authorities do not even insist on strict
enforcement of Coastal Regulation Zone and land use norms during reconstruction work.
Lack of Adherence to Legislative Controls
Non-adherence to building byelaws and similar legislation can be counter-productive. Even
blindfolded adherence to archaic regulations could have an adverse impact on development
planning. For several reasons (including ignorance, indifference and the ‘nothing would
happen’ attitude), the municipalities and/or the local governments have been negligent in
the enforcement of building design regulations and inspection of construction work in
accordance with the stipulations. An effective control mechanism for adherence to the
disaster resistant design rules has not been established.
Inadequate Transparency and Accountability
Generally, the recovery plan is not transparent enough for the victims to know what it has
on offer for them. Lack of awareness makes it difficult for the stakeholders to point
fingers at the loopholes. It becomes very tough to establish accountability of the agencies
involved in disaster management. As a result, many organisations that have no credibility,
take on the rehabilitation work. These agencies only work for their self-interest and are
not responsive to the people.
The government and other stakeholders generally do not guard against unregistered NGOs
and relief agencies, which have no standing. On top of it, we find that the government
itself makes way for public-private partnerships, but the district administration is not given
proper powers to monitor them. As a result, these organisations just jump into the
rehabilitation scene to make a quick buck. All this makes accountability to people rather
elusive.
Low Levels of People’s Participation
Even though there have been Case Studies of people’s participation in disaster management,
for example., Gujarat State Disaster Management Authority’s initiatives, Livelihood and
Employment Restoration Programme in Orissa, Educational Rehabilitation in Kutch etc.,
their spread is quite patchy. Lack of people’s involvement in disaster recovery is a major
problem. There have been many cases where people have just been passive beneficiaries
of disaster management programmes.
In case of Tsunami-affected Tamil Nadu, the Government came up with Rajiv Gandhi
Rehabilitation Package with a separate component for the restoration of livelihood. But the
catch was that it involved the beneficiary going to the bank, securing a grant-cum-loan
and also insuring the vessel. A majority of the fishermen rejected the scheme and turned
instead to the non-governmental organisations, which were working in the affected
districts. Such instances bring out the growing passivity of the affected community, and
their dependence on external agencies for aid and relief.
Lack of Sensitivity
Displacement in the post-disaster phase forces the victims to change the pattern of social
relationships. The victims have to undergo an entire process of resocialisation and
adjustments in a new social milieu. This leads to loss of existing social relationships. A
recovery plan does not take into view the psychology of victims. In post-tsunami
rehabilitation phase, women have complained about lack of privacy. The heat radiated by
the asbestos roof was unbearable for the victims. Women feared for their safety and that
of their grown up daughters. In most cases, the common toilets were situated quite a
distance away from the shelters and some were in a dilapidated state and even without
proper lighting. Many women in Kanyakumari District protested that they were not
consulted on the nature of relief that they needed or on issues of sanitation, privacy, land
or personal security (Krishna Kumar, op.cit.).
There have often been complaints that certain categories of people such as Dalits, elderly
and disabled have been left out of rehabilitation concessions. Development and rehabilitation
efforts depend on the target groups, their perception and awareness of the situation, fear
and apprehensions on the possible problems to be faced, acceptability of the proposals
etc. These types of issues are never looked into. The fear of changing of sources of
livelihood leads to ‘occupational disruption, which subsequently leads to low to high
degree of ‘occupational redundancy’.
Psycho-social consequences of displacement, unfortunately, do not form a part of
recovery plan. Specialised techniques such as debriefing and stress management are
carried out by local people or NGO workers who may not be equipped to handle the
inticracies of clinical psychology. Rehabilitation programmes often lack specific components
of the aspects of mental health of people. There is no evidence of discussion of mental
health problems and their implications for assessing costs and benefits of disaster projects.
Local Area Problems
Rehabilitation can run into rough weather if it encounters local area problems. In the
aftermath of Muzzafarabad Earthquake, relief and rehabilitation agencies had difficulties in
accessing the quake-affected interior regions such as Uri. Besides the hilly terrain and
freezing weather conditions, other local problems like terrorist infiltration hampered the
relief work. In the post-tsunami phase, sharp divisions among fishing communities on the
question of relocation were encountered. Some were afraid of another monster wave and
wanted to move out; others were fiercely adamant that moving further inshore would
threaten their livelihood. There were also worries about the government displacing them
from the coast to favour land sharks and tourism developers. It shows that if the victims
feel that their source of livelihood is threatened, many problems surface.
In Andamans, many victims took to alcohol consumption in a big way. In some villages
in Tamil Nadu, people started building shrines as small memorials in the memory of the
victims of the Tsunami. The people even started leaving sweets and food items at these
shrines. These developments appear to be innocuous in the first instance, but could
become problematic if not handled sensitively. During the reconstruction phase, majority of
the problems that need to be addressed sometimes pertain to mere availability of
resources in the affected area and people’s opinion of rehabilitation work. The local
context (economic, social and political) leads to problems of enforcement of recovery
plan. These may have nothing to do with the nature of aftermath as such.
Duplicity of Tasks and Inadequate Coordination
There are many organisations: national (central, state, local), international, NGOs, interest
groups, community groups working in the area of disaster recovery. The multiplicity of
organisations leads to duplicity of tasks and coordination problems. Red tapism and
bureaucratic delays come in the way of many recovery projects. Efforts are not made to
use the existent organisational structure for reconstruction, rather for every activity, new
specific organisations are envisaged.
What has generally been noticed is that government itself leaves the doors open for
various kinds of actors to work in the field of disaster recovery. There are, as it is, many
government ministries and departments that are already involved in disaster management.
Plus, there are innumerable national and international relief agencies, community and self-
help groups that are doing their bit in disaster management. All this creates an Octopus
like set up with just one head and several tentacles performing almost similar tasks.
Lack of Education, Training and Awareness
The community is generally not aware of its basic capabilities to withstand disasters.
Relevant information on disaster resistant housing, retrofitting, land use zoning, drought
proofing, water conservation, alternative technologies, insurance schemes etc., is unavailable.
Recovery plan often lacks the essential component on creation of awareness through
formal and non-formal education and training. Vocational training programmes are conducted
randomly and building of social infrastructure like schools, colleges and technical institutes
is generally neglected. The recovery programme always encounters the problem of
shortage of skilled labour.
Absence of Monitoring and Evaluation
Monitoring of the recovery project is always the last of the priorities of the planners. In
the post-tsunami phase, there have been instances of leaking boats being dumped at the
fishermen’s doors in the name of new boats. Absence of monitoring hampers the quality
of tasks involved in the recovery process. Inadequate feedback also comes in the way
of building theories and testing their relevance. The process for monitoring and evaluation
(M & E) faces a number of problems, such as reluctance of project teams to expose
themselves to evaluation, difficulties in collecting data and managing the complexity of the
process. M & E exercise is generally subjective and ill-designed. Lack of knowledge or
epistemological base in disaster management is thus a problem, which emanates from
faulty M & E process. With a narrow knowledge base emanating from poor feedback
and research anomalies, the scope for weaving the good practices and success stories into
a databank becomes narrow.
15.7 INTERLINKAGES BETWEEN RECOVERY AND

DEVELOPMENT
The ‘oughts’ and ‘shoulds’ in disaster recovery planning make for a good reading, but in
reality we do not even have anything that can be remotely referred to as a disaster
recovery plan. There is no systematic disaster management plan at the central, state and
local levels. We all know by now that the real solutions to the problems of rehabilitation
and reconstruction lie in the establishment of interlinkages between disasters and development.
The relationship between disasters and development is, however, not that of straight cause
and effect. There are many intricacies in its backward and forward linkages and the
underlying network of relationships.
Disasters can seriously degrade a country’s long-term potential for sustained development
and cause governments to substantially modify their economic and social priorities, as well
as developmental programmes. Disasters often force the otherwise stable, sedentary
population to move away from their established places of work, and creates psychological
stress leading to many dysfunctional consequences. Yet, they do highlight high-risk areas
where action must be taken before another disaster strikes.
In the present context, disasters can no longer be viewed as random occurrences caused
by nature’s wrath. The distinction between natural and man-made disasters is getting
blurred with time. The frequency and intensity of disasters have recorded an all time high,
as the harmonious balance between human beings and nature has been disturbed to
almost irrepairable proportions. Faulty urbanisation, population explosion, civil strife,
unbalanced industrial growth are the reasons attributed to environmental degradation
characterised by global warming, deforestation, desertification, soil erosion and so on.
Environmental degradation and mismanagement may aggravate the frequency, severity and
predictability of hazards. It could be behind the increased instances of disasters. Disaster
management has to thus be placed in the context of the development challenges that the
country faces as a whole. There is a significant relationship in the way that disasters and
development affect one another.
While disasters are catastrophic events, lessons learnt and incorporated into long-term
development planning may serve to reduce future vulnerability. The destruction of unsafe
infrastructure and buildings can provide an opportunity for rebuilding with better standards,
or relocation to a better place if the present site is found specifically vulnerable.
Particularly damaging disasters will also focus on relief aid and rehabilitation investment,
thus, providing developmental opportunities that were previously unavailable. Damaged
buildings may highlight structural weaknesses, which could be rectified and may serve to
improve building and planning regulations.
The ‘connect’ between population growth, poverty and development is strong and
complex. When assessed in terms of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in the context
of our large population we are far behind many of the countries of the world. Conditions
of poverty, as we have mentioned, often contribute to greater vulnerability of some
sections of a population to an environmental disaster. Food insecurity, lack of means of
livelihood and capacity to access resources characterise their lives even in normal times.
While the challenge is equally present in rural and urban areas, it is worse in the case
of the latter.
Adequate linkages between disasters and development can, for example, reduce the
vulnerability of coastal communities to natural hazards by establishing a regional early
warning system; applying construction setbacks, greenbelts and other no-build areas;
promote early resettlement with provision for safe housing; debris clearance; potable
water, sanitation and drainage services and access to sustainable livelihood options;
enhance the ability of the natural system to act as a bioshield to protect people and
restoring wetlands, mangroves, spawning areas, sea grass beds and coral reefs, and by
seeking alternative building design that is cost-effective, appropriate and consistent.
It has to be seen as to how the interlinkages between disasters and development could
be incorporated in the disaster recovery plan. Rehabilitation and reconstruction phase, as
we have mentioned earlier in the Unit, is the most opportune time to rebuild infrastructure,
resources and communities. Recovery plan should encompass the issues related to
negative impact of disasters on socio-economic system and the ways and means through
which these challenges could be converted into developmental opportunities. We have
moved on from post-disaster assistance to pre-disaster preparedness;from readiness to
mitigation; from individual aid to restoration of services; and from relief to rehabilitation.
A broad disaster recovery plan should include comprehensive sub-plans on:
i) Health and Medical Care;
ii) Creation of Livelihood Options;
iii) Environmental Protection; and
iv) Rehabilitation and Reconstruction.
Many endeavours to strengthen the process of recovery need to be taken note of over
here. These aim at using modern technology, community participation and assistance from
national and international agencies in disaster recovery. The National Institute of
Oceanography (NIO) in Goa has developed a real-time reporting and Internet-accessible
coastal sea-level monitoring system. It has been operational at Verem Jetty on the
Mandovi River in Goa since September 24, 2005. The gauge uses a cellular modem to
put on the Internet real-time sea-level data, which can be accessed by authorised
personnel. By using a cellular phone network, coastal sea-level changes are continuously
updated on to a web-server. The sea-level gauge website can be made available to
television channels to broadcast real-time visualisation of the coastal sea level (Prabhudesai
and Joseph, 2006).
An improved Seismographic Network, a network of real-time sea-level gauges in the
Indian Ocean and deep-sea pressure sensors has been proposed, along with National
Tsunami Warning Centres (NTWCs), for a reliable warning and mitigation network for the
region. While satellite communication is expensive, wireless communication infrastructure
and the presence of cellular phones have made cellular communication affordable. The
sea-level network in the Indian Ocean has been upgraded with the establishment of 23
real-time stations, which form a part of the Global Sea Level Observation System
(GLOSS) set up in 1985 and transmit data every hour through the Global
Telecommunication System (GTS) of the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO).
Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis (DART) is another effort. It is a
second-generation DART system (DART-II) that is under development. It will allow bi-
directional communication, which would enable transmission of tsunami data on demand.
This would ensure the measurement and reporting of tsunamis with wave amplitude below
the automatic reporting threshold (Prabhudesai and Joseph, op.cit.). After the Tsunami, the
India Meteorological Department (IMD) has upgraded the existing seismological observatory
at Port Blair with a state-of-the-art broadband seismograph system. A network of five
temporary field observatories has been established. Permanent observatories have also
been planned for some areas. Setting up bio-shields, knowledge centres and agronomic
rehabilitation have been called for (Parsai, 2006).
The advancement in science and technology could be used with advantage for speedy
long-term recovery. These efforts have been supplemented by international developments
in terms of various environmental treaties, international consortiums, sustainable data
forums and declarations such as ProVention Consortium, Fribourg Forum, Hemispheric
Conference, South Asian Livelihood Options Project etc. The International Decade for
Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR) helped raise the profile of discussions surrounding
the social and economic causes of disasters and acknowledged the mitigation of losses
through technological and engineering solutions. Yokohama Strategy in May 1994 endorsed
these objectives and further underlined the link between disaster reduction and sustainable
development.
The International Strategy for Disaster Risk Reduction aims at carrying the good work
ahead. The Strategy aims at: increasing public awareness of the risks that natural,
technological, and environmental hazards; obtaining commitment by public authorities to
reduce risks to people, their livelihoods, social and economic infrastructure and environmental
resources; engaging public participation at all levels of implementation to create disaster-
resistant communities through increased partnership and expanded risk reduction networks
at all levels; and reducing the economic and social losses of disasters as measured. The
World Health Organisation (WHO) Meet in Bangkok in December 2005 aimed at
identifying gaps in addressing response, preparedness and recovery for health needs of the
affected. One of the major objectives of the Meet was to develop benchmarks and
corresponding course of action (The Hindu, Dec.28, 2005).
Disaster management is acquiring a global connotation. Besides the United Nations and
the World Bank, many international organisations such as Caritas India, Lutheran World
Service, Asian Development Bank, Intermediate Technology Development Group (ITDG),
Danish International Development Agency, Swedish International Development Agency,
Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere (CARE), International Federation of
Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, Oxfam, etc., are doing substantial work in the
area of disaster management.
Of late, the Narmada Bachao Andolan has been drawing attention to the travails of
Project Affected People (PAPs), as a result of unthoughtful and insensitive development
and rehabilitation policies of the governments. The Andolan has been focusing on issues
such as non-compliance with rules, violation of human rights, hardship of the poor etc.
One viewpoint is that those who equate development with huge shopping malls, big dams,
vehicular proliferation, and global merchandise are never faulted for the negative
consequences of development that ignores norms of equity, environmental protection and
social justice (Iyer, 2006). We would though not like to go into the debate on utility of
the mega projects over here. Yet, the issue to ponder over is that if in normal times, a
development project can cause so much displacement and inadequate rehabilitation of
PAPs, can we expect a comprehensive rehabilitation policy for natural disasters?
The Disaster Management Act 2005 has been passed in India. The Act aims at speedy
handling of natural and man-made disasters. It makes way for the setting up of a National
Disaster Management Authority at the Central level and a State Disaster Management
Authority at the State level. How far and how much it would achieve are questions only
time will answer. Meanwhile, the National Disaster Management Authority is already
functional and so also are the State Disaster Management Authorities in Orissa and
Gujarat.
The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has also initiated several pre-disaster mitigation
projects to reduce the impact of natural disasters on life and property as well as bring
down social vulnerabilities. It has undertaken standardisation efforts in the area of
earthquake engineering. Some new earthquake-resistance techniques have been developed
that can be kept in view. One of them is the Base Isolation Technology. It aims at
reducing the forces transmitted to the building from the ground by placing the building
atop a mechanical system of isolators, sliders and dampers called Base Isolation
Technology. Such technologies along with Diagonal Bracing, disaster resistant pier systems,
Welded Wire Fabric Reinforcement could help in disaster-resistant construction.
Disaster management has been incorporated in the training curricula of All India Services
with effect from 2004-05. There is a separate Faculty for disaster management in 29
State Level Administrative Training Institutes. National Council for Educational Research
and Training (NCERT) books now include a chapter on disaster management for school
children. The All India Council for Technical Education has been advised to include
engineering aspects of disaster management in engineering courses. This education and
training impetus has to be sustained through informed people’s participation. A simple
philosophy for coping with disasters is one of government and people working together
in a coordinated way, by means of a coherent disaster management system.
A Rehabilitation-Reconstruction-Tracking Matrix is being produced that provides salient
information on the overall recovery effort. The Matrix brings together information from
tsunami-affected countries on what work is being done and what is being planned, who
is doing the work, what measurable results are expected, where the work is being done,
when the work is expected to begin and end, and its current status, and the source,
amount and status of financing etc. The Matrix is at three levels of resolution-regional
overview, sector-level status by region and country, and project level status by country.
It is expected to provide a comprehensive view of recovery. This Matrix could serve as
the platform for coordination of work in the recovery process and its relationship with
developmental goals.
There is also a need to strengthen the legal, organisational and procedural objects of
disaster management. The Sustainable Disaster Network (SDN) could be a solution. It is
a global network of organisations whose mission is to encourage policies, which allow
individuals to pursue their goals without intervention. The SDN focuses on the institutional
framework within which people act, to ensure that policies encourage individuals to make
the best use of resources and protect the environment, while improving both theirs as well
as others’ well being.
There have been many instances where disasters have hindered development and many
more where lopsided development process has led to disasters. Many seismologists now
relate earthquakes with high-rise buildings. Dam-induced afflictions such as deforestation,
soil erosion, water logging cannot be overlooked. Loss of mangrove plantation in coastal
areas has been the cause behind the colossal loss of human lives and property in the
intense Tsunami of 2004. The Chennai floods and the inundation of Mumbai in the year
2005 have been the result of faulty and shortsighted urban planning.
Disaster recovery is not a one-time isolated exercise. The objectives of recovery plan can
only be achieved if the conception, execution and evaluation of disaster management
programmes are clearly laid down. The interlinkages between all the stages of disaster
management cycle as well as between disasters and development have to be recognised
and assimilated in the disaster recovery plan. We will read more about it in our next Unit
on disasters and development.
15.8 CONCLUSION
Disasters can delay development by leading to loss of resources, shifting of resources to
meet the emergency, depressing the investment climate and affecting the formal and non-
formal sectors. Thus, the development policies must make adequate provision for well-
planned disaster management approach. The Rehabilitation plan necessarily needs to be
designed according to the expectations of the affected population.
There are several erroneous assumptions made regarding post-disaster situations that affect
rehabilitation. These are: political support will be available when needed, funding will last
as long as required, all stakeholders in the process will think alike, all agencies conceived
will be competent to carry out required tasks, physical recovery must precede economic
and social recovery, there is no trade off between speed and quality of reconstruction,
codes and controls will have be rigidly followed, reconstruction is an isolated process
from pre-disaster planning and so on.
There are dilemmas and alternatives which also face post-disaster planners: survey quickly
or survey accurately, repair or rebuild, rebuild or relocate, respond quickly or invite wide
participation, create new organisation or rely on existing ones, rely on public or private
investment, pursue physical reconstruction or economic reconstruction, and use local
resources or imported ones. All these extend over to the disaster recovery phase and
these need to be systematically looked into. To sum up, we may reiterate an important
observation, which is a kind of slogan for disaster management. “Vikas aisa ho jo aafat
se bachaaye, vikas aisa naa ho jo aafat ban jaaye”. It means that development should
be such that guards against calamities. Development process should not be such that leads
to calamities.
This Unit examined several problem areas in disaster recovery. It highlighted the Tsunami
aftermath and the physical and social rehabilitation that has taken place in the affected
areas. There are certain guiding principles that need to be adhered to in order to make
rehabilitation and reconstruction effective and sustainable. The Unit discussed the important
principles in the light of the necessary interlinkages that need to be established between
disasters and development.
15.9 KEY CONCEPTS

Base Isolation Technology : Reducing the forces transmitted to the building from
the ground by placing the building atop a mechanical
system of isolators, sliders and dampers is called
‘base isolation technology’. This dampens the violent
movements of the earth during a seismic event. By
using isolators and dampers, the building is ‘decoupled’
from the ground motion of any earthquake and the
transmission of seismic energy to the building is
dampened. This is done by lowering the vibrational
frequency, allowing the building to move or displace

and also by lowering the shock acceleration of the
seismic event; thus reducing the tendency for the
upper floors to move faster than the lower floors.
‘Chaukhats’ : The technology applied on the ‘Chaukhats’ is
reminiscent of a machine stitch on a fabric that keeps
a piece of cloth in shape. In like manner, the
technology makes use of wood, like a thread and
keeps the entire structure intact against the ravages of
weather and geo-activity. Through-stones and flat-
stones are used, and wood predominates the structures
of whatever dimensions they are. Pairs of thick
wooden logs, beginning from the base of any two
opposite walls are used at every 30 inches alternately
with heavy stones to raise the walls and run through
the entire length of all the walls. At the right angle
where any two walls meet, the edges of the pair of
logs on one wall are placed on the edge of the logs
of the other and they are joined together by hammering
thick wooden nails through them. This has an effect of
turning the structure into a single piece construction.
Such technologies for building quake resistant houses
are available in the Himalayan region in India.
Damageability : Damageability of a structure is the property, which
refers to the ability of a structure to undergo substantial
damage without partial or total collapse.
Deforestation : Deforestation is the permanent destruction of indigenous
forests and woodlands. It could be brought about by
various factors such as conversion of forests and
woodlands to agricultural land, plantation of cash
crops and cattle ranching, commercial logging, felling
of trees for the purposes of firewood or building
material. It can further lead to soil erosion, silting and
desertification.
Deformability : The deformability is the ability of a structure to
displace or deform substantially without collapsing. A
deformability action is a must to achieve earthquake
resistance.
Desertification : Desertification is becoming a major problem as more
and more of the world’s land surface is turning into a
desert. The new deserts, which are being created, are
not necessarily hot, dry, sandy places, but are those
areas where humans have mistreated the soil and
rendered the land useless for agricultural purposes.
Soils, in any case, are ruined easily in areas where
seasonal rainfall is unreliable. Cutting down of forest
and trees, over-cultivation of soil and overgrazing
leads to desertification.
Disaster Resistant Pier : A good foundation of the house is of immense help in

Systems and Diagonal Bracing making it disaster resistant. For manufactured homes,
one option is a disaster resistant pier system, with
stout members rigidly connecting the home’s chassis
to a slab, grade beam, or array of pads. Some
systems incorporate lateral or diagonal bracing for
greater resistance. Though often referred to as
Earthquake Resistant Bracing (ERB) systems, these
also resist high winds, frost heaves and floods. Not
only are these systems cost-effective in reducing
structural movement (compared to conventionally
manufactured housing foundations), they can even save
lives and property.
DISKNET : National Natural Disaster Knowledge Network
(DISKNET) is a network that could aid and stimulate
functions such as: assisting in implementation of national
projects by establishing crosslinkages and appropriate
alignments with other related projects, ensuring free
flow of high quality information and on-line interaction;
helping state governments and disaster related institutions
in securing appropriate partnerships by matching the
felt needs with available capacities; leveraging funding
from Internet and external resources; matching specific
needs with apt solutions in public or private domains;
providing technical guidance to the stakeholders and
beneficiaries at large; serving as a national clearing
house of information on natural disasters; and promoting
partnerships between the government, public and the
private sectors.
Ductility : The ductility of a building is the ability to bend, sway
and deform by large amounts without complete
collapse.
Epidemiological Surveillance : Epidemiological surveillance is the collection and
interpretation of data on the risk or actual occurrence
of communicable diseases and other health problems.
As an assessment tool, epidemiological surveillance is
most important in slow-onset and continuing disasters,
especially where changes in living patterns occur such
as the relief camps of disaster victims. These changes
rarely occur after rapid onset disasters. However,
because fear of disease is always prevalent after any
major disaster, health status assessment and disease
surveillance should be carried out as a guide for
planning and management of health interventions,
especially as a tool for quality control, and as a
means of controlling rumours and reassuring the victims.
Faulting : A fracture or crack in the earth’s surface.
Fribourg Forum : The Fribourg Forum held in June 2000 in Switzerland
was convened by the UN Office for Coordination of

Humanitarian Affairs to bring together ministers and
representatives from 52 countries of Europe and
Commonwealth Nations, international and national
organisations and NGOs, etc. The purpose was to
obtain the policy guidance, political support and
commitment necessary to improve coordination and
cooperation to reduce the negative impact of disasters.
Geographic Information : Software uses geography and computer-generated maps
System (GIS) as an interface for integrating and accessing massive
amounts of location-based information. This unique
characteristic of GIS makes it an effective tool in the
field of disaster response and preparedness. It can be
used for scientific investigations, resource management,
disaster and development planning.
Global Warming : The earth is getting warmer by the day. Human
activities as well as natural processes have precipitated
the rate of global warming by producing certain green
house gases such as carbon dioxide, methane and
chloro- fluoro carbons into the atmosphere. It is the
people also who are causing the change in the climate
by burning nature’s vast stores of coal, oil and natural
gas.
Hemispheric Conference : The Conference laid emphasis on: developing the
(2001) capacity to forecast, prepare for and mitigate the
potential impact of disasters; reducing the vulnerability
of people through risk and damage assessment;
promoting the exchange of information; strengthening
partnerships with all relevant stakeholders; promoting
exchange of knowledge and experiences; and building
database of disaster mitigation agencies.
Kyoto Protocol : At the Earth Summit in 1992, the World
representatives agreed to prevent ‘dangerous’ climate
change. The first step was the 1997 Kyoto Protocol,
which has come into force in 2005. Kyoto Protocol
is an amendment to the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), an
International Treaty on Global Warming. Countries,
which ratify this Protocol, commit to reduce their
emissions of carbon dioxide and other green house
gases such as chloro-fluoro carbons. Around 153
countries are the signatories of Kyoto Protocol, which
imposes cuts on emissions between 2008 and 2012.
Lagoon : A shallow lake formed at the mouth of a river or near
the sea but separated from it by a sand mound.
Land Use : Land use refers to the range of uses of earth surface
made by humans. Uses are classified as urban, rural,
agricultural, forested etc., with more specific sub-

classification. It means the way the land is developed
and used in terms of the kinds of activities allowed
and the size of buildings and structures permitted in
agricultural, residential and industrial areas.
Nutrition Centred Health : Nutrition Centred Health Assessment (NCHA)
Assessment evaluates the health and nutritional status of children
under age of five (that is, 12 months to 5 years) as
the ‘point of contact’ to detect and assess a full range
of health problems. The method is used for: initial
assessment of health and nutritional status, long-term
surveillance of disease, malnutrition and death as well
as long-term monitoring of food supplies, logistics,
water and food quality.
Ozone Layer Depletion : Ozone is a form of oxygen, but unlike oxygen, it is a
harmful gas. The action of sunlight on oxygen constantly
produces small amounts of ozone in the stratosphere.
At the same time, natural processes are breaking
down ozone. Till now, the total amount of ozone has
usually stayed constant because its formation and
destruction has occurred at about the same rate.
Human activity has recently changed that natural
balance. We are producing certain substances such as
chloro-fluoro-carbons and hydro-chloro-fluro-carbons
at a rate, which is destroying the stratospheric ozone
much faster than it is formed.
ProVention Consortium : This Consortium, comprising 43 governments,
international organisations, academic institutions, private
sector and civil society organisations was launched in
the year 2000. It aims at: promoting a culture of
safety through education and training; supporting public
policy that can reduce the risk of natural and
technological disasters; encouraging pilot projects to
disseminate information about the proven best practices
to mitigate disasters; developing the abilities of
governments to minimise disasters; and forging links
between public and private sectors, between scientific
community and policy makers, between victims and
donors so that stakeholders in disaster risk reduction
work together.
Remote Sensing : Remote sensing is the acquisition of information on
disaster related subjects. Weather radar, weather
satellite, seismographs and videotape are examples of
remote sensing systems. Remote sensing information
can be valuable in determining the extent of cataclysmic
disasters and monitoring slow-onset disasters such as
environmental degradation and droughts. These tools
also offer the possibility of acquiring data over remote
regions or areas made inaccessible by disruption of

normal transportation and communication systems.
However, these tools require that ground studies (known
as ground-truth studies) be carried out to verify and
adjust and/or calibrate the data obtained from air or
space and be made available in time for emergency
responses.
Social Forestry : Growing of plantations for the use of villagers’ basic
needs preferably with their participation in the process.
‘Sumers’ : The ‘Sumers’ are ascribed to the Rajput families of
Rajasthan in India. Typical ‘Sumers’ stand 15-17 mts
high from the ground level and have 5–6 floors with
4 rooms on each floor. The ground area covered by
the Sumer is 86 sq.mt. A foundation trench 3 mts
deep and 70 cms wide is first dug and then refilled
with flat dressed stones. This foundation is then raised
above the ground in the fashion of a rectangular
platform, to the height of 2-3 mts with the help of flat
stones, clay and stone fillings. To raise the walls,
double wooden logs are placed horizontally on the
edge of the two parallel sides of the platform, which
are opposite to each other. The width of the logs
determines the thickness of the walls, which is 70
cms. On the other two parallel sides, the wall is
raised with well-dressed flat stones to the surface
level of the logs placed on the other two sides. The
walls are further raised by placing heavy, flat, dressed
stones upon the wooden logs on the two sides and
by placing another pair of wooden logs upon the
stones on the other two opposite sides. The structure
is further reinforced with the help of wooden beams
fixed alternately that run from the middle of the walls
of one side to the other, intersecting at the centre.
This arrangement divides the ‘Sumer’ into 4 equal
parts from within and provides for joists supporting
the floorboards in each floor of the building.
Sustainable Development : The United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development (UNCED) also called Earth Summit,
1992, defines “sustainable development as the right to
development which must be fulfilled so as to equitably
meet development and environment needs of the
present and future generations”. UNCED’s objectives
emphasise that in order to achieve sustainable
development, environment protection shall constitute
an integral part of the development process and
cannot be considered in isolation from it.
Vulnerability Analysis : Vulnerability Analysis is the process of estimating the
vulnerability of specified elements at risk to potential
disaster hazards. Disaster mitigation and emergency
plans are based on the systematic knowledge of the

system’s vulnerability in terms of deficiencies in its
capacity to provide services, physical weaknesses of
the components to external forces and organisational
shortcomings in responding to emergencies. Vulnerability
analysis identifies and quantifies these weaknesses,
thereby defining the expected performance of the
system and its organisation.
Watershed : We all live in a vast watershed and we all contribute
to the health of the lakes, rivers and groundwater in
our watershed and beyond. A watershed is the area
across or under which water flows on its way to
lakes, rivers, streams and groundwater. Any area of
land is made up of overlapping basins. Water flows to
the lowest point in each of these basins; usually a
lake, stream, pond or river. This basin is a watershed,
and can come in many different shapes and sizes. The
Mississippi River Watershed, for example, is composed
of hundreds of smaller watersheds.
Welded Wire Fabric : Currently, the most widely accepted form of
reinforcement is Welded Wire Fabric (WWF). It is a
mesh of thick steel wires that is placed in concrete.
However, synthetic-fibre reinforcement avoids the
increased labour costs and difficulty in placement that
are associated with WWF. Small diameter synthetic
fibres (nylon and polypropylene) are now being added
to concrete in order to reduce shrinkage and cracking
by more than 80 per cent according to certain
independent laboratory tests.

“We are now in the Reconstruction Phase”, Interview with R. Santhanam, State Relief
Commissioner, Tamil Nadu, Frontline, January 13,2006.
Aysan, Yasemin and Ian Davis, 1993, “Rehabilitation and Reconstruction”, Module
prepared for Department of Humanitarian Affairs (DHA), UNDP as Disaster Management
Training Programme (Programme (DMTP) (1st Edition).
Dhameja, Alka, 2001, “Droughts and Foods: A Case for ‘Dying Wisdom’ ” in Pardeep
Sahni et al. (Eds.), Disaster Mitigation: Experiences and Reflections, Prentice-Hall of
India, New Delhi.
Gupta, Harsh K., 2003, Disaster Management, University Press, Hyderabad.
http: //pdm. medicine. wise. Edu
Indira Gandhi National Open University Postgraduate Programme in Disaster Management
(Management (PGDDM), Course MPA- 007 on Rehabilitation, Reconstruction,
Reconstruction and Recovery, April 2006.
Indira Gandhi National Open University, Certificate Programme in Disaster Management
(CDM-2), Disaster Management: Methods and Techniques, January 2003.

Iyer, Ramaswamy R., 2006,” Narmada Project: The Points at Issue” in The Hindu, April
13.
Jayanth, V., 2005, “The Anatomy of a Disaster” in The Hindu, December 26.
Kannan, Ramya, 2005,” Keeping Memories Alive” in The Hindu, December 26.
Kapse, Ram, 2005,” Islands of Hope” in The Hindu, December 26.
Krishnakumar, R., 2006, “A Question of Accountability”, Frontline, Frontline, January
13.
Medury, Uma and Alka Dhameja, 2005, “Rehabilitation of Cyclone Affected People” in
Amita Singh (Ed.), Administrative Reforms, Towards Sustainable Practices, Sage, New
Delhi.
Menon, Parvathi and M. Appanaswamy, 2006, “Rising to the Challenge”, Frontline,
January 13.
Nair, Rajesh, 2005, “Building for the Future” in The Hindu, December 26.
Nambath, Suresh, 2005, “Closer Apart”in The Hindu, December 26.
Parsai, Gargi, 2005, “When Nature Strikes Back” in The Hindu, December 25.
Prabhudesai, R.G. and Antony Joseph, 2006, “ Cellular-based Sea Level Gauge”,
Frontline, January 13.
Sahni, Pardeep and Madhavi Malalgoda Aryabandhu, (Eds.), 2003, Disaster Risk
Reduction in South Asia, Prentice-Hall of India, New Delhi.
Sahni, Pardeep, Alka Dhameja and Uma Medury (Eds.) 2001, Disaster Mitigation:
Experiences and Reflections, Prentice-Hall, New Delhi.
Saxena, Shalini, 6, “Global Warming” in Sunday Pioneer, April 9.
Sridhar, V, 2006, “Partners in Rebuilding”, Frontline, January 13.
Stephenson, Rob S. and Charles DuFrane, 2002, “ Disasters and Development:
Understanding and Exploiting Disaster-Development Linkages”, Fred C. Cunny Memorial
Continuing Education Series, Volume 17, Number 3, July-September.
Stephenson, Rob S., 2002, Disasters and Development Module for DMTP
The Hindu, 2005, December 28.
The Hindu, 2005, December 13.
United Nations Development Programme, 1991, Disaster Management Manual,
1991.December 13th
Website
www.adb.org/Document/Events2005/RehabilitationandReconstruction
15.11 ACTIVITIES
1) Browse the Internet and make a list of Websites that deal with rehabilitation
and reconstruction.
2) Go through the newspapers and magazines, and scan their write-ups and articles for
any recent disaster. Prepare a list of rehabilitation activities that these write-ups deal
with.
3) Make a list of the guiding principles of rehabilitation and reconstruction
4) Make a note on the nature of problem areas in long-term disaster recovery.
UNIT 16 DISASTERS AND DEVELOPMENT
Structure
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Disasters and Development Processes
16.3 Need for a New Paradigm
16.4 Conclusion
16.5 Key Concepts
16.7 Activities

z Understand the interconnection between disaster and development in both positive
and negative senses;
z Bring out the deficiencies in development planning in this regard; and
z Look at the vision for the future.
16.1 INTRODUCTION
Disaster reduction and coping with disasters touch many areas of human life and society
constituting a core task for sustainable development. Major UN Conferences on Environment
and Development (Rio de Janerio, 1992) and on the Reduction of Natural Disasters
(Yokohama, 1994) have stressed that natural disasters cannot be attributed solely to
natural causes; they are as much a result of incorrect human conduct. The IDNDR
articulates the prime ones as: irresponsible approach to the environment, the proneness
of mega cities to grow out of control and population growth (Sinha, 2003).
Over the past few years, there has been an apparent increase in the number of natural
disasters, and with it, increasing losses on account of urbanisation and population growth.
Clearly, the perspective on development has been one-dimensional, that is, cognisance has
been taken exclusively of the growth aspect, without an eye on sustainability. As a result,
the impact of natural disasters is now felt to a greater extent. According to the United
Nations, in 2001 alone, natural disasters of medium to high range caused at least 25,000
deaths around the world, which is more than double the previous year and economic
losses of around US$ 36 billion. These figures would be much higher, if the consequences
of the many small and unrecorded disasters that cause significant destruction at the local
community level were to be taken into account. Some 75 per cent of the world’s
population lives in areas affected at least once by earthquake, tropical cyclone, flood or
drought between 1980 and 2000.
Disasters and Development 315
However, a purely antithetical understanding of the relation between disasters and

development may not give the true picture. Before we move any further with the
discussion, it may be pertinent to elucidate the meaning of the two terms that will be
frequently referred in this text, that is,’ Disasters’ and ‘Development’. ‘Disaster’ can
be defined as “any serious disruption in the functioning of the society, caused by a
hazard having wide spread human, material, environmental and other losses which
exceed the ability of the affected society to cope using its own resources.” On the
other hand ‘Development’ is a comprehensive social, economical and political process
that aims at the constant improvement of the well being of the population and all
individuals.
It is not development per se, but the character of development that is in question in
regard to sustainable development; the question being: Is development welfare driven or
is it spurred by purely commercial considerations? This can be understood by the damage
suffered in different countries in Asia from the 2004 tsunami disaster. While Maldives, Sri
Lanka, and Thailand suffered from non-ecologically sustainable over-development in
coastal areas; India, Sumatra and North East Sri Lanka, suffered because affected
pockets were inaccessible due to underdevelopment and impoverishment of the people,
which compounded the death toll to tremendous proportions.
Development has to continue, but with due concern for environment protection. Science
and technology can be fruitfully employed to control disasters, such as environmentally
sustainable disposal of nuclear and radioactive waste, development of non-conventional
energy sources, such as bio fuel, which reduces dependence on less sustainable options
such as dams and nuclear energy. Such alternatives are generated by research and
development in science and technology, which needs to be fervently promoted as a
development strategy. There is much emphasis currently on science and technology,
especially information communication technology for better understanding of disasters and
better reach of disaster response efforts.
As per UNDP, there is need for proactive resource commitment on the part of
Governments world-wide to understand the underlying causes behind natural calamities
and inquire into the nature of correlation (whether positive or negative) between these
causes and development which has been propelled significantly over the past few decades
by globalisation. As per the World Bank and the US Geological Survey estimates,
reported in White, Phillip et al (2004), economic losses worldwide from natural disasters
during the 1990s could have been reduced by US$280 billion worldwide if US$ 40
billion were invested in mitigation and preparedness. In Darbhanga district in North Bihar,
a cost-benefit analysis of mitigation and preparedness suggest that for every Indian rupee
spent, the benefits amounted to3.76 rupee. These researches are attributed to Twigg
(2002), World Bank (2004) and Tearfund International (2004). The UNDP catalogues
some of these correlations as: rapid urbanisation with impoverished settlements increasingly
located in ravines, on steep slopes, along flood plains, on unprotected coastlines, along
tectonic fault lines, or near dangerous industrial facilities; environmental degradation
caused by harmful agricultural and industrial practices; climate change leading to rising
seas, coral reef deterioration; increases in cyclones and droughts; economic trends that
are forcing the rural poor to focus on monoculture practices and seek to cultivate marginal
land; and violent conflict which has led to the destruction of forests and wetlands,
poisoning of the environment, and dislocation of peoples. Two factors quite clearly, played
major part in causing the tsunami disaster. Those two factors stem directly from
globalisation: increased global tourism, which has led to a chain of hotels coming up in
vulnerable areas, particularly along the coasts and the consequent destruction of natural
mangroves and forests. As has been explained in Unit 1, a hazard turns to disaster, when
natural phenomenon interfaces with populations and settlements without adequate capacity
to cope with inherent threats.
The Disaster Cycle
Disasters and Development are interrelated, both in positive and negative ways. Skewed
choices in development planning result in adverse consequences for the environment and
people; however, if the same choices are made ‘rationally’ on the basis of hazard
evaluation and risk assessment exercises with an eye on disaster prevention, development
becomes a boon, not a bane, as alleged in every case. The following model (Figure-1)
of Disaster Cycle demonstrates the interconnection between disasters and development.
Development could lead to crisis and disaster. Post disasters, lessons learnt and factored
in subsequent decisions result in ‘sustainable development.’
The concept of a disaster management cycle has emerged which emphasises the
interconnection between the three phases of response, recovery and prevention. Learners
have been apprised of the concept in Unit-2 of this course. Relief, rehabilitation,
reconstruction comprise the recovery phase and inspire subsequent development policy
towards disaster prevention. Hence, they should be studied, not as isolated events but as
integrated, along a linear continuum. The Disaster Cycle, however, has been criticised for
oversimplifying the disaster situation. This is because even though it views the stages as
integrally connected, it still visualises them as occurring along a linear continuum, where
policy returns to the pre -disaster stage of preparedness, if the apprehended disaster does
not occur, when actually, the situation carries the germ/potential of a disaster. Hence,
instead of a disaster cycle, a risk management cycle is considered more appropriate, to
tackle inherent hazards and not just manifest disaster (White, Phillip et al, 2004). The
diagram, Figure-1, of disaster cycle represents disasters and development as integrally
linked, in that they operate as causes and affects of/to the other variable. The concept
of disaster management cycle has significant implications for developing countries like
India. In India the distinction between disaster management and development was clear-
cut as the latter appeared as a non-plan item of expenditure, under “calamity relief.” This
was obviously a misconstruing of the problem, as was soon learnt after a spate of
disasters, when the Orissa Super Cyclone of 1999, Gujarat earthquake and floods in
different states in 2001 set back development a number of years. Hence, the Tenth Plan
announced a paradigm shift in that disaster management would now be appreciated or
perceived with/from a development perspective, and be factored into plan schemes under
relevant sectors. This is in keeping with the concept of disaster management cycle.
(Source: http://ocw.jhsph.edu/courses/RefugeeHealthCare/PDFs/Lecture17.pdf)
Fig. 16.1: Model of a Disaster Cycle
The interconnection between disasters and development is also brought out by the fact
that public policy has been deficient in many respects. This has resulted in vulnerabilities
that have exacerbated disaster losses that would otherwise not have accrued. For
example, as rightly pointed out by the Sustainable development Network (2005), in poor
countries, planning regulations are such that residents do not have secure tenure to their
properties and are therefore dissuaded from carrying out much needed repairs, which
make the structures weak overtime. Instead of going in for substantial investments which
would provide them safe dwellings, poor residents prefer to live in ramshackle tin huts
which provide little or no resistance to strong currents or wind storms. Besides, since
legal procedures are often time consuming and weak, contracts and other property rights
cannot be enforced, which means financial institutions cannot provide insurance. The
current planning regulations give the bureaucrats too many powers of interjection and
direct interface with the public, which increases the probability of corruption. This lacuna
was made evident by the recent tsunami of 2004. Many such homes were swept away,
even though construction technologies have been developed that can ward off such threats
from the sea to some extent.
Hence, securing property rights, ensuring freedom of contract and unflinching application
of the rule of law are the three basic requirements of a liberal economy, which India is
embarking upon presently. It also has significant implications for disaster management.
Good governance is another eminent requirement. Corruption stalls effective implementation
of poverty alleviation programmes as also disaster relief and response programmes. While
good governance may be hard to define in precise terms, broadly it is conceived as a
government which is transparent with regard to its working and where bureaucrats are
accountable for omissions/commissions. As per the Sustainable Development Network,
“poverty and corruption seem to occur jointly”. Wealthiest countries, as per the Corruptions
Perception Index (2004), such as Finland, New Zealand, Denmark and Iceland, Singapore,
Sweden, Switzerland; Norway, Australia, United Kingdom, Canada, US along with Ireland
and Belgium, are also the most well governed, implying more corruption free, and the
poorest, Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Cote d’Ivoire, Georgia, Indonesia,
Tajikistan and Turkmenistan, Azerbaijan, Paraguay, Chad, Myanmar, Nigeria, Bangladesh
and Haiti are the poorest and also the most corruption ridden.
There is a positive correlation between wealth and resilience to disasters. While the rich
can secure lives and property by accessing insurance, and retrofitting structures, the poor
cannot access such means. More the economic inequality, greater is the vulnerability of
large masses of people to disasters. Given the negative correlation between economic
development and disaster damage, governments in developing countries could not be
excused for inadequate effort in this regard. Every week, 120,000 people, especially
children would die from preventable diseases, like Malaria, indoor air pollution, malnutrition,
lack of clean water and poor sanitation. These happen exclusively in poor countries due
to lack of economic development and access to technology.
Desideratum of the discussion /arguments stated above, is, that “ only through institutions
of a free society can poor people move from the vicious cycle of poverty and oppression
to a virtuous cycle of empowerment and development” (Ibid).
Public Policy for development of telecommunications and broadcasting infrastructure at the
local level is a critical requirement in disaster response. The same was realised during the
2004 Tsunami, when information about sea surges from affected areas did not reach the
Centre even after 48 hours with the result that aid could not reach these areas in time.
Another factor, which again concerns ‘mainstream’ development, is communication
infrastructure, which was found weak at the field level during the recent tsunami. Since
the information network was highly centralised, information from many affected areas did
not reach the centre in time, which resulted in avoidable catastrophe. The National
Disaster Management Policy enunciated after the Gujarat earthquake in India focused on
early warning and information sharing between agencies that are timely and accurate. As
per Sinha (2003), emphasis areas were: Increase of networking, Resource and knowledge
sharing, Blending science and technology with the ongoing development process, efficient
linkages with other Disaster Management Systems, Adoption of multi-hazard approach
within the paradigm of prevention, mitigation and reduction.
The United Nations has been advocating proactive policy, especially for developing
countries, to preempt/prevent disasters and/or towards mitigating their impact(s) if/when
they strike. Accordingly, the decade of 1990 was declared the International Decade for
Natural Disasters Reduction. The plan of action chalked out in pursuit of the objective
was outlined in the Yokohama Conference of 1994. The strategy is to urge nations to
share technology and expertise between them; the onus clearly is on the developed world,
which has to generate awareness in this regard among poor nations where disasters risk
reduction is still not a priority agenda. Since resource is the prime constraint, United
Nations and other international agencies such as the UNDP, UNIDO, and World Wide
Fund for Nature et al have committed fund assistance for projects to developing
countries. At the same time, developing countries are being prompted to invest more in
disaster prevention and mitigation activities, than relying on foreign aid, which is not the
panacea as has been brought out in experience with recent calamitous events. The United
Nations has declared a five point agenda in their Draft Programme Document in this
regard:
z Ensure that disaster reduction is a national and local priority, with a strong institutional
basis for implementation
z Identify, assess and monitor disaster risks and enhance early warning
z Use knowledge, innovation and education to build a culture of safety and resilience
z Reduce the underlying risk factors
z Strengthen disaster preparedness for early response
16.2 DISASTERS AND DEVELOPMENT PROCESSES

There is an old saying, ‘an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure’. Prevention
is possible only when mitigation aspects are incorporated in the development planning
process. Disasters resulting from natural hazards, such as flood, cyclone, drought,
earthquake, fire and many more impact development in several ways. Disasters damage
infrastructures, lifeline and critical facilities resulting in human, financial and environmental
losses. Thus, natural disaster risk is intimately connected to the processes of development
(see box ‘a’).
The following are some of the notable success stories of disasters prevention, as read
from different sources:
z In China investment of US$3.15 billion in flood control measures over 40 years is
believed to have averted potential losses of US$12 billion.
z In Vietnam, 12,000 hectares of land of mangroves planted by the Red Cross protect
110 km of sea dykes. While planting and protection cost US$ 1.1 million, the cost
of dyke maintenance was brought down by US $ 7.3 million per year and the
mangroves have protected 7, 750 families living behind the dyke.
z According to Oxfam, the value of cattle saved on a flood shelter of 4 acres in
Bangladesh during the 1998 floods was as much as $150,000 against a construction
cost of only $8.650.
The Evolution of Natural Disaster as a Development Concern
Both researchers and practitioners have been providing compelling evidences for many years that
natural disasters are something more than just acts of God. While this is a broad generalisation
of a very complex and heterogeneous process, one can say that until the 1970s a dominant view
prevailed that natural disasters were synonymous with natural events such as earthquakes,
volcanic eruption etc. From the 1970’s onwards, technical professionals such as engineers,
architects, began to focus on the fact that the same natural hazards had a varying impact on
different kind of structures. The characteristics of a disaster became more associated with its
physical impact than with the natural hazard. Interest grew in the design and implementation of
ways to mitigate losses through physical and structural measures to reduce hazard or to increase
the resistance of structures. Unfortunately, the cost of physical mitigation meant that in many of
the countries efforts to reduce risk by these means have been minimal.
Also since 1970s, but with the increased emphasis in the 1980s and 1990s, research from social
sciences and humanities have argued that the impact of a natural hazard depends not only on
the physical resistance of a structure, but on the capacity of the people to absorb the impact and
recover from loss or damage. The focus of attention shifted to social and economic vulnerability.
The casual factors of disasters thus shifted from the natural event towards the development process
that generated different levels of vulnerability. Vulnerability reduction began to be advanced as
a key strategy for reducing disaster impact.
By the end of the 1990s, it was clear that development processes were not only gathering different
patterns of vulnerability, but were also altering and magnifying patterns of hazard – an augment
that has gained increasing currency as evidence mounts regarding the impact of global climate
change. Risk management and reduction has been advanced as an integral paradigm that builds
on and incorporates all the previous strategies from the perspective that all development activities
have the potential to increase or reduce risk.
Source: A Global Report: Reducing Disaster Risk- A Challenge for Development.
box ‘a’
In order to clarify the ways in which disasters and development interact, it is helpful to
distinguish between economic and social elements of development. These social and
economic development work directly or indirectly to decrease or increase disaster risk.
The table below outlines the relation between social and economical development with
disasters.
Disaster-Development
Economic Development Social Development
Disaster limits Destruction of fixed assets. Damage Destruction of health or

development to transport, communication, education infrastructure and
infrastructure. Erosion of personnel. Death, migration of
livelihood. key social actors leading to an
erosion of social capital.
Development Unstable development practices that Development path generating

causes disaster create wealth for some at the cultural norms that promote
risk expense of unsafe working or living social isolation or political
conditions for others or degrade the exclusion.
environment.
Development Access to adequate drinking water, Building community cohesion,

reduces disaster food, waste management and a recognising excluded
risk secure dwelling increases people’s individuals or social groups,
resilience. Trade and technology and providing opportunities for
can reduce poverty. Investing in greater involvement in
financial mechanisms and social decision-making, enhanced
security can cushion against educational and health capacity
vulnerability. increases resilience.
Looking at the relationship between disasters and development one can identify ‘four’
different dimensions to this relation:
1) Disasters can set back development
2) Disasters can provide development opportunities
3) Development can increase vulnerability and
4) Development can reduce vulnerability
The whole relationship between disaster and development depends on the development
choice made by the individual, community and the nation who implement the development
programmes. Let us now try to understand these ‘four’ different dimensions mentioned
above with suitable examples for a better understanding.
1) Disasters can set back Development: Disasters wipe out decades of economic
and social development, which has taken place over a period of time. In 1982,
hurricane Isaac destroyed 22 per cent of the housing stock in the Togan archipelago.
Reconstruction cost to improve damage to water and sanitation, energy,
telecommunications, roads and railway infrastructure, from flooding in Mozambique in
2000, cost US$ 165.3 million.
2) These accounts are dramatic,

The 2001 earthquakes in El Salvador and in Seattle in
but the constant drain of the United States resulted in losses of around US$ 2
resources because of frequent billion each. While this scale of loss was easily absorbed
disasters limits development by the U.S economy, it represented 15 per cent of El
potential of million of people Salvador’s GDP for that year.
around the world. In
Vietnam, in “normal” years, flooding destroys on an average of 300,000 tonnes of
food. In addition, unplanned budgetary allocation to disaster recovery can hamper
development interventions and lead to unmet development targets. Thus, disasters can
significantly impede the effectiveness of development resource allocation. The damage
due to disasters is done in many ways and the impacts can be as complex as the
economy itself.
Countries that are normally affected by disasters have also to face the brunt of reduced
human capital, as a large number of populace is affected and are not able to carry out
the routine work. Disasters also reduce availability of new investment, further constricting
the growth of the region. Besides, additional pressure may be imposed on the finances
of the government through investments in relief and rehabilitation work. The increase in the
cost and the frequency of disaster is the direct result of human action. Not only will the
size of a nation’s economy, but also the proportion of its land area exposed to the hazard
determine disaster risk. Almost three quarter of the island of Montserrat was uninhabitable
by the volcanic eruption in 2001. Today 36 per cent of the pre-disaster population
remains and is supported by the United Kingdom.
Disasters can also limit social development. A population that has been weakened and
depleted by natural disaster, particularly when this coincides with losses from HIV/AIDS,
malnutrition or armed conflict, will be less likely to have the organisational capacity to
maintain irrigation works, bunds in the field for water harvesting etc. Without these social
assets, communities become more vulnerable. Women suffer additional stresses in disaster
situations and also bear a disproportionate burden of the additional domestic and income
generating work necessary for survival after a disaster event. When women are exposed
to these additional stresses, the level of social development is reduced. However, over the
long run, it is possible that there is an increase in their economic and political
participation, generating an increase in social development. The exclusion of women from
local decision-making circles in Bangladesh led to women and girls being unwilling to use
cyclone shelters. Currently, inclusions in the decision-making process have improved the
social position of women and encouraging greater use among women has reformed the
management of cyclone shelters there. Disasters are thwarting attempts on the part of
governments to achieve the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), particularly, eradication
of extreme poverty and hunger. In Ecuador, the Climate effects of El Nino, in 1997-98,
in combination with an oil shock, increased the headcount poverty rate from 34percent
in 1995, to 46 per cent in 1998. In Honduras, where there was widespread loss in
agricultural output following Hurricane Mitch in 1998, the poverty rate increased from 43
per cent to 46 per cent but more so for rural households. In the Dominican Republic,
headcount poverty increased from 36 to 40 per cent after a combination of drought and
terms of trade shocks in 1990. In larger developing countries, however, such impacts on
MDGs may not be wholly visible since overall national performance may obfuscate
pockets of high impact, where the MDGs were intensely affected. There is therefore need
to develop decentralised arrangements for impact assessments regarding MDGs following
a disaster. Besides, time factor is important since effects of floods or droughts can be
assessed over a longer time frame, while that of earthquakes or hurricanes require shorter
time frame. More reliable indices are expected to emerge with regard to progress in
achievement of MDGs by 2015.
Disasters exacerbate poverty manifold through a range of macroeconomic mechanisms in
that following short-term losses like loss of assets, the more intense long-term impacts
follow from cuts in social spending and post disaster inflation, especially in food prices
following flood or drought. In Zimbabwe, the 1991/92 droughts led to a jump in inflation
to 46 per cent and food price inflation to 72 per cent by the end of 1992. Besides,
disasters cause reallocation of funds and also donor assistance from development to relief
and rehabilitation which usually mean cuts on capital expenditure. This sets up a vicious
cycle of retardation in development and consequent income erosion, which affects the
poor, disproportionately more. Repeat events successively erode the coping capacity of
the poor, initially, selling jewellery or taking loans, to selling productive assets (livestock,
land, housing rights) to survive, and finally, to destitution and distress migration. HIV
AIDS or protracted conflicts as a result of dislocation and loss of social capital owing
to competition for scarce means and loss of social solidarity are known to take over at
this stage. These have set in motion a pernicious cycle in Africa, where destitution
combines with poor governance and disaster risk to create misery that is never ending
since the wherewithal to cope have been nearly annihilated (White, Phillip et al, 2004).
2) Disasters can provide development opportunities: Disaster events often give a
fillip to development, especially in the period immediately following a disaster. They
provide a spur to development policy in the aftermath period. Stephenson and DuFrane
(2002) opine that disasters can elevate the development potential of a society ‘at-risk’
for damage from a hazard. The political impact of damage and disruption can actually be
a catalyst for change. A lot of reconstruction and social development schemes are taken
up which would otherwise have not been paid attention to. Examples include, housing
improvements, land reform, social forestry, restructuring of the economic base due to
resource transfer from other areas, infrastructure development as contingent requirements
etc.
There could be enhanced investments in upgrading administrative capability and training of
personnel involved, which serves long term development goals. Development is also
imparted ‘direction’ in that pockets of underdevelopment, where damage is disproportionate
to the impact of the disaster, get highlighted during such events, which provides guidelines
for future policy in this regard. The Recovery phase gives important indications for
development planning. Reforestation programmes usually follow landslides and flash floods
to check soil erosion, which have spin off effects on other sectors, such as improved air
quality, better flora and fauna, health and longevity for people, etc., which improve
outcomes from ‘mainstream’ development programmes in the form of more sources of
income for the poor, enhanced employment opportunities, better animal husbandry, and
better forest produce for people living in the adjoining areas. Changes in cropping patterns
ameliorate erosion problems, and also losses due to floods and droughts. Programmes for
soil conservation, water harvesting and on farm storage mitigate the effects of droughts.
Hence, development is a variable in both the input and the output aspects of the disaster
mnagement cycle. In fact, it is central to disaster management.
At the request of the Government of India (GoI), The Asian Development Bank (ADB),
the United Nations and the World Bank put together a Joint Assessment Mission (JAM)
comprising experts from different disciplines and relevant vocations to assess the damage
from the Tsunami in Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerela and Pondicherry and make
suitable recommendations regarding Recovery, based on field surveys. The JAM

recommended that national and state authorities treat the tsunami as a “wake up call to
better evaluate vulnerability and improve risk management”. The Tsunami destroyed
fisheries and to a lesser extent, agriculture which affected communities beyond the physical
impact of the tsunami. The JAM recommended that, considering the crosscutting nature
of the disaster’s impact, administrative approach in reconstruction should be participatory,
flexible, decentralised, equitable and transparent, and cover concerns beyond livelihood
restoration to better coastal management and risk management as continuous policy
through realistic, short- term and medium -term goals. Effective hazard risk management
in the future should be less dependent on relief and assistance, which draws valuable
resources from other development goals. Instead there is a need to promote increased
participation of the community in risk transfer insurance, community level risk management
and disaster prevention while giving assistance to those affected. Before the tsunami, the
government had chalked out a coastal regulation zone notification of 1991, which could
not be implemented due to lack of an integrated approach and also understanding of the
provisions of the act, which led to different interpretations by different departments. The
notification required the coastal zone (500 mts. off the High Tide Line) to be classified
into one of four categories and then regulate the type of activities and land uses permitted
in each as per the vulnerability quotient. After a period of lackadaisical activity, the 2004
Tsunami created an opportunity to implement the act with more sense of purpose, since
it has given impetus to studies and analyses into specific requirements in each demarcation
and also the significance of integrated coastal zone management.
Forestry Project in Nepal Combines Development and Mitigation Strategies
The deforestation of Nepal has occurred at an alarming rate, with 50,000 hectares of forest cover
(or 2 per cent of the total forest land) lost each year. This loss of soil protection has resulted
in serious erosion in the mountainous region. There, population density has increased to more
than 500 people per square kilometer of cultivated land. As estimated 80 per cent of Nepal’s
energy used comes from fuel wood, and forests contribute more than 33 percent of the fodder
needs. In addition, increasing numbers of livestock have led to overgrazing, which significantly
contributes to environmental degradation.
During the 1980s, the Government of Nepal began the implementation of a community forestry
programme to counteract these trends. This ongoing project is intended to stimulate increased
production of such forest product as fuel wood, fodder and timber to simultaneously improve rural
welfare and forest conditions. The strategy involves the decentralization of the existing Forestry
Department’s control, and a transformation of its community Forestry and Afforestation Division
from a custodial to a collaborative role, with communities assuming responsibility for planning
and implementing their own forestry projects.
With deforestation, the dangers of environmental degradation, flooding and drought are increased.
The Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation, together with funding from United Nations
Development Programme, is pursuing a project to increase community involvement in the
conservation and disaster mitigation practices. Activities being promoted include fodder tree
planting, land use management, training, inclusion of people at the local and district levels in
the planning process, and coordination of forestry activities of all community projects.
By giving the rural farmers the commercial rights to forest products and providing them with
information concerning forest conservation it is hoped that they will have more of an economic
interest protecting forestland and increase its productivity. Special emphasis is placed on training
and extension activities for women who perform most of the work related to forest products in
Nepal.
Working at the grass roots level, Nepal’s community forestry programme is an innovative attempt
to improve the productivity of the land and reduce potential disasters by linking increased
production with protection of forest resources.
Source: Adapted from UNDP Project document # NEP/85/017/b/01/12- Project of Government of
Nepal)
box b’
Development opportunities often are compromised because of excessive focus on relief

assistance, which smothers independence and entrepreneurial effort on the part of people.
Most of it is misdirected or channeled through weak local structures as a result of which
funds get siphoned off. It has been noted that a lot of what is procured as relief could
be locally purchased which endorses the rationale of extending assistance for long/medium
term development (based on resources) through short-term relief instead of conceiving the
latter as being sufficient in itself. Reconstruction management involving vulnerability reduction
of particularly high-risk areas is a development challenge where hazard potential of repeat
events could be substantially minimised. Information regarding physical and socio-economic
vulnerability that is attained during disaster events can be factored into development
strategy for the future. Here, the private corporate sector and the voluntary sector have
significant contribution to make along with the government, especially in the context of the
changing paradigm of public administration, where the government functions as a catalyst
and promoter, and the civil society and private corporate sectors are engaged in actual
service delivery. Since resources flow in from many sources, national and international,
during emergencies, it is an opportune time to reinforce the financial sector by strengthening
the banking structure, housing associations and cooperative credit societies by extending
needed technical assistance and information. It is also time for in-house organisational
reforms within the governmental system, concerning O&M (Organisation and Methods),
involving financial procedures, reporting, monitoring systems, auditing and evaluation
procedures (Stephenson, DuFrane, 2002).
Disasters can also be a major vehicle for carrying out major development programmes.
Changes may occur in new land reforms, Acts and policies being developed, training of
professionals, inducing disaster resilient technologies in the new constructions etc. On the
other hand, development opportunities are missed or compromised because of lack of
awareness and also resistance to accept and introduce new techniques while a new
initiative is being taken up. This takes place because of lack of awareness of detailed risk
factors among decision makers and planners at the national and community level and the
related tendency for development options to be foreclosed when decisions are made
quickly without having full information. A case study of forestry project in Nepal (see box
‘b’ above) reflects how development and mitigation strategies to reduce vulnerability can
be related.
Information management is thus absolutely crucial for rational decision making in this
regard. The significance of decentralised information communication network has already
been highlighted earlier in the text. This leads us to research and development and use
of science and technology integrally in development planning. Thus, there is a great need
to guide and support the Government in developing strategic recovery programmes that
mesh with national development goals and leads to substantial reduction in vulnerability.
Interventions are effective especially when they focus on areas of particularly high risk, for
example, low cost earthquake resistant houses being constructed in areas prone to
earthquakes.
3) Development can increase vulnerability: Social and economic development can
increase the vulnerability of the community to disaster risks. There are many examples,
which show that economic development increases disaster risk. The clearing of protective
mangrove stands for shrimp farming in Bangladesh and Vietnam has increased damage due
to storms and pollution. Widespread deforestation of hill slopes has increased vulnerability
to landslides (White and Phillip, 2004). The massive forest fires in Indonesia in 1997 that
caused air pollution in neighboring Malaysia were partly caused by the uncontrolled use
of fire by the farmers wishing to expand production of a major export crop for
manufacturing palm oil. Another example that can be cited is tourism development that
benefited Barbados, but which may inadvertently be adding to their own risk as waste
water and recreational sports which contribute to the denudation of coral reefs, which act
as a first line of sea defence against storm surges. Many urban disasters have been
known to result, not from initial shock of the hazard, but from secondary releases from
industrial units that store/use hazardous material. Metropolitan Calcutta and Vadodara are
susceptible to such risks.
It is hard to imagine that increase in social development can increase the risk of disasters.
The only possible situation that would actually place social development as a causal factor
in disaster risk is one where people are forced to expose themselves or others to risk
in order to fulfill their needs and desires. Rapid urbanisation has increased the
vulnerability of the community. The growth of informal settlements and inner city slums
normally inhabited by migrants have often led to development of settlements in vulnerable
pockets like the low lying areas; on steep slopes; along flood plains or close to dangerous
industrial sites. Over 600 million urban dwellers in Africa, Asia, Latin America and the
Caribbean live in life and health threatening homes and neighborhoods as a result of poor
quality housing and inadequate provision of basic needs. These developments impact the
frequency and severity of disasters, exposing a growing proportion of the world’s
population to hazards. As reported in International Federation of Red Cross and Red
Crescent Societies’ (IFRCRCS’s) World Disasters Report, 2004, “while the growth of
mega-cities and mega-risks like earthquakes capture headlines, far more lives in urban
areas are lost to everyday disasters caused by dirty drinking water and sanitation.” In the
last half century, human development has been characterised by rapid and unplanned
urbanisation in the developing world like India. Between 1950 and 2000, the urban
population in the developing countries increased from less than 18 per cent to more than
40 per cent. Nearly half the world lives in urban areas, and numbers are accelerating.
Over the next two decades, 90 per cent of population growth in developing countries will
be urban. Municipalities can’t keep up. In Mumbai, 60 per cent of the city’s 23 million
inhabitants occupy 6 per cent of its total area; an average density of 2,000 people per
hectare. In some slums, 50 families share a single toilet. The land where slum dwellers
settle is often dangerously steep slopes, flood plains, near railway lines, industrial zones.
As building activity spreads, rainwater cannot soak away. Monsoon floodwaters that
remain a few days in well-serviced districts can stay for a month in slums. Since sewage
cannot be controlled the municipalities leave it in the open, which leads to disease and
death, especially reported among infants in Mumbai. Urban livelihoods are also less secure
than their rural counterparts (World Disasters Report, 2004). Unplanned and ill-planned
urbanisation has been the cause for environmental degradation (for example, deforestation),
over exploitation of natural resources (for example, water), ecological disturbance (for
example, pollution) and social destitution (for example, increase in poverty). These factors
turn hazards into disasters. Increased population concentrations and sub-standard
construction increase the vulnerability of the built environment and the fragility of socio-
economic systems. Land use and urban development practices often do not take into
account the susceptibility of natural hazards. United Nations statistics indicate that in the
1990s, close to 70 per cent of construction in the developing countries was built illegally.
Hence, year after year, exposure to natural hazards increases as a result of unsustainable
development.
Since 1991, two-third of the victims of natural disasters, were from developing countries,
while just two per cent were from highly developed nations. Those living in developing
countries and especially those with limited resources tend to be more adversely affected.
With the alarming rise in the natural disasters and vulnerability per se, the world
community is strengthening its efforts to cope with it. Lack of access to education and
information often has wider implications for vulnerability, since people may simply be
unaware of the options open to them for vulnerability reduction. Poor people have far
fewer assets to invest in resources, which may reduce their vulnerability. Poor people are
less likely to be in a position to organise collectively to reduce risks, partially because
poorer people have a high proportion of women, young children, the sick and the
disabled. Furthermore, after a disaster, the effects of malnutrition and chronic illness put
people at additional risk. Thus, natural disaster risk is intimately connected to the
processes of human development.
Although in aggregate terms, development will usually contribute to a reduction in
vulnerability to natural disasters; development activities within an area, might increase
certain types of vulnerability, for example:
z Urban development often leads to an influx of relatively low income groups, with
large scale settlement of marginal land or in high density, poor quality housing.
z Marine and coastal zone development leads to population concentrations, exposed to
possible storm surge, high wind, flash flood and landslide risks. Tsunami and tropical
cyclones can destroy all the development gains.
z Mechanisation of agriculture could be fraught with adverse environmental consequences.
There have been numerous examples to endorse the argument. The rationale of the
argument is that the change being introduced is ‘exogenous’, not based on indigenous
adaptations, which makes it doubtful with regard to suitability/veracity. Endogenous
practices are in consonance with the ecology of the area and the requirements of the
people. Reportedly, long-standing agro-forestry systems in Pacific Islands are threatened
by agricultural modernisation.
4) Development can reduce vulnerability: If development can act as an agent for
increasing the vulnerability of the community; it can also sometimes reduce the
vulnerability of the people. For economic development to proceed without increasing
disaster risk, development planning needs to reconcile some potentially conflicting
drivers for development. First the generation of wealth, that can raise the basic level
of human development and second the distribution of wealth, which can enable the
poorest to overcome human vulnerability. The mainstreaming of disaster risk assessment
into the existing development instruments is critical in achieving economic development
without generating new risk. This includes incorporating disaster resistant technologies
in buildings that are being newly constructed. The Klang River Basin Flood Mitigation
and Environment Management Project in Malaysia is a good example of development
oriented towards risk reduction. The Klang River Basin is rapidly urbanising and its
population is more than 3.6 million, with major proportions of urban land being
converted for urban use. Frequent flooding and degradation of the environment has
also been escalating as urbanisation continues. An Environmental Master Plan is
planned to direct environmental management. The planning aims to improve river
water quality and provide flood warning and protection.
Apart from economic development, social development too plays a key role in shaping
governance regimes for disaster risk management set within a development agenda. To
reduce disaster risk, governance must be sensitive to the needs of those who are at risk
and able to facilitate timely assistance with appropriate measures. Social development
would include awareness/education, and more importantly, health. Improved health and
education status help reduce vulnerability and can limit human losses in a disaster.
Following the direct impact of a disaster event, a better nourished healthier population, in
which children have also been vaccinated will do much better in homes, shelter and
camps set up for those displaced by disaster.
A literate and better-educated population, including women and girls, is better able to
cope up effectively to any disaster. An educated community will also be in a position to
respond immediately to early warning and other warnings of any disaster.
Impact of Globalisation
Development has progressed at a rapid pace in many developing countries, though
dictated by globalisation, since tourism has grown considerably, and, as a result infrastructure
has come up especially in coastal areas. This has increased considerably the damage
potential of hazards if/when they strike. The developed world is equally at risk since
development has meant more exposure of people and physical infrastructure. Also, many
people have large disposable incomes travel for recreation is high on their agenda, which
makes them vulnerable to unforeseen catastrophes. This has also induced more construction
activity in attractive tourist destinations. Ironically, the most attractive tourist hotspots are
also the most vulnerable to hazards such as floods, cyclones, storm surges, and volcanoes
that mean disasters are almost inevitable. Globalisation undoubtedly has exposed more
people and infrastructure to risks from hazards, besides disturbing the ecological balance
of fragile ecosystems, such as small island states and regions around volcanoes. However,
it would not be practicable to hope any of this would stop. Globalisation is an economic
and political imperative, since the neo-liberal ideology dominates theory and practice in
economics and political science. Rising prosperity in developing countries is providing
newer fillip to the trend towards global integration.
It could be argued however, that increased travel and free trade between countries has
led to economic gains to developing countries where employment opportunities have
grown commensurate to growth in business in the economy. While that is accepted, it
remains an incontestable fact that globalisation also has also widened income disparities
within national boundaries. Opportunities have been availed by the educated elite, while
the poor farmer has also been exposed to precocious competition in that while he is
unable to access European markets, cheaper alternatives from other countries have pushed
his goods out of the market. Reduced subsidies, dearer credit, and improper market
access has put him at a clear disadvantage (Alternate Economic Survey, 2004-05).
Globalisation places too much faith in unregulated markets, reduced state action, to create
condition for human development. However, the balance is unfairly tilted in the favour of
the rich developed nations. Corporate Social Responsibility hasn’t made up for reduced
state action as far as the welfare of the workers is concerned. Unchecked business also
exacerbates environmental degradation and disaster risk through land alienations, unregulated
extraction of primary products and rapid growth of urban slums. In post-cold war, there
has been an increase in trade in arms, etc., which fuel conflicts. Armed conflicts and
disasters are a deadly combination, which have destroyed communities such as in the
Horn of Africa. Globalisation created a new class of deprived in Guyana, where people
lost jobs in the public sector. In the following floods they fell prey to diseases since they
did not have the means to replace lost resources (White, Phillip et al, 2004).
16.3 NEED FOR A NEW PARADIGM

The frequency with which some countries experience natural disasters should certainly
place disaster risk at the forefront of the development planners’ agenda. Measures need
to be taken to integrate disaster mitigation efforts at the local level with the general
exercise of planning. Development programmes and projects need to be reviewed for their
potential to reduce or aggravate vulnerability and hazard. Bringing disaster risk reduction
and development concerns closer together requires three measures:
a) The collection of basic data on disaster risk and the development of planning tools
to track the relationship between development policy and disaster risk;
b) The collection and dissemination of best practices in development planning and policy
that reduce disaster risk; and
c) The galvanising of political will to re-orient both the development and disaster
management sector.
A future ‘blue-print’ for disaster management in India rests on the premise that in today’s
society, while hazards are inevitable, the disasters that follow need not be so and the
society can be prepared to cope with them effectively whenever they occur. The need of
the hour is to chalk out a multi-pronged strategy for total risk management, comprising
prevention, preparedness, response and recovery on the one hand and initiate development
efforts aimed at risk reduction and mitigation, on the other. Only then can we look
forward to “sustainable development”.
Changes in governance style can bring about the desired synergy between development
and attainment of human development objectives. As highlighted in the tenth plan, the
government would henceforth function more as a catalyst and a promoter, while the civil
society and the private corporate sector would be engaged in actual service delivery.
However, there are certain areas where government’s role would actually expand.
Infrastructure provision for rural development especially would demand increased public
investment. The 73rd and the 74th amendments to the Constitution of India have provided
for decentralised governance in India, where local democratic institutions would be
engaged in development planning, enlisting peoples’ participation in interest articulation and
later, at the implementation stage. Certain indications emerge. Henceforth, the requirement
of local infrastructure would be adequately met. Strengthening administration at the local
level would mean ready response on the part of administration to disaster calls, better
warning and information dissemination and better understanding of vulnerabilities since in
a decentralised arrangement, people turn from passive beneficiaries to active participants
in administration. Since the government would be providing most of the infrastructure,
lessons learnt from past experiences would get duly incorporated in development planning.
16.4 CONCLUSION
Disaster management henceforth would be an integral aspect of public policy for
development, which means, physical infrastructure has to be hazard resistant. Resettlement
and rehabilitation of affected populations as a result of development, such as building
dams has to ensure that displaced poor are not exposed to newer vulnerabilities. Since
disasters adversely affect progress in achieving the Millennium Development Goals,
targeted risk reduction needs to be attempted, as per the specific vulnerability identified,
such as, training teachers and students in emergency preparedness and building safer
structures for schools in hazard prone areas, instituting health infrastructure and arranging
for awareness and training in hazard prone areas and also promoting better maintenance
of such infrastructure, promoting awareness of gender concerns and health issues like HIV,
involving communities in such activities in a proactive way (White Phillip et al, 2004).
The aim in all such similar cases should be to minimise the adverse side effects of
development projects if any/apprehended. In this context, siting decisions regarding
projects have to be taken after due consideration, technically, risk assessment, of the
hazard vulnerability of the area. Besides people vulnerability, adverse impact of the
environment if any has to be duly accounted for. To that end, Environment Impact
Assessments or EIA norms/stipulations should be duly complied with. All of these
measures contribute greatly to minimising losses when eventually disasters strike. Development
that proceeds without factoring sustainability concerns leads in time to crisis, and thence,
disaster on encountering unavoidable hazards. Post disaster, after recovery gets underway,
development is embarked upon again, hopefully, factoring vulnerability concerns. For
instance, abiding by building codes and zoning regulations can mitigate future losses from
similar events, such as earthquakes, floods and cyclones. Besides saving lives, such
measures protect high value economic property, such as educational, medical hospitality,
entertainment and industrial facilities.
While natural disasters could not be completely averted, damages accruing resultantly
could be significantly minimised, if policy planners in the course of ‘mainstream’ development
planning make the right choices. The onus is on the government, the international
community and the people alike, since public policy towards disaster mitigation/preventive
policy is an integral concern and depends on the Risk Perception among policy makers,
and also the public for effective interest articulation on their part for public policy
regarding sustainable development
16.5 KEY CONCEPTS

Sustainable Development : Development that meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations
to meet their own needs. It contains within it two key
concepts: the concept of “needs”, in particular the
essential needs of the world’s poor, to which overriding
priority should be given; and the idea of limitations
imposed by the state of technology and social
organisation on the environment’s ability to meet present
and the future needs. (Brundtland Commission, 1987)
Sustainable development is based on socio-cultural
development, political stability and decorum,
economic growth and ecosystem protection, which
all relate to disaster risk reduction.
EIA : Environment Impact Assessment means assessing
proposed project on the basis of likely impact on the
environment and people in nearby areas. In India an

Environment Information Center (EIC) has been set
up as clearinghouse of information since such
assessments require data, which is presently a constraint
in India. The Ministry of Environment and Forests
conducts EIAs in India. The EIC stores data in GIS
format.
Social Development : Social development implies the level of coherence
achieved in a society by institutional means. The more
the social capital, and the more it is institutionalised/
organised as committees/organisations the more is the
level of social development.
O&M : O&M or Organisation and Methods, is a technique of
procedural reform that is closely related to scientific
management precepts. It entails the study of procedures
with a view to simplifying them, such as rationalising
office work, which contributes economy and efficiency
at work; the intent, is to find the “one best way” of
“doing things.”

ADB, UN, and WB, 2005, India Post Tsunami Recovery Programme, Preliminary
Damage and Needs Assessment, New Delhi, India.
Alternate Economic Survey, 2004-05, Daanish Books.
Cannon, T. Twigg, J, Rowell J. 2003, Social Vulnerability, Sustainable Livelihoods and
Disasters, DFID, London.
Demeter, K., N. Ekin Erkan and A. Guner, The Role of Local Governments in
Reducing the Risk of Disasters.
Government of India, Ministry of Home Affairs, National Disaster Management Division,
2004, Disaster Management in India – A Status Report.
IFRCRCS, 1998, World Disasters Report, Oxford University Press.
ISDR, 2002, “Living with Risk: A Global Review of Disaster Risk Reduction Initiatives”
at www.isdr.org
Sinha, Anil, A. 2003, Development of an Integrated Disaster Management System in
India: Importance of a Reliable Information System”, Paper presented at the International
Conference on Total Disaster Risk Management, at http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/
public/documents/APCITY/UNPAN019526.pdf
Stephenson, Rob. S, and Charles, Du Frane, 2002, University of Wisconsin Course
Material for Disaster Management Diploma Course, Disasters and Development, Part II:
Understanding and Exploiting Disaster Development Linkages, Pre-hospital and Disaster
Medicine, Part II Vol. 17, Number 3.
Sustainable Development Network, 2005, “ Disasters and Development”, at, http://

ipn.lexi.net/images/uploaded/12-41ea585ec6aa8—sdn-disasters-and-development.pdf.
Tearfund International, 2004, “Cost benefit analysis of community level disaster preparedness
interventions in India” (draft) cited in DFID, 2004.
Tenth Plan, 2002-07, Chapter 7, “Disaster Management: A Development Perspective”,
Government of India, Ministry of Home Affairs, National Disaster Management Division.
Twigg, J. 2002, “Lessons from Disaster Preparedness”, Notes for presentation to
International Conference on Climate Change and Disaster Preparedness.
Twigg, John, “Disaster Risk Reduction – Mitigation, Preparedness in Development and
Emergency Programming” Chapter 4 Project Planning, Community Risk Assessment and
Action Planning Project, Register of Methodologies, Guidance Notes, Humanitarian
Practice Network, Overseas Development Institute, at www.odihpn.org
UNDP, 1999, Human Development Report, Globalisation with a Human Face at http:/
/www.undp.org/reports/global
White Phillip, Mark Pelling, Kunal Sen, David Seddon, Steve Russell, Robert Few,
Department for International Development, 2004, Disaster Risk Reduction: A Development
Concern, A scoping study on links between disaster risk reduction, poverty and development,
(funded by DFID), Overseas Development Group, at http://www.dfid.gov.uk/
World Bank, 2004, “Eluding Nature’s Wrath”, cited in DFID, 2004, at http://
www.worldbank.org
World Disasters Report, 2004, Building Community Resilience, International Red Cross
and Red Crescent Societies.
Websites
http://www.undmtp.org/english/disaster_development/disaster_development.pdf
http://www.undp.org/bcpr/disred/documents/tsunami/undp/rdrtsunamis.pdf
http://www.unisdr.org/eng/library/lib-terminology-engpercent20home.htm
http://www.undp.org/bcpr/disred/tsunami/
http://pdm.medicine.wisc.edu/20-1percent20PDFs/ContEd.pdf
16.7 ACTIVITIES
1) Explain with examples how development activities increase the vulnerability of the
community towards natural hazards.
2) Do you think disaster resistant features need to be added in all the development
activities carried out by the Government? Discuss.
3) Explain how urbanisation and population growth have accounted for a greater impact
in case of a disaster.
4) How have disasters set back decades of development? Explain this with suitable
examples.
UNIT 17 FIRST RESPONDERS
Structure
17.1 Introduction
17.1.1 Rationale of First Response
17.1.2 Concerns for First Responders
17.2 Who is a First Responder?: Understanding the Concept

17.3 People as First Responders
17.4 Role of Government in First Response
17.5 Role of Community in Disaster Management
17.6 Conclusion
17.7 Key Concepts
17.9 Activities

After studying this Unit, you should be able to,
z Understand the significance of ‘first response’ and identify the ‘first responders;’
z Appreciate the role of community in first response;
z Discuss the need to strengthen first response on the part of people and government
agencies; and
z Discuss measures to strengthen first response.
17.1 INTRODUCTION
The past few decades indicate substantial increase in the frequency and impact of natural
disasters worldwide. These unwelcome events have caused substantive human and material
losses. Analyses of response to past disasters have highlighted the importance of reaching
the victims within the initial crucial period during an emergency, as it is a major
requirement in protecting people and assets. Though some time lag between the event and
official response is unavoidable, yet majority of casualties occur during this time. Thus
there is need for such a mechanism to be in place, whereby, the immediate or the first
response is ensured to the extent possible. The objective of First Response is to build
resilience in the affected communities to respond with greater fortitude in the event of
disasters so as to resist losses before official help arrives.
However, First Response is complementary to official response. Disaster Response on the
part of government is a long-term concern since it is dovetailed with development. Social
and economic vulnerability greatly reduces the capacity of the poor to cope with adverse
First Responders 333
conditions. First Response, on their part, in disaster situations, is therefore greatly

inhibited. As a prerequisite, their coping capacity has to be enhanced by improving their
material situation. This could be possible only through combined effort on the part of the
administration, non-government organisations active in the area of disaster management
and more generically/generally, particularly in developing countries, in development concerns,
such as poverty alleviation, uplift of weaker sections etc.
Since disasters and development concerns are interlinked, building resilience of vulnerable
communities would demand more urgent efforts at alleviating poverty and removing
infrastructure bottlenecks that hinder income and employment generation in the villages.
That would demand attending to all aspects in the entire cycle of disaster management,
that is, prevention, mitigation and preparedness in reducing risk and linking it to the
development planning process. In the past, disasters were looked upon as isolated events,
responded to by the governments and various agencies without taking into account the
social, economic causes and long-term implications of such events. However, since
disasters retard development severely, attempts are required to build up the coping
capacity of the affected communities as well as the local administration for combined/
concerted effort to mitigate the human and material cost of disasters, which was rightly
emphasised in the Tenth Plan in India (2002-07).
17.1.1 Rationale of First Response

To reiterate, since there is understandable time lag between a disaster event and the
administrative machinery or even the organised voluntary groups to swing into action to
redeem the damage, more importantly to save lives. People are the sufferers in disasters
and the extent to which disaster casualty is incident/ minimised would depend on the
extent of readiness on the part of the affected to respond to the exigency. Until now such
effort on their part had been informal and unorganised. However, it is in the process of
being recognised officially now, and brought in tandem with government response, since
it has proven crucial in saving lives in the immediate aftermath of disasters experienced
in the recent past.
Following the Mexico City earthquake untrained, spontaneous volunteers saved 800
people. However, reportedly, 100 people lost their lives while attempting to save others.
This implies training has to be imparted to the first responders in disaster response for
better response effort on their part. It has been observed that enlisting the services of
volunteer first responders who come from a cross section of society greatly economises
response effort in terms of both time and money. Future scenario in this regard therefore,
is envisaged as, first responders functioning as an extension service/additions to official
agencies, offering immediate help to victims till the time professional help arrives. There
are numerous examples of such intent on the part of governments globally, particularly on
the part of those that have suffered disasters in recent years. The Los Angeles Fire
Department (LAFD) created the Disaster Preparedness Division in 1985 with the purpose
of training citizens and private and government employees in tackling fire disasters. The
Whittier Narrows earthquake in 1987 further prompted the authorities to take an area
wide approach to curb future threats in adjoining areas of California.
That readiness however, is not simply to be expected on the part of the people but needs
to be inculcated in them through proactive effort on the part of official agencies to equip
the people with requisite knowledge in this regard and the logistics: gloves, goggles, mask
and disaster supplies (bandages, flashlight and dressings) to put response into practice
efficaciously. In the U.S., dissemination of information among people in this regard has
been entrusted to the Community Emergency Response Team members (CERT) who are
required to undergo in addition to their regular training, CERT Train-the-Trainer (TTT)
programme conducted by their State Training Office for Emergency Management or the
Emergency Management Institute. The training includes understanding of the disaster (s) as
per the vulnerability of the area. The education process gradually converts an ordinary
civilian into a voluntary disaster worker who is equipped with the know-how to save
himself and his family in the event of a disaster. Examples in this respect include, fire
suppression through education in fire chemistry, hazardous materials, avoidance/safe keep,
and ways to extinguish small fires, administration of first aid to sufferers in such (all)
cases, search techniques, rescue techniques, and most important, rescuer safety. They are
also apprised of all legal and organisational formalities/stipulations in these regards. The
effort significantly is a sustained one in that periodic refresher courses are conducted to
maintain the interest and involvement of people even during ‘lull’ times. Accordingly,
following the September 11, 2001 attacks in the USA, the country is gearing up to tackle
the threat of terrorism by harnessing the individual skills of people and organising them as
Citizen Corps. As articulated in the Pierce County Circulation (1995-2006) First
Response is even more significant today in view of the threat of terrorism, which could
even be in the form of biological or chemical attack on unsuspecting civilians or in the
form of sabotage. In such events, often the critical facilities such as government offices
and hospitals are the prime targets, which leave the administrative machinery paralysed
and the people, helpless. In such eventuality, self- help on the part of people is significant
in that it is the most effective initial response to the hazard response that can prevent
losses considerably. Since terrorism is unobtrusive warfare, official response may not
immediately get activated due to plain inability to comprehend a certain event as a
terrorist attack, as for instance, the anthrax incidents in America, post September 11. This
could increase significantly the number of incident fatalities since the period of uncertainty
may be disquietingly extended. To reduce the magnitude of losses from a disaster and
save on precious time in response, people have to be aware of the possible threats in
their lives and prepared with plans and materials to face up to such eventualities.
Accordingly, people in America are being advised to brace up for possible biological
warfare where they could be exposed to germs, which cause lung infections and other
fatal conditions. Anti -pollution masks for instance, as per the U.S. Department of
Homeland Security, usually available with chemicals or even simple cotton cloth worn on
the nose could significantly reduce the threat of fatality from germ warfare. Simple
preparedness measures such as these are advised on the part of people, both to brace
up for terrorist events as also other natural disasters such as a volcanic eruption where
deaths result from suffocation, or a chemical disaster where similar measures would be
needed to save lives. Hence, general preparedness on the part of people greatly helps
reduce harm from adverse events, both natural disasters and terrorism (Pierce County
Circulation, 1996-2005).
In France, ‘First Response’ is a specialised service in that training in this respect is
imparted strictly under the guidance of physicians. In France, the prehospital care is either
performed by first responders from the fire department (sapeurs-pompiers, most emergency
situations) or from a private ambulance company (relative emergency at home), or by a
medical team that includes a physician, a nurse and an ambulance technician (called
“smur”). This may be a more desirable practice in view of the inadequate response to the
Meerut Fire Tragedy in India (2006), where medical parctitioners, particularly plastic
surgeons, who were in dire need, were conspicuous by their absence in the disaster
response team. In France, the first responders activity is called secourisme (“rescuism”)
or prompt secours (“fast aid”), to make the difference with the premiers secours (“first
aid”) performed by the bystanders (although the name of the diploma course offered
contains the words premiers secours...). Volunteers are trained by agencies such as the
Red Cross, who are asked to assist the official agencies and take charge of only minor
casualties in case of bad response time.
17.1.2 Concerns For First Responders

Concerns have been expressed over behaviour aberrations that set in in personnel
involved in first response out of exposure to harrowing scenes of death and devastation.
As the affected, they too are affected by post-traumatic stress for which behaviour
therapy in the form of psychological counselling is recommended. Institutionally, Post
September 11, significance of inter-agency cooperation such as between police and fire
servce personnel (where not integrated) is being realised./stressed for effective team
work.Significance of positive scial capital between inter-agency personnel for mutual help
in combating stress is also being emphasised (APA Task Force).
Inernational aid agencies like the WHO have taken up the respnsbility of educating laymen
in first response. Helpful as they are to the general public they also provide useful
guidelines to official agencies involved by dispelling some prevalent myths. Illustratively, a
Field Manual for First Responders has been published by the WHO (2006) which is
aimed at facilitating proper identification of victims and preventing mass burials and
cremations. The book dispels the widely held myth/misconception that dead bodies pose
a serious health threat in the aftermath of disasters. Most infectious organisms do not
survive beyond 48 hours in a dead body, and it is the surviving population that is more
likely to spread disease. Misconceptions in this regard lead to practices such as mass
burials that create legal problems later on relating to identification of the dead, exact
figures of the dead, legal claims for compensation, etc.(PAHO, 2006).
Competence in medical care is undoubtedly a critical reqirement for emergency management.
As per the WHO(1989), likely problems requiring medical competence are:
z States of shock
z Skull injuries
z Fractures
z Dislocations
z Burns
z Exposure to toxic substances
z Eloctrocution
z Drownings
z Cases of accidental hypothermia
z Haemorrhages
z Cardiovascular failure
z Respiratory distress
Likely injuries also depend on the hazard that has struck. In cases of earthquakes, head
injures are more likely and fractures and burn injuries where gas cylinders burst. Infections
of wounds follow.
In volcanic eruptions, there are mostly suffocation and burns due to intense mudflows
and burning lava.
In floods, mortality is high only in the case of sudden flooding or flash floods, the
collapse of dams or tidal waves. Fractures, bruises or burns may occur or hypothermia
in cases of extremely cold conditions.
In cyclones and hurricanes, mortality is caused by storm surges or tidal waves if/when
they occur. Destruction of physical infrastructure due to heavy winds and rain results in
fractures, cuts, bruises and other injuries.
In droughts, people suffer from protien-calorie malnutrition (Marasmus, Kwashiorker) and
vitamin deficiencies (particularly Vitamin A deficiency leading to xeropthalmia and child
blindness). In famine conditions, measles, respiratory infections, and diarrhoea accompanied
by dehydration may bring about a massive increase in infant mortality. Due to congestion
in rescue shelters, or where people migrate, communivable diseases strike, such as,
diarrhoeas, tuberculosis, parasitic diseases and malaria (WHO, 1989).
The above discussion underscores the need for good health infrastruture and competent
personnel, both of which are lacking presently in the country, espeially at the rural local
level. Primary Health Care Centers are poorly serviced. Medical personnel resent rural
postings, infrastructure in the centers is poor, absenteeism is rampant and availability of
personnel anf facilities grossly inadedquate, given the requirements in rural areas. The need
for upgrading health care has been recognised by the government (Economic Survey of
2004-05) and reiterated in the Common Minimum programme of the UPA government.
The allocation for control of AIDS and other communicable diseases has been increased
by about Rs. 280 crore. The State Health System Development Projects are underway
in the states of Karnataka, West Bengal, Punjab, Orissa, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and
Uttaranchal with the World Bank assistance. The focus is on strengthening the health care
delivery system at the secondary level and integrating it with the primary health care
delivery system for improving overall health care services. The Alternate Economic Survey
Group (2004-05) emphasises the need for administrative reform in this respect and
articulates the need for horizontal integration between agencies involved and convergence
in/of health care related schemes at the field for better outcomes. Presently, individual
departments function disjointedly, with little coordination between them, when health is an
inclusive subject and cannot be viewed in isolation from other inter-related concerns such
as persistent poverty, drinking water supply, malnutrition and unhygienic living conditions.
Also, there needs to be convergence intra programmes, as between AIDS control and
Tuberculosis programmes as the two are related, and likewise. The emphasis should be
on prevention of communicable diseases. Accordingly, a National Vector Borne Disease
Control Programme (NVBDCP) has been started from 2003-04 through convergence of
three on going programmes (Malaria, Kala-Azar and Filaria) and inclusion of Japanese
Encephalitis and Dengue. Attempt would be on undestanding and prevention of vector
borne diseases. Health and Education are important and, as pointed by Amartya Sen
(1990), these are fundamental prerequisites for development. Freedom from disease and
illiteracy would enable people to seek better lives through better entitlements, in his
words, for opportunities such as employment which would lead to better resilience during
troubled times such as droughts.
Before proceeding any further with the discussion on the Indian situation, it would be
advisable first, to understand further the concept of ‘First Responder.’
17.2 WHO IS A ‘FIRST RESPONDER’? :

UNDERSTANDING THE CONCEPT
As per the Wikipaedia, “a certified first responder is a person who has completed
forty to sixty hours of training in providing care in/for medical emergencies. They have
more skill than someone who is trained in first aid but are not emergency medical
technicians…A certified first responder can be seen either as an advanced first aid
provider, or as a somewhat limited provider of emergency services.” Traditional First
reponders as per the Wikipaedia are the Police and the Fire Fighters. Apart from the
above mentioned traditional responders, Non-traditional responders have now been
brought within the ambit of the concept/definition of ‘First Responders’.Those are listed
as per the Wikipaedia, as:
z Lifeguards
z park rangers
z utility workers
z teachers, childcare workers and school bus drivers
z worker-volunteers in a large facility (industrial plant) or at a remote site (fish-packing
plant, commercial vessel, oil rig)
z truck drivers
z security guards
z bodyguards
z general aviation pilots and commercial flight attendants
z sports coach
Notably, these are all specialites that can contribute to response in keeping with their
respective domains. Potential first responders need to be identified and associated with
relevant agency, preferably an Incident Command Agency to work on a sustained basis
through mock drills and training sessions towards disaster response. It might be pertinent
to add in this context that there is lack of role clarity among the police with regard to
their role in disaster management. The question that needs to be clarified is: is their role
confined to enforcing law and order in such situtaions, or does it extend to a service
function in an Incident Command mode referred above? Their efforts also often come
in confict with other departments such as the public works and others that are involved
in disaster management within their respective jurisdictions. Situation after a disaster is
chaotic since there are too many agencies involved without perceptible unity of command.
In this respect, there would be need to refurbish training as also job description in this
regard (The Indian Police Journal, 2003).
17.3 PEOPLE AS FIRST RESPONDERS

The rationale of the concept of first responders as explained above is that the time lag
between disaster impact and official and non-official response has to be minimised to
reduce the loss of life, if not so much, property. Population that suffers disaster impact
is the obvious first responder; therefore empowering those with basic know-how is the
recommended strategy to help vulnerable people help themselves better. Socialisation of
the communities in disaster management has to start early since aware communities are
empowered communities. For that purpose, disaster education is now being included in
school curricula to create aware communities in the future generations. The Central Board
for Secondary Education (CBSE) has already taken the step in the desired direction and
included the subject in their curriculum. Others are expected to follow suit. The tenth plan
has unequivocally laid out the government strategy to engage the volunteer organisations
active in the disaster arena, in closer association with official agencies to gain the
maximum in terms of their manpower and expertise. Also, village volunteers would be
trained by official agencies, the Police in particular, in organising and executing response
in the immediate aftermath of a disaster. Introduction of disaster education in school
curriculum would further emphasise the cause of preparing volunteers among the young
who have the required predisposition to respond rightly which education would create in
them.
There is, however, need for proactive information dissemination among the general public
regarding self-help tips in the event of emergencies. For example, in the United States,
the American Red Cross (1998) is educating people in protecting themselves in the event
of natural disasters, such as earthquakes, floods, hurricanes and others through user-
friendly modes such as pamphlet distribution and websites. For illustrative purpose, the
following are some of the Do’s and Don’ts prescribed for people inhabiting earthquake
prone areas:
z Every room should have safe places like sturdy tables under which to hide. Many
people have escaped injuries hiding under such furniture.
z Children should be made to identify safe places such as interior wall ways, away
from heavy furniture, and given practice in promptly getting to them in the event of
a quake.
z Professional help should be taken in structural mitigation techniques (retrofitting) such
as bolting the house to its foundation, attaching furniture, particularly critical items
such as water heaters (geysers) to wall studs to keep it from falling.
z People should volunteer for training programmes conducted by the local Red Cross
Chapter in fire extinguishing and first aid requirements.
z Contrary to popular practice, people are advised to stay indoors and protect their
heads using pillows, stay in their cars or away from buildings if they are outdoors,
until the shaking stops.
z Communication equipment should be arranged, such as battery powered radio,
flashlights etc. in ample measure to make search and rescue easy.
In cases of floods, people are advised to listen to the radio or television for flood updates
regarding their area. In case of imminent threat, mitigation measures should be immediately
taken, such as, raising electrical appliances to safe heights, keeping insurance policies,
valuables and other documents in a safe deposit box, moving to higher ground if outside
the house, leaving the gutted car immediately, avoiding driving close to barricades on
sharp turns and other essential requirements as: canned food, first aid kits with essential
medications, can opener, and communication equipment: battery powered lights, extra
batteries, etc. enough water for everyone and written instructions from professionals
regarding how and when to turn off electricity, gas and water. Citizen approach should
be proactive in securing this information. As per the Pierce County Emergency Management
Programme, people in vulnerable areas should approach the nearest Emergency Management
Centre to secure information about local disaster plans, disaster signals, how to take care
of animals as they are usually not allowed inside emergency management centers, and the
disabled who require special care; also ask about organised community preparedness in
this regard and how it can help.
People should also seek education in reading disaster warnings. For example, FLOOD
WATCH means a flood is possible in the area, while FLOOD WARNING means
flooding is already occurring or will soon occur in the area; likewise for flash floods.
Instructions should be issued by the authorities in the form of booklets, or put on the
Web, as per the popular mode of access in this regard.
Disaster Planning should be taken up both at the family and the community level. As per
the Pierce County Directive, likely activities in a family plan would be: keeping an out-
of- state family contact that acts as a liaison between relatives in case of disaster, fixing
meeting venues; for instance, outside the house in case of sudden emergency like a fire
and in the neighborhood if outside. Everyone must keep in touch over phone and on
other contact addresses. Evacuation should be carefully planned, addressing issues such as
how to care for pets, etc. Outside the immediate family, people should form self- help
networks incorporating people in home, school, workplace and assign functions to each
of the friends, co-workers and relatives, etc., in cases of emergencies. Help should arrive
immediately as per a pre-plan when a disaster strikes. Inventory of requirements and
contributions from each volunteer should be carefully prepared and adhered to for
maximum safety in times of emergencies.
The Pierce County (1996-2005) gives the following checklist to families to check the level
of their preparedness:
Checklist
z Purchase battery operated transistor Radio for emergency alerts.
z Post emergency telephone numbers by phones (fire, police, ambulance, etc.).
z Teach children how and when to call Police and/or fire services and display the
emergency phone numbers of these services prominently at home and also at the
work places.
z Show each family member how and when to turn off the utilities (water, gas, and
electricity)
z Get training for each family member on how to use the fire extinguisher (ABC type),
and show him or her where it’s kept.
z Install smoke detectors on each level of your home, especially near bedrooms.
z Stock emergency supplies and assemble a Disaster Supplies Kit.
z Take a first aid and CPR class.
z Determine the best escape routes from your home. Find two ways out of each room.
z Find the safe places in your home for each type of disaster and learn shelter-in-place
procedures.
z Practice and Maintain Your Plan
z Quiz your kids every six months or so.
z Conduct fire and emergency evacuations.
z Replace stored water and stored food every six months.
z Test and recharge your fire extinguisher(s) according to manufacturer’s instructions.
z Test your smoke detectors monthly and change the batteries at least once a year.
17.4 ROLE OF GOVERNMENT IN FIRST RESPONSE

After the impacted populace, the government is the most significant first responder to a
disaster event. Lack of preparedness results in catastrophes of the magnitude that were
experienced following the Orissa Super Cyclone of 1999 when the state government was
least prepared to meet the threat of the disaster. There was no single unified plan made
for such an event. The state perspective was to receive a lot of relief material from
various agencies. A Relief Coordination Centre was set up at Bhubneshwar with the
operations starting from the Kalinga Stadium. The approach was totally agency driven and
top-down with least participation/intervention of the people. Lessons were learnt albeit the
hard way. Thereafter, a Disaster Emergency Committee (DEC), comprising national and
international NGOs, namely Oxfam, Help Age India, World Vision, Care, Action Aid,
Save the Children, International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies,
Tear Fund, Caritas, and Concern was constituted. The member organisations of DEC
took a pro-active decision to carry out research on Community Based Disaster
Preparedness (CBDP) in Orissa with special focus on cyclones. Subsequent to this effort,
better preparedness arrangements are being put in place in the state to meet possible
future threats (Sahni, 2000).
The strategy outlined and aforesaid, involved people proactively in that surveys were
conducted and inputs procured therefrom were incorporated in official strategy for disaster
preparedness. This underscores the need for voluntary organisations, representatives of the
local governments and the official agencies involved to work in tandem for disaster
response. For that fundamental change in governnace per se would need to be affected,
from a unilateral to a reciprocal mode where the interaction between the people and
official agencies is maintained on a consistent basis, so are efforts for developemnt of
positive social capital in communities and institutions inter- se, such as police and revenue
for effective total response.
Subsequently, institutional innovations have been introduced such as the State Disaster
Management Authorities in States to better organise preparedness and response when a
disaster strikes. The learners have been apprised of the developments in Unit-4 of this
course.
It would be pertinent to discuss in detail here, the inputs in the District Contingency Plan
that would henceforth be drawn up for better official response to disasters. The District
Contingency Plan lists out the details regarding identification of the vulnerable areas in
case of specific natural hazards:earthquakes, cyclones, floods, and droughts and the
requirements in preparation to mitigate involved threats. In case of earthquakes, for
example, the administration is required to identify the hazard prone areas, and undertake
advance preparatory action to mitigate the threats involved. Activites listed therein include:
a) Preparation of Plans and skeleton organisation in advance,
b) Training of Personnel,
c) Establishment of alternative means of mobile communications,
d) Mobilisation of Fire Services including auxiliary firemen,
e) Plans of rescue of casualties trapped under-debris,
f) Provision of hospital, medical and nursing staff,
g) Medical plans for improvised first aid posts and emergency hospitals,
h) Removal of Debris,
i) Emergency sanitation, alternative supplies of water, salvage and custody of valuables,
procurement, distribution, accounting of gift stores, care of animals, etc.
j) Provision of welfare facilities for example of homeless, establishment of Games,
information and guidance on essential matters, evacuation people, alternative of
including food, clothing and shelter,
k) Disposal of the dead after their identifications,
l) Mobilisation of transport,
m) Requisitioning of vehicles and issue of petrol, oil, lubricant, spare parts and repair
facilities,
n) Protection of properties including objects of art and things of cultural importance,
o) Special measures for the protection/repair/restoration or essential service
communications, industrial and vital plants,
p) Publicity,
q) Prevention of panic and upkeep of morale,
r) Restoration of communications,
s) Liaison, particularly with the Armed Forces,
Similarly, detailed list of tasks involved has been prepared for cyclones, droughts, and
floods. To give a brief overview, to meet the cyclone threat, the district administration is
required to keep adequate stock of grain and medicines and keep the vehicles and
generators in a state of readiness. All Cinema Hall owners should be contacted and a list
prepared of all available generators that can be called for in case of an emergency.
Cyclone Stores should be opened to make avialable essential items such as tents, hooks
etc. during such events. For more information on District Contingecy Plan (see
Appendix-1).
17.4.1 Building Resilience

As also mentioned earlier, Disaster Management is not an isolated event/activity. It has to
be viewed in perspective of the wider developmental planning because vulnerability
reduction is a mainstream development concern. The Tenth Plan (2002-07) recognised the
interconnection between disaster and development; accordingly a separate chapter was
incorporated on disaster management. Its practical implications are numerous. As read in
the Economic Survey (2005-05), there are serious deficiencies with regard to storage
facilities (godowns) for agricultural produce in rural ares in India. In ‘normal’ times it
results in a raw deal for the farmer since he cannot store and market his produce at the
opportune time. In cases of disaters, it severely compromises the resilience of communities
to withstand the food shortage in the immediate aftermath of a disaster. The tenth plan
points out that capital assets in irrigation and power have been insufficient. Public
investment in agricuture has fallen which has caused deterioration in the quality of rural
productive assets. While private investment is growing, that is hardly enough substitute by
any measure, for public investment. Besides, even private efforts are thwarted due to
infrastructural weaknesses in that while private investment in diesel run generating sets is
increasing, operating capacity remains underutilised due to poor distribution and upkeep.
The trend of declining public investment in agriculture as rightly conceded in the tenth plan
would have to be reversed by increased investment in productive assets such as irrigation,
power, credit and developing the rural infrastructure. In keeping with the revised paradigm
of governance, as per the neo liberal philosophy, revival of farmer cooperatives is being
strongly advocated to strengthen self-help on the part of people as a counterfoil to
bureaucratic ‘monopoly’. As announced in the tenth plan, the voluntary sector would
henceforth be involved in to provide extension services in activities, such as, dissemination
of new and environment friendly agricultural technology, research and education in animal
husbandry and allied sectors, agricultural credit, social welfare services and development
of weaker sections, particularly women and children and in tribal development. The
voluntary sector and the private sector would be encouraged to provide extension
services, both information and services including input supply and seed testing. The
extension system would be revitalised and broad based through an inclusive network of
Kisan Vikas Kendras (KVKs) functioning under the aegis of the Department of Agriculture
and Cooperation, Non- government organisations, Farmers Organisations, Agri-business
clinics/agri-business centers. To increase production, sustainable use of natural aresources
and development of water logged and wastelands for productive purposes would be taken
up. The Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme currently underway (2006) is proposed to
significantly improve the scenario with regard to rural employment and income generation.
These are mainstream development concerns crafted for the twin objectives of development
and enviroment protection. The difference now is that it would henceforth be development
with a disaster management perspective which had been previously lacking. Hence, it
would now be development that is sustainable, both environmentally and equitably across
sections of society. In time it would serve to build both resilience and coping capacity in
communities with a higher vulnerability quotient.
17.5 ROLE OF COMMUNITY IN DISASTER

MANAGEMENT
Before understanding the role of a community in disaster management and how they
normally act as ‘first responders’, one needs to understand the basic concept of
‘community’. ‘Community’ is a term difficult to define because of its usage, which includes
the following:
-A community can be defined such as “a cluster of household, village or a

township”. Community can also be defined by shared experience: particular interest
group, ethnic group, professional groups, language groups etc. Community can be defined
by sector such as farmer, fisher folks etc.” But we define community as ‘a group having
face - to - face contact, having a harmony of interest and aspirations, and bound
by common values and objectives.’ This implies that the community is homogenous.
The ‘community based’ or the ‘bottom-up’ approach is not new. However, this is
relatively a new concept in the discussion of disaster mitigation strategies. With the
identification of the direct link between ‘development’ and ‘disaster’ the issue is now
being given some attention. It is increasingly becoming evident that with appropriate
support in skill development and infrastructure, communities can play a central role in
disaster management, particularly in emergencies. The place and the role of the community
in disaster preparedness and mitigation vary depending on the approach one takes.
The domain approach to deal with disasters offers no space for community based
initiative, since it sees community/ victims as a part of the ‘problem’ for which solutions
need to be worked out. Communities’ are considered ‘victims’ and ‘beneficiaries’ of
intervention by outside ‘experts’. The alternative perspective that needs to be promoted
is to see community as a part of the ‘solution,’ indeed, as an important part of it. A
sustainable way of addressing disasters, disaster preparedness and emergency management
lies in recognising the community as a ‘resource’. This approach makes it possible to find
solutions within, and makes communities and victims less dependent on outside help and
relief.
Communities/ victims are a resource because:
z They are knowledgeable about disasters happening in their own area/ environment,
and are sometimes able to foresee them.
z They have the best estimate of the likely impact.
z They are rich in experience of coping, both in preparedness and in emergencies.
Their coping methods practiced over time and derived from their own experience suit
the local environment best. The richness and diversity of local people coping
strategies is certainly a resource to be recognised.
Communities spend their real priorities in the
People have lived under threat of disaster in
context of all the constraints they face, India for thousands of years. In that time
including social, economic and political they have developed their own ways of coping
pressures, whereas outside experts are generally with crisis: for instance, traditional wooden
not aware of the complete picture. buildings in parts of Himalayas are designed
to withstand the earthquakes, and many
By itself, community capacity is not sufficient communities have well established procedures
for effective disaster mitigation. But it is a for protecting their belongings in time of
floods.
vital part of any integrated and sustainable
disaster mitigation strategy. With the changing
nature and the increasing intensity of the impact of disasters, community efforts needs to
be particularly supported since there are a number of barriers to the full realisation of
community efforts namely:
z Lack of resources
z Inadequate technologies
z Lack of capacity in community organisation

z Difficulties in negotiating with governments and other agencies
z Lack of control over structural factors (such as land and product market)
An effective disaster mitigation strategy should take action to remove these barriers to
facilitate the full potential of community efforts by:
z Recognising their resourcefulness,
z Identifying the gaps in community coping methods and providing support;
z Acquiring the required skills;
z Improving the infrastructure (for example, information, warning system);
z Creating appropriate financial and human resources; and
z Strengthening community organisations.
17.5.1 Community Based Disaster Risk Reduction Process:

“The local community is taken as primary focus of attention (in disaster reduction)
since that is the common unit which is affected by disaster and, more importantly
responds to deal with the event. Disaster planning is seen as an ongoing social
activity which needs to be incorporated into social life………….” Russell Dynes.
The paradigm shift in the understanding of disasters as social phenomena rather than
‘natural’ occurrences also shifts the stress from physical and technological solutions to
those, which are social in nature. The emphasis on ‘social’ allows opportunities for
proactive rather than reactive strategies, which are part of the development process. This
means that people improve their level of adaptation to their environment and reduce
further vulnerabilities. Dynes (1991) cites that among the various social units which are
involved in disaster risk reduction planning and action- individual, household, group,
organisation, community, society etc the local community level is where there is greatest
potential for impact. Collectively, the community has greater resources to respond to the
social disruption caused by disasters than do individuals, households, groups and
organisations. In fact, local communities become involved in disaster response prior to the
involvement of outsiders from the larger society in the international system.
The foundation of community-based disaster management is disaster risk reduction. While
the community undertakes the broad range of disaster management activities, including
emergency response as necessary, the emphasis is on reducing disaster risks. The disaster
risk reduction process has the six sequential stages, namely Initiating the Process,
Community Profiling, Community Risk Assessment, Risk Reduction Planning, Implementing
and Monitoring, and Evaluation and Feedback, which can be operationalised before a
disaster occurs (Dynes, 1991). These are discussed in the succeeding text:
1) Initiating the Process: Initial Awareness and Rapport Building: Various
agencies both government and non-governmental bodies have come forward to carry out
Community Based Disaster Risk Management. A minimum rapport needs to be built up
with the vulnerable community through casual interactions. Government functionaries at the
village level, namely the Block Development Officer, Extension Officer or the local
Voluntary Organisations work for the preparation of the plan at the community level.
Existing youth clubs, self help groups, village committees, elected leaders etc. could be
used as the entry point.
In many instances, a probable hazard event or disaster threat can be turned into an
opportunity to start a community based disaster management programme. A recent
disaster incident and the losses and risk involved could be discussed so that it generates
interest among the members of the community. The discussion could be done through a
participatory process by involving community members of various age groups. If the
community does not have any recent disaster or event to recollect, then they can discuss
a major event that had caused a huge damage in the nearby locality and in the process
the potential hazards underlined in that could be highlighted.
Natural hazards are not new and people have been living with them for centuries. They
have inevitably, devised their own methods for protecting themselves and their livelihoods.
Indigenous knowledge is wide ranging. It includes technical expertise in seed collection to
house building. These indigenous knowledge or the local coping mechanisms should not
be therefore ignored in the process of discussion with the community. Awareness among
the community can be generated by various means such as:
z mass meetings
z cultural activities
z audio/ visual aids
z street plays
These awareness campaigns will help the people to understand the need of the plan for
any possible critical event (both natural and manmade). The plans prepared need not be
sophisticated, very scientific, neither computer model, nor it needs to have a series of flow
diagrams showing the process of plans. These should be kept simple and easy to
understand and follow.
2) Village profile/ Community profiling: Community profiling involves building up a
picture of the nature, needs and resources of a community with the active participation
of the community. It is an important preliminary process in any planning process. It
involves gathering basic information or the surfacing of the general community profiling. It
leads to an understanding of the community’s development position and the context upon
which disasters will impact. Data pertaining to the following are reflected.
z Population
z Local resources (both human such as skilled manpower – health practitioners, ex-
servicemen, etc., and material resources like boats, generators, cutting equipments
etc.).
z Housing pattern in that locality (RCC, tiled, thatched, etc.).
z Cropping pattern
3) Community Risk Assessment: Participatory Situational Analysis (Understanding
the Risk of the locality).
This step aims at taking a detailed stock of the existing situation.
Why situational Analysis?
The situational analysis is mainly to understand and assess jointly, the following factors
along with other stakeholders, especially the community.
z People’s perception of the risk
z Hazard assessment
z Vulnerability assessment
z Capacity assessment
Assessment needs to be built upon from the situational analysis in the form of an
assessment towards possible risk and the opportunities and capacities that can be made
to reduce the vulnerability and the risk.
How to do a Situational Analysis?
The situational analysis or the assessment can be done with the help of various
Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) tools with the other members of the community.
The steps below will give an idea of the type of information that needs to be generated
and suggested PRA methods.
History of Disasters: A community plan should be based on the type of hazards that
they are frequently affected with. This can be analyzed by taking into consideration 20 to
50 years of data and listing out the hazards that have affected the most in the years.
Seasonality calendar: While analysing the past experiences pertaining to various natural
disasters, communities develop the seasonality calendar based on the occurrences of the
disaster events. The calendar prepared by the community should show the month of
occurrences of events and the months for preparedness and mock drill.
Mapping Exercise: One of the most important activities is the mapping of the risk,
vulnerabilities and capacities of the village by the community itself because it is considered
to be very simple, easy to understand and cost effective tool to collect ground level data.
Four different types of maps are drawn namely:
Social Mapping: In this map, the following things are to be shown-
z Habitation in the village (total number of houses in each hamlet)
z Type of houses (kutcha, pucca, tiled / asbestos)
z Roads (kutcha / pucca)
z Embankments
z Bridges (concrete / temporary)
z Water sources (Ponds, wells, Tube wells, Lift irrigation points, canals, rivers)
z Community infrastructure (places of religious worship, club houses, cyclone shelters,
schools, Post Office, Public Health Centers, etc.)
Resource Mapping: The map should show the available resources of the village
z Lands (forest, agricultural, grazing land)
z Tube wells, Ponds, irrigation facilities
z Grain bank, boats

z Government and Private institutions (Financial Institutions, Health Centers, rice
processing mills, NGO, Office)
z Livelihood assets, etc.
Risk/Vulnerability Mapping: The maps should show the vulnerable populace, property
and assets at risk. The map should focus on “who is at risk” and “what is at risk”.
z Vulnerable houses (partially broken or weak houses, thatched houses, etc.)
z People at risk like old, sick, pregnant women, physically or mentally challenged
persons, single women & children below 5 years.
z Fishermen at sea, cattle and livestock etc.
z Vulnerable embankments
z Livelihood assets like nets, boats, etc.
Opportunity/ Safe Mapping/ Alternate Route Mapping: The map should show all the
places within the village where the villagers can take shelter at the time of emergency and
all others that reduce risk to life and property.
z Cyclone/flood shelters, high land or mounds, schools, community center, high
embankments, etc.
z ‘Pucca’ houses on high land.
z All the alternate route system both roadways and water ways.
z Existing health, medical and sanitation facilities that can be used and strengthened at
the time of any disaster.
4) Risk Reduction Planning: Formulation of Disaster Risk Reduction Plan:
After Preparedness and mitigation measures to reduce disaster risks are identified, various
Disaster Management Teams / Task Forces are formed so as to take the lead in
organising and carrying forward the tasks in pre, during and post disaster operations.
These DMT members have sectoral focus such as:
z Early warning
z Shelter management
z Evacuation, Search and Rescue Team
z Identification of the dead and their final rites
z Medical and First Aid
z Water and Sanitation
z Carcass Disposal
z Trauma Counseling
z Damage Assessment and
z Relief and Coordination

Willing and active men and women from the community can be members of the Disaster
management teams. The DMTs/task force should also involve experienced and skilled
people such as doctors, nurses, fire fighting personnel, ex-service men, police personnel,
swimmers, and youth with Scout/NCC/NSS background, Civil Defence personnel’s,
mahila samiti members and others. It is ideal to have a team of 25 members per task
force for a unit of 400-500 households. If the area/community is large, it is advised to
increase the number of teams accordingly. It is necessary to allot and specify the
responsibilities to the selected task forces in pre/during and post disaster operations.
Based on the need assessment of the teams, specialized trainings could be provided to
the members. The groups that need to be trained are as follows:
1) First Aid
2) Evacuation Search and Rescue
3) Water and Sanitation
4) Trauma Counseling
To train these task force members, one can take the help of the Fire services, Police
personnel, Local Health Centers, Red Cross, and St. John’s Ambulance Brigade, etc.
5) Implementing and Monitoring: Mock Drill/ Rehearsal of the plan
Mock drill is an integral part of the planning process, as it is the preparedness drill to
keep the community alert. The drill are basically a series of actions according to the plan
and are usually tried out as a dummy exercise by keeping the people informed of the
exercises and seeking the cooperation in carrying out these drills. These mock drills are
conducted in a village to active the DMTs/ Task Forces. In areas prone to floods and
cyclones mock drills can be conducted twice a year, one immediately after the cyclone/
flood season and one after 6 months time. The plans prepared should be revised and
updated every six months.
6) Evaluation and Feedback: Identification of Hazard specific mitigation activities
and integration of the same with the development plans:
While developing the plan, the community needs to develop a mitigation plan for each
hazard for long term planning. These could be coastal belt plantation, cyclone shelters in
cyclone prone areas, and improved drainage system in low-lying areas. These plans need
to integrate with the development plans of the area like the Food for Work, Poverty
Alleviation Programme, Indira Aawas Yojana, Crop Insurance, and Water Shed Management
Programmes etc.
17.6 CONCLUSION
In this Unit, we have learnt about the significance of first response. First response in the
form of positive social capital and self-help on the part of people in the interregnum
between the disaster strike and official response is critical to save lives as the official
machinery takes time to gear into action. This has been realised from experiences in
recent disasters. Voluntary effort on the part of people though has to be supplemented by
proactive government support in this regard. Measures are already being taken in
countries like the USA and France, to prepare people to face disaster onslaughts: be they
natural hazards or acts of terrorism. Education in Disaster Management creates the

predisposition to act desirably when exigent circumstances present themselves. Hence,
introduction of disaster management in school curriculum is a strategy towards the end.
In addition, people in general are being educated in efficacious response through
information dissemination in this regard. Popular modes are government websites, pamphlets
and proactive citizen effort in this regard. In this Unit we have also learnt about the role
of the community in organising and sustaining first response.
17.7 KEY CONCEPTS

Bureaucratic ‘Monopoly’ : Monopoly is explained as a condition where there is
only one provider of goods/services. Bureaucratic
monopoly is a term borrowed from the public choice
theory, which implies that in the absence of alternate
providers of public goods and services (security, water,
power etc.) bureaucrats enjoy virtual monopoly. There
is little incentive to be efficient. They are also not
sufficiently accountable.
Socialisation : Socialisation is a gradual process of internalisation of
ideas and values that result in personality development
in the family, school, the office and the general social
environment. Socialisation results in development of
perspectives that we carry through most part of our
lives.
Neo-Liberal : As per the Wikipaedia, the term neo-liberalism was
coined by Conservative Republicans to describe a
political-economic philosophy that had gained ground
sine the 1970s. It de-emphasises or rejects positive
government intervention in the economy (that
complements private initiative), which makes it anti
Keynesian economics, focusing instead on achieving
progress and even social justice by encouraging free-
market methods and fewer restrictions on business
operations. It legitimizes use of political bargaining
powering international relations to make countries free
up markets and remove all restrictions on trade.

Alternate Economic Survey, 2004-05, The Alternate Economic Survey Group, Daanish
Books.
American Red Cross, 1998, “Are You Ready for an Eartkquake”, and “Are You Ready
for a Flood” at http://www.redcross.org
APA Task Force, Gregory A. Leskin, Leslie Morland, Julia Whealing, George Everly,
Brett Litz, &Terrance M. Keane, Laura Barbanel, (Ed), Fostering Resilience in Response
to Terrorism: Working with Psychologists, at http://www.apa.org/psychologists/pdfs/
firstresponders.pdf.
“Certified First Responder” from Wikipedia the Free Encyclopaedia, at http://

www.enwikipaedia.org/wiki/first/American_Red_Cross
“Citizen Emergency Response Teams”, at http://www.citizencorps.gov/cert
Dynes, Russell R., 1991, Disaster Reduction: The Importance Of Adequate Assumptions
About Social Organization, Disaster Research Center.
GOI, Tenth Plan (2002-07), Chapter, 7, “Disaster Management: The Development
Perspective”, Chapter 5.1 “Agriculture”.
GOI, Economic Survey, 2004-05, Chapter “Health”, & Economic Survey, 2003-04,
“General Overview.”
Indian Police Journal, fortnightly magazine, Bureau of Police Research and Organisation,
2003 issues.
Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India, 2003, “Contingency Action Plan” at http:/
/www.ndmindia.nic.in
Pan American Health Organisation (PAHO), 2006, Press Release, “New Guidelines for
Handling Bodies after Disasters”, at http://www.paho.org
Pierce County, 1996-2005, Emergency Preparedness: What can you do? At, http://
www.piercecountywa.org
Sahni, Pardeep, 2000, DEC Orissa Report.
Sen, Amartya, 1990, Development as Freedom, Oxford Univeristy Press.
U.S. Department of Homeland Security, Preparing Makes Sense, Get Ready Now” at
http://www.ready.gov
WHO, 1989, Coping with Natural Disasters: the role of local health personnel and the
community, published by the World Health Organisation in collaboration with the League
of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, Geneva.
WHO, 2006, Management of Dead Bodies After Disasters: A Field Manual for First
Responders, (Eds), Oliver Morgan, Morris Tidball Binz, Dana, Van Alphen, at http://
www.who.int/hac/en
17.9 ACTIVITIES
1) Explain the six broad steps for carrying out Community Based Disaster Risk
Management for your locality?
2) Identify five different ways of carrying out awareness campaigns for disaster management
in your area.
3) Prepare a Disaster Management Plan for your locality, which lists out all the steps
mentioned in the Unit (This could be taken up as a project work).
4) Visit a Primary Health Care Center in your immediate neighborhood and prepare a
report on its working.
APPENDIX-I
DISTRICT CONTINGENCY PLAN
After an Earthquake
1) Instant reaction
2) Establishment of Control
3) Military Assistance
4) Corpse Disposal
5) Medical
6) Epidemics
7) Salvage
8) Development of Resources
9) Outsides Relief
10) Camp-work and Employment
11) Fire-Fighting
12) Information
CYCLONE: PRE-INCIDENCE MEASURES
1) Action after the first warning
The Collector should ensure-
i) That sufficient stock of food grains, kerosene and other dry food commodities
are available for distribution to the victims.
ii) That Medical and Veterinary Departments are fully equipped with required Drugs
and Vaccines for taking preventive steps after cyclone and to arrest the spread
of epidemics.
iii) That all the Government vehicles are kept in road-worthy condition for putting
them to use in the emergency.
iv) That a list of generators available with the Cinema Theatres and other undertakings
is maintained by the Officials of State Electricity Board and advance action
taken immediately to use them when necessity arises.
v) That action is taken for opening of cyclone stores for providing the following
materials
1) Hooks of the type available with the Fire Service Department for cleaning debris.
2) Rubber tyres and tubes for using as floats in water.
3) Tents
4) Kerosene lanterns.
5) Large cooking vessels for use in relief camps.
6) Identity slips to be issued to victims in relief camps.
7) Copies of maps, etc.
8) Ropes, wires, chains, lights, with wire fittings, lead wires, torches, etc.
9) Spare Road Marker Stores Cells, Steel poles, Bamboos, G.C. Sheets, tarpaulin
sheets and Slotted Stripes of metal (to be laid on churned up road surface for better
transportation).
10) Double handle shaws (for cutting fallen trees), Shovels, Candles, Hand Hailers, Hose
pipes, first aid kits, cyclone duty sign Boards, Rods, Asbestos, Sheets, Torch lights,
Ditty cans, empty oil drums, gunny bags and sand bags, polythene bags (for
dropping supplies), buckets, V.H.F. sets with batteries for use
11) Pumps for bailing out water along with hose, spades, crow bars, hand gloves,
Eucalyptus oil, naphthalene balls, bamboo mats, phenyl slake lime, etc
2) Action After Receipt of The Second Warning (Actual Threat)
i) Evaluation
ii) Relief to Stranded persons.
iii) Stoppage of traffic on National Highways
iv) Stock of food grains
v) Declaration of local holiday to the Educational institutions
POST-CYCLONE MEASURES
i) Convening of the meetings of the Committees
ii) Rescue Operations.
iii) Removal of dead bodies and carcasses.
iv) Health Measures.
vv Restoration of traffic.
viv Adequate number of mobile squads shall also be made available by the Police
Department for helping clearing the fallen trees, etc.
vii) Electricity Board should clear the roads of fallen electric poles and restore
power supply as quickly as possible.
viii) The Public Relations Department must ensure to build up photographic record
of the damage simultaneously, using services of the local Officers or by
employing local man.
ix) Immediately after the cyclone, the Divisional Revenue officers should form
required number of teams to assess damage to the houses, crops, loss of human
lives, livestock etc.
FLOOD: PRE-FLOOD ARRANGEMENTS

i) Convening a meeting of the District Level Committee on Natural Disasters;
iiv Functioning of the Control Rooms;
iii) Closure of past breaches in river and canal embankments and guarding of weak
points;
iv) Rain recording and submission of rainfall reports.
v) Communication of gauge-readings and preparation of maps and charts;
vi) Assigning charge of flood Circles;
vii) Dissemination of weather reports and flood bulletins issued by the meteorological
Centres, Central Water Commission, Flood Forecasting Organisation;
viii) Deployment of boats at strategic points;
ix) Use of power boats;
x) Installation of temporary Police Wireless Stations and temporary telephones in
flood-prone areas;
xi) Arrangement for keeping telephone and telegraph lines in order;
xii) Storage of food in interior, vulnerable, strategic and key areas;
xiii) Arrangements of dry food stuff and other necessities of life;
xiv) Arrangements for keeping the drainage system desilted and properly maintained.
xv) Agricultural measures;
xvi) Health measures;
xvii) Veterinary measures;
xviii) Selection of flood shelters;
xix) Advance arrangements for army assistance;
xx) Training in flood relief work;
xxi) Organisation of relief parties;
xxiiv Other precautionary measures; and
xxiii) Alternative drinking water supply arrangements.
ARRANGEMENTS DURING AND AFTER FLOODS
z Organising rescue operations.
z Organising shelter for the people in distress, in case the efforts of the civil authorities
are considered inadequate, Army assistance should be requisitioned.
z Relief measures by non-official and voluntary organisations may be enlisted as far as
possible.
z Organise relief camps.

z Provision of basic amenities like drinking water, sanitation and public health care and
arrangements of cooked food in the relief camps.
z Making necessary arrangements for air dropping of food packets in the marooned
villages through helicopters.
z Organising enough relief parties to the rescue of the marooned people within a
reasonable time limit.
z Establish alternate communication links to have effective communication with marooned
areas.
z Organising controlled kitchens to supply food initially at least for 3 days.
z Organising cattle camps, if necessary, and provide veterinary care, fodder and cattle
feed to the affected animals.
z Grant of emergency relief to all the affected people.
z Submission of daily reports and dissemination of correct information through mass
media to avoid rumors.
z Rehabilitation of homeless.
z Commencement of agricultural activities-desiltation, resowing.
z Repairs and reconstructions of infrastructural facilities such as roads, embankments,
Resettlement of flood prone areas.
z Health measures.
z Relief for economic reconstruction.
DROUGHT: PRE-INCIDENCE MEASURES
I) Early Warning System- Monitoring of rainfall in the pre-summer season and
identification of water scarcity areas.
II) Contingency Planning For Agriculture
1) Crop life saving measures.
2) The alternative cropping strategy.
3) Compensatory Cropping Programme.
4) Supply of Inputs.
5) Provision for irrigation.
6) Supply of Power.
III) Drinking Water:
1) A detailed contingency plan for supply of drinking water in rural areas to be
formulated with technical help from the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) and
utilising if need be, the rigs and other capital equipment from the CGWB.
2) Make adequate plans to supply drinking water in urban areas through bores, tanker
special trains and other suitable measures.
3) Monitor continuously rural and urban drinking water availability in drought affected
areas.
Water Resources
1) Prepare a water budget for each irrigation reservoir covering drinking water, kharif
and Rabi requirements and evaporation losses, after working out a trade-off between
kharif and Rabi benefits from the available water.
2) Undertake repairs of tube wells to make all tube wells operational and install
additional tube wells taking care at the same time to prevent over-exploitation of and
damage to ground water regime.
3) Regulate supply to water-intensive industries, if necessary.
4) Minimise evaporation losses in tanks and small reservoirs by using chemical restorations
subject to Health clearance.
IV) Employment Generation:
1) Adequate scarcity relief works to be taken up to generate the required employment.
2) The funds available under employment generation scheme like R.FOR EXAMPLES.,
J.R.Y., and scarcity relief etc. should be dovetailed and integrated.
3) Shelf of projects should be kept ready to be taken up for employment generation
during drought.
4) Drought proofing schemes to be identified and to be given higher priority.
V) Public Health:
1) Disinfect drinking water sources to prevent the spread of water-borne diseases.
2) Draw up plans to cope with likely epidemics.
3) Constant surveillance of public health measures including immunisation to be undertaken.
VI) Women and Children
1) The nutritional requirements of all the children, expectant mothers and nursing mothers
should be taken care of.
IV) Fodder:
1) Assess fodder requirement in drought-affected districts and locate areas where
shortages are likely to occur and arrange for supplies from outside.
2) Monitoring the prices of fodder in selected places/markets.
3) Arrange to procure fodder from surplus States.
4) State Forest Departments to arrange for the cutting and bailing of grasses in the
forests, wherever possible to meet the demand from fodder deficit districts.
5) Fodder cultivation to be encouraged wherever feasible.
6) Ensure supply of molasses to cattle feed plants.
7) Obtain from NDDB and other sources premiered feed and urea-molasses-bricks to
the extent necessary.
Source: http://www.ndmindia.nic.in
UNIT 18 DISASTER MANAGER
Structure
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Disaster Manager: Role and Functions
18.3 Incident Command System: A Managerial Tool
18.4 Disaster Manager: Skills and Techniques
18.5 Key Lessons for Disaster Manager
18.6 Conclusion
18.7 Key Concepts
18.9 Activities

z Discuss the role and functions of the disaster manager;
z Highlight the significance of incident command system as a managerial tool;
z Appreciate the managerial skills and techniques required for disaster manager; and
z Analyse the key lessons for a disaster manager.
18.1 INTRODUCTION
Disasters, as we are aware, affect many critical resources and services. The negative
effects, though cannot be prevented, the impact of disasters on communities, livestock and
infrastructure can be mitigated. The scope of disaster management is quite wide and it
extends over development, prevention, preparedness, response, relief and rehabilitation
and mitigation. All these phases require discharge of key functions and assumption of
certain roles. The roles at times can be primary, especially when a crisis takes place and
certain other functions become secondary which become supportive to the primary
functions. A disaster manager is one who is entrusted with the responsibility for planning
and managing the pre, during and post-disaster activities. A disaster manager could be a
specialist, belonging to, for example, public health department, engineering etc. A disaster
manager can also be one handling the incident command system. As per the Disaster
Management, Act 2005, in India, the District Collector can be considered a disaster
manager as he/she coordinates all activities at the district level. A disaster manager is one
who is entrusted with the responsibility for planning and managing pre, during and post-
disaster activities. It can also be personnel functioning in a disaster management agency,
ministries, departments, municipal and local governments. The international agencies also have
specialised disaster management personnel. The NGOs too have disaster specialists who
play a key role. Irrespective of the nature of an organisation, any individual entrusted with
managing disasters in pre, during and post-disaster scenarios is considered a disaster
manager. Yet, as one in charge of overall management of disaster situations at any
geographical area, she/he needs to discharge certain basic managerial functions. The
disaster manager handles chaotic situations and this necessitates being equipped with
certain key skills and techniques.
As learners of Masters Programme in Public Administration, you are familiar with certain
basic concepts and techniques of the discipline. We have already discussed about these
in our First Year Courses. In this Unit, we shall attempt to apply some of these concepts
and principles to the disaster scenarios. We shall orient you with the functioning of
disaster manager, the required managerial skills and lessons to be learnt by the disaster
manager in the process of management of disasters.
18.2 DISASTER MANAGER: ROLE AND FUNCTIONS

The disaster management activity as you know is extending beyond post-disaster relief,
assistance and rehabilitation encompassing pre-disaster planning, preparedness, response,
information management, interpersonal relations, conflict management etc. The question that
arises is why we have to apply management principles to disaster situations. Disasters
disrupt the economies and have devastating consequences, create chaos that throw up
certain serious issues to the disaster manager which, to a certain extent can be made
amenable to solution through application of managerial concepts and principles. The
disaster manager is often confronted with certain complex problems some of which are:
z Lack of assessment or clarity regarding the multiple consequences arising out of
disasters
z Unavailable, unreliable, competing, and multiple types of information
z Limited and at times inaccessible resources (human, material and financial)
z Ambiguity regarding the nature of disaster, its repercussions, the extent of damage,
ways of prioritising resources etc., and
z Indeterminate behaviour amongst the individuals working in the organisation and other
stakeholders and community.
Disasters are chaotic situations that create confusion, instability and also call for prompt
action on the part of the managers. Since the events move rapidly and are traumatic, they
necessitate quick decisions. Often the managers might not even get a second chance to
think and decide. Hence application or use of management principles facilitates the
handling of situation and bringing the events under control. Managerial principles are said
to:
z Provide a framework for decision-making which is essential for disaster situations
z Facilitate prompt and quick decision-making
z Help group activity that is needed for guiding proper utilisation of resources for
accomplishing goals; and
z Formulate and implement a balanced disaster or crisis management action plan.
Management principles are required to be applied both in routine situations and crises.
The time when disaster takes place, requiring emergency operations are the crisis
situations. There are routine or non-crisis situations encompassing preventive, mitigation
and rehabilitation phases. These also need routine or regular management activities. For
example, any housing project in a disaster prone area is to adhere to or incorporate
disaster-resistant construction technologies. This activity has to take cognisance of certain
management principles from planning to implementation.
Disaster management as an identifiable profession is of a recent origin. It has multifaceted
activities that are designed to control disaster and emergency situations, provide a
framework for assisting those persons who are at risk to avoid or recover from the
impact of disaster. In accordance with the changing nature of the field of disaster
management, the role of disaster manager, which earlier was confined to relief provision,
discharging certain specific adhoc activities during or after an emergency is presently
undergoing a transformation. The entire approach to managing disasters, which hitherto
was traditional, relief oriented, and reactive in nature, is becoming development-oriented.
The disaster manager’s tasks are to minimise people’s vulnerabilities to hazards, cater to
their needs and expectations, and accordingly embark upon positive response to meeting
emergencies.
We have discussed in the First Year Courses of our Master’s Programme about the
concept of ‘responsiveness’. Entrepreneurial, result-oriented and innovative practices are
being experimented in managing disasters. The present day emphasis is on introducing
broad-based networks in the provision of services. Disaster organisations are also moving
towards responsive governance.
There is a distinct change in the values in managing disasters, which calls for more
accountability on the part of disaster organisations. The disaster manager is expected to
usher in more people-oriented values in service delivery. This is reflected in the table
below:
Table - 18.1
Traditional Contemporary
Emphasis on relief Pre-and Post-disaster activities
linked to development goals
Centralised decision making Decentralised and participative
decision making
Quantity of Relief Quantity and quality of services
Reactive approach Proactive approach
A disaster manager’s role, in the light of this, centres on the following considerations:
z Identify the key issues involved in managing disasters
z Integrate disaster prevention and preparedness into development
z Protect the vulnerable
z Ensure the involvement of community
Disaster Manager 359
z Provide disaster assistance as far as possible in an equitable and consistent manner

z Establish transparency, commitment and involvement in implementing any ongoing
disaster management programme
z Address or take cognisance of the local ecology
z Draw up an emergency or response or disaster management plan which is transparent
flexible, efficient, effective, affordable and sustainable; and
z Make disaster management activity need oriented, multi-disciplinary and integrated.
These responsibilities envisage that a disaster manager be innovative, risk taking, catalytic,
entrepreneurial and proactive. You are familiar with these concepts, as we had discussed
the basic tenets of entrepreneurial government propounded by Osborne and Gaebler in
the Unit on Entrepreneurial Government in MPA-011. These concepts are applicable in
the present context to any organisation involved in service delivery. The performance of
multifaceted activities calls for a broad base of knowledge in several areas and blending
this into well-coordinated programmes. A disaster manager in fulfilling the assigned tasks
addresses the following aspects on a continuous basis. These include:
z Disaster and its linkage with development
z Disaster Preparedness
z Disaster Mitigation
z Risk and Vulnerability assessment
z Logistics
z Rehabilitation and reconstruction
Let us now discuss the broad set of activities the disaster manager is to discharge in
routine situations as well as crises.
Management of Risks
A disaster manager is to be fully equipped and prepared to manage the risks. This
includes identifying the possible threats or hazards, assessing the probability of their
occurrence, their impact on community and laying down measures to reduce the risks or
threats. These can be managed by initiating appropriate development activities in addition
to the immediate measures to tackle the crisis.
Management of Losses
In a disaster, as you know, the losses are manifold, encompassing human, livestock,
infrastructure, property, etc. Efforts towards managing losses are addressed in pre, during
and post-disaster phase encompass. Pre-disaster activities as we have been discussing in
the earlier Units encompass:
z Providing appropriate information to the communities about the impending disaster
z Strengthening wherever possible the resistance of buildings and physical structures
z Arranging for the safety of the people residing in threatened areas; and
z Making use of social networking mechanisms to mobilise people in the vulnerable
areas.
The post-disaster loss management activities aim at improving the response and widening
the support to the community. This includes devising prompt relief and recovery activities
and a host of rehabilitation and reconstruction efforts. These have already been discussed
at length in the earlier Units of this Course.
Control of Events
This is a very important activity as the situation that is likely to arise or the crisis that
has occurred need to be controlled and managed through several measures such as:
z Determining or gauging the cause and effect relationship generated by each event
z Reducing the scope of disaster
z Collecting information and assessing it to prioritise actions and guide response
z Developing an appropriate mix or a combination of responses for meeting disaster
needs
z Taking appropriate action on identifying the problem and selecting response strategy
z Providing a lead to the various activities as well as the personnel. Appropriate and
effective leadership enables good public response and encourages people to take
action for themselves in meeting their needs
z Fostering discipline in all activities and disaster management systems to enable orderly
and precise functioning; and
z Providing assistance in an equitable and fair manner to enable disaster victims receive
fair treatment and adequate access to the resources.
Resource Management
Resources are of various types. They include financial, organisational, personnel, logistics,
information, and so on. These need to be managed with the help of managerial techniques
to facilitate the disaster manager’s functioning. Also, innovative practices are being
introduced in present times in the management of resources. For example, the disaster
manager can mobilise the communities to contribute either in the form of cash, kind or
labour in mitigation activities in reducing their risks to disasters. Presently, micro-finance
is being used to enable the community to act and invest in preventive measures such as
check dams, drainage systems etc.
These are some of the broad functions the disaster manager is expected to perform. With
this overview, let us now analyse the role of the disaster manager. This can be done
under the following three broad categories.
z Managing Organisations
z Managing Operations
z Managing People
Managing Organisations
The process of managing organisations involves discharge of POSDCoRB (Planning,
Organising, Staffing, Directing, Coordinating, Reporting and Budgeting) activities, resource
management, monitoring and evaluation. You are familiar with these POSDCoRB functions,
which are the basic managerial functions discharged in an organisation, as discussed in
MPA-012. Let us now elaborate these:
Planning: It implies determining in advance the objectives and activities to be carried out,
the methods to be adopted to achieve the purposes. Planning with reference to managing
disasters includes strategic planning, contingency planning and forward planning.
Strategic Planning: This involves preparing for disaster threats from the long-term
perspective that is those, which are not to occur immediately, but could take place in
future.
Contingency Planning: It implies planning for a crisis. According to the Disaster
Management Training Programme, it is a forward planning process in a state of uncertainty
in which scenarios and objectives are agreed, managerial and technical actions defined and
response systems put in order to prevent, or better respond to an emergency or critical
situation.
Forward Planning: This is resorted to in situations where disaster is going to occur and
the manager takes adequate precautions.
Organising: It involves establishing the formal structure of authority through which the
work is subdivided, arranged and coordinated. Organising implies laying down the
activities to be performed to implement the strategies that have been chosen as the part
of the planning process, division of activities and their assignment to individuals and
groups, the type of authority and responsibility to be assigned, control and coordination
mechanisms.
Disaster management activities are to be supported by an organisation in which these are
to be carried out. Organising involves establishment of clear-cut functions and responsibilities
for prevention, preparedness, response and recovery. The roles and responsibilities of all
concerned are to be specified. This involves inter-agency and inter-departmental arrangements
to support planning, control and coordination.
Staffing: This encompasses hiring personnel at various levels, training, team building,
motivation and morale etc.
Directing: This is concerned with making of decisions and providing necessary directions
to guide the organisational efforts. It involves command and control activities wherein prior
to the occurrence of any disaster, the responsibility for overall control of the situation and
of each organisational element needs to be clearly laid down.
Coordinating: This relates to bringing or putting together the efforts of various units and
personnel to work towards the laid down goals. For example in a disaster management
organisation, there can be top management, middle and field management along with other
specialists handling areas such as finance, logistics etc. Disaster operations require
appropriate pooling and assembling of resources. As the organisation becomes complex
and diversified, a chain of command and coordination running across several levels is
established.
Reporting: Each level in the organisation reports to the next higher level. For example
in government, the top management reports to the political executive and thereby to the
Parliament.
Budgeting: This involves fiscal planning, budgeting and accounting.
These are the basic managerial functions to be discharged by any organisation. Each
specialised functioning area has its own processes and techniques. A combination of
general principles with specialised tools makes disaster management effective.

Managing People
Managing people involves organisation of tasks and assignment of functions and
responsibilities to people, establishing lines of communication, performance evaluation,
motivation and morale of the people, leadership and conflict resolution. We shall be
discussing some of these aspects in detail in the section 18.4 of the Unit.
Managing Operations
This includes managing the various operations pertaining to several phases of disasters. It
deals with the management of logistics/materials, emergency operations, information, along
with formulating an action plan for handling crisis, operationalising the plan etc. It is also
concerned with creation of an appropriate disaster information system.
Let us now briefly examine a few of these facets.
Logistics Management
Management of logistics is critical in any disaster situation. It reflects the disaster
manager’s ability to identify the resources required at the disaster site which could be
equipment, commodities etc. Logistics is concerned with getting the desired materials and
services and it provides a framework for management of materials, services and information.
Logistics is concerned with operations and coordination of activities involved in movement
of materials and storage. During disasters, there is a huge demand for procurement and
distribution of relief commodities such as food, clothes and medicines. The holistic
approach towards logistics management aims at integrating the procurement, preparation
and physical distribution into a simple logistical process.
Inventory control is very important in logistics management and the disaster manager
needs to install a proper inventory control system. It is the system through which any
material of right quantity and quality is procured and made available at the right time and
right place. The disaster manager needs to determine the right quantity and type to be
kept as stock, which are specially required in pre-disaster and disaster situations. There
are certain types of materials which are required in large quantities during disasters such
as food grains, medicines etc. Use of inventory control techniques such as ABC (Always
Better Control) and VED (Vital, Essential and Desirable) analysis can facilitate the task
of inventory control. For example, items such as chlorine tablets, band-aid and cotton are
required in large quantities during disasters. Similarly there are vital items such as milk
powder, medicines and water. ABC analysis helps in determining high consumption,
medium consumption and low consumption value items.
A disaster manager needs to catalogue, categorise and record the logistic requirements for
pre, during and post-disaster situations. This can include making an inventory of
z Commodities likely to be needed
z Sources of supply (government, NGOs, international agencies, etc)
z Storage facilities (warehouses, temporary storage facilities, etc)
z Sources of transport (road, railways, air, etc.)
A disaster manager needs to undertake a general assessment of logistics requirements
capability. For example, if a flood is going to occur, an assessment is to be made of the

z Areas likely to be accessible or inaccessible for providing relief
z Time period for which the situation is likely to continue
z Commodities required to be given to the people residing in the cyclone or temporary
shelters due to evacuation
z Measures for preserving the commodities including the location of warehouse buildings
and the condition of the building so that food grains are protected from insects,
rodents, birds, etc.
The following aspects need to form part of a logistics management plan formulated by the
disaster manager:
z Logistical requirements such as fuel, oil, tents, materials for cleaning and sanitation
and other supplies such as food, water, etc.
z Procurement of supplies
z Food security
z Inventory of intended beneficiaries
z Warehouse facilities
z Modes of transport
z Methods of distribution including dry ration and wet ration
Information Management
Information is a key resource in managing disasters. Effective management of information
is a prerequisite for dealing with any emergency. Any planning and control activity requires
information about the existence of various resources, operations involved, stakeholders etc.
The operationalising of an organisation needs routine type of information for day to day
activities.
Disaster management requires information on various aspects such as the socio-economic
profile of community, topography of the area, weather, existing infrastructure etc., as it is
helpful in assessing the vulnerability to hazards. Presently, such data are being generated
by multiple actors which include government, private sector, NGOs, CBOs, UN
organisations etc. Since the data is fragmented and stored at several locations and
formats, this calls for putting together the scattered data to support disaster management
activities. There is hence, a need for an effective disaster management information system
with networking between those who provide the data, the government and the community.
Disaster manager needs to examine the possibilities of creating a synergy of technologies
and interaction between different agencies. Networking and multi-agency interface lead to
institutionalisation of disaster management. The technique of Management Information
System (MIS) adequately equipped with the necessary infrastructure and expertise to
constantly monitor the risk profile of possible disasters will be useful. We shall be
discussing about the technique of MIS in section 18.4 of this Unit.
The principles we have discussed in this Unit, find a concrete shape in the form of
Incident Command System (ICS). This is institutionalised in many countries in the present
times. We shall now discuss the significance of ICS as a managerial tool to the disaster
manager.
18.3 INCIDENT COMMAND SYSTEM: A MANAGERIAL

TOOL
Managing disasters is a multifaceted activity and involves putting together the key activities
of command, control and coordination of response. Operations management during
emergencies is concerned with or requires prompt decision-making, problem solving and
matching resources to priorities. The basic premise on which the Incident Command
System (ICS) functions, is to foster a formalised management structure that coordinates
several activities pertaining to a crisis and provides a direction. ICS is an appropriate
model for command, control and coordination of response aimed towards the goal of
stabilising the incident and protecting the life, property and environment.
ICS was developed initially in the 1970s in USA in response to a series of major wild
land fires in Southern California. Many other countries gradually have adopted this model.
There is a person designated as the incident commander who is in charge of the incident
and entrusted with the tasks of managing the response. These include:
z Protection of life and property
z Control of personnel and equipment
z Establish command
z Assess priorities at the time of incident
z Determine operational objectives
z Formulate and implement the Incident Accident Plan
z Develop an appropriate organisation structure
z Coordinate the emergency activities
z Ensure the safety of respondents
The ICS organisation functions on the basis of the following components:
z Incident command
z Planning
z Operations
z Logistics
z Finance
You are familiar with the functions of disaster manager and important of these are
discharged by the incident commander. The Command function is directed by the incident
commander as he/she is the person in charge of the incident. The incident commander is
involved in planning, and creation of the Incident Action Plan, which defines the response
activities and resource utilisation for a specified time period. The Operations Section is
responsible for operationalising or executing the response activities as indicated in the

Incident Action Plan. The Logistics Section provides assistance in the form of facilities,
services, materials, personnel to handle the incident. The logistics functions are geared to
cater to the incident responders. The Finance Section is in charge of meeting the costs
of incident.
The ICS provides for a flexible, standardised response management system, logical and
smooth organisation and availability of trained personnel to meet the crisis. Any disaster
ranging from a minor accident to a large scale one requires cooperation among several
agencies. The disaster manager can use the ICS as an effective managerial tool.
In addition, there are certain other managerial skills and techniques that the disaster
manager needs to be familiar. This we shall be highlighting in the next Section.
18.4 DISASTER MANAGER: SKILLS AND TECHNIQUES

Disasters are the critical situations which pose tremendous challenges to the persons
entrusted with managing them. The disaster manager is expected to devise a sound
process and system that have the potential of saving the lives, property, livestock,
livelihoods etc. There are certain skills, techniques and tools that facilitate the task of
disaster manager. These are not different from those applied in day-to-day activities. The
disaster manager is to apply or tune these to the situations of crisis. We shall be
highlighting some of the important skills and techniques the disaster manager needs to be
conversant.
Problem Solving and Decision Making
Management involves solving problems and arriving at decisions. The best decisions
generally are those that are well thought of, and planned ahead of time. For example, a
flood preparedness plan is the outcome of an organised decision making process. But in
crises such as disasters, decisions are taken in a reactive manner, as they are turbulent
situations. A disaster manager functions in varied managerial environments. As soon as the
disaster occurs, the disaster manager finds himself/herself in a chaotic situation. This
requires him/her to assess the current situation and take quick decisions, who otherwise
in normal course functions in a stable environment. At times the environment can also be
diverse and the disaster manager is expected to handle different situations with varying
needs. For instance, the disaster requirements in urban and rural areas can be different,
accordingly the situations have to be managed and decisions are to be taken. The
environment can be technically complex too wherein decisions pertaining to agriculture,
housing, and health are to be made. Hence disaster manager encounters diverse situations.
But an organised approach to problem solving and decision-making is to be developed.
Though there cannot be a rational approach to decision making certain basic guidelines
can be adhered to.
Decision-making is the process of determining a course of action. As students of public
administration you know that there are two types of decisions – programmed and non-
programmed. Programmed decisions are generally taken for handling routine problems,
such as those relating to stocking of food grains, providing training in first aid and so on.
Decisions taken, for example, regarding devising new strategies for information dissemination
to the public, is a non-programmed decision.
When we refer to decision making, it is the rational decision making model, and it
comprises the following steps:
Definition/Identification of Problem
The general tendency on the part of an individual is to examine or analyse the entire
situation in totality instead of identifying the problem. For example, if there is a cyclone
alert, instead of reiterating that the cyclone is approaching, the problem can be promptly
identified as evacuating the people especially those residing in low lying areas. One needs
to be very specific in identifying the various aspects of the problem.
If there is not a single but several related problems, one needs to prioritise as to which
one is to be initially addressed. For example, due to impending cyclone threat, the
problem could be evacuation both of people and livestock, arrange shelter, provide food
and water, protect infrastructure and so on. As a disaster manager, one needs to prioritise
the problems in order of significance and the feasibility of solving.
Determining the Goals
Once the problem has been identified, the next step is to determine the goals. In the
scenario of an impending disaster such as cyclone, the immediate goal is to ensure the
safety of people and move them to cyclone shelter. On determining this goal, the sub
goals can be prioritised. These could be for instance, dissemination of cyclone warning,
preparing the people for evacuation, informing the community leaders, Panchayat Raj
functionaries and others and set a time frame for evacuation.
Generating Alternatives
Once the objectives are set, the different alternatives for solving the problems are to be
determined. This facilitates foreseeing and analysing the consequences likely to arise on
choosing the alternatives. The disaster manager can make use of group decision making
techniques as many a times, the decision quality is higher when made in groups. The
group as a whole tends to create better ideas. Brainstorming is one of the techniques
of decision-making that generates several solutions to the problem. It facilitates pooling as
many ideas as possible and choosing the best idea.
Another technique to arrive at an alternative especially, when there are diverse opinions
is the nominal group technique. Here large groups are broken into small ones and each
person responds in writing to a question, the responses are recorded and ranking of the
ideas is done. On this basis a final decision is taken.
Delphi is another technique that helps in meaningful and accurate decision-making. This
involves the participation of insiders as well as specialists from outside the organisation to
provide certain judgments relating to the problem. Each expert is asked to make some
prediction and once a convergence of opinions begins to emerge, the results are made use
of in arriving at decisions. Delphi technique is applied to diverse problems. Though it is
laborious and time consuming, it facilitates decision-making in an emotional environment.
Evaluating the Alternatives
On arriving at several alternatives to the problem, an assessment of each alternative is
done in terms of its feasibility to implementation. Then ranking is done of the alternatives.
For instance, while drawing up the evacuation plan, different alternatives can be drawn up
or prioritised as follows:
z Determining the evacuation plan

z Prioritising the categories of persons to be evacuated (women and children, old,
physically challenged etc.,)
z Arranging for transportation of the people
z Making the cyclone shelters ready along with the provision for food and water.
Once the ranking done, the various steps to be followed in the implementation of
alternatives are worked out, the resources required in terms of human resources, facilities,
money and time, for completion of the activity, the persons responsible for its implementation,
their roles and responsibilities are clearly laid down.
In decision-making, a cost benefit analysis is generally done. Firstly, the likely costs and
benefits arising out of this activity are to be analysed. Secondly, the quantitative
assessment in terms of monetary value is done. Thirdly, the costs and benefits likely to
accrue in future are examined based on the present costs. This is not an easy task as
there are methodological problems involved in cost benefit analysis. It is at times difficult
to assess the monetary value of any activity. Also there are problems in determining the
future outcomes especially the direct and indirect loss potential and application of
economic appraisal skills.
Monitoring and Evaluation
Irrespective of who and how has the decision been made, it is important to monitor and
evaluate the results of the decisions. Especially in crises, it is essential to keep track of
the decisions made, the persons who had made the decision and those entrusted with its
implementation. Evaluation facilitates review of decisions for bringing about suitable
improvements.
A model of Six Thinking Hats developed by Edward de Bono is a powerful technique
of looking at decisions from a number of perspectives. Each thinking hat reflects a
different style of functioning. We shall discuss them now.
White Hat: This thinking enables one to focus on the available data, examine it and learn
and analyse the gaps in decision-making.
Red Hat: This attitude prompts one to look at problems in a reactive manner rather than
with reasoning.
Black Hat: This enables one to be cautious and defensive and look at the weak points
in a plan or a decision being made. It helps to eliminate certain plans or alter them or
prepare contingency plans. It facilitates minimising flaws before embarking on a course of
action.
Yellow Hat: It helps one think positively about the benefits of the decision and its inherent
value.
Green Hat: It facilitates one to develop creative solutions to problems.
Blue Hat: This is for process control. Six thinking hats is a good technique for looking
at the effects of a decision from a number of viewpoints. It facilitates bringing in creativity
within decision making (www.mindtools.com).
Planning
The planning process involves formulating goals, methods and strategies to achieve the
goals, specific objectives to be accomplished to achieve the goals, the assigning of tasks
to the people for implementation and required resources in the form of personnel,
materials, technology, finance etc., to implement the strategies.
The planning process involves the following steps.
z A clear definition of overall goals, the plan is to achieve is to be done. For instance
let us assume that the disaster manager formulates the goal of building the capacities
of the community in meeting any disaster threat.
z The specific objectives that need to be specified can be formulated by analysing the
situation. There are many methods. One is the Strengths Weaknesses Opportunities
and Threats (SWOT) analysis. In this case, this analysis pertaining to the community
is to be done.
Establish Sub-goals
On the basis of the analysis and the overall major goals, a set of sub goals is to be built
or developed by the disaster manager. This could be the Information Education and
Communication activities, training, skill building, etc.
Formulating Strategies to Achieve Goals
The various strategies or methods to achieve the goals are to be determined. For
instance, the various methods of disseminating information, providing education and
communication such as pamphlets, posters, plays, talks, etc., can be designed.
Allocate Responsibilities for Achieving Objectives
Plan implementation requires clear-cut assignment of responsibilities to various organisations
and personnel. For example, the NGOs, CBOs, PRI functionaries, etc., can be identified
and assigned the responsibilities and can be made accountable.
Formulating a Plan Document
The plan of action is documented and given to all involved in its execution.
Project Management
The Plan document has several activities and some of these can be executed in the form
of project. A project comprises a set of identified activities that must be completed within
a time frame. The activities under the project require special skills, creative inputs and
effective decision making capabilities.
The project plan outlines the major goals and objectives, personnel responsible for the
activities and the required resources (human, equipment, materials and money). Once the
project proposal is finalised it is put to execution. This involves organising the project
team, formulating operating rules and detailed scheduling of activities. All projects require
constant monitoring. The progress of the projects is continuously tracked and controlled
to ensure corrective action. There are various reporting tools that bring out the variations
in project implementation. These include Gantt charts, cost control schedules etc.
Strategic Management
It is a tool or technique that integrates planning, budgeting, implementing, monitoring,
reporting and controlling. It facilitates anticipating the future by analysing the various facets
of the organisation that is., its culture, mission, strengths and weaknesses. Strategic
Management involves:
z Strategic assessment of the situation
z Strategic analyses for developing organisational plans by identifying the strengths,
weaknesses, opportunities or favourable conditions and unfavourable conditions
z Strategic direction in which appropriate strategies are determined; and
z Strategic planning involving creation of a range of scenarios
The implementation of a strategy encompasses allocating sufficient resources (financial,
personnel and infrastructure), establishing a chain of command to carry out the tasks
efficiently, assigning responsibility for tasks to specific individuals or groups and implementing
specific plans and programmes. Strategic management requires continuous reassessment.
Hence performance evaluation is undertaken at regular intervals for modifying the plans
and strategies.
In managing a crisis, the disaster manager involves in strategic management and resorts to
the following measures.
z Constituting a crisis management team
z Developing worst case scenarios
z Creating a crisis management plan
The crisis management team is required to foresee and anticipate the crisis and manage
the recovery process. The team has to develop worst-case scenarios to determine the
types of disasters that could possibly occur. A crisis management plan is to be prepared
indicating the clear procedures, details of specifics of the operations and roles for various
categories of personnel.
Disaster Information System
The disaster manager is to respond to challenges efficiently, take judicious decisions and
perform the tasks in effective manner. As we had discussed in the earlier sections,
information is a key component for effective decision-making. It is the collection or
repository of expertise, experience and database utilised for discharging responsibilities.
The disaster manager requires information to:
z Formulate or specify the objectives
z Determine the plan of action for achieving the objectives; and
z Provide feed back
The significance of information in managing activities and situations has always been
emphasised. F.W. Taylor highlighted the significance of collecting information through
studies to find out the one best way to do things. Herbert Simon in his theory of decision
making about which you have studied in MPA-012 emphasised on examining as many
alternatives as possible to arrive at a rational decision.

Management Information System (MIS) is a system designed by an organisation to collect
and report information on a programme that facilitates the manager to plan, monitor and
evaluate the organisations and performance of any programme. It includes the physical
infrastructure used in computing data, a set of instructions and procedures that help the
people use the systems and related data in the form of database.
Managing of information and creation of information infrastructure are very essential in
disaster management. Disaster is generally confined to a particular geographical area,
hence the disaster manager needs to collect information from several sources and involve
other organisations and experts in relevant disciplines, NGOs, CBOs, community etc. The
most important aspect of information management is providing the right information at the
right time to the right people. In a crisis, the disaster manager has to determine the
recipients of information, and make it available to them. The disaster information system
that is created is to comply with the requirements of every possible disaster scenario.
Leadership
Leadership facilitates the formulating of vision, shaping effective strategy and motivating
employees to achieve the goals. Leadership is distinct from “command’. It reflects a
particular approach of working with people and hence leadership skills are of prime
importance in organisations and situations such as crises as they cannot be controlled
through command. A disaster manager needs to emulate or demonstrate a style based on
cooperation, participation and performance.
Leadership is a personal trait and every person possesses certain distinct attributes, which
need to be made use of in disaster situations. It’s due to this that a disaster manager is
able to guide others and not just because of the authority he/she possesses to make
decisions. Let us now discuss certain leadership theories. An understanding of this enables
in identifying the styles and skills necessary for a disaster manager.
Leadership Theories
There are several theories of leadership. The trait theory is based on the assumption that
people are born with certain inherited traits some of which are particularly suited to
leadership. A combination of traits makes a good leader. Some of these include, being
assertive, decisive, energetic, persistent, cooperative, self-confident etc.,
The behavioural theory is not based on inborn traits or capabilities. It assumes that
leadership capability can be learnt rather than being inherent.
Participative leadership style is based on involving other stakeholders also in the process.
This is said to elicit more commitment and participation from the people in making
decisions and implementing them.
Kurt Lewin identified three types of leadership styles. These are:
Autocratic: This is a style where the leader takes decisions on own without any
consultation.
Democratic: Here, the leader involves the people in decision-making.
Laissez-faire: This style intends to minimise the leader’s involvement in decision-making by
allowing people to make their own decisions.
Rensis Likert identified four main styles of leadership. These are:

Exploitative authoritative: In this style, the leader has a low concern for people and
makes use of such methods as threats and those inducing fear.
Benevolent: This is the style that reflects concern for people by the persons occupying
authoritative positions.
Consultative: The leader here is receptive to ideas.
Participative: The leader makes maximum use of participative methods to involve people
from the lower echelons of the organisations.
Hersey and Blanchard’s Leadership Styles
These are based on the assumption that leaders should adapt a particular style that
matches the development needs of the followers.
These include:
S1: Telling / Directing
Development levels D1: Low competence, low commitment / unable and unwilling
Leader: High task focus, low relationship focus.
In this type, the followers cannot perform the job and hence are not motivated. Hence
the leader takes the directive role, tells them what to do. For example, the disaster
manager works with the team, as they have low maturity and less information about
disaster preparedness and response.
S2: Selling / Coaching
D2: Some competence, low commitment / unable and willing
Leader: High task focus, high relationship focus.
The follower is willing to perform the job but lacks the skills and knowledge. The leader
attempts to persuade and help the follower to complete the task.
S3: Participating / Supporting
D3: High competence, variable commitment / Able and unwilling
Leader: Low task focus, high relationship focus.
There is a sense of participation on the part of the followers to do the job. The
knowledge of the team about the situation increases and they assume more tasks and
responsibilities. The team leader does not direct the followers.
S4: Delegating
Follower: D4: High competence, high commitment /Able and willing
Leader: Low task focus, low relationship focus
There is a lot of commitment, knowledge and willingness on the part of team members
or followers. The leader delegates work to them, and trusts them for performance.
Hurricane Katrina, the worst natural disaster in the United States that left nearly one
million Americans homeless, raised the issue of strong leadership skills. Ronald Heifetz, the
co-founder of Centre for Public Leadership, says that good leaders often emerge in crisis
and during that crisis, they make it a point to be visible. For example after the September
11, 2001 attack on New York city, the Mayor of the City was on the streets everyday
and people could see him at a greater distance. In times of disturbance, human beings
turn to their authority figures to coordinate protective response.
In disaster situations, leadership styles could be a combination of several characteristics.
In crisis or emergency, the leader is supposed to act immediately. There is little time to
consult, delegate or involve other members. Since prompt action is required, autocratic
leadership is appropriate. During the transition or post-disaster phase, a more participative
and supportive style, and a less autocratic or directive one is desirable. During
reconstruction, mitigation or preparedness planning a participative and achievement
oriented style is suitable. For example, in undertaking reconstruction activity, adoption of
a particular housing technology, the community, artisans and local masons can be involved.
The disaster managers can adopt informal styles of functioning. They are to come out
of their command and control hierarchies and bureaucracies and attempt to build
networks. With the increasing scale and complexity of disasters, one needs to move
always from the concept of one person, one team and one organisation to a collective
model and manage the issues related to such calamities. Leadership is to be diversified
across all levels and groups.
Conflict Resolution
Conflicts are natural and inevitable outcomes of any team effort. There are bound to be
differences of opinion and views. Creighton (2004) identifies five basic sources of conflict.
These include:
Relationship Conflict: This is conflict rooted in poor communication, misperceptions,
dueling egos, personality differences, etc. This kind of conflict produces strong emotions
and often must be addressed before people are able to resole other forms of conflicts.
Data Conflict: This conflict results from a lack of important information, or contradictory
information or misinformation.
Values Conflict: This occurs when people disagree about what is good or bad, right or
wrong, just or unjust.
Structural Conflict: This happens when the situation is set up in such a way that a
conflict is built in. The structure that causes the conflict may be the way, in which the
roles and relationships had been defined, or unreasonable time constraints, unequal power
or authority, unequal control of resources or geographical or physical constraints.
Interest Conflict: This occurs over substantive issues (money, physical resources, time),
procedural issues (the way the dispute is to be resolved) or psychological issues
(perceptions of trust, fairness, desire for participation, respect).
Hence managing disaster situations calls for handling human relationships and inter personal
behaviour. There are several agencies, organisations, personnel and community, who are
involved in disaster management activities. Hence, conflict resolution assumes significance.
The traditional view considered conflicts as organisational abnormalities that have effect on
organisational performance. But over time, the works of several social scientists considered
conflict a normal process, which can rejuvenate the organisation. Mary Parker Follett, an
administrative theorist, views that it is possible to conceive conflict as not necessarily a
wasteful outbreak of incompatibilities, but a normal process by which socially valuable
differences register themselves for the enrichment of all concerned. She suggests three
methods to deal with conflict - Dominance, Compromise and Integration.
The disaster manager initially needs to analyse the root causes of the conflicts. This
includes the issues causing the conflict, the substance of the problem, real and perceived
differences, the feasibility of the issue to negotiation, etc. Then on the basis of the nature
of the conflicts, the disaster manager can resolve through negotiation, mediation, arbitration
or adjudication. Irrespective of any technique adopted for conflict resolution, the disaster
manager needs to take cognisance of certain values. These include:
z Respect for all the parties involved in the conflict
z Participation and Empowerment
z Justice; and
z Understanding diverse views and perspectives.
Disaster manager has to realise that conflict can lead to innovation and change. Instead
of eliminating, it can to be managed effectively to ensure organisational efficiency. In
managing interpersonal relations, motivation of the personnel is another important factor.
The basic principles disaster manager has to keep in view are:
z Self motivation which enables the manager to understand what motivates the personnel
z Align or tune the goals of the employees with the goals of organisation
z Understand / identify the motivating factors of personnel; and
z Establish suitable organisational policies and procedures and employee performance
systems to motivate the personnel.
What is important is the manager has to reinforce the self worth of employees by
reassuring them of their value to the organisation. In this Section we have attempted to
orient you with certain key managerial principles and techniques. These facilitate the tasks
of disaster manager. But the disaster manager may not be able to arrive at solutions to
all the problems they encounter. But due to the exposure, they learn certain lessons that
are helpful in handling situations in future. There are some important lessons that the
disaster manager need to be aware of which we shall now briefly discuss.
18.5 KEY LESSONS FOR DISASTER MANAGER

The disaster manager has to be well aware of certain key lessons that shall guide his /
her activities. These include:
z Disasters are events that have peculiar characteristics and hence there can be no
general theory of management that can provide a set of prescriptive rules. The
management principles are to be applied as per the situation with certain amount of
innovativeness and creativity.
z Disaster managers need to demonstrate risk taking, creative and entrepreneurial
behaviour.
z Natural disasters call for leadership skills. The MIT Sloan’s pioneering Distributed
Leadership Model (DLM) moves away from “command and control” in favour of
“cultivate and coordinate”. During disasters leadership is required at all levels. The
DLM requires understanding the context in which one is operating, developing
productive relationships and networks, visualising the desired outcome and inventing
ways of working together to realise the vision.
z Every disaster, the disaster manager is to realise, is different and requires a plan
based on the resources and within the available limitations prevailing at that time.
z The disaster manager needs to bring together multiple stakeholders, who can address
the crises.
z Capabilities to absorb the situation, work out multiple scenarios, introduce innovation
have to be strengthened.
z Excessive reliance on any technique or technology is to be avoided. Alternative
arrangements need to be made to deal with the crises. For example at times
technology does not come of use. Any failure of telecommunication links, virtually
leads to collapse of emergency operation. This occurs in many situations. Hence
disaster managers need to be aware of this and anticipate and plan for alternative
system.
Disasters are inevitable and no community or country can be exempted from it. The
consciousness about the impact of disaster is making everyone realise the need to reduce
its influence. One such effort is to sharpen the skills of disaster managers and strengthen
their ability to be prepared for the crises. The disaster manager need also to learn certain
lessons form the past experiences and put together the managerial acumen, techniques,
and interpersonal skills and manage the crises.
18.6 CONCLUSION
Effective management of disasters requires the disaster manager discharging certain
important managerial functions, and being equipped with key skills and techniques. The
application of this helps in handling of situation of crises and bringing events under control.
We have discussed the broad set of activities the disaster manager is expected to
discharge during disaster situations and also in normal times. The disaster manager has
multidimensional roles to perform in managing the organisations, operations and people.
The Unit highlighted some of the important facets of these roles. The Incident Command
System about which we have dealt in the Unit is an important management tool that puts
together planning, command, control and coordination of activities during a disaster. The
disaster manager can utilise this tool in managing a disaster. Certain skills such as decision
making, planning, strategic management, project management and leadership facilitate the
functioning of disaster manager. The Unit highlighted some of these skills and techniques.
Since disasters are inevitable, the disaster manager assumes an important role and has to
put together the managerial acumen, skills and techniques and some lessons from the
handling of disasters. The Unit attempted to bring out these issues.
18.7 KEY CONCEPTS

ABC Analysis : It is the analysis of range of items in an orgaisation on
cost criteria. A-items are considered very important
which consume high costs and hence need tight controls

on usage. B-items are of intermediate cost centre,
which require moderate control while C-items are of
low cost centre.
Gantt Chart : It is a horizontal bar chart developed as a production
control tool in 1917 by Henry L. Gantt, an American
engineer and social scientist. It depicts activities and
shows progress of the execution of activities. The
beginning and end of the block in the chart correspond
to the beginning and end date of the activity.
SWOT Analysis : It stands for Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities
and Threats. It is a methodology used to aid strategic
planning, to evaluate the strengths, weaknesses,
opportunities and threats involved in a project or
activity, on the basis of which a decision is made.
VED Analysis : It is the process of analysing the intrinsic value of the
investments for achieving the objectives of the
organisation.

Baroch, Andrew J., Strong leadership skills can soften impact of natural disasters,
www.voanews.com/english/archieve2005
Coetzee Mercia, Information for Disaster Management, Back to Basics, www.disaster.co.za/
conference
Creighton, James L cited in Le Huu Ti, 2004, Community-based Disaster Risk
Management Integration to Socio-Economic Development, UNESCAP, Bangkok.
Cuny, Fred C, Memorial Continuing Education Series, Principles of Disaster Management,
Lesson 1: Introduction to Disaster Management, Lesson 3: Information Management, http:/
/pdm.medicine.wisc.edu/cuby.htm
Hersey, Paul, and Kenneth L. Blanchard, 1985, Management of Organisational Behavior:
Utilising Human Resources, Prentice-Hall, New Delhi.
Hersey, Paul, and Kenneth L. Blanchard, 1993, Management of Organisational Behaviour,
Utilizing Human Resources, Prentice hall.
Hickman Jennifer R. and William Crandall, 1997, Before Disaster hits: a multifaceted
approach to crisis management, Business Horizons, March-April
http://dmc.engr.wis.org/disciplines/leadership/theories
Indira Gandhi National Open University, Commonwealth Executive Masters Programme in
Public Administration, Course Material on Disaster Management.
Kochler, Gus A., What Disaster Response Management Can Learn From Chaos Theory,
Conference Proceedings, May 18-19.
Lewin, K., L. Liippit, R. and White, R.K., 1939, “Patterns of aggressive behavior in
experimentally created social climates”, Journal of Social Psychology, 10, 271-301
Lewin, Kurt, 1953, Studies in Group Decisions, in Cartwright D. and Zander, A. (Eds),
Group Dynamics: Research and Theory, New York, Harper and Row.
MIT Sloan School of Management, Indepth: Natural Disasters – Leadership: It takes a
team http://mitsloan,net.edu.
www.fema.org
Six thinking Hats – Decision Making Techniques, www.mindtools.com
Taylor, Frederick, W., 1911, The Principles of Scientific Management, New York,
Harper.
18.9 ACTIVITIES
1) Make a checklist of activities, you as a disaster manager, would discharge on
receiving a cyclone alert.
2) In managing a disaster, which leadership style would you prefer to adopt? Give
reasons.
UNIT 19 DISASTER MANAGEMENT
STRATEGIES
Structure
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Changing Complexion of Disaster Management
19.3 Disaster Management Strategies: An Overview
19.4 The Path Ahead
19.5 Conclusion
19.7 Activities

z Analyse the changing complexion of disaster management;
z Provide an overview of the disaster management strategies; and
z Project the path ahead for disaster management.
19.1 INTRODUCTION
Disasters wipe out years of development by destructing economies and causing extensive
damage to lives and properties. Tsunami in Asia in 2004, Hurricane Katrina in USA in
2005, Muzzaffarabad Earthquake in 2005, to name a few, resulted in serious social and
economic costs. Though a United Nations Report titled ‘Living with Risk’ indicates that
there has been a decline in the number of loss of lives from natural disasters, yet the
prevalence of disasters is on the rise. The detrimental consequences of disasters on
society, economy and environment cannot be overemphasised. The question that arises is
whether the devastation and destruction are inevitable? As we have been reiterating in the
Units of this Course, a certain amount of it cannot be avoided, but can be minimised
through enhancing the national disaster management capacities to address the various
aspects of prevention, preparedness, mitigation, response, rehabilitation and recovery.
Over the last two decades, efforts towards evolving multifaceted disaster management
strategies have been taken up, globally about which you have been acquainted with in the
previous Units.
We have reached the Final Unit of this Course. By now you must have acquired sufficient
grasp over the various facets of disaster management. In this Unit, we shall orient you
about the changing complexion of disaster management and provide an overview of
important disaster management strategies. Finally, we shall attempt to project the path
ahead for the disaster management.
19.2 CHANGING COMPLEXION OF DISASTER

MANAGEMENT
Disasters pose a threat to the development strategies of nations as they destroy the
productive capacity, interrupt economic and social activities and create irreversible changes
in the natural resource base. Hence, disaster management has been viewed traditionally as
a strategy for preparing and managing the aftermath of the sudden events. It was always
felt that disasters overwhelm the capacity of the nations and communities by causing
severe hardships and loss. Gradually by 1990s, a change in the perception about disasters
was visible. They are no longer considered as sudden occurrences that can be handled
by emergency response and rescue services. Disaster prevention, which earlier was not a
development priority, added a new dimension to disaster management. A general awareness
is beginning to be generated that disaster impact can be minimised through improved
development planning and implementation.
Risk reduction as a significant disaster management strategy is gaining importance. Disaster
policies, it was perceived, can identify the probable risks the community faces and its
capacity to withstand these. Hazards, it was realised need to be looked upon as an
integral part of development process. The developmental perspective to disasters, as we
have already discussed in Unit 16 of this Course, views disasters as not random acts of
nature but as an outcome of poor risk management that has occurred over time. Hence
risk reduction strategy is being embarked upon for achieving sustainable development and
protection of people and livelihoods. Disasters currently are being seen as opportunities
to capitalise on the inflow of resources for relief to promote long-term development. In
a traditional sense, disaster relief and development were looked at as two distinct entities.
The affected communities were considered helpless and passive receivers of aid without
being involved in the process of relief and rehabilitation.
There is a distinct change in disaster management trends now as reflected in the Table
below:
Table - 19.1
From To
Helplessness of the victims Awareness of the ability to cope
International response National reliance

Outside response Community self reliance
Emergency agency responsibility Everyone’s responsibility

Individual aid Restoration of social system
Victims as receivers Victims as actors
Good dole out Training and Institution building
Donor focused Victim focused
Source: Proceedings of Third Disaster Management Practitioners Workshop for

Southeast Asia, 2004.
Disaster Management Strategies 379
There is thus a paradigm shift from the traditional relief and disaster preparedness towards
a developmental approach that is multidimensional incorporating a combination of strategies
aiming at the institutional and community levels. The earlier emergency management
approach has given way to disaster risk management. It is increasingly realised that one
needs to be aware of the risks involved with disasters and handle them. According to
Jerrilos (1999), this strategy focuses on the underlying conditions of risk generated by
unsustainable development, which lead to disaster occurrence. Its objective is to increase
capacity to manage and reduce risks and hence the occurrence and magnitude of
disasters………… A disaster risk is the probability of injury, loss of life, and damage to
property, disruption of services and activities and negative environmental effects.
Transformation in the Disaster Management Model
The traditional model of disaster management tends to regard it as a combination of a
number of phased sequences of action or a continuum as indicated in the figure 19.1
below:
Traditional Model –Sequences of Action
Pre-disaster Risk-reduction Phase
DISASTER
Pre-disaster Risk-reduction Phase
Preparedness
Response
Mitigation
Recovery
Development
Prevention
Post-disaster Recovery Phase
Fig. 19.1
Source: Green Paper on Disaster Management, Department of Provincial and Local

Government, South Africa.
As you are aware, there are different phases of managing disasters from development to
recovery, which have been discussed in this Course. The new model of disaster
management namely the ‘expand-contract’ model (Fig. 19.2) explains disaster management
as a continuous process. Disasters, it is felt, are managed in a parallel series of activities
rather than in a sequence of action. For example, in case of any disaster such as cyclone,
the ‘relief and response’ strand expands to cope with the immediate effects of the
disaster. Gradually, the ‘recovery and rehabilitation’ strand – including prevention will
expand to address the rehabilitation needs of the affected community. The significance of
the different strands depends on the relationship between the hazard event and the
vulnerability of the community that is involved. This approach is based on the premise that
disaster management includes a number of interventions and actions that may be occurring
simultaneously and not always in a phased manner.
Expand-Contract Model
Prevention & Mitigation strand Prevention & Mitigation strand
Preparedness Strand
Relief & Response Strand
Recovery & Rehabilitation Stra
Fig. 19.2
Source: Green Paper on Disaster Management, Department of Provincial and Local Government,
South Africa
As you all know, the national governments, non-governmental organisations, and the
various agencies of United Nations have made significant strides in pursuing strategies for
disaster reduction. We can say that the governance approach that is gaining importance
in all spheres of activity is permeating the area of disaster management. Governance,
which is wider than government, comprises the mechanisms, processes and institutions
through which citizens and groups articulate their interests. The social networks and
multilevel governance processes that include public, private and community partnerships
have proliferated at an accelerated pace.
Norio Okado (2005) terms the involvement of citizens, private sector, and other
participatory groups in the process of disaster risk management as “Novel Public
Management”. This is considered a new trend in the 21st century. Its features are:
z An emerging role of NGOs
z Innovative schemes of public-private partnership
z Increasing importance of citizen initiatives

z Institutional participatory process for multiple stakeholders
z Public information as common good and its release to society and stakeholders; and
z Growing concerns for public risk and increasing need for integrated risk management.
This new trend is considered to be a turning point in disaster prevention. The emerging
role of NGOs in civil society, increasing significance of government private sector
partnership and extending spectrum of social services are the characteristics of this
perspective which is required to be integrated within the framework of disaster risk
management.
The contemporary challenges are to manage the human safety and security. A strategy that
provides for identification, assessment and management of risks arising out of disasters is
gaining importance. It is a prerequisite for sustainable risk reduction in developing
countries. New strategies for crises management in the present day globalised world are
emerging. What is required is to bring in appropriate institutional reforms, building the
capacities of human resources, enhancing the government’s ability to govern and manage
effectively in the transformed environment. We need to examine the strategies being
evolved at different levels of governance from the national to local level. In the next
Section, we shall provide you with an overview of the key strategies.
19.3 DISASTER MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES: AN

OVERVIEW
It is being realised that disaster management ought to be given a proper policy direction
and any strategy needs to adhere to the following principles:
z Fostering a culture of prevention
z Identifying the key issues to be addressed especially in the development process
z Permeating the concern for disaster risk reduction across all levels of government
z Evolving equitable, consistent and fair mechanisms of provision of disaster assistance
z Providing transparency, participation and exchange of information
z Taking cognisance of local conditions and environment
z Devising efficient, effective, flexible, adaptive and sustainable strategies; and
z Introducing a multidisciplinary and integrated approach to manage disasters.
To recapitulate, a beginning in evolving a disaster management strategy was made in May
1994, with the Yokohama Strategy emanating from the International Decade for Natural
Disaster Risk Reduction. The Yokohama strategy emphasised that disaster prevention,
mitigation and preparedness are better than disaster response in achieving the goals and
objectives of vulnerability reduction. The Yokohama Strategy for Disaster Reduction
centered on the objective of saving human lives and protecting property. The strategy
focused on:
z Development of a global culture of prevention
z Adoption of a policy of self-reliance in each vulnerable country and community

z Education and training in disaster prevention, preparedness and mitigation
z Development and strengthening of human resources and material capabilities and
capacities of research and development institutions
z Involvement and active participation of the people
z Priority to programmes that promote community-based approaches to vulnerability
reduction
z Effective national legislation and administrative action
z Integration of private sector in disaster reduction efforts
z Involvement of non-governmental organisations; and
z Strengthening the capacity of the United Nations system in disaster reduction
As you all know, the International Strategy of Disaster Reduction (ISDR) pronounced in
2001 as a follow up to the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction
(IDNDR), intended to enable all societies to become resilient to the effects of natural
hazards and related technological and environmental disasters to reduce human, economic
and social losses. The ISDR considered that appropriate disaster reduction strategies and
initiatives at the national and international level, as well as the implementation of United
Nations Agenda 21 can strengthen the likelihood of reducing or mitigating the human,
economic and social losses caused by disasters and thereby facilitate sustained growth and
development. It called for participation of communities as an essential element for
successful disaster reduction policy and practice. Vulnerable communities, especially in
developing countries demonstrate extraordinary capacities to prevent such losses. The
strategy emphasised on the need to create disaster resilient societies and prevent human,
economic and social losses through public participation at all levels of implementation of
the strategy.
The World Conference on Disaster Reduction held in January 2005 at Hyogo, Japan
identified the specific gaps arising out of the Yokohama strategy. These are:
z Governance: organisational, legal and policy frameworks
z Risk identification, assessment, monitoring and early warning
z Knowledge management and education
z Reducing underlying risk factors; and
z Preparedness for effective response and recovery
The Conference adopted the framework for Action for 2005-2015 as Building the
Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters. It promoted a strategic and
systematic approach to reducing vulnerabilities and risks to hazards. The Conference
identified the following strategies:
z Effective integration of disaster risk considerations into sustainable development
policies, planning and programming at all levels, with a special emphasis on disaster
prevention, mitigation, preparedness, and vulnerability reduction.
z Development and strengthening of institutions, mechanisms and capacities at all levels,

in particular at the community level, that can systematically contribute to building
resilience to hazards; and
z Systematic incorporation of risk reduction approaches into the design and
implementation of emergency preparedness, response and recovery programmes in
the reconstruction of affected communities.
The prevailing disaster management approaches and strategies are propagating a
comprehensive approach towards handling disasters. Effective, holistic, and proactive
disaster management strategies focusing on disaster risks, vulnerability of communities, and
multilevel and multidimensional coordination among all stakeholders are emerging. We have
already acquainted you with the basic tenets of Total Disaster Risk Management
Approach (TDRM) in Unit 2 of this Course. This approach builds on the gains of the
International Decade of Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR), the International Strategy
for Disaster Reduction (ISDR) and other existing endeavours. It integrates the existing
knowledge and techniques on disaster reduction and response and risk management.
Inherent to this approach is effectively communicating the knowledge techniques at all
levels and facilitating the appreciation of governments of the relevance of disaster risk
management in achieving sustainable development objectives. We have discussed in detail
the strategies of the approach in Unit 2 of this Course.
USAID’s Disaster Mitigation Strategic Objective emphasises preparing for and responding
to natural disasters. This strategy targets the following broad sets of beneficiary groups:
z At-risk population for example, women, children, scheduled castes and tribes in high-
risk disaster prone communities
z Service providers, for example, first responders
z Public and private partners for example, banks, insurers, NGOs, business aid
z Government of India, public policy makers, military, police and disaster management
officials.
This strategy has the following components:
Increased Community Preparedness to Mitigate and Manage Disasters
This encompasses:
z Community level disaster planning
z Drought Mitigation
z Public awareness and Information campaigns
z First responder training
z Hospital preparedness
z Exposure to “best practices” opportunities (in-country, regional and international)
z Building code enforcement
z Weather and flood forecasting; and
z Early warning systems

Improved Capacity of Public and Private Partners to Meet Critical Needs of
Vulnerable Groups in Disaster Situations
This includes:
z Incident command systems training
z Search and rescue operations
z Stockpiling of relief supplies
z Partners training for capacity building; and
z Coordination of international relief resources
Facilitated and Expedited Reconstruction and Rehabilitation in Accordance with
Sound and Equitable Standards
This involves:
z Retrofitting of public buildings
z Support for materials stockpiling for reconstruction inputs
z Microfinance support for affected small-scale enterprises or the informal sector
z Training programmes for construction engineers and masons on how to build more
disaster-resistant structures; and
z Information system support to promote transparency and equity in Government of
India and private sector disaster response
It is evident that the major goal is to reduce disaster risk. In tune with this, the strategies
veer around:
z Institutionalising National Systems and Capacities for Disaster Management
z Constitution of Disaster Management Authorities at National, State, and District
Levels
z Strengthening Governance Mechanisms at the Local Level
z Building Community Resilience
z Reducing the Vulnerabilities of the Communities at Risk; and
z Fostering Public Private People Partnership.
We shall examine these strategies in brief now:
Institutionalising National Systems and Capacities
The Government of India has adopted mitigation and prevention as essential components
of the development strategy. The Tenth Five Year Plan document incorporated a detailed
Chapter on Disaster Management. The plan indicated that to move towards safer
development, development projects should be sensitive towards disaster mitigation. The
design of development projects and the process of development should take the aspect
of disaster reduction and mitigation within its ambit; otherwise the development ceases to
be sustainable and eventually causes more hardships and loss to the nation.
The terms of reference of the Twelfth Finance Commission were modified and it was
mandated to look at the requirements for mitigation and prevention apart from its existing
mandate of looking at relief and rehabilitation. The Government of India has issued
guidelines that where there is a shelf of projects, those addressing mitigation will be given
a priority. It has also been mandated that each project in a hazard prone area shall have
disaster mitigation / prevention as a term of reference and this needs to be reflected in
the project document.
Constitution of Disaster Management Authorities at National, State and District
Levels
The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) has been constituted in December
2005 consisting of the Prime Minister of India as the Chairperson and other members not
exceeding nine to be nominated by the Chairperson. The National authority subject to the
provisions contained in the Act shall have the responsibility for laying down the policies,
plans and guidelines for disaster management for ensuring timely and effective response to
disaster.
Every state government also is to establish a State Disaster Management Authority
consisting of the Chief Minister of the State as the ex-officio Chairperson and other
members not exceeding eight to be nominated by the Chairperson of the State Authority.
This authority has the responsibility for laying down policies and plans for disaster
management in the State.
A District Disaster Management Authority for every district is to be constituted by the
state government. This is to consist of the Collector or District Magistrate or the state
government may prescribe Deputy Commissioner as the Chairperson in ex-officio capacity
and members not exceeding seven as.
Strengthening Governance Mechanisms at the Local Level
The modern disaster management practice recognises the strengthening of disaster
management capacities at the district level and below, as this is the cutting edge of
governance. There are efforts made to reach out to local governments to help them build
local capacity, acquire knowledge and resources and provide them with decision-making
authority.
The formulation of District Disaster Management Plan (DDMAP) can serve as an effective
strategy to address the district’s response to disaster situations. It can act as a multi-
hazard response plan for the disasters and provide for the institutional framework required
for managing such situations. The DDMAP can serve as an effective tool to:
z Improve preparedness at the district level through risk and vulnerability analyses
z Ascertain the inventory of existing resources and facilities available with the various
agencies at the district level
z Use scientific and technological advances in Remote Sensing, Geographical Information
System, etc., in preparation of the plan; and
z Develop a framework for proper documentation of future disasters in the district.
The 73rd Constitutional Amendment has conferred Constitutional Status on the Panchayati
Raj Institutions (PRIs) in India. Sensitisation, training and orientation of the PRI members
can go a long way in effective disaster management. The Eleventh Schedule of the
Constitution identifies key areas for developmental schemes for PRIs. These include land
improvement, minor irrigation, education, poverty alleviation programmes etc. The PRIs
can incorporate mitigation component in every development project in these areas. The
primary responsibility for managing any kind of disaster at the local level lies with the local
governance institutions apart from the community organisations and NGOs. The local
governments are best positioned to provide the necessary leadership and direction and
shoulder responsibility for providing succour to the victims and also contribute in ensuring
long-term risk reduction.
Osborne and Gaebler, who propagated the concept of entrepreneurial government, are of
the view that the right kind of government redefines its role to be a catalyst and facilitator.
Such governments will tend to define problems and assemble resources for others, while
at the same time improve coordination between NGOs and the community. In the wake
of this paradigm shift, one important strategy could be to build the capacities of local
governments. This can be through the following ways:
Human Resource Development: This will include equipping the local government
officials with an understanding of prevalent hazards, vulnerabilities and capacities in their
local area of operation, the necessary risk assessment skills and knowledge of risk
management approaches.
Institutional Development: This will entail improving management structures to strengthen
capacity to act as a facilitator for coordination between the organisations and communities
involved in disaster management and encouraging information dissemination for increased
disaster awareness amongst the communities.
Legislative Development: Making legal and regulatory changes to enable local
governments to enhance their capacities to allocate financial resources for disaster
management, develop disaster plans, integrate mitigation strategies into the development
process and involve business community, neighbourhood associations; builders and media
in risk reduction planning (Mehta, 1999).
Building Community Resilience
Resilience is the capacity to cope with unanticipated dangers after they have become
manifest, and learning to bounce back. All individuals have resilience but the degree to
which one is able to cope with an adversity varies. Whenever a disaster occurs, the
portrayal by media indicates or reflects that the communities are helpless and can be
saved only through aid from outside. Though initially some assistance is required, later the
way people pull together and rebuild their lives is quite amazing. So the people have the
capacity to survive, adapt and bounce back after a crisis. Hence over time, strengthening
or building the resilience of communities has become a key strategy at the global level.
There is a shift from vulnerabilities to capacity assessment and building, particularly of the
community. The approach is more community-based about which we have already
discussed in Unit 9 of this Course. The following table indicates the features of traditional
and community-based approaches:
Features Traditional Community-based

Locus of concern Institution Community
Participation Token Dominant to control
Decision making Top down Bottom up

Main actors Programme staff Community residents
Resources Programme based Internal resources
Main method Extension services Community organising
used
Impact on local Dependency creating Empowering
capacity
Source: Proceedings of Third Disaster Management Practitioner’s Workshop for Southeast Asia, 2004.
The building of disaster resilience at community level is only the beginning of the strategy.
To ensure a wider impact on managing disasters, the message of risk reduction needs to
be broadened. In Andhra Pradesh the efforts made by the rural community in the drought
affected village Zaheerabad in Medak District reveals how with the right help, communities
can build their resilience. Low rainfall and deforestation have left the soils arid and
eroded. Also much of the crops viz., wheat, rice and cotton are prone to pests and
require expensive fertilisers and pesticides.
A Local NGO, viz. Deccan Development Society (DDS) employs various strategies to
help increase local resilience. These are:
z Forming women’s collectives and encouraging collective farming by women
z Initiating programmes to restore arid land back into a productive asset
z Promoting afforestation and mini-watershed management; and
z Creating community gene and grain fund
DDS works with local communities to enable them cultivate idle land and reintroduce
customary farming practices. Local food grains, which are drought resistant and less
dependent on expensive and external inputs, are grown. The grain, which is grown, is
stored in each village and it is the Community Grain Fund (CGF). Each community
identifies poorest households who buy the grain at the subsidised rates. The money earned
becomes a revolving fund. Three principles - local production, local storage and local
consumption distinguish DDS’s strategy from the government managed public distribution
system.
To further boost the capacity of farming families to withstand drought, DDS promoted the
innovative idea of a seed bank to rescue traditional crop varieties that thrive in arid
conditions. Seeds of different varieties were collected from villages and the community
gene fund has grown into a movement across the region. As the change brought about
in these villages are based on knowledge, skills and resources largely internal to the
community, rather than being dependent on large investments of external money or
technology, this is a path that other communities in semi-arid regions may follow to create
a more resilient future (World Disasters Report, 2004).
Globally there are several programmes and projects being taken up to strengthen
community resilience. What is important to ensure its sustainability is to forge partnerships
with local governance institutions, focus on mitigation measures, Information Education and
Communication (IEC) activities and integrate the programmes into development plans.
Reducing the Vulnerabilities of the Communities at Risk
Vulnerability in a way implies that there is a deficit of capacities amongst the people who
are at risk. What is required is to identify the different types of vulnerabilities at various
levels. Efforts are being made by several organisations including the national governments
to analyse the capacities and vulnerabilities.
Livelihoods are the most to be affected by disasters. Agriculture being the primary
livelihood in many countries, this gets disturbed and there is always lack or under-
development of secondary or tertiary sectors such as agro-based industries, processing
units, etc. The traditional and crafts industries also receive a setback. Strategies to
strengthen the livelihoods and provide sustainability are occupying a prominent place in
In the development field, the sustainable livelihoods (SL) approach first promoted by
Chambers and Conway (1992) has become an important organising framework for the
efforts of a wide range of multilateral agencies, donors, NGOs, and government bodies.
SL is concerned with the potentials, competence, capacities and strengths-rather than
weaknesses and needs of the communities. It recognises a range of strengths or assets
– called ‘capitals’ to sustain a livelihood. These include:
Natural Capital: This includes water, land, rivers, forests and minerals necessary for the
survival of both rural and urban population.
Financial Capital: Access to financial capital such as income, savings, remittance, and
credit is a critical resilience factor.
Human Capital: Human capital in the form of knowledge, skills, health and physical
ability determine an individual’s level of resilience more than any other asset.
Social Capital: In the sustainable livelihoods context, it is taken to mean the forms of
mutual social assistance upon which people draw. These include networks such as clan
or caste; membership of more formalised groups such as women’s associations etc.
Physical Capital: It comprises the basic infrastructure, goods and services needed to
support sustainable livelihoods including secure shelter and buildings, clean water supply,
sanitation, access to information and communications (World Disasters Report, 2004).
In India, there are attempts to reduce the vulnerability of communities through strengthening
the employment and livelihood strategies. There are several schemes such as Food for
Work, Integrated Child Development Scheme, Drought Prone Area Programme, etc.
Micro-finance is increasingly being used to create safety nets. The Self Employed
Women’s Association (SEWA) along with International Fund for Agricultural Development
(IFAD), the World Food Programme (WFP), Government of India and Government of
Gujarat, has launched a seven-year livelihood security project Jeevika. It organises
women into Swashrayee Mandals and provides them loans, and also inculcates a culture
of savings among the rural poor that helps them during crises.
The Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), realising the interdependence amongst
poverty alleviation, development and disaster risk reduction, has initiated a programme on
‘The Role of local level institutions in reducing vulnerability to natural disasters’. It
aims at promoting local capacities and local organisations to participate actively – in the
design and implementation of locally adopted disaster risk prevention and management
strategies. This is in operation in several developing countries such as Philippines, South
Africa, Argentina, Vietnam, Iran, etc. Its key strategies include:
z Inclusion of disaster prevention and mitigation components in rural development plans
z Disaster preparedness and contingency planning at district and community levels
z Integrated land use and watershed management
z Social capital formation and enhancing social safety nets
z Recognition and enhancing the local knowledge specifically on risk identification and
monitoring, early warning etc., and
z Improved vulnerability assessments and vulnerability monitoring.
Fostering Public-Private-People Partnerships
Public-private partnerships are presently an important strategy of public policy implementation.
This is one of the new governance models, which is being experimented in public service
delivery. In crises such as disasters that involve huge resources, this is an effective strategy
of mobilising private funding and technology that provide gains to the public. It brings all
the concerned stakeholders on one platform to share the resources, assets, and knowledge
thereby fostering beneficial relationships.
In Gujarat, the Housing Reconstruction Programme taken up in the aftermath of earthquake
is a participatory programme with people undertaking the construction of the houses with
the assistance of the government. The Confederation of Indian Industry (CII) is playing
an important role in eliciting the support from corporate sector in disaster management
activities. The Ministry of Home Affairs is seeking the participation of the Builders
Association of India (BAI) and Construction Federation of India (CFI) with a combined
membership of forty thousand construction companies in the disaster management ventures.
Public-private-people partnerships foster horizontal relationships and networks in the
governance process. For instance in USA, the Federal Management Agency (FEMA) was
said to arrive generally after a disaster to provide emergency relief and financial
assistance. In 1993, administrator James Lee Witt led a radical turnaround. FEMA
officials focus more on preventing the damage from disasters through a public private and
joint inter governmental effort. FEMA developed a “life cycle” mode of disaster
management.
Disasters and their costs is the product of planning and mitigation that needs to begin far
in advance of disasters and continue long after to prevent their recurrence. Instead of
waiting for a hurricane to hit and dealing with the aftermath, FEMA officials worked
closely with the state and local officials to improve evacuation plans. They built partnerships
with the construction industry to design and build more houses that are hurricane resistant.
FEMA, in short, moved from limited forms of direct service delivery to a complex
network-based approach that stretched from federal government into state and local
governments and the private sector (Kettl, 2000). Public-private-people partnerships is an
important strategy that brings about devolution of function, sharing of responsibility,

extended social networks where there is sharing of administrative responsibilities.
As you would have observed, all the Units dealt with in this Course dealing with various
facets of disaster management have identified specific strategies. The objectives or goals
the different strategies intend to promote are more or less identical. Disaster risk reduction
accompanied by creating community resilience, participation, empowerment, strengthening
livelihoods and integrating risk reduction with development are the prime concerns. There
are the global challenges too. Having reached the end of the Course, let us know visualise
and chalk out the path ahead for disaster management.
19.4 THE PATH AHEAD

The current perceptions regarding disasters need to undergo further transformation.
Disasters are no longer to be considered as occurrences that are to be managed through
emergency response services. Disasters, natural or human induced, can take place any
time, and what is required is awareness and shared responsibility for risk reduction. This
needs to be integrated with the overall development of any nation. The vital link between
development and disasters is increasingly being realised and was infact the main theme at
the World Conference on Disaster Reduction held in Kobe, Japan in 2005. Disaster
reduction and mitigation efforts must be “woven into the fabric of a community’s overall
development” noted Jan Egeland, the UN Undersecretary General for Humanitarian
Affairs.
Globally, all countries presently are working towards the achievement of Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs). It was in the year 2000, when the United Nations General
Assembly noted with concern the abundant inequalities in human development worldwide
and recognised “their collective responsibility to uphold the principles of human dignity,
equality and equity at the global level”. The General Assembly has set the following eight
goals for achieving development and poverty eradication by the year 2015. These include:
z Eradicating extreme poverty and hunger
z Achieving universal primary education
z Promoting gender equality and empowering women
z Reducing child mortality
z Improving maternal health
z Combating HIV/AIDS, Malaria and other diseases.
z Ensuring environmental sustainability
z Developing a global partnership for development
The UNDP Report on Reducing Disaster Risks (2004), focused on integrating disaster
risk reduction and development planning to meet the MDGs. It addresses the MDGs
1,3,4,6,7 and 8 as being of primary concern to disaster risk reduction on the following
grounds:
MDG 1. Eradicating extreme poverty and hunger
There are many opportunities for interventions that could simultaneously reduce disaster
risk and poverty and hunger. These include:

z Strengthening and diversifying livelihoods
z Encouraging responsible foreign investment and job creation
z A flexible and participatory approach to urban planning
z Building social security, including access to health and education
z The provision of risk / loss spreading mechanisms for those excluded from insurance
cover.
At levels from the individual to the national, the impact of disaster takes away the means
of generating income as well as any savings and assets. It is this aspect of disaster that
emphasises on pro-poor development policy, which provides an opportunity for disaster
risk reduction.
Many of the tools for delivering poverty-alleviation projects and programmes need simply
to be modified to take account of disaster risk reduction. The added value of such work
is to enhance the sustainability of poverty and hunger alleviation.
MDG3. Promoting gender equality and empowering women
Gender influences the types of hazard to which an individual is exposed and an
individual’s access to resources with which to build resilience to hazard and to recover
from disaster. Where structural constraints in society result in the exclusion of women from
decision-making or economic security, risk will be unevenly spread.
Highlighting gender in development and disaster risk reduction raises a broader issue of
inclusiveness in decision-making. To promote resilience, inclusive and consultative processes
are needed that engage those most at risk. Often those at risk are the most resourceful
members of society, but also the least included in economic and political life. This will
include women, but also child-led households, elderly people caring for grandchildren,
ethnic and religious minorities, people weakened by chronic illness and social classes and
castes with low social status.
MDG4. Reducing child mortality
Children are at greater risk of being affected, injured or killed by disaster impacts than
adults. For example, an estimated 114,000 school-aged children were made homeless by
the Marmara earthquake in Turkey in 1999.
It is perhaps the indirect impacts of disaster that have the greatest toll on children and
affect the national mortality levels. Most important here is the loss of livelihoods that can
lead to extreme poverty and homelessness for children left behind.
Appropriate safety nets, such as help for extended families with capacity to absorb
orphans or well run orphanages, can support many children. But for those children born
into families whose livelihoods and homes have been taken by disaster impacts, the
chances of survival in the first years of life will be reduced.
MDG 6. Combating HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases
For many people, natural hazards’ stress and shock is felt as one of many pressures.
HIV/AIDS and other diseases can undermine individual and collective coping capacity,
just as disaster impacts can take away development gains and livelihoods, making people
more vulnerable to illness.
Interventions to strengthen basic health care provision, family health care and preventive
health planning can play central roles in strengthening society and building capacity with
which to resist natural hazards.
Innovative development policy is required for those instances where natural hazard
coincides with high rates of illness. Ways of providing subsistence, security and education
for the children of families where adults may be dead or made weak from illness are
difficult to find. This is even more so when rural livelihoods are under stress from drought
conditions or crops and houses and tools have been swept away by floods.
MDG7. Ensuring environmental sustainability
One of the clearest signals of a crisis in environment-human relations is in natural
disasters. Soil degradation, biodiversity loss, over-fishing, deforestation or drinking water
scarcity undermine rural livelihoods and pave the way for vulnerability to environmental
hazard.
In cities, pollution of waterways and the air and inadequate provision of safe drinking
water, sanitation or solid waste management systems shape patterns of illness that run
down resistance to everyday hazards. In rural and urban contexts, risk accumulation that
ends in disaster is often tied to problems of environmental sustainability. Strategies to
enhance environmental sustainability will make a contribution to breaking the chain of
accumulated risk.
MDG8. Developing a global partnership for development
The most important components of this goal relate to trade, debt relief and aid. Success
rests to a large extent on the willingness of developed countries to meet their commitments.
The 2001 Ministerial Meeting of the World Trade Organisation (WTO) in Doha, Qatar
placed the needs and interests of the developing countries at the heart of WTO
negotiations. However, in 2003, the subsequent stalemate in the Cancun round of WTO
negotiations showed greater political will, collaborative thinking and action is required at
the international level to allow developing countries to trade on a level playing field.
Increase in financial assistance may reflect an evolving change in international donor
priorities. As likely is a response to increasing disaster losses as the disaster-development
relationship becomes ever more tightly connected, and human and economic exposure to
disaster risk grows.
ISDR has succeeded in building regional and international partnerships for disaster risk
reduction and in disseminating good practice. Similarly, negotiations around the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), most recently centred
on the Kyoto Protocol, also provide a focus for international attention that can directly
address the concerns of disaster risk reduction.
These goals hence are important in crises management also. The basic components of
MDGs – poverty, health, gender equality, education, environment and holistic human
development are closely associated with the ability of the population to respond to
disasters. Any effort towards meeting these would have to:
z Respond to the local needs
z Understand the dynamics of the local situations

z Reflect a long-term perspective
z Foster development of local capacity instead of perpetuating dependency; and
z Ensure accountability to all concerned stakeholders.
The path ahead for managing disasters is to usher in a people-centered development
strategy. This has to be supplemented by:
z Systematic assessment of what enables people to cope with, recover from and adapt
to various risks and adversities – at household and community level
z Strengthening social capital as the key objective of all disaster interventions, whether
in relief, recovery or risk reduction – rather a by-product
z People-centered approaches to development provide models that can improve
humanitarian aid and disaster risk management
z New institutional strategies and cross-sectoral coalitions to boost the resilience of
local livelihoods in the face of multi-dimensional risks
z Good governance to create the environment in which more resilient communities can
thrive
z Scaling up strategies based on the aspirations and capacities of people at risk (World
Disasters Report, 2004 op.cit.).
The tendency till now has been mostly to associate disasters with negativities. We need
to broaden our vision and work on the positive aspects associated with disasters as
reflected below:
Negative Aspects Positive Aspects
D Damage Development
I Interruption Innovation
S Severe Sharing
A Antagonistic Awareness
S Scourge Self-Sufficiency
T Traumatic Transformation
E Emergency Education
R Risk Resilience
Strategies for disaster management indicate several measures both long-term and short-
term. But these can give some results only if accompanied by strong political will,
keenness and commitment on the part of all concerned actors involved in the exercise.
Any effort needs to be outcome and result oriented with a shared vision of future
environment, Institutions, mechanisms and processes are always in place and what is to
be associated with it is leadership and good governance. Any policy and practice that
focuses on people’s strengths instead of just vulnerabilities is proactive and it is a positive
paradigm shift to deal with the marginalised sections of society.

The UNDP Report on Reducing Disaster Risks (op.cit.) highlighted the need for
governance for Disaster Risk Reduction. According to it, governance has economic,
political and administrative implications.
z Economic governance includes the decision-making process that affects a country’s
economic activities and its relationships with other economies.
z Political governance is the process of decision making to formulate policies including
national disaster reduction policy and planning.
z Administrative governance is the system of policy implementation and requires the
existence of well functioning organisations at the central and local levels. In the case
of disaster risk reduction, it requires enforcement of building codes, land-use
planning, environmental risk and human vulnerability monitoring and safety standards.
It identified six emerging agendas within Disaster Risk Reduction. These are:
z Appropriate governance mechanisms
z Factoring risk into Disaster Recovery and Reconstruction
z Integrated climate risk management
z Managing the multi-faceted nature of the risk
z Compensatory risk management
z Addressing gaps in knowledge for disaster risk assessment
19.5 CONCLUSION
We cannot overemphasise the detrimental consequences of disasters on economies. Many
countries globally are becoming increasingly vulnerable to disasters. The situation demands
formulation of appropriate strategies for managing disasters. As discussed in the Unit, risk
reduction as a significant disaster management strategy is gaining significance. This strategy,
due to the emergence of new trends in the arena of disaster management, assumes varying
forms. There is a paradigm shift from the traditional relief and disaster preparedness
approach to a development approach. We have highlighted these trends and approaches
in the Unit. The changing complexion of the discipline of disaster management is analysed
in the Unit. Several strategies have been pronounced over time, aimed at disaster
reduction. Many international organisations also are working towards developing an
integrated risk reduction strategy. The Unit discussed a few such strategies. The major
strategies which have gained prominence such as institutionalising national systems and
capacities, strengthening governance mechanisms at local level, building community resilience,
reducing the vulnerabilities of the communities at risk and public private people partnerships
are highlighted. Disaster Management has to embark upon a strategy aimed at holistic
human development integrating the millennium development goals, policies and practices
that harness people’s strengths instead of vulnerabilities. It is a challenging road ahead for

Abarquez, Imelda and Zubair Mursheed, 2004, Community-based Disaster Risk
Management Field Practitioners’ Handbook, ADPC, Thailand.
Asian Disaster Preparedness Centre, United Nations Economic and Social Commission
for Asia and the Pacific, International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent
Societies and European Commission Humanitarian Aid Office, 2004, Third Disaster
Management Practitioners’ Workshop for Southeast Asia Proceedings, Bangkok.
Chambers, R. and Conway G.R, 1992, Sustainable Livelihoods: Practical Concepts
for the 21st Century, IDS Discussion Paper No. 296, Institute for Development Studies,
University of Sussex.
Government of India, Ministry of Home Affairs, 2002, Disaster Management: The
Development Perspective An Extract of the Chapter in the Tenth Five Year Plan
Document (2002-2007), New Delhi.
Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2006, Course Material of Post Graduate
Diploma in Disaster Management, New Delhi.
International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, 2004, World Disasters
Report.
Jerillos, Sonny, 1999, “Fundamentals of Disaster Risk Management: How are Southeast
Asian Countries addressing this? In Risk, Development and Disasters: Southern
Perspectives, University of Cape town, Department of Environment and Geographical
Sciences.
Kettl, Donald F, 2000, “The Transition of Governance: Globalisation, Devolution and the
Role of Government, Public Administration Review, Vol. 60, November / December.
LeHuuti, 2004, Community-Based Disaster Risk Management Integration to Socio-
economic Development Process, UNESCAP, Bangkok.
Mehta, Aman, 1999, “Local Governments in Disaster Management”, Asian Urban
Disaster Management News, Bangkok.
UNCHS (HABITAT), Guidelines for Operational Programme Formulation in Post
Disaster Situations A Resource Guide, Nairobi, Kenya.
UNDP, 2004, Reducing Disaster Risk: A Challenge for Development, New York.
Websites
Norio, Okado, 2005, “Urban Diagnosis and Integrated Disaster Risk Management”.
Cemp.Louisville.edu
“Green Paper” on Disaster management, Department of Provincial and Local Government,
South Africa, www.gdrc.org/uem/dissters
Guzman, M. de, Z, “Total Disaster Risk Management Approach: Towards Effective Policy
Action in Disaster Reduction and Response,” www.adrc.or.jp/publications/TDRM
USAID India, “Strategic Objective 3 Reduced Vulnerability to Disasters in High Risk

Areas,” www.usaid.gov/in/our_work/strategy6.htm
Caldwell, Zrrin T, “Global Trends: Reducing Disaster Risks, http/us.oneworld.net/article
“The role of local level institutions in reducing vulnerability to national disasters and
sustainable livelihood development,” www.fao.org/sd.
19.7 ACTIVITIES
1) Go through the newspapers, magazines or journals and analyse the changing complexion
of disaster management. Write a brief note reflecting your views.
2) Attempt to highlight a few strategies with reference to any particular disaster.
3) Browse some internet websites and collect material on emerging challenges in disaster
management. Highlight a few striking trends in the form of a report after discussing
it with your Academic Counsellor.

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UNIT 1 MEANING AND CLASSIFICATION OF

1.0 LEARNING OUTCOME

1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF DISASTERS

4) Chemical, industrial and nuclear

Type of Disaster/Crisis Nodal Ministry

Source: Manual on Natural Disaster Management in India: NCDM, IIPA.

proliferation, insufficient jobs, ecological degradation; though, ostensible growth in sectors,

1.3 GLOBAL DIMENSIONS OF DISASTERS

1.4 OVERVIEW OF NATURAL DISASTERS IN INDIA

Source: Compare InfoBase Pvt. Ltd.

1.5 OVERVIEW OF MAN-MADE DISASTERS

Disaster management is now part of plan commitments, which means it is already a

1.6 VULNERABILITY PROFILE OF INDIA

1.7 ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS

z Control of soil degradation

1.8 DEVELOPMENT vs ENVIRONMENT

Risks due to Environmental Stresses: Example of Delhi

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MODERNIST AND POST-MODERNIST APPROACHES

THEMES IN URBAN continued emphasis on lower more diversity, more

THEMES IN STRATEGIC redevelopment of slums; renewal and regeneration,

DECISION MAKING comprehensive, either piecemeal, "coping with

1.10 KEY CONCEPTS

risks like release of harmful chemicals in water bodies

pushing warm water further west than normal. As a

1.11 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

“HPC on disaster management plans” at GISdevelopment.net

2.0 LEARNING OUTCOME

There is increasing realisation, as also explained earlier, of a cause-effect relation between

2.2 STAGES IN DISASTER MANAGEMNET

2.3 THE DISASTER CYCLE

The Disaster Cycle

II) Disaster Response

approach to housing which, as more in consonance with industrialisation would be

The TDRM Approach

plans, or protocols. A policy developed through a strategic and consultative planning

2.4 SHIFT TO MITIGATION AND PREPAREDNESS

Yokohama in May 1994, to meet the challenge collectively, since environment is an

2.5 RESPONSE MECHANISM IN INDIA

ii) Administrative response, broadly relating to:

2.7 KEY CONCEPTS

Preparedness : Preparedness is explained as a state of readiness of

2.8 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

Hazards in the Himalayan Eco-System

Indian River Systems

Brahmaputra River System

3.8 KEY CONCEPTS

3.9 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

1) Discuss with elders in your neighbourhood and list disasters or

4.0 LEARNING OUTCOME

4.2 INTERNATIONAL APPROACH TO DISASTER

4.3 PARADIGM SHIFT

4.4 DISASTER PREPAREDNESS IN INDIA

District Disaster Management Committees would invite membership from relevant

4.5 ISSUES INVOLVED IN DISASTER PREPAREDNESS

z Risk assessment (to point out which measures to implement)

Disaster Preparedness Framework

Vulnerability Assessment Planning Institutional Framework

Information Systems Resource Base Warning Systems

Response Mechanisms Public Education and Training Rehearsals