Charging by Friction

In Lesson 1, it was explained that atoms are the building blocks of matter. Furthermore, it was explained
that material objects are made of different types of atoms and combinations of atoms. The presence of
different atoms in objects provides different objects with different electrical properties. One such
property is known as electron affinity. Simply put, the property of electron affinity refers to the relative
amount of love that a material has for electrons. If atoms of a material have a high electron affinity, then
that material will have a relatively high love for electrons. This property of electron affinity will be of utmost
importance as we explore one of the most common methods of charging - charging by friction or rubbing.
Suppose that a rubber balloon is rubbed with a sample of animal fur. During the rubbing process, the atoms
of the rubber are forced into close proximity with the atoms of the animal fur. The electron clouds of the two
types of atoms are pressed together and are brought closer to the nuclei of the other atoms. The protons in
the atoms of one material begin to interact with the electrons present on the other material. Amidst the
sound of crackling air, you might even be able to hear the atoms saying, "I like your electrons." And of
course, the atoms of one material - in this case, the atoms of rubber - are more serious about their claim for
electrons. As such, the atoms of rubber begin to take electrons from the atoms of animal fur. When the
rubbing has ceased, the two objects have become charged.
The procedure of rubbing a rubber balloon against your hair is quite easily
performed. You might try it now if you've never performed it. When done, you
will likely notice that the rubber balloon and your hair will attract each other.
On a dry day, you might even be able to let go of the balloon and have it
adhere to your hair. (You will also probably notice that the procedure will
initiate a bad hair day. Sorry.) This attraction between the two charged
objects is evidence that the objects being charged are charged with an
opposite type of charge. One is positively charged and the other is negatively charged. How does this
happen? How does the simple rubbing together of two objects cause the objects to become charged and
charged oppositely?

How Charging by Friction Works

The frictional charging process results in a transfer of electrons between the two objects that are rubbed
together. Rubber has a much greater attraction for electrons than animal fur. As a result, the atoms of
rubber pull electrons from the atoms of animal fur, leaving both objects with an imbalance of charge. The
rubber balloon has an excess of electrons and the animal fur has a shortage of electrons. Having an
excess of electrons, the rubber balloon is charged negatively. Similarly, the shortage of electrons on the
animal fur leaves it with a positive charge. The two objects have become charged with opposite types of
charges as a result of the transfer of electrons from the least electron-loving material to the most electron-
loving material.
Frictional charging is often demonstrated in Physics class. Two rubber balloons can be suspended from the
ceiling and hung at approximately head height. When rubbed upon a teacher's head, the balloons became
charged as electrons are transferred from the teacher's fur to the balloons. Since the teacher's fur lost
electrons, it became positively charged and the subsequent attraction between the two rubbed objects
could be observed. Of course, when the teacher pulls away from the balloons, the balloons experienced a
repulsive interaction for each other.
As mentioned, different materials have different affinities for electrons. By
rubbing a variety of materials against each other and testing their resulting
interaction with objects of known charge, the tested materials can be ordered
according to their affinity for electrons. Such an ordering of substances is known
as a triboelectric series. One such ordering for several materials is shown in
the table at the right. Materials shown highest on the table tend to have a greater
affinity for electrons than those below it. Subsequently, when any two materials
in the table are rubbed together, the one that is higher can be expected to
pull electrons from the material that is lower. As such, the materials highest
on the table will have the greatest tendency to acquire the negative charge.
Those below it would become positively charged.

The Law of Conservation of Charge

The frictional charging process (as well as any charging process) involves a transfer of electrons
between two objects. Charge is not created from nothing. The appearance of negative charge upon a
rubber balloon is merely the result of its acquisition of electrons. And these electrons must come from
somewhere; in this case, from the object it was rubbed against. Electrons are transferred in any charging
process. In the case of charging by friction, they are transferred between the two objects being rubbed
together. Prior to the charging, both objects are electrically neutral. The net charge of the system is 0
units. After the charging process, the more electron-loving object may acquire a charge of -12 units; the
other object acquires a charge of +12 units. Overall, the system of two objects has a net charge of 0 units.
Whenever a quantity like charge (or momentum or energy or matter) is observed to be the same prior to
and after the completion of a given process, we say that the quantity is conserved. Charge is always
conserved. When all objects involved are considered prior to and after a given process, we notice that the
total amount of charge amidst the objects is the same before the process starts as it is after the process
ends. This is referred to as the law of conservation of charge.
TOP ROW: A plastic tube is charged by rubbing it with synthetic animal fur.
BOTTOM LEFT: The charged tube is then brought near a collection of neutral paper bits at rest on the
table.
BOTTOM RIGHT: The charged tube and neutral bits of paper attract each other. The attraction lifts the
paper bits off the table.
 1. During a physics lab, a plastic strip was rubbed with cotton and became positively charged. The correct
explanation for why the plastic strip becomes positively charged is that ... d. the plastic strip lost electrons to
the cotton during the charging process.

When two different materials are rubbed together, there is a transfer of electrons from one material to the
other material. This causes one object to become positively charged (the electron loser) and the other object
to become negatively charged (the electron gainer).

2. Saran Wrap has a larger electron affinity than Nylon. If Nylon is rubbed against Saran Wrap, which would
end up with the excess negative charge? ____________ Explain. Answer: Saran Wrap
When two materials are rubbed together, the material with the greatest affinity for electrons is the material
which takes electrons away from the other material. Saran wrap takes electrons from nylon and acquires
the negative charge. In turn, the nylon loses electrons and becomes charged positively.
3. A physics teacher rubs a glass object and a felt cloth together and the glass becomes positively charged.
Which of the following statements are true? Circle all that apply. Answers: B, D, G
For A: protons are not transferred in electrostatics.
For C: charge is neither created nor destroyed (ever).
For E: electrons are simply transferred, consistent with the law of conservation of charge.
For F: protons are not transferred in electrostatic experiments (the electrons are transferred).
For H: If glass transfers electrons to felt, then the felt must be more electron-hungry.
b. The felt became charged negatively during this rubbing process.
d. If the glass acquired a charge of +5 units, then the felt acquires a charge of -5 units.
g. Once charged in this manner, the glass object and the felt cloth should attract each other.
4. Which statement best explains why a rubber rod becomes negatively charged when rubbed with fur?
Answer: C
During a charging by rubbing (or by friction) process, the material that becomes negatively charged
does so because it simply likes electrons more than the material with which it is rubbed. The
conductive abilities of the two materials has nothing to do with the subsequent result of the rubbing
process.
c. Molecules in the rubber rod have a stronger attraction for electrons than the molecules in the fur.

Charging by rubbing
this is a familiar electric phenomenon in which friction transfers charged particles from one
body to another.

If two objects are rubbed together, especially if the objects are insulators and surrounding air is
dry, the objects acquire equal and opposite charges and an attractive force develops between
them. The object that loses electrons becomes positively charged, and the other that gains
electrons becomes negatively charged. The force is simply the attraction between charges of
opposite sign.

Each type of charge attracts the opposite type but repels the same type. This leads to the basic
law of electrostatics: Unlike charges attract, like charges repel.

 SI unit of electric charge is the coulomb (C). It is a scalar quantity.

 Every electron has a charge of -1.6 x 10-19 C, and every proton has a charge of +1.6 x 10-
19 C.

Examples:

 When a piece of amber, plastic, polythene, or hard rubber is rubbed with fur, electrons
are transferred from fur to the other material. Fur acquires net positive charge, since it
has fewer electrons than protons. Similarly, the amber, plastic, or hard rubber acquires a
net negative charge since they have excess electrons.
 Combing hair charges the comb in the same way.
 Rubbing glass (perspex) with silk causes the glass to acquire a net positive charge.
Charging by Induction
Friction charging is a very common method of charging an object. However, it is not the only process by
which objects become charged. In this section of Lesson 2, the charging by induction method will be
discussed. Induction charging is a method used to charge an object without actually touching the
object to any other charged object. An understanding of charging by induction requires an understanding
of the nature of a conductor and an understanding of the polarization process. If you are not already
comfortable with these topics, you might want to familiarize yourself them prior to reading further.
Quick Links to Prerequisite Reading
Conductors and Insulators Polarization

Charging a Two-Sphere System Using a Negatively Charged Object

One common demonstration performed in a physics classroom involves the induction charging of two metal
spheres. The metal spheres are supported by insulating stands so that any charge acquired by the spheres
cannot travel to the ground. The spheres are placed side by side (see diagram i. below) so as to form a
two-sphere system. Being made of metal (a conductor), electrons are free to move between the spheres -
from sphere A to sphere B and vice versa. If a rubber balloon is charged negatively (perhaps by rubbing it
with animal fur) and brought near the spheres, electrons within the two-sphere system will be induced to
move away from the balloon. This is simply the principle that like charges repel. Being charged negatively,
the electrons are repelled by the negatively charged balloon. And being present in a conductor, they are
free to move about the surface of the conductor. Subsequently, there is a mass migration of electrons from
sphere A to sphere B. This electron migration causes the two-sphere system to be polarized (see diagram
ii. below). Overall, the two-sphere system is electrically neutral. Yet the movement of electrons out of
sphere A and into sphere B separates the negative charge from the positive charge. Looking at the spheres
individually, it would be accurate to say that sphere A has an overall positive charge and sphere B has an
overall negative charge. Once the two-sphere system is polarized, sphere B is physically separated from
sphere A using the insulating stand. Having been pulled further from the balloon, the negative charge likely
redistributes itself uniformly about sphere B (see diagram iii. below). Meanwhile, the excess positive charge
on sphere A remains located near the negatively charged balloon, consistent with the principle that
opposite charges attract. As the balloon is pulled away, there is a uniform distribution of charge about the
surface of both spheres (see diagram iv. below). This distribution occurs as the remaining electrons in
sphere A move across the surface of the sphere until the excess positive charge is uniformly distributed.
(This distribution of positive charge on a conductor was discussed in detail earlier in Lesson 1.)
Conductors permit the easy movement of charge through them, while insulators do not.
This is the negatively charged plastic comb causes a slight shifting of charge within the molecules
of the neutral insulator, an effect called polarization. Redistribution of charge
The Law of Conservation of Charge
The law of conservation of charge is easily observed in the induction charging process. Considering the
example above, one can look at the two spheres as a system. Prior to the charging process, the overall
charge of the system was zero. There were equal numbers of protons and electrons within the two spheres.
In diagram ii. above, electrons were induced into moving from sphere A to sphere B. At this point, the
individual spheres become charged. The quantity of positive charge on sphere A equals the quantity of
negative charge on sphere B. If sphere A has 1000 units of positive charge, then sphere B has 1000 units
of negative charge. Determining the overall charge of the system is easy arithmetic; it is simply the sum of
the charges on the individual spheres.
Overall Charge of Two Spheres = +1000 units + (-1000 units) = 0 units
The overall charge on the system of two objects is the same after the charging process as it was
before the charging process. Charge is neither created nor destroyed during this charging process; it is
simply transferred from one object to the other object in the form of electrons.

Charging a Two-Sphere System Using a Positively Charged Object

The above examples show how a negatively charged balloon is used to polarize a two-sphere system and
ultimately charge the spheres by induction. But what would happen to sphere A and sphere B if a positively
charged object was used to first polarize the two-sphere system? How would the outcome be different and
how would the electron movement be altered?
Consider the graphic below in which a positively charged balloon is brought near Sphere A. The presence
of the positive charge induces a mass migration of electrons from sphere B towards (and into) sphere A.
This movement is induced by the simple principle that opposites attract. Negatively charged electrons
throughout the two-sphere system are attracted to the positively charged balloon. This movement of
electrons from sphere B to sphere A leaves sphere B with an overall positive charge and sphere A with an
overall negative charge. The two-sphere system has been polarized. With the positively charged balloon
still held nearby, sphere B is physically separated from sphere A. The excess positive charge is uniformly
distributed across the surface of sphere B. The excess negative charge on sphere A remains crowded
towards the left side of the sphere, positioning itself close to the balloon. Once the balloon is removed,
electrons redistribute themselves about sphere A until the excess negative charge is evenly distributed
across the surface. In the end, sphere A becomes charged negatively and sphere B becomes charged
positively.
This induction charging process can be used to charge a pair of pop cans. It is a simple enough experiment
to be repeated at home. Two pop cans are mounted on Styrofoam cups using scotch tape. The cans are
placed side-by-side and a negatively charged rubber balloon (having been rubbed with animal fur) is
brought near to one of the cans. The presence of the negative charge near a can induces electron
movement from Can A to Can B (see diagram). Once the cans are separated, the cans are charged. The
type of charge on the cans can be tested by seeing if they attract the negatively charged balloon or repel
the negatively charged balloon. Of course, we would expect that Can A (being positively charged) would
attract the negatively charged balloon and Can B (being negatively charged) should repel the negatively
charged balloon. During the process of induction charging, the role of the balloon is to simply induce a
movement of electrons from one can to the other can. It is used to polarize the two-can system. The
balloon never does supply electrons to can A (unless your hear a spark, indicating a lightning discharge
from the balloon to the can).

The Importance of a Ground in Induction Charging

In the charging by induction cases discussed above, the ultimate charge on the object is never the result of
electron movement from the charged object to the originally neutral objects. The balloon never transfers
electrons to or receive electrons from the spheres; nor does the glass rod transfer electrons to or receive
electrons from the spheres. The neutral object nearest the charged object (sphere A in these discussions)
acquires its charge from the object to which it is touched. In the above cases, the second sphere is used to
supply the electrons to sphere A or to receive electrons from sphere A. The role of sphere B in the above
examples is to serve as a supplier or receiver of electrons in response to the object that is brought near
sphere A. In this sense, sphere B acts like a ground.
To further illustrate the importance of a ground, consider the induction charging of a single conducting
sphere. Suppose that a negatively charged rubber balloon is brought near a single sphere as shown below
(Diagram ii). The presence of the negative charge will induce electron movement in the sphere. Since like
charges repel, negative electrons within the metal sphere will be repelled by the negatively charged
balloon. There will be a mass migration of electrons from the left side of the sphere to the right side of the
sphere causing charge within the sphere to become polarized (Diagram ii). Once charge within the sphere
has become polarized, the sphere is touched. The touching of the sphere allows electrons to exit the
sphere and move through the hand to "the ground" (Diagram iii). It is at this point that the sphere acquires a
charge. With electrons having left the sphere, the sphere acquires a positive charge (Diagram iv). Once the
balloon is moved away from the sphere, the excess positive charge redistributes itself (by the movement of
remaining electrons) such that the positive charge is uniformly distributed about the sphere's surface.

There are several things to note about this example of induction charging. First, observe that the third step
of the process involves the touching of the sphere by a person. The person serves the role of the ground. If
compared to the induction charging of a two-sphere system, the person has simply replaced the second
sphere (Sphere B). Electrons within the sphere are repelled by the negative balloon and make an effort to
distance themselves from it in order to minimize the repulsive affects. (This distance factor will be
discussed in great detail in Lesson 3). While these electrons crowd to the right side of the sphere to
distance themselves from the negatively charged balloon, they encounter another problem. In human
terms, it could be said that the excess electrons on the right side of the sphere not only find the balloon to
be repulsive, they also find each other to be repulsive. They simply need more space to distance
themselves from the balloon as well as from each other. Quite regrettably for these electrons, they have run
out of real estate; they cannot go further than the boundary of the sphere. Too many electrons in the same
neighborhood is not a good thing. And when the hand comes nearby, these negative electrons see
opportunity to find more real estate - a vast body of a human being into which they can roam and
subsequently distance themselves even further from each other. It is in this sense, that the hand and the
body to which it is attached (assuming of course that the hand is attached to a body) serve as a ground.
A ground is simply a large object that serves as an almost infinite source of electrons or sink for
electrons. A ground contains such vast space that it is the ideal object to either receive electrons or
supply electrons to whatever object needs to get rid of them or receive them.
The second thing to note about the induction charging process shown above is that the sphere acquires a
charge opposite the balloon. This will always be the observed case. If a negatively charged object is used
to charge a neutral object by induction, then the neutral object will acquire a positive charge. And if a
positively charged object is used to charge a neutral object by induction, then the neutral object will acquire
a negative charge. If you understand the induction charging process, you can see why this would always be
the case. The charged object that is brought near will always repel like charges and attract opposite
charges. Either way, the object being charged acquires a charge that is opposite the charge of the object
used to induce the charge. To further illustrate this, the diagram below shows how a positively charged
balloon will charge a sphere negatively by induction.

The Electrophorus
A commonly used lab activity that demonstrates the induction charging method is the Electrophorus Lab. In
this lab, a flat plate of foam is rubbed with animal fur in order to impart a negative charge to the foam.
Electrons are transferred from the animal fur to the more electron-loving foam (Diagram i.). An aluminum
pie plate is taped to a Styrofoam cup; the aluminum is a conductor and the Styrofoam serves as an
insulating handle. As the aluminum plate is brought near, electrons within the aluminum are repelled by the
negatively charged foam plate. There is a mass migration of electrons to the rim of the aluminum pie plate.
At this point, the aluminum pie plate is polarized, with the negative charge located along the upper rim
farthest from the foam plate (Diagram ii.). The rim of the plate is then touched, providing a pathway from
the aluminum plate to the ground. Electrons along the rim are not only repelled by the negative foam plate,
they are also repelled by each other. So once touched, there is a mass migration of electrons from the rim
to the person touching the rim (Diagram iii.). Being of much greater size than the aluminum pie plate, the
person provides more space for the mutually repulsive electrons. The moment that electrons depart from
the aluminum plate, the aluminum can be considered a charged object. Having lost electrons, the aluminum
possesses more protons than electrons and is therefore positively charged. Once the foam plate is
removed, the excess positive charge becomes distributed about the surface of the aluminum plate in order
to minimize the overall repulsive forces between them (Diagram iv.).

The Electrophorus Lab further illustrates that when charging a neutral object by induction, the charge
imparted to the object is opposite that of the object used to induce the charge. In this case, the foam plate
was negatively charged and the aluminum plate became positively charged. The lab also illustrates that
there is never a transfer of electrons between the foam plate and the aluminum plate. The aluminum
plate becomes charged by a transfer of electrons to the ground. Finally, one might note that the role of the
charged object in induction charging is to simply polarize the object being charged. This polarization occurs
as the negative foam plate repels electrons from the near side, inducing them to move to the opposite side
of the aluminum plate. The presence of the positive charge on the bottom of the aluminum plate is the
result of the departure of electrons from that location. Protons did not move downwards through the
aluminum. The protons were always there from the beginning; it's just that they have lost their electron
partners. Protons are fixed in place and incapable of moving in any electrostatic experiment.

The Electroscope
Another common lab experience that illustrates the induction charging method is the Electroscope Lab. In
the Electroscope Lab, a positively charged object such as an aluminum pie plate is used to charge an
electroscope by induction. An electroscope is a device that is capable of detecting the presence of a
charged object. It is often used in electrostatic experiments and demonstrations in order to test for charge
and to deduce the type of charge present on an object. There are all kinds of varieties and brands of
electroscope from the gold leaf electroscope to the needle electroscope.
While there are different types of electroscopes, the basic operation of each is the same. The electroscope
typically consists of a conducting plate or knob, a conducting base and either a pair of conducting leaves or
a conducting needle. Since the operating parts of an electroscope are all conducting, electrons are capable
of moving from the plate or knob on the top of the electroscope to the needle or leaves in the bottom of the
electroscope. Objects are typically touched to or held nearby the plate or knob, thus inducing the
movement of electrons into the needle or the leaves (or from the needle/leaves to the plate/knob). The gold
leaves or needle of the electroscope are the only mobile parts. Once an excess of electrons (or a deficiency
of electrons) is present in the needle or the gold leaves, there will be a repulsive affect between like
charges causing the leaves to repel each other or the needle to be repelled by the base that it rests upon.
Whenever this movement of the leaves/needle is observed, one can deduce that an excess of charge -
either positive or negative - is present there. It is important to note that the movement of the leaves and
needle never directly indicate the type of charge on the electroscope; it only indicates that the electroscope
is detecting a charge.

Suppose a needle electroscope is used to demonstrate induction charging. An aluminum pie plate is first
charged positively by the process of induction (see discussion above). The aluminum plate is then held
above the plate of the electroscope. Since the aluminum pie plate is not touched to the electroscope, the
charge on the aluminum plate is NOT conducted to the electroscope. Nonetheless, the aluminum pie plate
does have an affect upon the electrons in the electroscope. The pie plate induces electrons within the
electroscope to move. Since opposites attract, a countless number of negatively charged electrons are
drawn upwards towards the top of the electroscope. Having lost numerous electrons, the bottom of the
electroscope has a temporarily induced positive charge. Having gained electrons, the top of the
electroscope has a temporarily induced negative charge (Diagram ii. below). At this point the electroscope
is polarized; however, the overall charge of the electroscope is neutral. The charging step then occurs as
the bottom of the electroscope is touched to the ground. Upon touching the bottom of the electroscope,
electrons enter the electroscope from the ground. One explanation of their entry is that they are drawn into
the bottom of the electroscope by the presence of the positive charge at the bottom of the electroscope.
Since opposites attract, electrons are drawn towards the bottom of the electroscope (Diagram iii.). As
electrons enter, the needle of the electroscope is observed to return to the neutral position. This needle
movement is the result of negative electrons neutralizing the previously positively charged needle at the
bottom of the electroscope. At this point, the electroscope has an overall negative charge. The needle does
not indicate this charge because the excess of electrons is still concentrated in the top plate of the
electroscope; they are attracted to the positively charged aluminum pie plate that is held above the
electroscope (Diagram iv.). Once the aluminum pie plate is pulled away, the excess of electrons in the
electroscope redistribute themselves about the conducting parts of the electroscope. As they do, numerous
excess electrons enter the needle and the base upon which the needle rests. The presence of excess
negative charged in the needle and the base causes the needle to deflect, indicating that the electroscope
has been charged (Diagram v.).

The above discussion provides one more illustration of the fundamental principles regarding induction
charging. These fundamental principles have been illustrated in each example of induction charging
discussed on this page. The principles are:
 The charged object is never touched to the object being charged by induction.
 The charged object does not transfer electrons to or receive electrons from the object being
charged.
 The charged object serves to polarize the object being charged.
 The object being charged is touched by a ground; electrons are transferred between the ground
and the object being charged (either into the object or out of it).
 The object being charged ultimately receives a charge that is opposite that of the charged
object that is used to polarize it.
Use your understanding of charge to answer the following questions. When finished, click the button to
view the answers.
1. Two neutral conducting pop cans are touching each other. A positively charged balloon is brought near
one of the cans as shown below. The cans are separated while the balloon is nearby, as shown. After the
balloon is removed the cans are brought back together. When touching again, can X is ____.
a. positively charged b. negatively charged
c. neutral d. impossible to tell

Answer: c. Neutral
When the balloon is near, electrons leave Can Y and enter Can X. Overall, the two cans are neutral; yet as
individual cans, Can X is negatively charged and Can Y is positively charged. When the cans are touched
again, the excess electrons in Can Y return to Can X. Once more, the overall charge on the system of two
cans is zero - the system is neutral.
2.Two neutral conducting pop cans are touching each other. A positively charged glass rod is brought near
Can X as shown below. Which of the following occur as the glass rod approaches Can X? List all that
apply.
g. ... nonsense! None of these occur.

Answer: g
Since contact is not made between the glass rod and Can X, there is no transfer of electrons between
them. And of course, there is never a transfer of protons in electrostatic experiments. The glass rod
simply induces the movement of electrons from Can Y to Can X, causing Can X to acquire a negative
charge and Can Y to acquire a positive charge.
3. TRUE or FALSE?
Two neutral conducting pop cans are touching each other. A negatively charged balloon is brought near
Can X as shown below. As the balloon approaches Can X, there is a movement of electrons between the
balloon and can X (in one direction or the other).
a. TRUE b. FALSE
Answer: B - False
In induction charging, there is never a transfer of electrons between the charged object (the
balloon) and the object being charged (Can X). The electron movement happens between the object
being charged (Can X) and the ground (Can Y). In this case, electrons would leave Can X and enter Can Y.
4. A positively charged balloon is brought near a neutral conducting sphere as shown below. While the
balloon is near, the sphere is touched (grounded).

At this point, there is a movement of electrons. Electrons move ____ .

a. into the sphere from the ground (hand)
b. out of the sphere into the ground (hand)
c. into the sphere from the balloon
d. out of the sphere into the balloon
e. from the ground through the sphere to the balloon
f. from the balloon through the sphere to the ground
g. .... nonsense! Electrons do not move at all.
Answer: A
Since the balloon is not contacted to the sphere, electrons do NOT move between the balloon and the
sphere (ruling out choices c, d, e, and f). The presence of the positive balloon draws electrons from ground
to the sphere. This is the principle of opposites attract.
5. Suppose that a negatively charged balloon is used to charge an electroscope by induction. The
procedural steps are described in the educational cartoon below. On the cartoon, draw the orientation of
the needle and indicate the location and type of any excess charge in steps ii. - v. Explain in terms of
electron movement what is happening in each step.

Answer to Question #5:

6. A negatively charged balloon is brought near a neutral conducting sphere as shown below. As it
approaches, charge within the sphere will distribute itself in a very specific manner. Which one of the
diagrams below properly depicts the distribution of charge in the sphere?

Answer: C
Since the balloon is charged negatively, electrons in the sphere will be repelled and move from the left side
to the right side of the sphere. As a result, the left side of the sphere will have an excess of positive charge
(since it lost electrons) and the right side will have an excess of negative charge since it gained the
electrons).

7. A positively charged piece of Styrofoam is placed on the table. A neutral aluminum pie plate is brought
near as shown below. While held above the Styrofoam, the aluminum plate is touched (grounded).

At this point, there is a movement of electrons. Electrons move ____ .

a. out of the aluminum plate into the ground (hand)
b. into the aluminum plate from the ground (hand)
c. into the aluminum plate from the Styrofoam
d. out of the aluminum plate into the Styrofoam
e. from the ground through the aluminum plate to the Styrofoam
f. from the Styrofoam through the aluminum plate to the ground
g. .... nonsense! Electrons do not move at all.
Answer: B
Since the foam is not contacted to the aluminum plate, electrons do NOT move between the foam and the
aluminum (ruling out choices c, d, e, and f). The presence of the positively charged foam plate draws
electrons from ground to the aluminum plate. This is the principle of opposites attract.

Charging by Conduction
In the previous two sections of Lesson 2, the process of charging by friction and charging by induction were
described and explained. In this section of Lesson 2, a third method of charging - charging by
conduction - will be discussed. As was the case for charging by friction and charging by induction, the
process of conduction will be described and explained using numerous examples of electrostatic
demonstrations and lab experiments.
Charging by conduction involves the contact of a charged object to a neutral object. Suppose that a
positively charged aluminum plate is touched to a neutral metal sphere. The neutral metal sphere becomes
charged as the result of being contacted by the charged aluminum plate. Or suppose that a negatively
charged metal sphere is touched to the top plate of a neutral needle electroscope. The neutral electroscope
becomes charged as the result of being contacted by the metal sphere. And finally, suppose that an
uncharged physics student stands on an insulating platform and touches a negatively charged Van de
Graaff generator. The neutral physics student becomes charged as the result of contact with the Van de
Graaff generator. Each of these examples involves contact between a charged object and a neutral object.
In contrast to induction, where the charged object is brought near but never contacted to the object being
charged, conduction charging involves making the physical connection of the charged object to the neutral
object. Because charging by conduction involves contact, it is often called charging by contact.

Charging by Conduction Using a Negatively Charged Object

To explain the process of charging by contact, we will first consider the case of using a negatively charged
metal sphere to charge a neutral needle electroscope. Understanding the process demands that you
understand that like charges repel and have an intense desire to reduce their repulsions by spreading
about as far as possible. A negatively charged metal sphere has an excess of electrons; those electrons
find each other repulsive and distance themselves from each other as far as possible. The perimeter the
sphere is the extreme to which they can go. If there was ever a conducting pathway to a more spacious
piece of real estate, one could be sure that the electrons would be on that pathway to the greener
grass beyond. In human terms, electrons living in the same home despise each other and are always
seeking a home of their own or at least a home with more rooms.
Given this understanding of electron-electron repulsions, it is not difficult to predict what excess electrons
on the metal sphere would be inclined to do if the sphere were touched to the neutral electroscope. Once
the contact of the sphere to the electroscope is made, a countless number of excess electrons from the
sphere move onto the electroscope and spread about the sphere-electroscope system. In general, the
object that offers the most space in which to "hang out" will be the object that houses the greatest number
of excess electrons. When the process of charging by conduction is complete, the electroscope acquires an
excess negative charge due to the movement of electrons onto it from the metal sphere. The metal sphere
is still charged negatively, only it has less excess negative charge than it had prior to the conduction
charging process.
Charging by Conduction Using a Positively Charged Object
The previous example of charging by conduction involved touching a negatively charged object to a neutral
object. Upon contact, electrons moved from the negatively charged object onto the neutral object. When
finished, both objects were negatively charged. But what happens if a positively charged object is touched
to a neutral object? To investigate this question, we consider the case of a positively charged aluminum
plate being used to charge a neutral metal sphere by the process of conduction.
The diagram below depicts the use of a positively charged aluminum plate being touched to a neutral metal
sphere. A positively charged aluminum plate has an excess of protons. When looked at from an electron
perspective, a positively charged aluminum plate has a shortage of electrons. In human terms, we could
say that each excess proton is rather discontented. It is not satisfied until it has found a negatively charged
electron with which to co-habitate. However, since a proton is tightly bound in the nucleus of an atom, it is
incapable of leaving an atom in search of that longed-for electron. It can however attract a mobile electron
towards itself. And if a conducting pathway is made between a collection of electrons and an excess
proton, one can be certain that there is likely an electron that would be willing to take the pathway. So when
the positively charged aluminum plate is touched to the neutral metal sphere, countless electrons on the
metal sphere migrate towards the aluminum plate. There is a mass migration of electrons until the positive
charge on the aluminum plate-metal sphere system becomes redistributed. Having lost electrons to the
positively charged aluminum plate, there is a shortage of electrons on the sphere and an overall positive
charge. The aluminum plate is still charged positively; only it now has less excess positive charge than it
had before the charging process began.

The above explanation might raise a rather difficult question: Why would an electron on the previously
neutral metal sphere desire to move off the metal sphere in the first place? The metal sphere is neutral;
every electron on it must be satisfied since there is a corresponding proton present. What would possibly
induce an electron to go through the effort of migrating to a different territory in order to have what it already
has?
The best means of answering this question requires an understanding of the concept of electric potential.
But since that concept does not arise until the next unit of The Physics Classroom, a different approach to
an answer will be taken. It ends up that electrons and protons are not as independent and individualized as
we might think. From a human perspective, electrons and protons can't be thought of as independent
citizens in a free enterprise system of government. Electrons and protons don't actually do what is best for
themselves, but must be more social-minded. They must act like citizens of a state where the rule of law is
to behave in a manner such that the overall repulsive affects within the society at large are reduced and the
overall attractive affects are maximized. Electrons and protons will be motivated not by what is good for
them, but rather by what is good for the country. And in this sense, a country's boundary extends to the
perimeter of the conductor material that an excess electron is within. And in this case, an electron in the
metal sphere is part of a country that extends beyond the sphere itself and includes the entire aluminum
plate. So by moving from the metal sphere to the aluminum plate, an electron is able to reduce the total
amount of repulsive affects within that country. It serves to spread the excess positive charge over a
greater surface area, thus reducing the total amount of repulsive forces between excess protons.

Law of Conservation of Charge

In each of the other methods of charging discussed in Lesson 2 - charging by friction and charging by
induction - the law of conservation of charge was illustrated. The law of conservation of charge states that
charge is always conserved. When all objects involved are considered prior to and after a given process,
we notice that the total amount of charge among the objects is the same before the process starts as it is
after the process ends. The same conservation law is observed during the charging by conduction process.
If a negatively charged metal sphere is used to charge a neutral electroscope, the overall charge before the
process begins is the same as the overall charge when the process ends. So if before the charging process
begins, the metal sphere has 1000 units of negative charge and the electroscope is neutral, the overall
charge of the two objects in the system is -1000 units. Perhaps during the charging process, 600 units of
negative charge moved from the metal sphere to the electroscope. When the process is complete, the
electroscope would have 600 units of negative charge and the metal sphere would have 400 units of
negative charge (the original 1000 units minus the 600 units it transferred to the electroscope). The overall
charge of the two objects in the system is still -1000 units. The overall charge before the process began is
the same as the overall charge when the process is completed. Charge is neither created nor destroyed; it
is simply transferred from one object to another object in the form of electrons.

Conduction Charging Requires a Conductor

In all the above examples, the charging by conduction process involved the touching of two conductors.
Does contact charging have to occur through the contact of two conductors? Can an insulator conduct a
charge to another object upon touching? And can an insulator be charged by conduction? A complete
discussion of these questions can get messy and quite often leads to a splitting of hairs over the definition
of conduction and the distinction between conductors
and insulators. The belief is taken here that only a conductor can
conduct charge to another conductor. The process of noticeably
charging an object by contact involves the two contacting objects
momentarily sharing the net excess charge. The excess charge is
simply given a larger area over which to spread in order to reduce
the total amount of repulsive forces between them. This process
demands that the objects be conductors in order for electrons to
move about and redistribute themselves. An insulator hinders such
a movement of electrons between touching objects and about the
surfaces of the objects. This is observed if an aluminum pie plate is
placed upon a charged foam plate. When the neutral aluminum
plate is placed upon the charged foam plate, the foam plate does
not conduct its charge to the aluminum. Despite the fact that the two surfaces were in contact, charging by
contact or conduction did not occur. (Or at least whatever charge transfer might have occurred was not
noticeable by the customary means of using an electroscope, using a charge testing bulb or testing for its
repulsion with a like-charged object.)
Many might quickly suggest that they have used a charged insulator to charge a neutral electroscope (or
some other object) by contact. In fact, a negatively charged plastic golf tube can used to charge an
electroscope. The plastic tube is touched to the top plate of the electroscope. On most occasions, the
plastic tube is even rubbed or rolled across the plate of the electroscope? Wouldn't
this be regarded as charging by conduction? No. Not really. In this case, it is more
than likely that the charging occurred by some process other than conduction.
There was not a sharing of charge between the plastic tube and the metal parts of
the electroscope. Of course, once some excess charge is acquired by the
electroscope, that excess charge distributes itself about the surface of the
electroscope. Yet the charge is not uniformly shared between the two objects. The
protons and electrons within both the plastic golf tube and the electroscope are not
acting together to share excess charge and reduce the total amount of repulsive
forces.
The charging of an electroscope by contact with a negatively charged golf tube (or
any charged insulating object) would best be described as charging by lightning.
Rather than being a process in which the two objects act together to share the
excess charge, the process could best be described as the successful effort of
electrons to burst through the space (air) between objects. The presence of a
negatively charged plastic tube is capable of ionizing the air surrounding the tube and allowing excess
electrons on the plastic tube to be conducted through the air to the electroscope. This transfer of charge
can happen with or without touching. In fact, on a dry winter day the process of charging the metal
electroscope with the charged insulator often occurs while the insulator is some distance away. The dry air
is more easily ionized and a greater quantity of electrons is capable of bursting through the space between
the two objects. On such occasions, a crackling sound is often heard and a flash of light is seen if the room
is darkened. This phenomenon, occurring from several centimeters away, certainly does not fit the
description of contact charging.
A charged insulating object is certainly capable of transferring its charge to another object. The result of the
charge transfer will be the same as the result of charging by conduction. Both objects will have the same
type of charge and the flow of electrons is in the same direction. However, the process and the underlying
explanations are considerably different. In the case of charging an object with a charged insulator, the
contact is not essential. Contacting the object simply reduces the spatial separation between touching
atoms and allows charge to arc and spark its way between objects. Rubbing or rolling the insulating object
across the conductor's surface facilitates the charging process by bringing a greater number of atoms on
the insulator in close proximity to the conductor that is receiving the charge. The two materials do not make
any effort to share charge nor to act as a single object (with a uniform electric potential) in an effort to
reduce repulsive affects.
Is this distinction between charging by conduction and charging by lightning a splitting of hairs? Perhaps.
For certain, each process involves a transfer of charge from one object to another object, yielding the same
result - two like-charged object. Yet, distinguishing between the two forms of charging is more consistent
with the customary view that insulators are not conductors of charge. It also serves to explain why some
insulators clearly do not always transfer their charge upon contact. This phenomenon of charging by
lightning will be revisited in Lesson 4 during a discussion of electric fields and lightning discharges.
1. A neutral metal sphere is touched by a negatively charged metal rod. As a result, the sphere will be ____
and the metal rod will be ____. Select the two answers in their respective order.
a. positively charged
b. negatively charged
c. neutral
d. much more massive
e. ... not enough information to tell
Answer: BB
This is a case of charging by conduction. When a charged object is used to charge a neutral object by
conduction, the previously neutral object acquires the same type of charge as the charged object.
The charge object maintains the same type of charge that it originally had. So in this case, both objects
have a negative charge.

2. A neutral metal sphere is touched by a negatively charged metal rod. During the process, electrons are
transferred from the _____ to the _____ and the sphere acquires a _____ charge.
a. neutral sphere, charged rod, negative
b. neutral sphere, charged rod, positive
c. charged rod, neutral sphere, negative
d. charged rod, neutral sphere, positive
e. ... nonsense! None of these describe what occurs.
Answer: C
During charging by conduction, both objects acquire the same type of charge. If a negative object is used to
charge a neutral object, then both objects become charged negatively. In order for the neutral sphere to
become negative, it must gain electrons from the negatively charged rod.
3. A neutral metal sphere is touched by a positively charged metal rod. During the process, protons are
transferred from the _____ to the _____ and the sphere acquires a _____ charge.
a. charged rod, neutral sphere, negative
b. charged rod, neutral sphere, positive
c. neutral sphere, charged rod, negative
d. neutral sphere, charged rod, positive
e. ... nonsense! None of these describe what occurs.
Answer: E
Protons are never transferred in electrostatic activities. In this case, electrons are transferred from the
neutral object to the positively charged rod and the sphere becomes charged positively.
4. A metal sphere is electrically neutral. It is touched by a positively charged metal rod. As a result, the
metal sphere becomes charged positively. Which of the following occur during the process? List all that
apply.
a. The metal sphere gains some protons.,/p.
b. Electrons are transferred from the sphere to the rod.
c. The metal sphere loses electrons.
d. The overall charge of the system is conserved.
e. Protons are transferred from the rod to the sphere.
f. Positive electrons are moved between the two objects.
Answer: BCD
In electrostatic activities, protons are never transferred (which rules out choices a and e). Electrons are not
positively charged (ruling out choice e). Choices B, C and D are all true and explain the essential nature of
the conduction charging process.

Electric charge and Coulomb's law

7-6-99

Charge

 there are two kinds of charge, positive and negative

 like charges repel, unlike charges attract
 positive charge comes from having more protons than electrons; negative charge
comes from having more electrons than protons
 charge is quantized, meaning that charge comes in integer multiples of the elementary
charge e
 charge is conserved

Probably everyone is familiar with the first three concepts, but what does it mean for charge to
be quantized? Charge comes in multiples of an indivisible unit of charge, represented by the
letter e. In other words, charge comes in multiples of the charge on the electron or the proton.
These things have the same size charge, but the sign is different. A proton has a charge of +e,
while an electron has a charge of -e.

Electrons and protons are not the only things that carry charge. Other particles (positrons, for
example) also carry charge in multiples of the electronic charge. Those are not going to be
discussed, for the most part, in this course, however.
Putting "charge is quantized" in terms of an equation, we say:

q=ne

q is the symbol used to represent charge, while n is a positive or negative integer, and e is the
electronic charge, 1.60 x 10-19 Coulombs.

The Law of Conservation of Charge

The Law of conservation of charge states that the net charge of an isolated system remains
constant.

If a system starts out with an equal number of positive and negative charges, thereıs nothing
we can do to create an excess of one kind of charge in that system unless we bring in charge
from outside the system (or remove some charge from the system). Likewise, if something
starts out with a certain net charge, say +100 e, it will always have +100 e unless it is allowed
to interact with something external to it.

Charge can be created and destroyed, but only in positive-negative pairs.

Table of elementary particle masses and charges:

Electrostatic charging

Forces between two electrically-charged objects can be extremely large. Most things are
electrically neutral; they have equal amounts of positive and negative charge. If this wasnıt the
case, the world we live in would be a much stranger place. We also have a lot of control over
how things get charged. This is because we can choose the appropriate material to use in a
given situation.

Metals are good conductors of electric charge, while plastics, wood, and rubber are not.
Theyıre called insulators. Charge does not flow nearly as easily through insulators as it does
through conductors, which is why wires you plug into a wall socket are covered with a
protective rubber coating. Charge flows along the wire, but not through the coating to you.

Materials are divided into three categories, depending on how easily they will allow charge (i.e.,
electrons) to flow along them. These are:
  conductors - metals, for example
 semi-conductors - silicon is a good example
 insulators - rubber, wood, plastic for example

Most materials are either conductors or insulators. The difference between them is that in
conductors, the outermost electrons in the atoms are so loosely bound to their atoms
that theyıre free to travel around. In insulators, on the other hand, the electrons are
much more tightly bound to the atoms, and are not free to flow. Semi-conductors are a
very useful intermediate class, not as conductive as metals but considerably more
conductive than insulators. By adding certain impurities to semi-conductors in the
appropriate concentrations the conductivity can be well-controlled.

There are three ways that objects can be given a net charge. These are:

1. Charging by friction - this is useful for charging insulators. If you rub one material with
another (say, a plastic ruler with a piece of paper towel), electrons have a tendency to
be transferred from one material to the other. For example, rubbing glass with silk or
saran wrap generally leaves the glass with a positive charge; rubbing PVC rod with fur
generally gives the rod a negative charge.
2. Charging by conduction - useful for charging metals and other conductors. If a charged
object touches a conductor, some charge will be transferred between the object and the
conductor, charging the conductor with the same sign as the charge on the object.
3. Charging by induction - also useful for charging metals and other conductors. Again, a
charged object is used, but this time it is only brought close to the conductor, and does
not touch it. If the conductor is connected to ground (ground is basically anything neutral
that can give up electrons to, or take electrons from, an object), electrons will either flow
on to it or away from it. When the ground connection is removed , the conductor will
have a charge opposite in sign to that of the charged object.

An example of induction using a negatively charged object and an initially-uncharged conductor

(for example, a metal ball on a plastic handle).

(1) bring the negatively-charged object close to, but not touching, the conductor. Electrons on
the conductor will be repelled from the area nearest the charged object.

(2) connect the conductor to ground. The electrons on the conductor want to get as far away
from the negatively-charged object as possible, so some of them flow to ground.

(3) remove the ground connection. This leaves the conductor with a deficit of electrons.

(4) remove the charged object. The conductor is now positively charged.
A practical application involving the transfer of charge is in how laser printers and photocopiers
work.

Why is static electricity more apparent in winter?

You notice static electricity much more in winter (with clothes in a dryer, or taking a sweater off,
or getting a shock when you touch something after walking on carpet) than in summer because
the air is much drier in winter than summer. Dry air is a relatively good electrical insulator, so if
something is charged the charge tends to stay. In more humid conditions, such as you find on a
typical summer day, water molecules, which are polarized, can quickly remove charge from a
charged object.

Try this at home

See if you can charge something at home using friction. I got good results by rubbing a Bic pen
with a piece of paper towel. To test the charge, you can use a narrow stream of water from a
faucet; if the object attracts the stream when it's brought close, you know it's charged. All you
need to do is to find something to rub - try anything made out of hard plastic or rubber. You also
need to find something to rub the object with - potential candidates are things like paper towel,
wool, silk, and saran wrap or other plastic.

Coulomb's law

The force exerted by one charge q on another charge Q is given by Coulomb's law:

r is the distance between the charges.

Remember that force is a vector, so when more than one charge exerts a force on another
charge, the net force on that charge is the vector sum of the individual forces. Remember, too,
that charges of the same sign exert repulsive forces on one another, while charges of opposite
sign attract.

An example

Four charges are arranged in a square with sides of length 2.5 cm. The two charges in the top
right and bottom left corners are +3.0 x 10-6 C. The charges in the other two corners are -3.0 x
10-6 C. What is the net force exerted on the charge in the top right corner by the other three
charges?
To solve any problem like this, the simplest thing to do is to draw a good diagram showing the
forces acting on the charge. You should also let your diagram handle your signs for you. Force
is a vector, and any time you have a minus sign associated with a vector all it does is tell you
about the direction of the vector. If you have the arrows giving you the direction on your
diagram, you can just drop any signs that come out of the equation for Coulomb's law.

Consider the forces exerted on the charge in the top right by the other three:

You have to be very careful to add these forces as vectors to get the net force. In this problem
we can take advantage of the symmetry, and combine the forces from charges 2 and 4 into a
force along the diagonal (opposite to the force from charge 3) of magnitude 183.1 N. When this
is combined with the 64.7 N force in the opposite direction, the result is a net force of 118 N
pointing along the diagonal of the square.
The symmetry here makes things a little easier. If it wasn't so symmetric, all you'd have to do is
split the vectors up in to x and y components, add them to find the x and y components of the
net force, and then calculate the magnitude and direction of the net force from the components.
Example 16-4 in the textbook shows this process.

The parallel between gravity and electrostatics

An electric field describes how an electric charge affects the region around it. It's a powerful
concept, because it allows you to determine ahead of time how a charge will be affected if it is
brought into the region. Many people have trouble with the concept of a field, though, because
it's something that's hard to get a real feel for. The fact is, though, that you're already familiar
with a field. We've talked about gravity, and we've even used a gravitational field; we just didn't
call it a field.

When talking about gravity, we got into the (probably bad) habit of calling g "the acceleration
due to gravity". It's more accurate to call g the gravitational field produced by the Earth at the
surface of the Earth. If you understand gravity you can understand electric forces and fields
because the equations that govern both have the same form.

The gravitational force between two masses (m and M) separated by a distance r is given by
Newton's law of universal gravitation:

A similar equation applies to the force between two charges (q and Q) separated by a distance
r:

The force equations are similar, so the behavior of interacting masses is similar to that of
interacting charges, and similar analysis methods can be used. The main difference is that
gravitational forces are always attractive, while electrostatic forces can be attractive or
repulsive. The charge (q or Q) plays the same role in the electrostatic case that the mass (m or
M) plays in the case of the gravity.

A good example of a question involving two interacting masses is a projectile motion problem,
where there is one mass m, the projectile, interacting with a much larger mass M, the Earth. If
we throw the projectile (at some random launch angle) off a 40-meter-high cliff, the force on the
projectile is given by:

F = mg
This is the same equation as the more complicated equation above, with G, M, and the radius
of the Earth, squared, incorporated into g, the gravitational field.

So, you've seen a field before, in the form of g. Electric fields operate in a similar way. An
equivalent electrostatics problem is to launch a charge q (again, at some random angle) into a
uniform electric field E, as we did for m in the Earth's gravitational field g. The force on the
charge is given by F = qE, the same way the force on the mass m is given by F = mg.

We can extend the parallel between gravity and electrostatics to energy, but we'll deal with that
later. The bottom line is that if you can do projectile motion questions using gravity, you should
be able to do them using electrostatics. In some cases, youıll need to apply both; in other cases
one force will be so much larger than the other that you can ignore one (generally if you can
ignore one, it'll be the gravitational force).

Electric Current
Electric current is the rate of charge flow past a given point in an electric circuit, measured in
Coulombs/second which is named Amperes. In most DC electric circuits, it can be assumed
that the resistance to current flow is a constant so that the current in the circuit is related
to voltage and resistance by Ohm's law. The standard abbreviations for the units are 1 A =
1C/s.

Electric Charge
The unit of electric charge is the Coulomb (abbreviated C). Ordinary matter is made up of
atoms which have positively charged nuclei and negatively charged electrons surrounding
them. Charge is quantized as a multiple of the electron or proton charge:

The influence of charges is characterized in terms of the forces between them (Coulomb's law)
and the electric field and voltage produced by them. One Coulomb of charge is the charge
which would flow through a 120 watt lightbulb (120 volts AC) in one second. Two charges of
one Coulomb each separated by a meter would repel each other with a force of about a million
tons!

The rate of flow of electric charge is called electric current and is measured in Amperes.

In introducing one of the fundamental properties of matter, it is perhaps appropriate to point out
that we use simplified sketches and constructs to introduce concepts, and there is inevitably
much more to the story. No significance should be attached to the circles representing the
proton and electron, in the sense of implying a relative size, or even that they are hard sphere
objects, although that's a useful first construct. The most important opening idea, electrically, is
that they have a property called "charge" which is the same size, but opposite in polarity for the
proton and electron. The proton has 1836 times the mass of the electron, but exactly the same
size charge, only positive rather than negative. Even the terms "positive" and "negative" are
arbitrary, but well-entrenched historical labels. The essential implication of that is that the
proton and electron will strongly attract each other, the historical archtype of the cliche
"opposites attract". Two protons or two electrons would strongly repel each other. Once you
have established those basic ideas about electricity, "like charges repel and unlike charges
attract", then you have the foundation for electricity and can build from there.

From the precise electrical neutrality of bulk matter as well as from detailed microscopic
experiments, we know that the proton and electron have the same magnitude of charge. All
charges observed in nature are multiples of these fundamental charges. Although the standard
model of the proton depicts it as being made up of fractionally charged particles called quarks,
those fractional charges are not observed in isolation -- always in combinations which produce
+/- the electron charge.

An isolated single charge can be called an "electric monopole". Equal positive and negative
charges placed close to each other constitute an electric dipole. Two oppositely directed
dipoles close to each other are called an electric quadrupole. You can continue this process to
any number of poles, but dipoles and quadrupoles are mentioned here because they find
significant application in physical phenomena.

One of the fundamental symmetries of nature is the conservation of electric charge. No known
physical process produces a net change in electric charge.

Conventional Electric Current

Although it is electrons which are the mobile charge carriers which are responsible for electric
current in conductors such as wires, it has long been the convention to take the direction of
electric current as if it were the positive charges which are moving. Some texts reverse this
convention and take electric current direction as the direction the electrons move, an obviously
more physically realistic direction, but the vast majority of references use the conventional
current direction and that convention will be followed in most of this material. In common
applications such as determining the direction of force on a current carrying wire, treating
current as positive charge motion or negative charge motion gives identical results. Besides the
advantage of agreeing in direction with most texts, the conventional current direction is the
direction from high voltage to low voltage, high energy to low energy, and thus has some
appeal in its parallel to the flow of water from high pressure to low (see water analogy).

Electric charge, basic property of matter carried by some elementary particles. Electric charge,
which can be positive or negative, occurs in discrete natural units and is neither created nor
destroyed.
Electric charges are of two general types: positive and negative. Two objects that have an
excess of one type of charge exert a force of repulsion on each other when relatively close
together. Two objects that have excess opposite charges, one positively charged and the other
negatively charged, attract each other when relatively near. (See Coulomb force.)
Many fundamental, or subatomic, particles of matter have the property of electric charge. For
example, electrons have negative charge and protons have positive charge, but neutrons have
zero charge. The negative charge of each electron is found by experiment to have the same
magnitude, which is also equal to that of the positive charge of each proton. Charge thus exists
in natural units equal to the charge of an electron or a proton, a fundamental physical constant.
A direct and convincing measurement of an electron’s charge, as a natural unit of electric
charge, was first made (1909) in the Millikan oil-drop experiment. Atoms of matter are
electrically neutral because their nuclei contain the same number of protons as there are
electrons surrounding the nuclei. Electric current and charged objects involve the separation of
some of the negative charge of neutral atoms. Current in metal wires consists of a drift of
electrons of which one or two from each atom are more loosely bound than the rest. Some of
the atoms in the surface layer of a glass rod positively charged by rubbing it with a silk cloth
have lost electrons, leaving a net positive charge because of the unneutralized protons of their
nuclei. A negatively charged object has an excess of electrons on its surface.
Electric charge is conserved: in any isolated system, in any chemical or nuclear reaction, the
net electric charge is constant. The algebraic sum of the fundamental charges remains the
same. (See charge conservation.)
The unit of electric charge in the metre–kilogram–second and SI systems is the coulomb,
equivalent to the net amount of electric charge that flows through a cross section of a conductor
in an electric circuit during each second when the current has a value of one ampere. One
coulomb consists of 6.24 × 1018 natural units of electric charge, such as individual electrons or
protons. One electron itself has a negative charge of 1.6021766208 × 10−19coulomb. In the
centimetre–gram–second system there are two units of electric charge: the electrostatic unit of
charge, esu, or statcoulomb; and the electromagnetic unit of charge, emu, or abcoulomb. One
coulomb of electric charge equals about 3,000,000,000 esu, or one-tenth emu.
An electrochemical unit of charge, the faraday, is useful in describing electrolysis reactions,
such as in metallic electroplating. One faraday equals 9.648533289 × 104 coulombs, the charge
of a mole of electrons (that is, an Avogadro’s number, 6.022140857 × 1023, of electrons).

Conductors and Insulators

The behavior of an object that has been charged is dependent upon whether the object is made of a
conductive or a nonconductive material. Conductors are materials that permit electrons to flow freely
from particle to particle. An object made of a conducting material will permit charge to be transferred
across the entire surface of the object. If charge is transferred to the object at a given location, that charge
is quickly distributed across the entire surface of the object. The distribution of charge is the result of
electron movement. Since conductors allow for electrons to be transported from particle to particle, a
charged object will always distribute its charge until the overall repulsive forces between excess electrons
is minimized. If a charged conductor is touched to another object, the conductor can even transfer its
charge to that object. The transfer of charge between objects occurs more readily if the second object is
made of a conducting material. Conductors allow for charge transfer through the free movement of
electrons.

In contrast to conductors, insulators are materials that impede the free flow of electrons from atom to
atom and molecule to molecule. If charge is transferred to an insulator at a given location, the excess
charge will remain at the initial location of charging. The particles of the insulator do not permit the free flow
of electrons; subsequently charge is seldom distributed evenly across the surface of an insulator.
While insulators are not useful for transferring charge, they do serve a critical role in electrostatic
experiments and demonstrations. Conductive objects are often mounted upon insulating objects. This
arrangement of a conductor on top of an insulator prevents charge from being transferred from the
conductive object to its surroundings. This arrangement also allows for a student (or teacher) to manipulate
a conducting object without touching it. The insulator serves as a handle for moving the conductor around
on top of a lab table. If charging experiments are performed with aluminum pop cans, then the cans should
be mounted on top of Styrofoam cups. The cups serve as insulators, preventing the pop cans from
discharging their charge. The cups also serve as handles when it becomes necessary to move the cans
around on the table.

Examples of Conductors and Insulators

Examples of conductors include metals, aqueous solutions of salts (i.e., ionic compounds dissolved in
water), graphite, and the human body. Examples of insulators include plastics, Styrofoam, paper, rubber,
glass and dry air. The division of materials into the categories of conductors and insulators is a somewhat
artificial division. It is more appropriate to think of materials as being placed somewhere along a continuum.
Those materials that are super conductive (known as superconductors) would be placed at on end and
the least conductive materials (best insulators) would be placed at the other end. Metals would be placed
near the most conductive end and glass would be placed on the opposite end of the continuum. The
conductivity of a metal might be as much as a million trillion times greater than that of glass.

Along the continuum of conductors and insulators, one might find the human body
somewhere towards the conducting side of the middle. When the body acquires a
static charge it has a tendency to distribute that charge throughout the surface of the
body. Given the size of the human body, relative to the size of typical objects used in
electrostatic experiments, it would require an abnormally large quantity of excess
charge before its effect is noticeable. The effects of excess charge on the body are
often demonstrated using a Van de Graaff generator. When a student places their
hand upon the static ball, excess charge from the ball is shared with the human body. Being a conductor,
the excess charge could flow to the human body and spread throughout the surface of the body, even onto
strands of hair. As the individual strands of hair become charged, they begin to repel each other. Looking to
distance themselves from their like-charged neighbors, the strands of hair begin to rise upward and
outward - a truly hair-raising experience.
Many are familiar with the impact that humidity can have upon static charge buildups. You have likely
noticed that bad hair days, doorknob shocks and static clothing are most common during winter months.
Winter months tend to be the driest months of the year with humidity levels in the air dropping to lower
values. Water has a tendency to gradually remove excess charge from objects. When the humidity is high,
a person acquiring an excess charge will tend to lose that charge to water molecules in the surrounding air.
On the other hand, dry air conditions are more conducive to the buildup of static charge and more frequent
electric shocks. Since humidity levels tend to vary from day to day and season to season, it is expected that
electrical effects (and even the success of electrostatic demonstrations) can vary from day to day.

Distribution of Charge via Electron Movement

Predicting the direction that electrons would move within a conducting material is a simple application of the
two fundamental rules of charge interaction. Opposites attract and likes repel. Suppose that some method
is used to impart a negative charge to an object at a given location. At the location where the charge is
imparted, there is an excess of electrons. That is, the multitude of atoms in that region possess more
electrons than protons. Of course, there are a number of electrons that could be thought of as being quite
contented since there is an accompanying positively charged proton to satisfy their attraction for an
opposite. However, the so-called excess electrons have a repulsive response to each other and would
prefer more space. Electrons, like human beings, wish to manipulate their surroundings in an effort to
reduce repulsive effects. Since these excess electrons are present in a conductor, there is little hindrance
to their ability to migrate to other parts of the object. And that is exactly what they do. In an effort to reduce
the overall repulsive effects within the object, there is a mass migration of excess electrons throughout the
entire surface of the object. Excess electrons migrate to distance themselves from their repulsive
neighbors. In this sense, it is said that excess negative charge distributes itself throughout the surface of
the conductor.
But what happens if the conductor acquires an excess of positive charge? What if electrons are removed
from a conductor at a given location, giving the object an overall positive charge? If protons cannot move,
then how can the excess of positive charge distribute itself across the surface of the material? While the
answers to these questions are not as obvious, it still involves a rather simple explanation that once again
relies on the two fundamental rules of charge interaction. Opposites attract and likes repel. Suppose that a
conducting metal sphere is charged on its left side and imparted an excess of positive charge. (Of course,
this requires that electrons be removed from the object at the location of charging.) A multitude of atoms in
the region where the charging occurs have lost one or more electrons and have an excess of protons. The
imbalance of charge within these atoms creates effects that can be thought of as disturbing the balance of
charge within the entire object. The presence of these excess protons in a given location draws electrons
from other atoms. Electrons in other parts of the object can be thought of as being quite contented with the
balance of charge that they are experiencing. Yet there will always be some electrons that will feel the
attraction for the excess protons some distance away. In human terms, we might say these electrons are
drawn by curiosity or by the belief that the grass is greener on the other side of the fence. In the language
of electrostatics, we simply assert that opposites attract - the excess protons and both the neighboring and
distant electrons attract each other. The protons cannot do anything about this attraction since they are
bound within the nucleus of their own atoms. Yet, electrons are loosely bound within atoms; and being
present in a conductor, they are free to move. These electrons make the move for the excess protons,
leaving their own atoms with their own excess of positive charge. This electron migration happens across
the entire surface of the object, until the overall sum of repulsive effects between electrons across the
whole surface of the object are minimized.
1. One of these isolated charged spheres is copper and the other is rubber. The diagram below depicts the
distribution of excess negative charge over the surface of two spheres. Label which is which and support
your answer with an explanation.

Answer: A is rubber and B is copper.

Sphere A shown a non-uniform distribution of excess charge; so sphere A must be made of an
insulating material such as rubber. Sphere B shows a uniform distribution of excess charge; one would
reason that it is made of a conductor such as copper.
2. Which of the following materials are likely to exhibit more conductive properties than insulating
properties? _____ Explain your answers.
a. rubber b. aluminum c. silver d. plastic e. wet skin
Answer; B, C and E
Aluminum and silver are metals, making them good conductors. The human body is a fairly good
conductor. When wet, its an even better conductor.
3. A conductor differs from an insulator in that a conductor ________.
a. has an excess of protons
b. has an excess of electrons
c. can become charged and an insulator cannot
d. has faster moving molecules
e. does not have any neutrons to get in the way of electron flow
f. none of these
Answer: F
A and B are characteristic of positive and negative objects. As for C, both insulators and conductors
can be charged. As for D, this has nothing to do with the conductive properties of materials. As for E,
neutrons are located in the nucleus and are "out of the way" of mobile electrons.
4. Suppose that a conducting sphere is charged positively by some method. The charge is initially
deposited on the left side of the sphere. Yet because the object is conductive, the charge spreads uniformly
throughout the surface of the sphere. The uniform distribution of charge is explained by the fact that ____.
a. the charged atoms at the location of charge move throughout the surface of the sphere
b. the excess protons move from the location of charge to the rest of the sphere
c. excess electrons from the rest of the sphere are attracted towards the excess protons
See Answer
Answer: C
Rule out A since atoms are not capable of moving within solid spheres. Rule out B since protons are not
capable of moving in electrostatic demos. C is the proper explanation since the negative electrons are
attracted to the region of positive charge. The electrons migrate towards the left side of the sphere
until there is a uniform distribution of positive charge.
5. When an oil tanker car has arrived at its destination, it prepares to empty its fuel into a reservoir or tank.
Part of the preparation involves connecting the body of the tanker car with a metal wire to the ground.
Suggest a reason for why is this done.
As fuel is pumped from the tanker car to a reservoir, charge can quickly build up as the fluid flows through the
hoses. This static charge can create sparks capable of igniting the fuel. By connecting the body of the tanker
car to the ground, the static charge can be transferred to the ground. A metal wire is used since metals are
conductive and allow charge to flow through them.