Yoga & Obesity
Yoga & Obesity
Yoga & Obesity
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Members – Чланови
Prof. Dušan Mitić, PhD (University of Belgrade); Prof. Gordana Nikić, PhD (University
Singidunum); Prof. Dušan Pajin, PhD (International Yoga Academy, Belgrade); Prof. Milanko
Čabarkapa, PhD (University of Belgrade); Assist. Prof. Lazar Cvijić, PhD (University Alfa);
Brankica Šurlan, PhD (Astronomical Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic);
Lada Stevanović, PhD (Serbian Academy of Science and Arts).
Translators – Преводиоци
Bosiljka Janjušević, MA; Bojana Totović
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International Scientific Yoga Journal Sense | Међународни научни часопис о јоги Смисао
SENSE
International Scientific Yoga Journal
СМИСАО
Међународни научни часопис о јоги
Belgrade
Serbia, 2013
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International Scientific Yoga Journal Sense | Међународни научни часопис о јоги Смисао
CONTENT
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САДРЖАЈ
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Key words: yoga, beta endorphin, cortisol, exam stress, prolactin, sudarshan yoga
kriya
Introduction
The neuroendocrine has long been thought to play an important role in causal
pathway linking stress and ill health. Stress is a term often used by individuals in a
variety of social, academic and employment settings. Academic examination in
students has been considered as one of the most acute stresses experienced by
students (Jemmott JB & Magloire K 1988). Engineering examiners frequently use
examinations to assess students because they know of no other way to ensure that
the students have sufficient knowledge and understanding to pass an exam without
the risk that others have helped them excessively. However all examiners also
Corresponding author: [email protected]
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know that examinations also cause serious stress to at least some proportion of
students, probably to the extent that their performance is severely affected. Some
degree of stress is however a normal part of the incentive to perform well, and is
thus a good thing, but excess stress can be debilitating. Hence there is an urgent
need for inexpensive and effective strategies to promote psychological well being
in students and improve their mental and physical health status.
It was noticed that participants at the workshops where they practice yoga
techniques have more enthusiasm, excellence and responsibility. By practicing the
techniques taught in the YES+, there is a possibility in the realm of the mind to be
both, Focused and Relaxed at the same time which is an art. The YES!+ course
techniques help flush out this emotional stress as a result of which we are capable
of taking better decision, experience more enthusiasm, creativity and joy. However
there are no scientific studies to validate the claims. Numerous studies have been
done previously on the level of stress among students of professional courses like
medical, Dental, Nursing, Physiotherapy. Whereas, studies on engineering students
is scarce and only few studies have been completed in engineering students on the
physiological , biochemical and endocrine changes associated with exam stress in
engineering students.
Thus the purpose of this study was to authenticate scientifically the above
mentioned conviction. The present study was conducted in healthy populations
among engineering students and volunteers from SRM University, Kanchipuram
district, Tamilnadu, India. The present study is the first of its kind to document the
effect of the short term yoga techniques practice on exam stress induced changes
in stress hormones cortisol, PRL and also β-EP in engineering students.
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Method
Experimental Design
In order to study the effect of short term structured yoga module in the stressful
environment of university students, the 43 participants were randomly allocated
into 2 groups. Control group consisted of 21 students who did not practice yoga
and yoga group consisted of 22 students who practiced yoga. The assessments
were done twice at pre-intervention and twice at post intervention in both the
groups namely:
1. No exam period (Base Line- BL)
2. On the eve of Examination (ES)
3. After 3 weeks (During exam)
4. After 6 weeks (During exam)
The baseline data was measured few days after beginning of the academic year and
the students did not have any exams or any academic burden during baseline
investigations.
Interventional procedure
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Body module consists of physical activity that includes yoga stretches, mindful
eating processes, and interactive discussions about food and nutrition.
The Healthy Mind module includes stress management and relaxation techniques.
Breathing exercises (e.g., Sudarshan Kriya) and mindfulness techniques are used
to calm the mind, bringing awareness to the moment and enhancing concentration.
Group processes promote personal responsibility, respect, honesty, and service to
others. In the Healthy Lifestyle module, students learn strategies for handling
challenging emotional and social situations, especially peer pressure. Mindful
decision making and leadership skills are taught via interactive games. The
following table shows the details of yoga component included in this course:
Yoga
Neck roll, Shoulder rotation, Peacock asana, Swing, Half moon
stretch, Breath of joy, Cat Pose, Butterfly pose, Cradle pose,
Asanas
Wind relieving Pose, Boat pose, Surya Namsakar, Serpent
posture, Locust posture, Mountain posture and Yoga nidra.
Three stage Pranayam with Ujjayi or “Victory Breath”
Pranayam Three sets of Bhastrika or “Bellow’s Breath”
Sudarshan Kriya or the healing breath technique.
Guided meditation, Panchakosha meditation and Space
Meditations
meditation
Others Thoughts which create positive thinking, increased self esteem
Blood was collected after 3 weeks and after 6 weeks of practice. Care was taken so
that exams took place at the end of 3 and 6 weeks of SK&P practice in order to
study the true effect of SK&P practice on ES. At all the 4 intervals fasting blood
sample (5 ml) was collected between 8.00 am to 9.30 am by vein puncture. Serum
was separated and used for the assays of Cortisol and PRL using ELISA (Adultis,
Italy). β- EP was measured in plasma by ELISA (Phoenix Biosciences).
Statistical analysis
Data was analyzed using SPSS 16 version. One way ANOVA was performed in
order to evaluate significant difference within the group between conditions.
Results
The results clearly indicated that exam in students elicited a significant increase
(p<0.001) in serum cortisol levels. The significant fall (p<0.001) in serum cortisol
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levels after 3 and 6 weeks in yoga group (Fig 1) suggests that regular practice of
yoga progressively develops greater levels of both relaxation and resilience to
stress.
Figure 1. Fall in serum cortisol level in yoga group after 3 and 6 weeks
Figure 2 clearly shows that exam stress increased (p<0.01) the level of β-
endorphin (β-EP) in both the groups. The level was further found to be increased
(p<0.05) after 6 weeks in yoga group. No change was seen in control group. Exam
stress elevated (p<0.05) PRL levels in both the groups when compared to their
respective baseline levels. No significant change in PRL levels was noticed in
yoga group after 3 weeks while an increase in PRL levels were observed only after
6 weeks. It is worth mentioning that, increase in PRL levels observed in yoga
groups after 6 weeks, was different in the male (p<0.01) and female students
(p<0.05) .
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Discussion
Similarly, psychological stress also increases beta endorphin level (Mason, 1968).
Mediation and exercise has shown to increase the release of β-EP which may be
associated with mood and emotions. Scientific evidence shows that meditation
increases the level of β-EP (Ryu et al 1996). Thus increased β-EP in the student’s
yoga group indicates that they show high relaxation even during ES.
Earlier report suggest that PRL as well as β-EP are elevated during
psychologically stressful situations, it is noteworthy that β-EP may facilitate PRL
release (Vogit et al 1983). While the function of PRL release in response to stress
is not understood, one possible physiological role for PRL might be stimulation of
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Conclusion
The findings of this study strengthen the fact that not only the nature of the stressor
but also the state of the responder may be of greater importance in determining the
responses to stress. Thus it is clear that, participants of structured yoga module, by
improvement in coping skills and decrease in excitation during stressful period
managed the level of anxiety which ultimately lead to reduction in cortsiol,
increase in prolactin and beta endorphin levels and were able to withstand the
stress arousal during ES. However further extensive and long term studies are need
to be done to prove these findings to recognize and incorporate yoga’s importance
in the curriculum both for the physical and psychosocial development of the
college students.
References:
1. Jemmott, J.B. & Magloire, K., (1988). Academic stress, social support, and secretory
immunoglobulin A. J Pers Soc Psychol. 55:803-10.
2. Brown, R.P. & Gerbarg, P.L. (2005). Sudarshan Kriya Yogic breathing in the treatment of stress,
anxiety, and depression. Part II--clinical applications and guidelines. J Altern Complement Med.
11(4):711-7.
3. Naga Venkatesha Murthy, P.J., Janakiramaiah, N., Gangadhar, B.N., Subbakrishna, D.K. (1998).
P300 amplitude and antidepressant response to Sudarshan Kriya Yoga (SKY). Journal of affective
disorders. 50(1):45-48.
4. Sharma, H., Sen, S., Singh, A., Bhardwaj, N.K., Kochupillai, V., Singh, N. (2003). Sudarshan
Kriya practitioners exhibit better antioxidant status and lower blood lactate levels. Biological
psychology. 63(3):281-291.
5. Bhatia, M., Kumar, A., Kumar, N., Pandey, R.M., Kochupillai, V. (2003). Electrophysiologic
evaluation of Sudarshan Kriya: an EEG, BAER, P300 study. Indian journal of physiology and
pharmacology. 47(2):157-163.
6. Frankenhaeuser, M., VonWright, M.R., Collins, A., VonWright. J., Sedvall, G., Swahn, C.G.
(1978.: Sex differences in psychoneuroendocrine reactions to examination stress. Psychosom Med
40:334—343, 1978.
7. Bogdonoff, M.D., Estes, E.H., Harlan, W.R., Trout, D.L., Kirschner, W. (1960). Metabolic and
cardiovascular changes during a state of acute central nervous system arousal. J Clin Endocrinol
Metab. 20:1333-1340.
8. Kamei, T., et al (2000). Decrease in serum cortisol during yoga exercise is correlated with alpha
wave activation. Perpetual and motor skills. 90(3Pt 1): 1027-1032.
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9. Meyerhoff, J.L., Oleshansky, M.A., Mougey, E.H. (1988): Psychologic stress increases plasma
levels of Prolactin, Cortisol and POMC derived peptides in man. Psychosomatic medicine. 50,295-
303.
10. Mason, J.W. (1968): Over-all hormonal balance as a key to endocrine organization. Psychosom
Med. 30:791-808.
11. Shanker, G., Sharma, R.K. (1979). Beta-Endorphin stimulates corticosterone synthesis. Biochem
Biophys Res Commun. 86:1-5.
12. Richter, W.O., Naude, R.J., Oelofsen, W., Schwandt, P. (1987). In vitro lipolytic activity of p-
endorphin and its partial sequences. Endocrinology. 120:1472-1476.
13. Holaday, J.W. (1983). Cardiovascular effects of endogenous opiate systems. Ann Rev Pharmacol
Toxicol. 23:541—594.
14. Matsuoka, H., Mulrow, P.J., Li, C.H. (1980). P-Lipotropin: A new aldosterone-stimulating factor.
Science. 209:307-308.
15. Gala, R.R., (1990). The physiology and mechanisms of the stress-induced changes in prolactin
secretion in the rat. Life Sci. 46: 1407–1420.
16. Torner, L., Mejıa, S., Lopez-Gomez, F.J., Quintanar, A., De La Escalera, G.M, and Clapp, C.
(1995). A 14-kilodalton prolactin-like fragment is secreted by the hypothalamo-neurohypophyseal
system of the rat. Endocrinology. 136, 5454–5460.
17. Freeman, M.E., Kanyicska, B., Lerant,A., and Nagy,G., (2000). Prolactin: Structure, Function,
and Regulation of Secretion. Physiol Rev. 80:1523–1631.
18. Ryu, H., et al., (1996). Acute effect of qigong training on stress hormone levels in man. Am J
Chin Med. 24: 193–198.
19. Vogit, K.H., Frank, D., Duker. E., Martin, R., Wuttke, W. (1983). Dopamine –inhibited release of
Prolactin and intermediate lobe – POMC-peptide: Different modulation by opioids. Life Sci . 33
(Suppl 1): 5007-5010.
20. Spangelo, B.L, Hall, N.R., Goldstein, A.L. (1985): Evidence that Prolactin is an
immunomodulatory hormone. In MacLeod RM, Thorner MO,Scapagnini U. Prolactin: Basic and
Clinical correlates. Padova, Italy, Liviana press.
21. Gudelsky, G.A., Porter, J.C. (1979): Morphine and opiod peptide – induced inhibition of the
release of dopamine from tuberoinfundibular neurons. Life Sci 25:1697.
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Увод
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Метод
Нацрт истраживања
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Интервенција
Јога
Асане Кружење вратом, кружење раменима, положај пауна,
торзија, полумесец, дах радости, положај мачке,
положај лептира, положај колевке, положај
ослобађања гасова, положај чамца, сурја намаскар,
положај змије, положај скакавца, положај планине и
јога нидра
Пранајама Трослојно дисање уз уђаји или „дах победе“
Три циклуса бастрика дисања или „ковачки мех“
Сударсан крија или техника лековитог дисања
Медитација Вођена медитација, панчакоша медитација и космичка
медитација
Друго Позитивне мисли, повећање самопоштовања
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Статистичка анализа
Резултати
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Дискусија
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Закључак
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Introduction
Corresponding author: [email protected]
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Apart from being a health concern worldwide, obesity may affect lung function
(Ylikahri, et al., 2007). Reduction in expiratory flow rates and lung volumes are
commonly reported along with pulmonary function abnormalities related to
obesity. The exact mechanism of impaired lung function is not clear. Obesity can
affect the thorax, diaphragm, and abdominal muscles, and, due to increased
respiratory effort and impairment of the gas transport system, can result in altered
respiratory function even if the lungs are normal (Zuhal, Nihal, 2011).
Reversible and variable airflow limitation are measured with a spirometer (forced
expiratory volume in 1 s (FEV1) and forced vital capacity (FVC)) or a peak
expiratory flow (PEF) meter (Pocket Guide for Physicians and Nurses, 2005). PEF
is the most commonly used method to monitor lung function (Brand, Roorda,
2003). Several kinds of peak flow meters are available and the technique for use is
similar for all (Sly, Flack, 2001).
Yoga was developed in India and due to its efficiency, it was spread around the
world. According to Patanjali, it involves yama, niyama, methods of modification
of breath (pranayama), assuming and maintaining specific postures (asana),
concentration (dharana) and meditational practices (dhyana). Short-term yoga and
diet change have shown to decrease BMI and the fat-free mass
(Telles, Naveen, Balkrishna & Kumar, 2010). Regular practice of sun salutation
series (surya namaskara) may maintain or improve cardiorespiratory fitness, as
well as promote weight management (Mody, 2011). Yoga and stretching postures
are implicated in increasing respiratory stamina, relaxing of chest muscles,
expansion of lungs, raising of energy levels (Singh, Soni, Singh, Tandon, 2012).
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Methods
Twenty-three obese adults (11 male and 12 female) age ranging from 18 to 53
years (mean age±SD, 36.17±12.87 years) with BMI greater than 25 were enrolled
in the study through advertisement in local newspaper. Prior experience of yoga in
any form of the participants ranged from 0 to 10 months (mean experience±SD,
2.6±3.3 months). After an initial health screening by a naturopathy and yoga
medical practitioner, those participants having systemic complications, on
medication or unable to perform basic exercises were excluded. Two participants
overall were excluded from the analysis because of low compliance to the yoga
training defined as missing more than four sessions. A pre- post assessment of the
twenty-three participants was done on the first and last day of the yoga sessions
which lasted for four weeks. All participants received general health education
and diet counseling during the 4-week study. This study was part of NIN’s yoga
training program and hence having a control group was not feasible. Potential risks
and benefits were explained to the participants and written informed consent was
obtained. The study was approved by the Institutional Ethics Committee of NIN.
Yoga training was conducted by a qualified yoga and naturopathy physician, six
times per week for four weeks consisting of traditional loosening practices
(sukshma vyayama), postures (asana), breathing exercises (pranayama), cleansing
procedures (kriya) – once a week and relaxation techniques (Table 1). Day 1 and
day 5 of all weeks consisted of loosening exercise series traditionally known as
sukshma vyayama. Day 2 to day 4 consisted of 12-steps sun-salutation poses, basic
to intermediate postures, and breathing exercises. Day 6 of the week was dedicated
to internal cleansing procedures. Guided relaxation techniques were administered
where necessary and as deemed fit by the instructor.
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Suryabhedana, Nadi
shuddhi, Bhastrika,
Bhramari
Assessments
Anthropometric measurements and PEF were recorded before and after four
weeks. Anthropometric measurements included measuring height and weight to
calculate body mass index (BMI), waist circumference (WC) and hip
circumference (HC). Body weight and height were measured with the participants
wearing light clothes and without shoes. Waist and hip circumference were
measured using standard measuring tapes with 0.1 cm accuracy. Waist-to-hip ratio
was then calculated. The same anthropometric equipment was used for each
participant.
Peak expiratory flow (L/min) was measured using Air Zone peak flow metre
(Clement Clarke International, Edinburgh). Each participant was asked to sit erect
with the mouthpiece of the peak flow meter in close contact with the mouth
without an angle (inclination or declination). The participant was then required to
inhale actively and exhale forcefully into the mouthpiece. Three measurements
were taken and the highest reading was recorded. To avoid variability due to
different technicians and devices, all the tests were performed by one designated
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person (MK). All measurements were done before the first Yoga session on the
first day and after the last session on the last day, between 5pm to 6 pm. Besides,
the participants were advised to record their food habits regularly after initial diet
counseling. Use of low-calorie vegetarian food was advocated.
Data analysis
Paired-samples t-test was computed using the Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences version 17.0 for Windows (SPSS, Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). Statistical
significance was set at p-value<0.05.
Results
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Values are mean ± SEM for 23 participants. t and P values as obtained from Students t test
for paired data.
* p<0.0; ** p<0.005
Discussion
The present study was designed to determine the impact of 4-week yoga training
on body composition and lung function. The major finding of the present study
was that a 4-week yoga training protocol improved body weight, body mass index
and PEF in obese adults.
The effects of yoga training reported previously include the inhibition of weight
gain, reductions in cholesterol levels (Pal, et al., 2011), and blood pressure,
improvement in immune function (Gopal, Mondal, Gandhi, Arora &
Bhattacharjee, 2011), beneficial psychological effects (Telles, Singh, Joshi &
Balkrishna, 2010) and improvement in cardiovascular functions (Ankad, Herur,
Patil, Shashikala & Chinagudi, 2011). In the present study, even though overall
weight loss is demonstrated, waist and hip circumference did not appear to change
significantly.
Basal metabolic rate (BMR) may have increased causing a reduction in the body
weight as is the case with conventional exercise (Wong, et al., 2008, and Slentz et
al., 2004). Thus, yoga can be an effective alternative in weight-reduction by
increasing BMR in obese adults.
Compared to athletes, long term yoga practitioners (yogis) by default seem to have
better PEF (Prakash, Meshram & Ramtekkar, 2007). Yoga practice seem to
significantly improve lung function including peak expiratory flow rate (Singh et
al., 2012) and the results of the present study demonstrates a consistent trend.
Regular practice of pranayama, specifically alternate nostril breathing (nadisuddhi)
has shown to increase parasympathetic activity and significant increment in PEF
(Upadhyay, Malhotra, Sarkar & Prajapati, 2008).
The results also indicate inconsistent change across the participants with respect to
waist circumference, waist-hip ratio and diastolic blood pressure, although the
levels dropped overall. Additional assessments, like free fat mass, would have
been better indicators for explaining these individual variations. Differences in the
amount of physical activity and lifestyle choices apart from the yoga intervention
could be responsible for the variations reflected.
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Some limitations of the current study are the relatively small sample size of
twenty-three and absence of control group. Furthermore, obesity being a chronic
condition requires long term follow-up, which was not done in this case. However,
the participants were counselled individually on a weekly basis regarding their
food habits, which probably enabled better results achievement.
Conclusion
The findings of the study indicate that regular yoga practice can initiate weight
loss, reduce body mass index and improve lung function in obese adults, thereby,
reducing the possibility of obesity related complications. Further controlled studies
on larger sample size are warranted to establish yoga as an independent modality
for managing obesity.
References:
1. A Pocket Guide for Physicians and Nurses based on the workshop report: global strategy for
asthma management and prevention (updated 2005).
2. Ankad RB, Herur A, Patil S, Shashikala GV, Chinagudi S. (2011). Effect of short-term pranayama
and meditation on cardiovascular functions in healthy individuals. Heart Views. 12:58-62.
3. Bjorntorp P. (1987). Fat cell distribution and metabolism. Annals of the New York Academy of
Sciences. 499:66‐72.
4. Brand PLP, Roorda RJ (2003). Usefulness of monitoring lung function in asthma. Archives of
Disease in Childhood. 88:1021-1025.
5.Gopal A, Mondal S, Gandhi A, Arora S, Bhattacharjee J. (2011). Effect of integrated yoga practices
on immune responses in examination stress - A preliminary study. International Journal of Yoga.
4:26-32.
6. Jayasinghe SR. (2004). Yoga in cardiac health (a review). European Journal of Cardiovascular
Prevention and Rehabilitation.11:369-375.
7. Mody BS. (2011). Acute effects of Surya Namaskar on the cardiovascular & metabolic system.
Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies. 15:343-347.
8. Pal A, Srivastava N, Tiwari S et al. (2011). Effect of yogic practices on lipid profile and body fat
composition in patients of coronary artery disease. Complement Therapies in Medicine. 19:122-127.
9. Prakash S, Meshram S, Ramtekkar U. (2007). Athletes, yogis and individuals with sedentary
lifestyles; do their lung functions differ? Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology. 51:76-80.
10. Singh S, Soni R, Singh KP, Tandon OP. (2012). Effect of yoga practices on
pulmonary function tests including transfer factor of lung for carbon monoxide (TLCO) in asthma
patients. Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology. 56:63-68.
11. Slentz CA, Duscha BD, Johnson JL et al. (2004). Effects of the amount of exercise on body
weight, body composition, and measures of central obesity: STRRIDE--a randomized controlled
study. Archives of Internal Medicine. 164:31-39.
12. Sly PD, Flack F. (2001). Is home monitoring of lung function worthwhile for children with
asthma? Thorax. 56:164-165.
13. Telles S, Singh N, Joshi M, Balkrishna A. (2010). Post traumatic stress symptoms and heart rate
variability in Bihar flood survivors following yoga: a randomized controlled study. BMC Psychiatry.
10:18.
14. Telles S, Naveen VK, Balkrishna A, Kumar S. (2010). Short term health impact of a yoga and
diet change program on obesity. Medical Science Monitor. 16:CR35-40.
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15. Upadhyay Dhungel K, Malhotra V, Sarkar D, Prajapati R. (2008). Effect of alternate nostril
breathing exercise on cardiorespiratory functions. Nepal Medical College Journal. 10:25-27.
16. Wong PC, Chia MY, Tsou IY et al. (2008). Effects of a 12-week exercise training programme on
aerobic fitness, body composition, blood lipids and C-reactive protein in adolescents with obesity.
Annals, Academy of Medicine, Singapore. 37:286-293.
17. World Health Organization (2008). Waist circumference and waist–hip ratio: report of a WHO
expert consultation, Geneva, 8–11 December 2008.
18. Ylikahri M, Mustajoki P, Stenius-Aarniala B, Poussa T, Kvarnström J, Grönlund E-L. (2000).
Immediate and long term effects of weight reduction in obese people with asthma: randomised
controlled study. British Medical Journal. 320:827-832.
19. Zuhal G, Nihal E. (2011). Correlation between peak flow and body mass index in obese and non-
obese children in Kocaeli, Turkey. Primary Care Respiratory Journal. 20:403-406.
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Corresponding author: [email protected]
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Увод
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Метода
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Традиционални положаји
2, 3. и Asana 30 мин. почетног
4. до средњег нивоа,
лежећи на леђима, лежећи на
стомаку, седећи и стојећи
Pranayama 15 мин. положаји
Тестови
Анализа података
T-тест за упарене узорке рађен је у програму SPSS 17,0 (SPSS, Inc, Chicago,
IL, USA). Статистичка значајност је постављена на вредност p<0,05.
Резултати
% t- P-
Пре После
промене вредност вредност
Тежина (kg) 86,48 ± 2,68 85,66 ± 3,01 -0,95 2,66 (22) 0,014*
Индекс 31,36 ± 0,80 31,02 ± 0,81 -1,09 3,09 (22) 0,005**
телесне масе
Обим струка 101,57 ± 1,61 101,72 ± 2,02 0,15 -0,18 (22) 0,86
(cm)
Обим кукова 108,98 ± 1,88 108,30 ± 1,86 -0,63 0,92 (22) 0,366
(cm)
Однос обима 0,94 ± 0,01 0,94 ± 0,01 0,60 -0,64 (22) 0,527
струка и
кукова
Систолни 117,74 ± 2,19 117,04 ± 1,52 -0,59 0,31 (22) 0,759
крвни
притисак
(mmHg)
Дијастолни 77,74 ± 1,53 78,17 ± 1,62 0,56 -0,25 (22) 0,803
крвни
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притисак
(mmHg)
Пулс 74,96 ± 1,45 72,09 ± 0,86 -3,83 1,92 (22) 0,068
(откуцаја/мин)
Вршни 292,17 ± 329,13 ± 12,65 -3,45 (22) 0,002**
експиријумски 21,01 20,42
проток (L/min)
* p<0,0; ** p<0,005
Дискусија
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Закључак
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Abstract: This paper examines the connection between the practice of yoga, the
expression of personality dimensions on which the five-factor theory of personality
and presence lifestyles.
We used the NEO PI R test of personality (Costa and McCrae, 1985) based on the
five-factor model of personality, which examines five dimensions (neuroticism,
extraversion, openness, cooperation and conscientiousness), each of which covers
more aspects of the 6 figures. Were examined value orientations using the
instrument Kuzmanovic (1995) and Pantic (1981), a preferred life- styles
instrument Popadića (1990, 1995). The results suggest that the practice of yoga
achieves the ability to manage the needs and impulses and greater tolerance to
frustration. Reduces the propensity for experiencing grief, shame, helplessness and
loneliness and increased general tendency for positive affect, greater stability and
easier to adapt to new circumstances and stress.
Introduction
Corresponding author: [email protected]
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Values are beliefs that are inextricably linked to the emotions rather than objective
ideas. These are motivational constructs the desired objectives whose achievement
of individual aims. They are abstract goals and because of this its nature is
different from the attitudes and norms. In addition , people have a hierarchical
system of priority values that characterize them as a person, how is value also
differs from the attitudes and norms. (Schwartz , 2006)
Method
This paper explores the connection between the practice of yoga , personality traits
and životniih styles. The study was conducted on 43 certified trainer and yoga
instructor , and 30 people who practice yoga, recreational , of both sexes , aged 16
to 64 years from different parts of Serbia .
We used the NEO PI R test of personality (Costa and McCrae, 1985) based on the
five-factor model of personality , which examines five dimensions (neuroticism,
extraversion , openness, cooperation and conscientiousness), each of which covers
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more aspects of the 6 figures. Were examined value orientations using the
instrument Kuzmanovic (1995) and Pantic (1981), a preferred life- styles
instrument Popadića (1990, 1995) .
The analysis was done using Spearman's correlation coefficient (for the variable
“yoga“) and Pearson's correlation coefficient and multivariate analysis of
covariance , where the observed differences between couples. Interpretation of the
results obtained from the research is focused on the detection of correlation of
practicing yoga and psychological characteristics and practitioners of yoga , as
well as the interpretation of the established link between these two groups of
phenomena .
Results
The results obtained by these instruments and, based on them are the correlation
between the variables “practice yoga“ aspects of the domain of personality,
lifestyles and value orientations.
Correlations
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In people who for many years practiced the techniques of yoga (asana, pranayama,
relaxation, meditation), there is also a negative correlation with sentimental life
style, but its intensity is weaker (r = -0.23 *) (Janjušević, Nikić, 2012).
Competitiveness as a motivation factor is negatively correlated with the practice of
yoga at insturktorki and yoga instructors (r = -0.24 *) (Janjušević, Nikić, 2012).
Conformity as a value orientation and the practice of yoga in a high positive
correlation with instrukorki and yoga instructors (r = 0.25 **).
Mean Sig.(a)
Difference
Dependent Variable (I) yoga (J) yoga (I-J)
I'm yoga
DEPRESSION I practice yoga teacher 2.871(*) 0.036
I'm yoga
teacher I practice yoga -2.871(*) 0.036
SOCIAL I'm yoga
DISCOMFORT I practice yoga teacher 2.872(*) 0.012
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I'm yoga
teacher I practice yoga -2.872(*) 0.012
I'm yoga
IMPULSIVNESS I practice yoga teacher 2.355(*) 0.037
I'm yoga
teacher I practice yoga -2.355(*) 0.037
I'm yoga
NEUROTICISM I practice yoga teacher 13.858(*) 0.021
I'm yoga
teacher I practice yoga -13.858(*) 0.021
SEARCH FOR I'm yoga
THRILLS I practice yoga teacher 2.854(*) 0.028
I'm yoga
teacher I practice yoga -2.854(*) 0.028
I'm yoga
VALUES I practice yoga teacher -2.396(*) 0.01
I'm yoga
teacher I practice yoga 2.396(*) 0.01
I'm yoga
FAIRNESS/ HONESTY I practice yoga teacher -2.973(*) 0.007
I'm yoga
teacher I practice yoga 2.973(*) 0.007
POLITENESS/ I'm yoga
COMPLIANCE I practice yoga teacher -2.225(*) 0.034
I'm yoga
teacher I practice yoga 2.225(*) 0.034
I'm yoga
AGREEABLENESS I practice yoga teacher -9.118(*) 0.04
I'm yoga
teacher I practice yoga 9.118(*) 0.04
Discussion
Studies show that people who practice yoga have lower scores on the depression
scale (Kinser, Bourguignon, Taylor, Steeves, 2013) . Their experience in the
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practice of yoga shows that they used yoga as a technique for self ruminativnih
aspects of stress and depression. They had a feeling of connection and ability to
share experiences in a safe environment . For practitioners of yoga have lower
scores on the impulsivity scale (Bilderbeck, Farias, Brazil, Jakobowitz, Wikholm,
2013 ) and neuroticism and less anxiety (Lee, Pharm, Goldsmith, 2012) .
The sample used in this study, where these personality dimensions measured by
the NEO PI R test, in which practitioners of yoga practice yoga recreational low
scores talk about the absence of tendency to experience shame, sadness,
helplessness and loneliness . That still does not mean the person is necessarily
cheerful and optimistic, but it represents a good basis for developing stabilniog
positive mood.
Yoga practitioners do not show desire for excitement and stimulation, they do not
like bright colors and noisy environments, and not shallow. They are cautious,
careful, sober people who avoid intense stimulation.
The correlation of r = 0.24 * shows the connection between the practice of yoga
and the ability to manage emotions in people who recreationally practice yoga.
Recognition, acceptance and management of emotions are the qualities of people
who are happy and fulfilled and have the ability to express all their potential.
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person asks himself questions such as: what is important to me, I'm driving, which
are my goals, where I'm going, where I come from, who I am ... When yoga
instructors, this correlation was not statistically significant.
Conclusion
Research results have shown that the practice of yoga achieves the ability to
manage the needs and impulses and greater tolerance to frustration. Reduces the
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References:
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nauci - budućnost i perspektive", 23-24 septembar 2010, Beograd, Srbija. Beograd: Joga Savez
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17. Nikić, P. (2011). Correlation Between Essential and Yoga Competences. In: P.Nikić, ed.
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19. Rokeach, M. (1973). The nature of human values. New York: Free Press
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24. Strobel, M., Tumasjan, A., & Sporrle, M. (2011). Be yourself, believe in yourself, and be happy:
Self-efficacy as a mediator between personality factors and subjective well-being. Scandinavian
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counterdispositional behavior. Emotion, 12, 290-303.
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Увод
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Метод
Резултати
Корелације
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Код особа које дужи низ година практикују технике јоге (асане, пранајаме,
релаксација, медитација), такође постоји негативна корелација са
сентименталним животним стилом, али је њен интензитет слабији (r = -
0,23*) (Јањушевић, Никић, 2012). Компетитивност као фактор мотивације је
у негативној корелацији са практиковањем јоге код инстуркторки и
инструктора јоге (r = -0,24*) (Јањушевић, Никић, 2012). Конформизам као
вредносна оријентација и практиковање јоге су у високој позитивној
корелацији код инструкорки и инструктора јоге (r = 0,25**).
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Mean Sig.(a)
Dependent Difference
Variable (I) јога (J) јога (I-J)
инструктор
ДЕПРЕСИВНОСТ идем на часове сам јоге 2.871(*) 0.036
инструктор
сам јоге идем на часове -2.871(*) 0.036
инструктор
СОЦ.НЕЛАГОДНОСТ идем на часове сам јоге 2.872(*) 0.012
инструктор
сам јоге идем на часове -2.872(*) 0.012
инструктор
ИМПУЛСИВНОСТ идем на часове сам јоге 2.355(*) 0.037
инструктор
сам јоге идем на часове -2.355(*) 0.037
инструктор
НЕУРОТИЦИЗАМ идем на часове сам јоге 13.858(*) 0.021
инструктор
сам јоге идем на часове -13.858(*) 0.021
ПОТРАГА ЗА инструктор
УЗБУЂЕЊИМА идем на часове сам јоге 2.854(*) 0.028
инструктор
сам јоге идем на часове -2.854(*) 0.028
инструктор
ВРЕДНОСТИ идем на часове сам јоге -2.396(*) 0.01
инструктор
сам јоге идем на часове 2.396(*) 0.01
ПРАВЕДНОСТ/ инструктор
ИСКРЕНОСТ идем на часове сам јоге -2.973(*) 0.007
инструктор
сам јоге идем на часове 2.973(*) 0.007
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УЧТИВОСТ/ инструктор
ПОПУСТЉИВОСТ идем на часове сам јоге -2.225(*) 0.034
инструктор
сам јоге идем на часове 2.225(*) 0.034
инструктор
САРАДЉИВОСТ идем на часове сам јоге -9.118(*) 0.04
инструктор
сам јоге идем на часове 9.118(*) 0.04
* корелација значајна на нивоу 0,05 ** корелација значајна на нивоу 0,01
Дискусија
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Закључак
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Abstract: Children are much valued resource of a nation. Yoga, the science based
on ancient wisdom and culture which emphasizes harmony and integration of the
personality through all stages of life. In this paper, we research to which extent
yoga can help personality development by influencing thoughts and behavior of
children. We describe the case study in which participated 35 children (age group
5 – 12 years) for a period of 3 months. The various components of Yogic Life for
Kids were standardized. “Yogic Games” invented by The Yoga Institute,
Santacruz, Mumbai were used to impart some of the required yogic traits in
children.
All the aspects of a child’s personality were analyzed before and after the
program. Kids Yoga camp was organized for one month at our Yoga Centre. The
kids were asked to follow the teachings of the camp for next two months on their
own. Feedback was taken 3 months later to check the persistability of the yogic life
style among children. The results of these analyses showed significant
development in behavior of 23 children out of 35 who were analysed.
Key words: yoga for children, short term yoga, yogic life style, yogic games, social
development
Introduction
Childhood is the time for development and growth when the child develops habits
and the lifestyle is molded. The child is full of energy which needs to be expressed
Corresponding author: [email protected]
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Vygotsky (1962) proposed that children learn through interactions with their
surrounding culture. This theory, known as the socio-cultural perspective, states
that the cognitive development of children and adolescents is enhanced when they
work in their Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). To reach the ZPD, children
need the help of adults or more competent individuals to support or scaffold them
as they are learning new things.
Social learning theory, created by Albert Bandura (b. 1925), expands on operant
conditioning by adding the idea that imitation or observational learning increases
the chances that children will learn new behaviors. He believed that external
reinforcement was not the only way that children learned new things. Instead,
intrinsic reinforcements such as a sense of pride, satisfaction and accomplishment
could also lead to learning. By observing the actions of others, including parents
and peers, children develop new skills and acquire new information (Baldwin, A
L, 1967). By considering this aspect of child learning tendency, we thought of
influencing child development by yogic practices.
Yoga is the science based on ancient wisdom and culture which emphasizes and
brings harmony and integration of the human personality at all levels and through
all stages of life (Pt. Radheshyam Mishra, 2009). We had a very strong belief that
it will be found very effective for the proper physical, mental and behavioral
development of even small children.
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It is not easy to teach present day children. They live in a hurry-up world of busy
parents, school pressures, video games, malls, and competitive sports. We usually
don't think of these influences as stressful for our kids, but often they are. The
bustling pace of our children's lives can have a profound effect on their innate joy.
Yoga can help counter these pressures. When children learn techniques for
conditioning, self-health, relaxation, and inner fulfillment through yoga and other
related activities like storytelling (Dr Jayadeva Yogendra, Cyclopaedia YOGA -
Vol. II) they can navigate life's challenges with a little more ease.
Hypothesis
Keeping in view the ‘Social learning theory’ for child development given by
Albert Bandura, we thought of influencing child development by yogic practices.
We believed that yoga with children will offer many possibilities to exchange
wisdom, share good times, and lay the foundation for a lifelong practice that will
continue to deepen. Children will derive enormous benefits from yoga. Physically,
it will enhance their flexibility, strength, coordination, and body awareness. In
addition, their concentration, memory and sense of calmness and relaxation will
improve. Doing yoga, children will exercise, play, connect more deeply with the
inner self, and will develop an intimate relationship with the natural world that
surrounds them. They will become more disciplined and obedient.
Method
Sample
For the present study, 50 children (5-12 years) were selected from middle
socioeconomic family status studying in well reputed schools in India. All the
parents agreed for their kids to participate in the study through a signed letter of
informed consent.
Intervention
A special case study program was organized with 50 children for a period of 3
months. The various components of “Yogic Life Style for Kids” were standardized
by authors.
During the first month the regular yoga class was organized in which they learned
the technique of various yogic practices through “Learn by Fun” technique like
asanas, pranayam and kriya.
The selection of yoga techniques were based on the following elements: Dharma,
Jnana, Vairagya and Aishwarya (Yogendra, 2007).
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Yoga asanas
To teach asanas, we tried to play the role of a ‘facilitator’ rather than a teacher or
instructor.
Simple, easy to perform yet effective asanas were selected and scheduled in such a
way that each part of the body got proper stretching and bending in every direction
like Sthitprarthanasana, Ekpadasana, Tadasana, Utkatasana, Hastpadasana,
Vakrasana, Padmasana, Supt Vajrasana, Yogamudra, Sarvangasana, Halasana,
Chakrasana, Yashtikasana etc.
After the active session of yogasanas ended with Aum chanting, children were
given relaxation practices from time to time like Nishpand bhav, Shavasana and
Makarasana.
Pranayama
Two Pranayama, Bhramri and Anulom-Vilom, were selected as they were easy
and effective.
Kriyas
Kids learned some “yogic kriyas” like cleaning their ears (Karn Randra Dhauti),
massaging the scalp and forehead (Kapal Randra Dhauti), cleaning the
nasopharynx (Jalneti) etc.
Other Activities
Every day, either before or after the asanas, a talk was conducted in which they
were informed about three kinds of food viz. Satvik, Rajsic and Tamsic food.
During the camp, children played many “yogic games” developed by Yoga
Institute, Santacruz, Mumbai. Each game was designed to impart a particular
‘yogic trait’ amongst children. Along with them, some more “On the spot” games
were also played to improve their concentration level, focusing attitude and to
vitalize and energize them.
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Each day Moral stories were shared between kids and facilitator. Music and
drawing was also incorporated many times during the camp.
On completion of one month of regular yoga and related classes, the children were
asked to follow all which they have learned by staying at their home for the next
two months.
Questionnaire
The authors developed one written questionnaire to survey kid’s parents which
was designed to determine the benefits kids had received from participation in the
yoga camp organized by certified Yoga instructors. The parents were requested to
fill the ‘Feedback Questionnaire’ developed by authors showing the comparative
rating of their children for some physical, mental and behavioral attributes using a
“5 point scale” (prepared by Ellen Taylor-Powell, Evaluation Specialist, Program
Development and Evaluation, 2008) before the onset of the program and after the
completion of one month. After three months they were again asked to do rating
of their children for the same attributes. Parents shared their opinion and
observation regarding changes in the physical, mental and behavioral aspects of
their child.
Statistical Analysis
Observation
It has been observed (Table 1) that after one month of practice most of the children
showed improvement in their physical, mental, attitudinal and behavioral traits like
physical state, activity level, concentration, memory, grasping, food habits,
hygienic habits, habit of sharing, calmness, discipline and obedience after 1 month
(Fig. 1-10). Most of them maintained the improvement even after 3 months (Fig.
1-10), although very few reverted back to their original state (Fig. 1-10). Some
children pick up the pace little slowly and showed improvements afterwards (Fig.
1-10). In all, 65% children showed improvement in most of the traits and were
capable of retaining it even after 3 months.
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Results
Table 2: Chi- square ( ) values for effect of Yoga on different physical, mental
and behavioral attributes of kids
Null Hypothesis
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Physical state
Yoga helps develop controlled movement, exercises every muscle and joint
throughout the body, improves posture and balance and tones internal organs
promoting better digestion, circulation, respiration, and joint formation.
Poses like the Tadasana, Yashtikasana help to increase the height during
childhood. These poses give a systematic stretch to the limbs and vertebral
column. At the same time the calcium metabolism and its utilization in the body is
improved. Thus it helps to improve the height and also increase the strength and
flexibility of the muscles (Fig.1).
Activity level
Most children have complaint of being overactive at some time or another. The
energy level in children is high and it is expressed in this form which needs to be
directed instead for more constructive work. This energy can be controlled by the
practice of deep breathing, making the child calm and quiet. Proper breathing will
further help by supplying proper oxygen to all the body cells(Fig.2).
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Food Habits
The proper nutrition of the body is essential for the further development and
growth of the body and mind. Yoga helps in reducing extra fat from the various
parts of the body and thus makes the child more fit and active. By promoting
‘Sattvik Food’ and avoiding ‘Junk Food’, yogic life style further reduces the
chances of obesity. (Fig.6)
Hygienic Habits
Every day talk and Yogic kriyas developed some long lasting hygienic habits in
kids. They became more aware regarding cleanliness. (Fig.7)
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Habit of Sharing
Sometimes children are too adamant, returning uncivil answers. Some of them are
short tempered and have a destructive tendency. The regular practice of Aum
chanting, deep breathing and relaxation will help to solve these problems. Even the
practice of yoga in a group will help to develop a positive attitude and the spirit of
team work. It will develop the feeling of respect and love for each other.
Yoga helps children develop self-awareness, release tension, work through their
fears and be more in control of their emotions in order to effectively express them
and thus make them more disciplined and obedient.(Fig. 9-10)
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Discussion
The greatest challenge with children is to hold their attention long enough to teach
them the benefits of yoga. Most children love to talk and move needed in yoga.
Children will jump at the chance to assume the role of animals as they are holding
poses. Sound adds one more dimension to the physical experience of yoga.
When we honor the children's innate intelligence and tune in to how they were
instructing us to instruct them, we began to co-create our classes. We thought of
ourselves as a facilitator rather than a teacher. Guide our children while
simultaneously opening our heart and letting them guide us. They have no doubt
taken us into a boundless world of wonder and exploration. The teaching/learning
process was continually reciprocal and provides an opportunity for everyone to
create, express themselves, and grow together.
Through yogasanas we have explored many other areas like animal adaptations
and behavior. Children showed much enthusiasm in learning yogic kriyas. With
the help of “Story Telling”, moral education was imparted to them. We employ
ecology, anatomy, nutrition, and life lessons that echo yogic principles along with
fun. Most of all, our program engages the entire mind, body, and spirit in a way
that honors all the ways children learn. Yoga along with music, games,
storytelling, drawing—and our time together became a truly interdisciplinary
approach to learning.
Conclusion
Yoga is a great way to usher tiny tots into a healthy regimen as they can start yoga
from age five which will help them establish the body-mind-spirit connection to
see them sail through every sphere of life smoothly. The practice of yoga during
childhood helps for self expression develops self discipline and self confidence.
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The communication skills of the child improve; the child develops love and
compassion and learns to respect others. On the physical level it increases strength,
improves the stability, flexibility, coordination and awareness of their body. It can
also improve their ability to concentrate and relax. Children who practice yoga
enjoy improved posture and better sleep.
References:
1. Abadi, M.S., Madgaonkar J., & Venkatesan, S. (2008). Effect of yoga on children with attention
deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Psychological Studies, 53(2), 154–159.
2. Baldwin, A.L. (1967). Theories of child development. Oxford, England: Wiley
3. Berk, L. E. (2000). Child development (5th ed.). Needham Heights, MS: Allyn & Bacon.
4. Daniels, D. H., & Shumow, L. (2003). Child development and classroom teaching: A review of the
literature and implications for educating teachers. Applied Development Psychology, 23, 495–526.
5. Galantino, M., Galbavy, R., & Quinn, L. ( 2008). Therapeutic effects of yoga for children: A
systematic review of the literature. Pediatric Physical Therapy, 20(1), 66- 80.
6. Jensen, P., & Kenny, D. (2004). The effects of yoga on the attention and behavior of boys with
attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Journal of Attention Disorders, 7(4), 205-216.
7. Mishra, R.S. (2009), Handbook of: Yoga for Perfect Health. Published by Ujjain Yoga Life
Society, Ujjain (MP), India.
8. Peck, H.L., Kehle, T.J., Bray, M.A., Theodore, L. A. (2005). Yoga as an intervention for children
with attention problems. School Psychology Review, 34(3), 415–424.
9. Smith, C., Hancock, H., Blake- Mortimer, J., & Eckert, K. (2007). A randomized comparative trial
of yoga and relaxation to reduce stress and anxiety. Complementary Therapies, 15(2), 77-83.
10. Vigotski, L. (1962). Thinking and speaking. Cambridge: The M.I.T. Press.
11. Yogendra, Jayadeva (1989). Cyclopaedia YOGA -Vol. II, A Systematic Study Programme of
Yoga Education for the Child and the Adult (Edited). Published by ‘The Yoga Institute’, Santacruz
East, Mumbai, India
12. Yogendra, Jayadeva (2009). Yoga for Children - Teachers’ Handbook. Published by The Yoga
Institute, Santacruz (East), Mumbai, India.
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Кључне речи: јога за децу, краткорочна јога, јога начин живота, јога игре,
друштвена трансформација
Увод
Детињство је време за развој и раст када дете гради навике и када се формира
његов начин живота. Оно је пуно енергије која тражи да се изрази.
Разумевање развоја детета од виталног је значаја, и омогућава нам потпуни
увид у когнитивни, емоционални, физички, социјални и образовни развој.
Corresponding author: [email protected]
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Хипотезе
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Метод
Узорак
Интервенција
Током првог месеца организован је уобичајен час јоге на којем су деца учила
различите технике јоге путем учења кроз забаву. Учили су асне, пранајаме и
крије. Избор техника јоге заснивао се на следећим елементима: dharma,
jnana, vairagya и aishwarya (Yogendra, 2007).
– јога исхрана,
– причање прича,
– игре,
– музика,
– цртање.
Положаји јоге
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Пранајаме
Крије
Деца су научила неколико крија као што је чишћење ушију (karn randra
dhauti), масажа коже главе и чела (kapal randra dhauti), чишћење носне
шупљине и ждрела (jalаneti) итд.
Друге активности
Сваки дан, пре или после практиковања асана, деца су кратко информисана о
три врсте хране (сатва, раџас и тамас). Током кампа, деца су играла многе
игре јоге које је осмислио Институт за јогу Сантакруз, Бомбај. Свака игра је
осмишљена тако да изврши утицај на одређену „јога црту“ код деце. Поред
њих, играле су се и игре које су се спонтано јавиле на часу да би се
побољшала концентрација, фокусирао однос према раду и да би се деца
обновила. Водитељи су сваки дан деци причали приче са животним
порукама. Музика и цртање су били укључени у рад много пута током кампа.
Упитник
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Статистичка анализа
Опсервације
1 месец 3 месеца
Р. Особине Р. бр.
бр. пораст константа пораст константа
1. Физичко стање 23 12 0 13 21 1
2. Ниво
23 11 1 5 25 5
активности
3. Памћење 20 14 1 7 28 0
4. Концентрација 24 11 0 6 26 3
5. Ниво труда 20 13 2 9 26 0
6. Навике у
23 12 0 11 21 3
исхрани
7. Навике у
22 13 0 4 28 3
хигијени
8. Навике дељења 25 10 0 6 26 3
9. Дисцилина 21 8 6 11 21 3
10. Послушност 18 14 3 10 22 3
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Резултати
Нулта хипотеза
Физичко стање
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Положаји као што су tadasana и yashtikasana помажу раст код деце. У овим
положајима се систематски истежу удови и кичмени стуб. Истовремено се
побољшава метаболизам калцијума и његова искоришћеност у телу, чиме се
повећава висина као и снага и флексибилност мишића (слика 1).
Ниво активности
Многа деца су повремено била претерано активна. Ниво енергије код деце је
висок, али она треба да буде усмерена ка конструктивнијем раду. Овом
енергијом може да се управља практиковањем дубоког дисања – то децу
чини мирном и тихом. Одговарајуће дисање ће обезбедити довољну
количину кисеоника свим ћелијама (слика 2).
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Навике у исхрани
Одговарајућа исхрана је важна за даљи развој и раст тела и ума. Јога помаже
у смањењу вишка масти у различитим деловима тела и тако децу чини
покретљивијoм. Промовисањем сатвичке исхране и избегавањем брзе хране,
животни стил који је у складу са јогом додатно смањује могућност за појаву
гојазности (слика 6).
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Хигијенске навике
Навика да се дели
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Дисциплина и послушност
Дискусија
Највећи изазов у раду са децом јесте држање њихове пажње довољно дуго да
би научили добробити јоге. Већина деце воли да разговара и да се креће, што
је потребно код практиковања јоге. Деца се радују могућности да имитирају
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животиње док бораве у положају. Звук даје још једну димензију телесном
искуству јоге.
Практикујући асане, истражили смо многе друге области живота као што је
прилагођавање и понашање животиња. Деца су показала интересовање за
учење крија. Уз помоћ причања прича, пренете су им и неке моралне норме.
Поред тога што се деца забављају вежбајући јогу, преносе им се принципи
екологије, анатомије, здраве исхране и животне лекције које обухватају
принципе јоге. Пре свега, наш програм ангажује ум, тело и дух на начине на
које деца лако уче. Уз примену музике, игара, причања прича, цртања и
времена које проводимо заједно, јога представља интердисциплинарни
приступ учењу.
Закључак
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Abstract: Karl Jung during his spiritual and cultural research and expeditions
largely dealt with the cultures of the East, and as part of that, with yoga. It is most
involved in the 30s 20 century (1932-1936) and later , with different causes. Most
careful is to implement in his seminar (ie, a series of four lectures in October
1932), when he spoke in detail about the symbolism and archetypal meaning of the
chakras, the framework theme "Psychology of Kundalini Yoga". Four years later,
in 1936, Jung published an article Yoga and the West, in which he pointed out that
yoga is one of the greatest creations of the human spirit, but that the Western spirit
of sandwiched and therefore yoga does not apply (or practice) by the Western man
but that the West will develop their own yoga on Christian grounds, where Jung
had in mind the Christian mystics and their teachings as possible based on the
western yoga (which is discussed in his preface (1939) to Suzuki's book an
Introduction to Zen Buddhism). However, the development and application of yoga
in the West over the past 80 years, denied the last two Jung's claims and confirmed
his view that yoga is one of the greatest achievements of the human mind achieved.
Key words: yoga, Jung, eastern culture interpretation of yoga, yoga application.
Introduction
Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961) several times on different occasions and situations
written about some eastern teachings (mandala, Taoist alchemy, yoga, I Ching,
Tibetan Buddhism, Zen, meditation), commented on them and looked at the
psychological, cultura , civilization and philosophical aspects of their
interpretation and understanding, between the 1921 and 1955. In order to have a
full picture of his approach to yoga, you need to be part of the look and the other
Jungian interpretation of certain aspects of the cultures of the East.
Corresponding author: [email protected]
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Topics to which Jung reckless can about this list, according to the chronology of
occurrence:
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3) The symbolism of the mandala. About the symbolism of the mandala Jung
tells the following works: a commentary in “The symbolism of the mandala” (The
secret of the golden flower, 1929), in his book Psychology and Alchemy (1944, 12
tom, Collected Works, Princeton Univ. Press, 1968, p. 95-223), referred to as “The
symbolism of the mandala” (1950), referred to as “the study of the process of
individuation” (1950), which presents an analysis of a series of images of a patient,
and the text “mandala” (1955).
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6) On the preparation for death (The Tibetan Book of the Dead). As Jung
observes in his essay The Soul and Death (1934) - from mid-life onwards truly
alive remains the one who is ready to die with life. For the secret of life noon hour
parabola are twists, death is born. ( ... ) The refusal fulfilling life is the same as a
refusal to accept his dokrajčivanje . Both mean a refusal to live and not want to
live the same as not wanting to die . - (Carl Jung , “The Soul and Death”,
Collected Works, Vol. 8). Four years after this article, in his commentary on the
Tibetan Book of the Dead (1938), Jung wrote: “For years, ever since it was first
published, the Bardo Thodol was my constant companion and I owe him many
incentives not only for ideas and discoveries, but also many fundamental insights”.
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10) The symbolism of the mandala. About Mandala and their symbolism Jung
wrote several articles ranging from in 1929 so in 1955. They were one of the
biggest challenges and inspiration for him and offered him a lot of material to
explain their ideas. In addition, there were crossing two streams - one side attempts
to interpret some of his artwork in the spirit mandala - on the other hand that his
psychology is applied to the interpretation of the mandala in Buddhist and Hindu
yantras in tradition. “My mandalas were cryptograms which are related to the
condition of my being that we are again represented a daily basis. They saw
themselves, ie. my whole being - actively at work” (Jung, 1967, p. 221).
First we will look at Jung's more general attitudes in which he assesses the impact
of the presence of Asian meditative traditions, and then in his interpretation related
to yoga.
Jung noted that the critical philosophy , which marked the break between science
and religion In modern Europe , and the East side, and medieval Europe. One
consequence is that the word “spirit” in the West lost the metaphysical (or
ontological) meaning - as it did in ancient and medieval Europe, as it did in
Eastern tradition - and it is now reduced to a “mental function”. “One man has
ceased to be a microcosm and reflection of the universe, his soul is no longer a
spark of the soul of the world” (Jung, 1984, p. 59). It is indeed true, but not quite,
or not in time behind Jung's death.
1) During the period from 1960 to 1980, ie . After Jung's death, in the so-called.
akvarijanske conspiracy, as it is called Marilyn Ferguson (Ferguson, 1980), or
more , the Princeton gnosis (Ruyer, 1986), there is a tendency postnovovekovna
renewal of such direction , ie . overlapping micro-and macrocosm, science and
religion, it is in the West, as Fritjof Capra (Capra, 1983) considered a kind of
cultural and civilizational milestones. What makes it particularly difficult to
explain is that this direction is evident and science (biology and physics), and the
psychology of the masses. Some interpret this as a psychological and cultural
reaction against the Enlightenment and rationalism.
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However, the question is how critical philosophy and scientific rationalism ever
become part of the psychology of the masses, and how is this managed to its
inherent irrationality in an almost intact transferred to the Middle Ages and
“smuggle” in addition to the Enlightenment philosophy of critical and scientific
rationalism in the 20th and 21 century.
For details, entry into these questions takes us part of our basic themes, but it is
important for the understanding and evaluation of Jung's views on the meaning of
the Eastern tradition, the Western man. In fact, Jung pointed out that the critical
philosophy of scientific materialism and reduced the term of the spirit of the
human mind and consciousness. Noting these circumstances, Jung wanted to
justify his thesis that East and West are basically different. What is Jung ignored is
that this circumstance equally separated (if separate) Westerners not only from the
East, but also from the old West and the Middle Ages, not only of Buddhism , but
also of Christianity , not only from Nagarjuna but the Plotinus, not only of
Sankara, but also from Master Eckhart , not only by Seng - Cana , but also of
Nicholas of Cusa, not only of the Cong - Khapa, but from Gregory Palamas.
2) In the preface to the book of Suzuki's Introduction to Zen Buddhism Jung asks
that spiritual (or climate) assumptions man should have in order to have a clear
idea about the concept of karma. This would suggest that the concept of karma in
part caused under certain climatic region. If that were the case , then it would mean
that the idea of reincarnation and karma (ie ethical causation, which is transmitted
through different incarnations and reincarnations , we know that also occurred in
ancient Greece and to accept some philosophers, like Plato) created because of the
Mediterranean climate, rather than the need to individualize the moral
responsibility to report to the ideas of both the East and the West interpret some
historians of philosophy and anthropology.
Besides - if the word on the climate - the Swiss at the time of receipt of
Christianity closer to Tibetans (mountains, snow) than the Jews and the Sinai
desert . Yet , we see that the Tibetans received Buddhism from India humid hot
and Swiss Christianity which came from the hot regions of Judea . So with that -
climate - perspective, we would expect similar beliefs in Switzerland and Tibet (ie
, we would not expect of an Indian of Jewish influence in them).
3) In order to underline the differences between East and West, Jung ( in an article
from 1939 - "The difference between Eastern and Western thought " , Selected
Works , IV , Novi Sad 1984 , p 66). Served polarity in psychology . " Introversion
is , if I may put it that way ," says Jung , " the style of the East , a habitual and
collective attitude , extroversion is the style of the West ."
" Christian West ," says Jung , "We believe that man is totally dependent on the
grace of God , or at least of the Church. East, on the contrary , the view that man
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himself is the sole cause of its highest development , as East believes in self-
salvation " ( Selected Works, IV - N . Sad , 1984, p. 66) . "Fire and water can not
mix . Oriental attitude dumbing down of Western man and vice versa ," added
Jung . "You can not be a good Christian and self- rescue , as it can not be a
Buddhist , and give to God " (1984:68).
Jung at the time apparently was unaware of the bhakti tradition in India
(Hinduism) or Djodi beliefs of Buddhism in Japan - which holds that salvation is
only by the grace of God (or Buddha Amitabha , or Japanese Amide ) and
religious commitment ie the power of faith) . So - to find and specific guidance in
Buddhism (namely, Buddhism existed and belief that it is only the grace of
Buddha , and those that are bound salvation or revival of personal effort and
purification meditation) .
In short, these comparisons spoil what Jung has been unjust to those Eastern
religions (or orientations within them) that had ekstravertovan attitude, believing,
as many Christians in salvation by grace divine.
Interest in the East , which shows the Western man Jung is also considered part
ekstravertovanosti Westerners - but then , instead of God , salvation is expected
from the East.
" If we do these things we acquire directly from the East , it was just indulging our
common desire to own ," says Jung . " Time we again confirm that all is well out
there , where it should be adopted and enter into our barren souls . It seems to me
that we then really learn something from the East when we realize that the soul
contains a lot of wealth and without fertilization outside inside ... We need to reach
out to Eastern values , not the outside. We need to be looking at us , in the
unconscious " (Jung , 1984) .
4) Jung, on the one hand, indicates that the East Westerner to remain always
strange because the Eastern tradition tailor introvertovanog man , while the
Westerner ekstravertovan , and then says that the Westerner must cease to be
ekstravertovan if you want to get out of the dead end of civilization in which it the
ekstravertovana sidedness traction.
Now one might think : Well , if so , is not just an interest in the East part of the
rotation to introversion , which advises Jung , discovering the value of the own
introverted attitude ? No, says Jung - in that reaching for East Western man really
just prolongs their ekstravertovanost .
5) It appears that Jung has served just here that the logic of which he himself
rejected elsewhere - the logic according to which there is no transition , growth ,
overcoming, there is no communication and permeation , and if it is , then it is
false and artificial. If Jung as one of its contributions considered affirmation of the
possibilities that a man in his mental growth combine apparently incompatible
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opposites and bridge the seemingly hopeless rifts , it would be strange to assume
that Western man from Eastern traditions shared unbridgeable gap , that this
principle was off one misterium Coniunctionis , to say nothing of all that is (
normally ) a subject of cultural exchange , from the beginning of the Silk Road ( in
the first centuries of our era - between China and the Roman Empire ), to later
times , including the very Jung activity in mediating ideas of the East .
In other words , Jung as to the field of culture challenged what is considered
possible and desirable in terms of the psyche .
Their studies (in period 1920-1939) of the symbolism of mandalas and other
articles ( such as lectures about the symbolism of the chakras and kundalini yoga )
Jung showed that the traffic of the eastern tradition has meaning and value , which
he did, and in texts written after the World War II .
I would say that Jung wanted to emphasize the difference between the various
modes and forms of communication with the East . It's the difference between on
the one hand, fashionable , snobbish addressing the East, when the value of the
Eastern tradition, used as jewelry , as well as exotic coating superficiality , as
zaodevanje vanity and spiritual confusion , and , on the other hand , enhanced
communication in which we are striving to understand the eastern tradition returns
as a profound understanding of ourselves - which was the case and Jung in his
other writings and insights , written before the text of 1939 ("The difference
between Eastern and Western thought").
On the other hand , the study of symbolism mandalas enabled him to better
understand and substantiate the interpretation of images of some of his patients as
part of the healing process or in the process of individuation . The same applies to
the concept of self ( Selbst - of self ) or self - which Jung introduced as the fourth
member of the then current psychoanalytic triad ( I , Super-Ego and Id), which is,
perhaps, an even greater heresy to orthodox psychoanalytic viewpoint than a
revision of the theory of libido, the introduction of the collective unconscious and
archetypes .
Jung was, in my opinion, the idea found a better reinforcement in eastern than in
western philosophy - namely, the vedantinskom notion of Atman and Purusha, the
concept of tradition sankhja yoga (Jung, 1972, p. 5).
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The only thing is wrong (but it is the fault of some indologists) is the statement
that Atman and Purusha does not emphasize the difference between the human and
the divine essence. The Atman and Purusha (as they understand the Upanishads
and sankhja) have nothing to do with the divine essence, but sometimes (in other
contexts), the term Purusha occurs in such interfaces.
1) Reference to the atman and the Purus Jung is his idea of the self given the full
range and depth, pointing out that the fourth member is not only an extension of or
addition to the ego , but rather a completely separate article in respect of which the
three members of Freud's psychoanalytic triad appear as a rope , separate
functional labels . In this way, Jung is the real face of the eastern tradition and in
its interpretation , stepped over the boundaries of the self and others elsewhere
specified .
Thus, in a comment on " the secret of the golden flower " Jung says : " ... As the
human body has a common anatomy over and above the
VIH racial differences , and psyche possesses a common substratum transcending
all differences in culture and consciousness. The substrate I called the collective
unconscious . ( ... ) This explains the analogy , sometimes even identity , between
the different motifs in myths and symbols , as well as the ability of human beings
to understand each other " (Jung , 1969) .
2) The relationship of the self and the ego has been and remains a key issue not
only for Jung , but also psychologists Anglo -Saxon speaking countries, who have
a comparative psychology and the meeting point of western and eastern
psychology in some respects developed and reviewed over the horizon which Jung
asked. For them, the issue gained prominence because they are called . cults and
alternative groups of eastern provenance (especially on U.S. soil ) in terms of
impact and influence surpassed that in the first half of the twentieth century in
Europe conducted theosophy and anthroposophy ( which occurred in Russia and
Germany ) .
Jung on a number of tackles this subject, noting the difficulty that will remain an
open question to this day , and it can be briefly expressed in the following words :
Is it possible for Westerners closed ( ie , impossible) or ( if possible) a dangerous
experience they talk about some Eastern disciplines (meditation , yoga , etc. . ) ,
which is linked to transcend the ego ? At first glance , the question seems not
particularly difficult , but it turned out to be harder than hard , as the possible
answer to so many factors involved , many were not able to get out with it to the
end . While the authors ( as Abraham Maslow ) who developed transpersonal
orientation in psychology advocated the view that a person's spiritual growth is
possible and realistic and across ego and ego- psychology , others have pointed to
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the dangers of it , considering that it is an illusion ie . you just can not conceal the
collapse of the ego , which occurs in mental disorders and diseases , and in some
ancient and more recent groups and movements that subordination of personality
(ie, ego ) great guru or prophet have as the basis of its assembly and organization (
such communes and groups were created during the 20th century . within the
United States and European countries) .
3) That's what David wrote Boadela ( 1980) in an article entitled " ego death " ,
particularly referring to the sick and the community, which may arise from the
subordination of the ego or the autonomy of the person , when you create a so-
called . addicted to a certain cult ( no meditation ) . The latter ( the dissolution of
the ego as possible and usually enforced without meditation , or repressed ) it is
important , as it is for some meditation means the dissolution of the ego or
regression - ie . the loss of all those qualities that characterize an independent ,
critical personality (Alexander , 1931) .
The hardest thing in this issue is to distinguish the theory ( ie concepts, models ,
understanding ) of what is going on in the empirical level , a udenuti in the gap , it
is necessary that we first understand the question. In recent decades some
therapists and psychiatrists are faced with some patients in the previous period (or
outbreak ) diseases mentioned and some practicing meditation, yoga, the occult,
etc. Unprepared for new experiences , some therapists - who otherwise would
never have thought that a man can get sick because of over- learning or playing
chess - tend , however , to think that someone could get sick meditating .
Therapists who would be faced with a patient - cheeky Napoleon or Jesus - did not
occur to me to blame for the cast to the French Revolution , or Christianity , but
today when faced with a patient who imagines that the great yogi , or to receive
messages from the driver flying saucers then blame the " Eastern cults " or yellow
press which fueled the myth of UFOs.
Unlike some other analysts who thought that the principles and practice of
meditative traditions threaten the position of the ego - in a similar way in which
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5) But , as Jung could not overcome here another principle limitation of analytical
psychology - the level the ego and consciousness - and on the basis of equalizing
outcomes and objectives of meditative practice to dip into the unconscious ( an
amalgamation of the unconscious ) .
Jung referred to as " The difference between Eastern and Western thought " (1984
) sought analogies in the wrong direction, which is directly corrected in the preface
to the book Suzuki's Introduction to Zen Buddhism (1970 ) , where he says : " This
new state of mind , being born in religious practice , is distinguished by the fact
that external things do not affect egoičku awareness of the rising reciprocal
adhesion , but that empty mind is open to the influence of others . The ' other '
impact will be felt as their own activities, but as a work of non- I , which is the
object of consciousness . It is as if the subjective character of the ego is superseded
or taken over by another entity that has taken the place of the ego " (Jung , 1970, p.
17 ) .
Here is Jung faced with the subject with which to deal with more success
psychologists since 1960. onwards in the context of the so-called . altered states of
consciousness .
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To understand the context and Jung's place in it , it may be best to sketch a little
history of this topic , or point from which the horizon is interpreted meditation .
1) When William James (James, 1971) the issue appears in the context of
interpretation of existential crisis , anhedonia , conversion and religious functions .
The classical analytical point of view, putting ego and normal daily consciousness
in parentheses , their temporary narrowing ( as a function ) , meant something
negative . It was considered an expression of good will if it is a meditative
experience , like RABOTE artists labeled as a " regression in the service of the ego
." In a period of " regression in the service of the ego " She looked like a nice
formula to be a saint , mystic , genius or an artist still keep within the analytical
interpretation , which will Maslov completely jeopardize the introduction meta-
motivation .
The peculiarity of Jung's concepts of the unconscious , as we know , was not only
the introduction of the collective unconscious , but in a different understanding of
the contents of the unconscious . The unconscious , according to Jung's opinion,
are not only negative contents , but all neosvešteni positive activities . Thus , the
weakening of the ego could mean a negative invasion unconscious contents , and
that the influence of the unconscious , which means compensation and correcting
the one-sidedness of the conscious attitude. In the context of Jung and later Fromm
(1964 ) , a meditative experience is associated with depression and achieving
greater integration of the conscious and the unconscious. The only thing that Jung
considered for this purpose for Westerners appropriately Christianity or active
imagination , but Eastern meditative traditions .
3) In any case, if you would still make sense to speak of regression in relation to
eastern meditation - and not progression - this is not a regression in the service of
the ego , but the growth , integration and enrichment of personality , and that
means in the service of self. It is not at all a ruse of the ego , a tactic , a temporary
concession to the unconscious iskamčilo truce , certain content or consent , as the
dictatorship temporarily perform some concessions when she needed a break and
winning secondary elements , or as a weakened opponent of the war seeks truce in
order to consolidate power . It is one of the few , if not the only game in which
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cheating , last thoughts and guile redundant and pointless . No surprise that the ego
in this sense has to lose ( at least to waste time ) , it was stolen or it will be stolen ,
as soon after that - showered with gifts from the unconscious - can have a feeling
that this is a special grace or gift , what is and is not true - it is from the perspective
of the ego , which always keeps the economic prospects gain- loss, and not the
basic integrative perspective on where integration is not established in the service
of an increase of wealth or power, but a different being. From this is expressed in
the dichotomy have or be , and in Lao Zi found that , at first glance a strange
remark , that the monitoring Tao subtract days at a time.
1) William James ( 1842-1910 ) was more than a hundred years, emphasized the
importance of the discovery of mental content that is outside of the primary
consciousness, and says : "I can not help but think that the most important step
forward that has been made in psychology , since I deal with the science , the
discovery conducted in 1886 , that, at least in some subjects , there is not just an
ordinary consciousness with its usual center and edges, but also supplement it - as
a series of memories, thoughts and feelings that are beyond the edge of the primary
consciousness, but the be defined as conscious facts of a certain kind staff to reveal
their presence unmistakable signs " (James, 1971) .
From Džemsovog text we see that at the beginning of shaping learning about the
unconscious - which he calls the subliminal consciousness (about 1886 ) - a
possibility that this concept gets the width given to him by Jung , but that is
because it is in the flow , ie . in Freud , is shaped like an explanation of hysterical
and hypnotic amnesia , this development had to wait Jung. We see that in the late
19th century , when James wrote these lines on these facilities is still considered a
separate part of the consciousness, pozajmivši for this title subliminal awareness of
Myers ( Frederic William Henry Myers , 1843-1901 ) . At that time, had not yet
been diagnosed curtain between consciousness and unconsciousness - later known
as repression - that Freud would discover in their patients and analyzed as defense
and resistance in the service of oppression.
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mysticism and obscurantist , and Freud before him , when he developed and
introduced the general dynamics of the unconscious .
" My methodology is composed , as well as those of Freud , the practice of
confession . I like Freud and taking into account the dreams , but our perceptions
differ in the evaluation of the unconscious. For him, it is in addition to be reduced ,
and in addition to which they piled all of incompatibility . For me it is a collective
unconscious psychic disposition creative nature . For the principled differences in
perception stems , natural, and very different evaluation methods symbolism and
its interpretation. Freud generally treated analytically - reductive . I adds another
synthetics that emphasizes the appropriateness of unconscious tendencies in the
development of personality . In this field of research resulting from the significant
parallels with yoga , especially with Kundalini Yoga and the symbolism of tantra
yoga , Taoist yoga and Lamaism in China . This form of yoga with its rich
symbolism we provide valuable comparative material for the interpretation of the
collective unconscious . However, the methods of yoga principle does not apply ,
because the unconscious in the West must do nothing to enforce . Consciousness is
mainly characterized by spasmodic intensity and limitations , and hence can not be
more emphasized. In contrast to the unconscious as much as possible to help to
reach consciousness , in order to rid the latter of its stiffness . To do so, apply a
method of active imagination , which consists of a special training of
consciousness to unconsciousness features help to develop a " ( Jung , 1984) .
3) Jung realized that the need to extend the notion of the unconscious if it is to
conceptually encompass hitherto uncovered areas of human experience and
cultural heritage . In the first period ( between 1912-1919 ) to uncovered area were
some of the dreams of Jung and later joined it , and everything that is entered in
the focus of its almost limitless spiritual curiosity - myths , Christianity ,
Gnosticism , alchemy , psychic phenomena and legacy Asian meditative traditions
, with which Jung familiarize by researchers as were Richard Wilhelm, Heinrich
Zimmer, Evans Wentz , Eliade and Suzuki , as well as many others who gathered
at Eranos .
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After Jung's death, there are efforts to formulate a comprehensive theory of altered
states of consciousness. Long as all kinds of altered states of consciousness were
included undifferentiated notion of trance , which is a prototype representing a
hypnotic trance. Hence, the long-held tendency to some types of meditation and
yoga are interpreted on this basis - a special kind of trance -induced hypnosis or
auto-suggestion , as Jung or rejected. Since 1960. onwards , principled differences
of these states was also confirmed by the EEG , as evidenced by the difference
between hypnosis and ordinary dream ( Tart , 1974 , p . 500-518 ) . Accrete
material from anthropological and psychological research is required to try to
clean up, if not a complete explanation of the different types of trance : from
shamanistic - medijumskih or drug -induced changes of consciousness , through
hypnosis , altered states induced by sensory deprivation or rituals , the condition
caused by the techniques of brainwashing , psychic manipulation , meditation or
yoga (Tart, 1974).
In a range of about two thousand years ago , how long formative period and
research in Asian meditative traditions , indeed created a wide variety of systems
and forms of meditation , some of which can be described as forms of " immersion
in the collective unconscious ." In these forms of meditation, imagery,
visualization , vision and image have a large stake (these are the most common
types of meditation and tantric activities ) .
2) Jung could not have a clear idea of these ranges, but they did not have many
Orientalists ( especially when you are trying to reduce all the difference in one or
more zajediničkih denominator or paradigm ) .
Jung was forced out of her sight respond to the various challenges that are placed
before him : Taoist alchemy , zen , yoga , Tibetan Buddhism , etc. , in order to
reach Some general conclusions. But it is difficult or impossible , because the issue
is very different , and sometimes conflicting ideas or principles , even within -
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3) In this text, Jung served more analogous passages from the texts of Western
mysticism , but the collective unconscious to be closer to the meaning of satori , so
the experience of enlightenment in Zen . Quote from Master Eckhart says that
Jung really did sense zenovskog "persons before birth ." Quote represent
ingeniously Ekhartovo interpretation (or , perhaps , re-formulation ) Biblical
statement " Blessed are the poor in spirit ." So Eckhart says:
" The penetration of when I want to stay empty by the will of God , and also
discharged from the will of God , from all his works , and by God himself - I 'm
probably more than all creatures , because I'm not God , nor creature : I am what I
am and that I will remain , now and forever ! Then get a boost that elevates me
above all angels . In this stimulating become so rich that God is missing, despite
what he is like God , despite his divine works , because in that work down my
seeing what is God and I shared . I am probably what I was, I did not even less , or
more, because I am motionless ness that drives all things . This God does not dwell
in man , because the man through his poverty receive back what has always been
and will always be , "says Eckhart ( Suzuki , 1970) .
In addition, Jung adds : "Here the master is describing the experience of satori ,
liberation through self ego ..." ( Suzuki , 1970) . Incidentally , it is not surprising
that with this his wife Eckhart earned charge ( Eckhart , 1941) .
4) Following the same text Jung endeavor to explain the psychological satori as a
change of consciousness , emphasizing the concepts that are close to transpersonal
psychology , but efforts to understand meditative experience based on the
psychology of the unconscious .
"It's not about anything else seen , but to see a different person ," says Jung . " As
to the physical act of seeing changed a new dimension . When the master asks '
Can you hear the murmur of the stream ? ' He obviously meant something entirely
different than what is usually ' listening ' . Consciousness is like perception and as
the latter is subject to conditions and limitations , the same is true of consciousness
. For example , one can be aware to varying degrees , lower or wider , shallow or
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1) Although the symbolism of the mandala Jung found an important key to the
symbolism of the self and the process of individuation , he was not inclined to
individuation, to a great extent connected with meditation , as one of the aids of
individuation considered so . " Active imagination " - on the grounds that it helps
the unconscious content to develop and articulate , and meditation (or at least some
of its species) invalidate the contents , declaring them illusory . In other words ,
meditation starts from one point to the Western man , in Jung's view, has not yet
arrived, and may not even reach to mimic the east wind.
2) A similar view has been accepted and the modern syncretic minded
psychotherapists who believe that in many cases, psychotherapy or a prerequisite
of meditation or meditation psychotherapy - either because psychotherapy still has
to end, or because at its end arise questions that she does not give an answer , even
if it was extended to the end of life .
In his psychological commentary on the Tibetan Book of the Dead Jung has
pointed out the analogy between the influence of karma and performing archetypes
as universal psychic dispositions or forms of psychic heritage .
In the Indian meditative tradition we see the release (or awakening ) is understood
as the release of karma , ie . as the chain breaking causality . But while Jung insists
that the ego has to keep the distance not only against the archetypes , but also
against the self , in the eastern tradition of the ego or ' put in brackets "(as Husserl
would say ), or - especially in Buddhist meditation - dives , seeing his stack (or
assembly ) .
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Does that - ultimately - the Foundling and the difference between the times of
individuation and the opportunities and needs of western and eastern man ? Jung's
answer to that is yes, and in this he is joined by Medard Boss, whose experience is
based on a meeting with Westerners who, as he says , in contact with the Indian
tradition became sentimental fantasy or confused schizophrenics (Boss, 1965).
In such cases the danger that threatens us confuse cause with the consequences -
examples of Bos says much about the people who just robbing my existing
confusion and disorder in the new jargon of "eastern mysticism " .
Jung 's fall in 1932. held a seminar ( 4 lectures ) on the symbolism of the chakras ,
especially the ideas and notions kundalini system . These four classes ( three of
which were in English , the fourth in German) , there were 12 , 19 and 26 October
and 2 November and were a continuation or extension of Jung's seminar dedicated
to "interpretation of the vision ."
Four lectures under the title Psychological commentary on Kundalini Yoga were
first published in the journal Spring , Annual of Archetypal Psychology and
Jungian thought , Zurich in 1975. and 1976 - and later as a book The Psychology
of Kundalini Yoga ( Princeton Univ . Pr , 1999) . Here we list a greater number of
passages from two classes , based on which one can get a picture of how Jung
connects and intertwines their ideas and concepts with the concepts in yoga such
as carving and chakras ( here we will cite passages from Jung's interpretation of
the first three chakras , and the throughout the course he was talking about all the
chakras ) .
Jung chakra was the benchmark for exposure to that also included many other
traditions and facilities , including their understanding of symbols and archetypes .
In these lectures, the symbolism of yoga in 1932 , Jung put forward ideas that are
confirmed to be in yoga are activities and ideas that have general human
significance and meaning (Jung would say, archetypal , ie . Foothold in the
collective unconscious , which is basically the psyche of entire humanity ) . As
Jung says, four years later ( in his text Yoga and the West , published in 1936 - see
Selected Works, IV , 1984, p. 205-216 ) : "Yoga - form with its rich symbolism we
provide valuable comparative material for the interpretation of the collective
unconscious " ( Jung , 1984) .
On the other hand, in this text, Jung expressed an understanding that yoga is not
adequate for a Western man who will " dumb ¬ Reclassification yoga used in the
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wrong way , because his mental disposition quite different from those in eastern
man . To whom it may I recommend : " Study yoga. You will learn much more
infinity ¬ no , but do not apply , because Ev ¬ ropljani not so tailored that would
without doubt be able to correctly apply these methods . Was ¬ day Indian guru
can explain everything to you and you all can not imitate . But do you know who
apply yoga? In other words , do you know who you are and how you tailored ? "(
Jung , 1984) .
In conclusion, this paper Jung explains his position : " If for yoga occupy so
critically hostile , then it does not mean that this spiritual creation of the East is not
considered one of the greatest achievements of the human mind achieved . I hope
to estab ¬ vu of my remarks , clearly can see that my only criticism is directed
only against the application of yoga to the Western man . Spiritual development of
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the West went to completely different ways than the spiritual development of the
East , and hence create conditions that are largely unsuitable for the application of
yoga ( ... ) the West over its further development to create their own yoga , and on
the basis that created Christianity " ( Jung , 1984, p. 216 ) . It is Jung had in mind
the Christian mystics and their teachings as possible based on the western yoga ,
which is discussed in his preface to the 1939 Act. for Suzuki's book An
Introduction to Zen Buddhism .
However, the development and application of yoga in the West over the past 80
years, denied the last two Jung's claims and confirmed his view that yoga is one of
the greatest achievements of the human mind achieved .
To Jung's position was entirely clear , it should be added that he primarily had in
mind the possible psychotherapeutic use, or use in the treatment of mental
disorders , which was his primary interest and field of view , and then in what he
called individuation ( or spiritual maturing in the second half of life). In this sphere
, Jung believed that the primary task of exploring and dealing with the unconscious
, and he thought that yoga is not turned, it 's true.
Active imagination
Jung ( as mentioned ) points out that his " yoga forms with their rich sim ¬ , shape
... provides valuable comparative material for the interpretation of the collective
unconscious " (Jung , 1984).
Some believe that Jung first arose the idea of a possible active work and dealing
with the unconscious (Jung , 1913 ) at the time he devoted himself to cope with his
unconscious contents . When it comes to the phrase " active imagination " , it is
considered that this phrase he used between 1929 to 1935 . to indicate some kind
of " dreaming while awake " , which will develop into one of the important
methods in their psychotherapy and the process of individuation .
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Thus , active imagination is different from dreams and fantasies of ordinary living
, which remains on the surface of daily experience . In fact , in the process of
active imagination shows some drama within which unconscious contents appear
in the waking state .
Conclusion
Jung wrote about these issues more than any psychologist from the circle of
analysts , and a lot more understanding . Comparing Freud and Alexander's modest
reviews , and later attempts to get out of the corner of psychoanalytic psychology
talks about these issues - such as, for example , From 's (1964 ) and Mason ( 1980)
- we see that Jung's works represent isolated intrusions into the areas , not only in
the period between the two world wars , but in some cases (such as, for example ,
the interpretation of the symbolism of the chakras and mandalas ) until today
remained significant, although in the last fifty years in this field has been done
more than in the previous hundred years .
On the other hand, Jung is in one part of the psychoanalyst and the audience
gained a reputation for mysticism - quite unjustifiable , if we bear in mind the
difference between multiculturalism and mysticism.
Although the prognosis of his application of yoga in the West proved misplaced ,
and the attitudes of the Western man essentially dealing with the unconscious and
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not practicing yoga , his research has enriched the understanding of cultural
traditions , whether in the West or the East.
Notes
They carve from the root of a cliché - the tormen ) is a pain, misery, suffering and
cause of suffering (ie, delusions). They carve the root of karma (karmic seeds or
residue) that produce experiences in current and future lives . As long as there are
chiseled, they will create karma, bad or good - uslovljavaće new incarnation and
will determine the form of their birth and life, life and experiences in this life
(Yoga -sutra, II, 12, 13). In short , one of the goals of yoga is that it carves repeal,
as this will stop the karmic stream or reincarnation, and achieves liberation,
kaivalya .
Kles can exist in four different forms: a. dormant, latent (in the mind), because
there are not the subject of any conditions for their awakening, b. of thin - as in the
practice of yoga are reduced to a minimum, and can become active in the mild
form, if they are driven by a suitable object, c. paused, lost - temporarily
suppressed the activity of one of them, and this is repeated alternating override g.
fully active with respect to an object (carves the same time can be compared to the
dormant another object of thin in relation to each other, temporarily stopped in
relation to the third, and fully responsibility operative in relation to the fourth).
There are five types klesa that link - one leads to another , and all are springing up
on the ground of ignorance (Avidya). Patanjali (the part of the Yoga -sutra, II, 3 -
Quotes about yoga, Belgrade, BIGZ, 1977, p. 70) lists them like this :
1. Avidya (lack of awareness, lack of knowledge), refers to the delusion by which
the transient (anitja) considered impassabl , unclean (ASUC) pure, painfully
(duhkha) pleasant and self (anatman) Self (dtman).
2. Asmita (I - was - leadership, individual consciousness) is able to grasp the
identification with an insight. If the Purusha (the one who sees) identifies with the
agent uvidanja , and that the mind (Buddhi) and sense (INDRIJA), this
identification is awareness of existence, I or asmita.
3. Raga (passion, desire) is fit through the longing for pleasure or object to
provide, based on previous experience of pleasure and memories of him (JS, II, 7).
4. Dves (aversion, disgust ) are caused by the memory of the pain experienced in
the subject of the pain caused. Dves the raga in a negative way , and together form
a pair of opposites .
5. Abhinivesa (adhesion) is a congenital (existing by itself) fit for life, which are
subject to (even) and scholars, sages (JS, II, 9). In every being is ever-present hope
and longing for self-preservation, or the desire to take a life. This craving can not
occur in someone who has not gone through the experience of death, the
experience of death and the fear of it, and the unconscious memory of the
experience of a previous life, the cause of the adhesion of life.
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References:
- Komentar (pisan 1929), uz prevod R. Wilhelma (1969): The Secret of the Golden Flower, London
(Tajna zlatnog cveta: kineska knjiga života, Niš: Gradina, 1982 - Prosveta, Niš 2001)
- Četiri predavanja (na seminaru) u Cirihu, 1932: Psychological commentary on KundaliniYoga -
objavljena najpre u časopisu Spring, Annual of archetypal psychology and Jungian thought,
Zurich, 1975 i 1976. – kasnije kao knjiga: The Psychology of Kundalini Yoga, Princeton
University Press, 1999 .
- "Joga i Zapad" (original, 1936), u knjizi Psihološke rasprave, Odabrana dela, IV, M. srpska, N.
Sad, 1984., str. 205-16
- Komentar uz knjigu The Tibetan Book of the Dead, Oxford 1970. (pisano 1935) – pogovor,
Tibetanska knjiga mrtvih, "Zamak kulture", Vrnjačka Banja, 1978
- "Razlika između istočnjačkog i zapadnog mišljenja", Odab. dela, IV, N. Sad 1984. (pisano 1939).
- "Simbolika mandale", u knjizi Psihologija i alkemija, Zagreb 1984. (pisano 1944 - Psychology and
Alchemy, London, 1970).
- Mandala Symbolism, Princeton, 1972 (uključuje tri teksta: Mandalas, iz 1955 – A Study in the
Process of Individuation, 1950 – Concerning Mandala Symbolism, 1950)
- Predgovor knjizi D.T. Suzukija: An Introduction to Zen Buddhism, London 1970 (pisano 1939).
- "The Psychology of Eastern Meditation", u knjizi Psychology and Religion: West and East,
Collected Works, Vol. 11, Princeton Un. Pr., 1975. (pisano 1943).
- "The Holy Men of India", (u istoj knjizi - pisano 1944).
- Memories, Dreams, Reflections, Collins, London, 1967. - Sećanja, snovi, razmišljanja, Budva,
Mediteran, 1989. - Beograd: Atos, 1995.
- Predgovor u knjizi R. Wilhelma: The I Ching, Routledge & Kegan P, London, 1968. (pisano 1950).
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- O psihologiji nesvesnog - Novi Sad : Matica srpska, 1984 (Odabrana dela K. G. Junga ; knj. 2)
S a d r ž a j: I O psihologiji nesvesnog (5-127); II Veze između ja i nesvesnog (129-262):
1. Dejstvo nesvesnog na svet (135-186): 2.Individuacija (187-262); III Opšti problemi
psihoterapije (263-385).
- Duh i život: Novi Sad: Matica srpska, 1984 (Odabrana dela K. G. Junga ; knj. 3)
S a d r ž a j: I Duh i život (5-26); II Osnovni problem današnje psihologije (27-48); III Analitička
psihologija i pogled na svet (49-76); IV Stvarnost i nadstvarnost (77-81); V Životna prekretnica (83-
102); VI Duša i smrt (103-117); VII Sinhronicitet kao princip akauzalnih veza (119-197); VIII
Praktična upotrebivost analize snova (199-224); IX "Ulis" monolog (225-251); X O postojanju
ličnosti (253-275); XI Problemi moderne psihoterapije (277-303); XII Suprotnost Frojd i Jung (305-
315); XIII Arhaičan čovek (317-343); XIV Brak kao psihološka veza (345-360).
- Psihološke rasprave: Novi Sad : Matica srpska, 1984. (Odabrana dela K. G. Junga ; knj. 4)
S a d r ž a j: O odnosima analitičke psihologije prema pesničkom umetničkom delu (5-28);
II Psihologija i poezija (29-55); III Razlika između istočnjačkog i zapadnog mišljenja
(57-79); IV Psihologija i religija (81-203); V Joga i zapad (205-216); VI Odgovor na Jova (217-343);
VII O arhetipovima kolektivno nesvesnog (345-389).
- Psihološki tipovi: Matica srpska, 1978. (Odabrana dela K. G. Junga ; Knj. 5)
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Кључне речи: јога, Јунг, културе Истока, тумачење јоге, примена јоге.
Увод
Карл Густав Јунг (1875–1961) је између 1921. и 1955. више пута различитим
поводима и приликама писао о појединим источним учењима (мандалaма,
таоистичкој алхемији, јоги, Ји-Ђингу, тибетанском будизму, зену,
медитацији), коментарисао их и освртао се на психолошке, културолошке,
цивилизацијске и филозофске аспекте њиховог тумачења и разумевања. Да
бисмо имали пуну слику о његовом приступу јоги, потребно је да се делом
осврнемо и на друга Јунгова тумачења појединих аспеката култура Истока.
Corresponding author: [email protected]
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Главне теме
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Наука и религија
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Подробније улажење у ова питања делом нас одводи од наше основне теме,
али је значајно за разумевање и процену Јунгових ставова о значењу источне
традиције по западног човека. Наиме, Јунг је подсетио на то да су критичка
филозофија и научни материјализам свели појам духа на човеков дух и свест.
Указујући на те околности, Јунг је желео да образложи своју тезу да су Исток
и Запад у основи различити. Оно што је Јунг занемарио јесте да ова околност
у једнакој мери одваја (ако га одваја) западњака не само од Истока, него и од
старог и средњег века Запада; не само од будизма, него и од хришћанства; не
само од Нагарђуне него и од Плотина; не само од Шанкаре него и од
Мајстора Екхарта; не само од Сенг-Цана, него и од Николе Кузанског; не
само од Цонг-Кхапе, него и од Григорија Паламе.
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„Интроверзија је, ако смемо тако да се изразимо“, каже Јунг, „стил Истока,
један хабитуални и колективни став; екстраверзија је стил Запада“.
Интерес за Исток који показује западни човек Јунг је сматрао такође делом
екстравертованости западњака – само тада, уместо од Бога, спас се очекује од
Истока.
„Ако ми ове ствари усвајамо директно од Истока, онда само
повлађујемо нашој заједничкој тежњи за поседовањем“, каже Јунг. „Тиме
ми опет потврђујемо да је све добро напољу, одакле га треба донети и
унети у наше неплодне душе. Чини ми се да ћемо тек онда стварно нешто
научити од Истока када будемо схватили да душа садржи доста
богатства и без оплодње извана... Ми морамо изнутра да допремо до
источњачких вредности, не извана. Ми морамо да их тражимо у нама, у
несвесном" (Jung, 1984).
4) Јунг, с једне стране, указује да ће Исток западњаку остати вазда туђ јер је
источна традиција по мери интровертованог човека, док је западњак
екстравертован, а затим вели да западњак мора престати да буде
екстравертован ако хоће да изађе из цивилизацијског ћорсокака у који га та
екстравертована једностраност вуче.
Сада би неко помислио: Па, ако је тако, није ли интерес за Исток управо део
тог окретања ка интроверзији, које Јунг саветује, део властитог откривања
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Сопство и его
1) Позивањем на атмана и пурушу Јунг је својој идеји сопства дао пун опсег
и дубину, указавши да тај четврти члан није тек неко проширење или додатак
ега, него заправо сасвим засебан члан у односу на који се три члана
психоаналитичке Фројдове тријаде појављују као уже, засебне,
функционалне ознаке. На тај начин Јунг је, у стварном суочавању са
источном традицијом и у њеном тумачењу, прекорачивао границе које је
себи и другима на другим местима одредио.
Тако у коментару на „Тајну златног цвета“ Јунг каже: „...Као што људско
тело има заједничку анатомију преко и изнад с
вих расних разлика, тако и психа поседује заједнички супстрат надилазећи
све разлике у култури и свести. Тај супстрат ја сам назвао колективно
несвесно.(...) То објашњава аналогије, каткад чак идентитет, између
различитих мотива у митовима и симбола, као и могућност људских бића да
се међусобно разумеју“ (Jung, 1969).
2) Однос сопства и ега био је и остао једна од кључних тема не само за Јунга,
него и психологе англо-саксонског говорног подручја, који су компаративну
психологију и тачке сусрета западне и источне психологије у неким
аспектима развили и разматрали преко хоризонта који је Јунг поставио. За
њих је та тема добила на значају јер су тзв. култови и алтернативне групе
источне провенијенције (посебно на тлу САД-а) по броју и утицају
надмашили утицај који су у првој половини XX века на Европу вршили
теозофија и антропозофија (које су настале у Русији и Немачкој).
Јунг на неколико места дотиче ову тему, уочавајући тешкоћу која ће остати
отворено питање до наших дана, а она се укратко може изразити следећим
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3) О томе је писао Дејвид Боадела (1980) у тексту под насловом „Смрт ега“,
посебно се осврћући и на болесне заједнице, које могу настати подређивањем
ега односно самосталности личности, када се стварају тзв. овисници
одређеног култа (без икакве медитације). Ово последње (да је растакање ега
могуће и да се обично и спроводило без медитације, односно под
репресијом) важно је истаћи, будући да је по некима медитација средство
растакања ега или регресије – тј. губитка свих оних особина које
карактеришу независну, критичку личност (Alexander, 1931).
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4) Тај хоризонт сагледавања није ни Јунгу био туђ, што се јасно види ако
имамо у виду његова разматрања о односу ега и сопства. Јунг је доиста
увођењем појма сопства отворио једну ширу перспективу сагледавања
азијске медитативне традиције, а и знатно утицао на стварање
трансперсоналне психологије, чији развој (у САД-у) почиње управо после
његове смрти, 1961.
5) Али, Јунг као да није могао овде да превазиђе једно друго принципијелно
ограничење аналитичке психологије – изједначење ега и свести – и на основу
тога изједначавање исхода и циља медитативне праксе са урањањем у
несвесно (стапањем са несвесним).
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предговору за Сузукијеву књигу Увод у зен будизам (1970), где каже: „То
ново стање свести, рађајући се из религијске праксе, издваја се по томе што
спољне ствари не утичу на егоичку свест из које се рађало реципрочно
приањање, него да празна свест стоји отворена за други утицај. Тај 'други'
утицај неће се осећати као властита активност, него као дело Не-ја, коме
је свест објект. То је као да је субјективни карактер ега надиђен или
преузет од стране другог субјекта који је преузео место ега“ (Jung, 1970,
стр. 17).
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2) Јунг није могао имати јасну представу о тим распонима, а нису је имали
ни многи оријенталисти (поготово кад су настојали да све разлике сведу на
један или више зајединичких именитеља или парадигми).
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Индивидуација и медитација
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Симболизам јоге
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Јога и Запад
С друге стране, у том тексту Јунг је изнео и схватање да јога није адекватна
за западног човека, који ће „неминовно јогу употребити на погрешан начин,
јер је његова душевна диспозиција сасвим другачија од оне код источњачког
човека. Ономе коме то могу ја препоручујем: »Студирајте јогу. Научићете
бескрајно много, али је немојте примењивати, јер ми Европљани нисмо тако
скројени да бисмо без даљњега били у стању да правилно применимо ове
методе. Један индијски гуру може све да вам објасни и ви све можете да
подражавате. Али, знате ли ко примењује јогу? Другим речима, знате ли
уопште ко сте ви и како сте скројени?« (Jung, 1984).
Како Јунг сматра, дух западњака је дух располућен на свесно и несвесно, док
јога има као претпоставку другачији тип човека.
„Разноврсне, чисто телесне процедуре јоге значе и физиолошку
хигијену која утолико превазилази границе обичне гимнастике или вежбања
дисања, уколико није само механистичко-научна већ уједно и филозофска.
Јер, она у тим вежбама повезује тело са целином духа, што је, на пример,
очевидно код вежби пранајама, где је прана истовремено дах и универзална
динамика космоса. Ако је делање појединца уједно и космичко збивање, онда
се обузетост тела (инервација) повезује са обузетошћу духа (општа идеја),
и из тога настаје жива целина коју ниједна техника, ма колико научна била,
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није у стању да створи. Пракса јоге не само што је незамислива, већ би била
и неделотворна без представе јоге. Она на ретко савршен начин уграђује
једно у друго телесно и духовно. (…)
На Истоку, где су ове идеје и праксе настале, и где је једна већ четири
хиљаде година стара традиција створила све потребне услове и
претпоставке, јога је, по моме мишљењу, адекватни израз и беспрекорно од-
говарајућа методика којом се постиже такво стапање тела и духа да они
представљају јединство у које се тешко може посумњати, стварајући тако
и психолошку диспозицију која омогућава слутње с оне стране свести.
Историјски менталитет Индије нема никаквих принципијелних потешкоћа
да смисаоно употреби један појам као „прана“ и сл. Запад пак са својом
лошом навиком да хоће да верује, с једне стране, и својом изграђеном
научном и филозофском критиком, с друге стране, или ће упасти у замку
вере и несмотрено прихватити појмове — као „prana, atman, chakra,
samadhi“ итд. или ће се својом научном критиком спотаћи већ о појам prane
и purushe.
Располућеност западног духа онемогућава већ од самог почетка адекватно
остварење интенција јоге. За Запад је она или чисто религиозна ствар или је
тренинг попут мнемотехнике, гимнастике дисања, еуритмије итд. Али о
оном јоги својственом јединству и целини бића ту нема ни трага. Индус не
може да заборави ни тело ни дух, Европљанин увек заборавља једно или
друго“ (Jung, 1984).
У закључку овог текста Јунг овако објашњава свој став: „Ако према јоги
заузимам тако критички одбојан став, онда то никако не значи да ову
духовну творевину Истока не сматрам једном од највећих тековина које је
људски дух остварио. Надам се да се на основу мог излагања довољно јасно
може видети да је моја критика једино и само уперена против примене јоге
на западног човека. Духовни развој Запада ишао је сасвим другим путевима
него духовни развој Истока, па је отуда и створио услове који су у највећој
мери непогодни за примену јоге (…) Запад ће током свог даљег развоја
створити своју сопствену јогу, и то на основи коју је створило
хришћанство“ (Jung, 1984, стр. 216). При томе је Јунг имао у виду
хришћанске мистике и њихова учења као могућу основу те западне јоге, о
чему говори у свом предговору из 1939. за Сузукијеву књигу Увод у зен
будизам.
Да би Јунгов став био до краја јасан, треба додати да је он пре свега имао у
виду могућу психотерапеутску примену, односно примену у лечењу
душевних поремећаја, што је био његов примарни интерес и видокруг, а
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Активна имагинација
Јунг (како смо већ навели) истиче да му „јога-форме са својом богатом сим-
боликом пружају...највредније упоредне материјале за тумачење колективно
несвесног" (Jung, 1984).
Неки сматрају да се Јунгу први пут јавила идеја о могућем активном раду и
суочавању са несвесним (Jung, 1913) у време када се посветио суочавању са
својим несвесним садржајима. Кад је реч о синтагми „активна имагинација“,
сматра се да је он ову синтагму користио између 1929–1935. да би означио
неку врсту „сневања у будном стању“, што ће разрадити у једну од важних
метода у својој психотерапији и процесу индивидуације.
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Закључак
Јунг је о овим темама писао више него било који психолог из круга
аналитичара, а и са много више разумевања. Када упоредимо Фројдове или
Александерове скромне осврте, па и касније покушаје да се из угла
психоаналитичке психологије говори о овим темама – као што је, на пример,
Фромов (1964) или Масонов (1980) – увиђамо да су Јунгови радови
представљали усамљене продоре у ова подручја, не само у периоду између
два рата, него су у неким случајевима (као што је, на пример, тумачење
симболике чакри и мандала) до данас остали значајни, иако је у последњих
педесет година у овом подручју урађено више него за претходних сто година.
НАПОМЕНА
КЛЕША (из корена клиш – мучити) је бол, мука, патња али и узрок патње (тј.
заблуда). Клеше су корен карме (кармичког семена или остатка) које производе
искуства у текућим и будућим животима. Док год клеше постоје, оне ће стварати
карму, лошу или добру – условљаваће нове инкарнације и одређиваће у њима рођење
и облик живота, трајање живота и искуства у том животу (Јога-сутра, II, 12, 13).
Укратко, један од циљева јоге је да се клеше ставе ван снаге, јер тако се зауставља
кармички ток односно реинкарнирање, и постиже ослобођење, каиваља.
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Постоји пет врста клеша које су повезане – једна води другој, а све ничу на тлу
незнања (avidje). Патанђали (у делу Јога-сутра, II, 3 – Изреке о јоги, Београд, БИГЗ,
1977, стр. 70) их овако набраја:
1. Авидја (неувиђање, незнање), односи се на заблуду по којој се пролазно (anitja)
сматра непролазним, нечисто (asuci) чистим, болно (duhkha) угодним, а несопство
(anatman) сопством (dtman).
2. Асмита (је-сам-ство, индивидуална свест) је поистовећивање моћи увиђања са
средством увиђања. Ако се пуруша (онај који увиђа) поистовети са средством
увидања, а то су ум (buddhi) и чула (indrija), то поистовећивање је свест о постојању,
,,ја“ или асмита.
3. Рага (страст, жудња) је приањање кроз чежњу, за уживањем или предметом који
то пружа, а на основу претходног искуства ужитка и сећања на њега (ЈС, II,7).
4. Двеша (одбојност, гађење) се изазива сећањем на доживљен бол и на предмет који
је бол проузроковао. Двеша је рага у негативном смислу, па заједно чине пар
супротности.
5. Абхинивеша (приањање) је урођено (само од себе постојеће) приањање за живот,
којим подлежу (чак) и зналци, мудраци (ЈС, II, 9). У сваком бићу је стално присутна
нада или жудња за самоочувањем, односно жеља да живот потраје. Та жудња се не
може појавити у некога ко није прошао кроз искуство смрти; то искуство смрти и
страх од ње, као и несвесно сећање на искуство претходног живота, узрок су
приањања за живот.
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Abstract: Lower back pain (LBP) as one of the most common painful conditions
affects the modern man and is related to insufficient physical activity i.e.
contemporary sedentary lifestyle. LBP is almost evenly distributed among the
sexes (58 % of women and 45 % of men suffer from it), while about 75% of the the
population have suffered an episode of lower back pain syndrome. (according to
Jadrić i Antić, 2006). The majority of people with LBP syndrome recover
completely as a result of suitable medical treatment and body exercise; however,
in a certain percentage of people, the acute phase turns into the chronic condition.
Chronic lower back pain (CLBP) is a limiting condition which impacts individual
efficacy but is also correlated with social and economical effects (Meucci et al.,
2013). In the treatment of alleviating the pain, physical movement and different
types of body exercises play an important role. The goal of this paper is to select
certain yoga postures/asanas on the basis of research done so far, as a possible
mode of kinesiological operator in the treatment of LBP/CLBP. Yoga exercises
can lead to the increase in muscle strength, muscular and cardio-respiratory
endurance, range of movement and general flexibility. (Tran et al., 2007; Bhowmik
et al., 2012). However, it is very important to make the correct choice and the
sequence of yoga asanas (exercises) which can be applied as an adequate
kinesiological treatment of LBP/CLBP, taking into account the health status and
physical shape of the patient/person. Based on the biomechanical laws and
kinesiological knowledge, yoga instructors can position themselves in all
programs aiming to prevent and treat LBP/CLBP.
Key words: yoga exercises, asanas, treatment, lower back pain syndrome
Introduction
Corresponding author: [email protected]
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(arthrosis of the knee or hip joint, lower-back pain syndrome). Lower back pain
(LBP), as one of the most common painful conditions, arises as a consequence of
muscular inactivity. In population, it is almost equally distributed among the sexes,
with 58% of women and 45 % of men suffering from it, while even 75 % of the
population has experienced an episode of lower back pain syndrome. (according
to: Jadrić i Antić, 2006). Lower back pain is defined as pain or discomfort located
below the 12th rib and above the gluteal crease, with or without the presence of leg
pain. (Freburger et al., 2009). In people over 50 years of age, the symptoms of
lower back pain syndrome are significantly more intense than in younger
population. Speaking of younger population, a rise in lower back pain has been
identified in school population, 20-51%. (according to Lafond et al., 2007). The
same authors attribute the pain to prolonged sitting, poor posture, weak abdominal
muscles, etc. The pain which appears sporadically or recurring pain, and can be of
very strong intensity, has been identified in the population between the ages of 20-
40. Evidently, the pain appears during the most productive period of a person's life
and it is accompanied by reduced work capacity. The appearance of acute lower
back pain is subject to physical therapy treatments and physical exercises which
aim to eliminate the symptoms (pain, limited movement); however, in a certain
percentage of the population, the pain turns into the chronic condition.
Chronic lower back pain (CLBP) as a limiting condition, impacts personal efficacy
but it also correlates with social and economic effects. (Meucci et al., 2013). This
correlation has been determined by other studies which point to the limited work
capacity caused by the chronic lower back pain. Majority of authors agree that
lower back pain can be considered as chronic if the pain persists for at least three
or more months. (Carey et al., 2000; Picavet and Schouten, 2000). Anderson
(1999) defines chronic lower back pain as lasting from 7 to 12 weeks, while the
other authors believe that this pain must last even six months or longer. (Silva et
al., 2004; Walker et al., 2004; Almeid et al., 2008). Therapeutic approach to LBP
is multidimensional. This model of treatment and rehabilitation is coordinated with
the goal of meeting the needs of the patient/person, and is combined according to
the structure. What is meant under the term 'structure' is the application of
pharmacotherapy, education, behavioral therapy and body exercise. (National
Disease Management Guideline, 2011). Therefore, one of the components of
treating and alleviating the pain is the application of kinesiological operator (body
exercise).
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be efficient, the person undergoing the treatment must be ready to perform the
recommended exercises in an adequate manner (the adequate quantity, duration
and continuity). Therefore, the subject of this research paper is the application of
kinesiological operators in the condition called chronic lower back pain syndrome.
The paper presents a specifical kinesiological operator, yoga exercises, which can
be practised with the aim of preventing the recurring pain (the acute phase), pain
reduction, the improvement in the functioning of the locomotive system, and
eliminating or decreasing the limitations in the range of body movement. The aim
of this paper is to select the postures/asanas based on the research performed until
now, as a possible mode of kinesiological operator in the treatment of LBP/CLBP.
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starting position in the sense of its application during the treatment, where the
position is conditioned by the morphological characteristics of the patient/person,
the disorder to be treated, and the goal to be achieved. The starting positions can
be basic, derived and supplemental. The positions used in kinesiotherapeutic
procedures where some other operators are applied are the same as the yoga
asanas. Four of the six basic starting positions are the same: standing, kneeling,
sitting and lying, while the hanging and leaning positions are excluded. Derived
positions are derived from the basic positions, and their basic goal is to make it
easier or harder to apply the kinesiological operator, without deviating from the
elementary principles of the basic position and biomechanical laws. Supplemental
positions and postures are applied with the intention to reduce or increase the load
along the skeletal levers (Protić-Gava, 2012). In applying kinesiological operators
it is important to consider the type or kind, in order to prevent possible
contraindications, in this case, the treatment of LBP/CLBP. In the application of
yoga kinesiological operator in the treatment of LBP/CLBP, it is necessary to
select the asanas as well as their sequence. The asanas from the Hatha yoga
system (Vini yoga, Iyengar yoga etc.) are generally used for stabilization and
strengthening of the spinal column. Additional precautions (contraindications)
refer to the asanas which are to be avoided during the acute phases of LBP. The
examples of conditionally contraindicated postures from the angle of
kinesiological science are shown in the picture number 1, and they are: Urdhva
Mukha Svanasana (1a), Bhujangasana (1b), Marjari asana (1c) as well as in the
picture 2: Urdhva Dhanurasana (2a), Ustrasana (2b), Danurasana (2c) and
Matsyasana (2d). In all of the mentioned asanas there is a pronounced
hyperextension of the trunk and a pronounced lordosis in the given position.
Deviation from the lordotic curvature (the normal curvature is between 15 and 30
degrees) is one of the causes of LBP/CLBP, as well as insufficiently developed
abdominal musculature, shortening of the back muscles (m. erector spinae, m.
quadratus lumborum and m. multifidus), and the retroflexion of the mentioned
positions (pictures 1 and 2) worsens the condition and causes pain, especially in
the acute phase of the LBP/CLBP.
Figure 1.
Figure 2.
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Asana, Chatus pada pitham (picture 3), should also be classified among the
contraindicated postures, especially when the pain appears in the acute phase. This
asana, because of the weak hamstring muscles,(m. semitendinosus,
m.semimembranosus and m. biceps femoris), the shortening of the m. ilopsoas
muscle group, and action of the strong hip adductors, makes it impossible for the
person to bring the body into the neutral position with adequate extension and
external hip rotation. (Kaminoff, 2010).
Figure 3.
Work Method
The references of the used studies and relevant scientific papers are adequate for
the subject of this research. The choice is made according to the personal
preferences of the author, on the basis of titles, keywords (yoga, Iyengar, lower
back pain (LBP), chronic lower back pain (CLBP), specific exercises, therapeutic
procedure, exercise therapy, asanas, flexibility, movability) and the abstracts,
reports on studies and recommendations of the national associations which
contained the keywords. The authors of this study have excluded the papers in
which lower back pain had been caused by surgical interventions in the back
region, diagnosed spinal stenosis, discus hernia, as well as conditions caused by
pregnancy, bone fractures or dislocations of the vertebrae. All the data from the
quoted studies which are related to the problem and the goal of this research and
the results obtained have been taken out and summarized. The general impression
is that the studies and papers on the mentioned topics are heterogenous.
Results
Table 1 summarizes the results of the studies treating LBP/CLBP whose aim was
the application of yoga exercises. Author Podel (Podel, 2012) quotes the studies
which are also part of this research. (Galantino et al., 2004; Sherman et al., 2005 i
Williams et al., 2005) This work also shows the method, the battery of tests based
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on which the initial/final condition of the respondents was determined, the age of
the sample, kinesiological operator applied and the duration of the program.
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Willia
ms et Oswestry Iyengar
18-70 (SMB) 24 weeks
al., Disability Index 31 asanas
2009.
Roland-Morris Vinijoga
Cox et Disability 75 min
al., Questionnaire 18-65 17 (SMB) 12 weeks
2010. (RMDQ) postures
Roland-Morris Iyengar /
Tilbroo Disability 75 min
k et al., Questionnaire 18-65 does not (SMB) 12 weeks
2011. (RMDQ). state the
asanas
*the authors do not use the original names but give the names close to the ones used in
kinesiological science, such as forward bending; ** the authors name the asanas based on
the arbitrary translation from the Sanskrit; *** they have applied the program based on the
suggestion by Sherman et al. 2005
In their pilot study Galantino and associates (Galantino et al., 2004) have applied
postures from the Hatha yoga system in accordance with biomechanical principles
and having consulted the specialists from the field of kinesiology therapy. The
authors do not state the original names of the applied asanas; instead they give the
names such as: the tree, the triangle, the position with the head towards the feet;
sitting: plain knee, anteflexion of the trunk /head towards the knee while twisting
the spine/ partial torsion of the spinal column. Also, the authors cite the complex
of exercises called The Sun Salutation, which could be considered as a sequence of
asanas, under the name Surya Namaskar. Sherman and associates (Sherman et al.,
2005) have selected 17 characteristic positions (they do not cite the names of the
asanas) some of which have been adapted, and the sequence is in accordance with
the recommendations by the Vini yoga instructors who had been working after
Kraftow (’’Yoga for Wellness’’). In the appendix, the authors give a pictorial and
textual representation of the used yoga postures. Since the adapted postures are
mentioned next to the names of the asanas, the descriptions of the postures using
kinesiological terminology are given in the parentheses: the Cobra (lying on the
stomach, arms flexed with the hands pressing the floor, lifting the body off the
floor), knees into the chest (lying on the back with the knees bent and pulled
towards the chest), the wheel (from the kneeling position sit on the feet with hands
extended above the head), the Bridge pose (leaning on the back of the head,
shoulders, hands and feet), the Lying Butterfly pose (the starting position: lying on
the back, the knees flexed, the feet on the floor, arms alongside the body, from the
starting position separate the knees and drop them to the sides), leg stretch, the
Warrior pose (from the standing position extend the arms up with palms together,
lunge with one leg forward while bringing the arms to the sides), the standing
forward bend (from the standing position bend forward), the kneeling bend
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(starting from the kneeling position with the arms stretched to the sides, bend
forward sitting on the feet, with arms behind the back, supporting the back), the
Chair pose (starting from the standing position with the heels together lower the
body into the half-squat), the false twist (starting from the lying position, knees
bent, feet on the floor hip width apart, hands stretched to the sides shoulder high,
bring the knees towards the floor), the Swimmer pose (lying on the stomach, arms
flexed, hands on the floor chest high, bring the trunk up, push the legs backwards
and to the sides), extended lateral stretch (starting from the standing position with
the heels together, lunge with the right leg with the hands on the right thigh, bend
the body forward), sudden movement (lunge) (the right leg kneeling, the left leg
forward, flexed, hands leaning on the flexed knee, to the same position lifting the
right arm up), lying position on the side, hip extension (lying on the side, the leg
closer to the floor flexed at the 90 degree angle, lifting up with the opposite,
extended leg), kneeling side position (kneeling on the left knee, the left leg to the
side, flexed, with the feet on the floor, lift the trunk towards the flexed leg, left arm
up and the right arm next to the body to the foot of the flexed leg), standing side
position (legs apart, arms stretched to the sides, bend the trunk to the right with the
left hand towards the right foot, and the right arm up).
Viliams and associates (Williams et al., 2005) applied Iyengar yoga exercises in
their study, selecting 29 positions i.e. asanas during the intervention. Certain
positions required the use of props such as belts, sandbags, benches, chairs and
yoga block. In the similar study, Williams and associates (Williams et al., 2009)
set the goal to estimate the efficiency of the applied system of Iyengar yoga
exercises compared to the standard medical care. They show 31 basic asanas using
props in certain variations of the positions (e.g. Pavanmuktasana, using two chairs
as support; Adho mukha svanasana using a rope). Cox and associates. (Cox et al.,
2010) compare a group of examinees who had undergone the yoga treatment with
the group who had received the standard medical procedure. These authors applied
a 12-week program following the system developed by Karen Sherman, using the
exercises given by the author in his research (Sherman et al., 2005). Tilbruk and
associates (Tilbrook et al., 2011) choose the comprehensive system of Iyengar
yoga exercises, and they have a control group treated with the standard medical
procedures for LBP, but they neither state which asanas they had used, nor the
number of postures used during the research.
Discussion
Based on the selected works, it is noticed that only Williams and associates (table
1) show the yoga protocol using the original names of the asanas used during the
treatment of LBP/CLBP in the part on methodology. The other authors quoted in
this study use their own names or translations from the Sanskrit. Galantino and
associates (2004) did not give the precise explanation of the postures (e.g. sitting:
plain, on the knees), nor the structure of the activities during the exercise. In this
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case it is unclear whether they are refering to the children's sitting position (sitting
on the feet) or the sitting position with the legs flexed (at the 90 degree angle) and
leaning on the floor, i.e. whether they are referring to the Vajrasana. Therefore, if a
system of yoga exercises was used, it is necessary to use the original names of the
asanas. For instance, in the asanas Paschimottanasana, Uttanasana or
Parsvottanasana it is clear what the starting position is, the structure of the activity
and the final position, while all three asanas involve movement of the head
towards the foot.
For better understanding, and in connection with the selection of the yoga asanas
to be used, it is necessary to note that LBP is related to deviation from the correct
posture, so the changes to the spinal column in the lumbar segment and all the soft
tissues are characterized by the change in the position of the lumbar vertebrae and
the pelvis. The main reason for the appearance of LBP (aside from the
degenerative disorder of the discus, discus hernia, spondylolistesis, spinal stenosis,
piriformis syndrome, structural disorders, traumas, rheumatic diseases, infectuous
diseases, tumors) is muscular weakness resulting from inactivity, which leads to
poor posture, poor movement biomechanics, (Mačak-Hadžiomerović, 2009),
inclination of the pelvis as a result of muscular disbalance. In the cases of lordosis,
the increase of the lumbar curvature is characterised by rotation of the pelvis, the
upper edge forward and downwards, and increased inclination appears (over 65
for women and over 55 for men). Lordotic poor posture as a functional disorder
can be eliminated by corrective exercises, in the easier cases caused by weak
abdominal musculature (functional disorder without pathological changes to the
vertebrae). In the structural stage, i.e. when lordosis has been diagnosed, in
addition to strenghtening the musculature of the abdomen and the back, it is
necessary to introduce the excercises for stretching the shortened muscles of the
back and hamstrings, and this is where yoga exercises can be very important. The
examples of the indicated asanas are: Supta Padangusthasana (stretching the
hamstring muscle group), Paschimottanasana, Halasana which stretches the back
muscles (m. erector spinae) and the muscles of the dorsal side of the lower limbs
(Kaminoff, 2010). The asanas which also stretch and strengthen the muscles of the
abdomen, the back and the dorsal side of the thighs are: Pawanmuktasana,
Apanasana, Upavistha konasana, Balasana, Salabhasana, Navasana, Makarasana
(as the starting position, retroflexion of the body with the arms stretched to the
sides and bent at the elbows).
William and associated have applied Iyengar yoga in the treatment of LBP using
props. In kinesiological therapy treatment of LBP/CLBP, where other types of
body exercise were employed, props are also used frequently (sandbags of
different weight as well as lighter dumbbells, pilates balls, etc.) with the goal of
making the exercises harder to perform. In the acute phase of LBP, kinesiology
theraphy treatment employs suspension and derived positions to make it easier for
the patient to perform the given exercises. At the end of the acute phase,
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performing the asanas is recommended with the goal of strengthening the muscles
which stabilize the trunk (the surface and the deep layers). Therefore, beside the
asanas with local benefits, any Hatha yoga asanas which have general influence on
the body can be used – e.g. Surya Namaskar or the sequence of exercises from
Asthanga, Vini yoga, Art Yoga Similiris, etc.
Conclusion
According to the research performed so far, the use of yoga in treating LBP/CLBP
indicates the possibility of pain reduction and elimination. Yoga exercises may
increase muscular strength, muscular and cardio-respiratory endurance, the range
of motion and general flexibility. (Tran et al., 2007; Bhowmik et al., 2012). The
studies cited in this paper indicate that practising yoga is more efficient than any
medication and standard medical treatments. However, the correct selection and
sequence of the yoga exercises is of vital importance in using yoga as a
kinesiological operator, and this should be done taking into account the general
health status and physical condition of the patient/person. Yoga instructors can
find their place in all programs aiming to prevent and treat LBP. However, it needs
to be emphasised that they need to undergo advanced training in correct postural
status and deviations from it. The knowledge of biomechanical laws and
kinesiology principles contributes to the right choice of the asanas, physical
postures, and good selection of exercise combinations, with the goal of eliminating
and alleviating LBP/CLBP. During the acute phase of LBP, the choice and the use
of asanas contributes to relief in the lumbar segment. The asanas which are present
in almost all systems of yoga exercises, and are the most significant for the
patients in the acute phase of LBP are: Supta Padangusthasana,
Paschimottanasana, Halasana, Pawanmuktasana, Apanasana, Upavistha konasana,
Balasana, Makarasana (initial position bending backwards and hands bent in
elbows and head resting on them).
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15. Koturović, LJ. i Jeričević, D. (1996). Korektivnagimnastika. Beograd: Igp Mis Sport.
16. Lafond, D., Descarreaux, M., Normand, M.C. & Harrison, D.E. (2007). Postural development in
school children: a cross-sectional study. Chiropractic & Osteopathy, 15:1,
(http://www.chiroandosteo.com/content/15/1/1).
17. Mačak-Hadžiomerović, A., Čustović-Hadžimuratović, A. i Mujezinović A. (2009). Vodič za
prevenciju i tretman lumbalnog bolnog sindroma. Univerzitet u Sarajevu: Institut za naučno
istraživački rad i razvoj kliničkog centra.
18. Mailloux, J., Finno, M. & Rainville, J. (2006). Long-term exercise adherence in the elderly with
chronic low back pain. American Journal of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, 85(2):120-126.
19. Meucci, R.D., Fassa, A.G., Paniz, V.M.V., Silva, M.C. & Wegman D.H. (2013). Increase of
chronic low back pain prevalence in a medium-sized city of southern Brazil. BioMed Central
Musculoskeletal Disorders, 14:155. (http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2474/14/155)
20. National Disease Management Guideline – Low bac pain (short version). (2011). Berlin: German
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21. Picavet, H.S.J. & Schouten, J.S.A.G. (2000). Physical Load in Daily Life and Low Back
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22. Podel, S. K. (2012). Efikasnost joga terapije u tretiranju hroničnog lumbalnog bola – kritički
pregled. Međunarodni naučni časopis o jogi Smisao, 2(2):195-202.
23. Protić-Gava, B. i Šćepanović, T. (2012). Osnove kineziterapije i primenjene korektivne
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24. Sherman, K.J., Cherkin, D.C., Erro, J., Miglioretti, D.L. & Deyo, R.A. (2005). Comparing yoga,
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25. Silva, M.C., Fassa, A.G. & Valle, N.C. (2004). Chronic low back pain in a Southern Brazilian
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26. Tilbrook, H.E., Cox, H., Hewitt, C.E, et al. (2011). Yoga for chronic low back pain: A
randomized trial. Annals of Internal Medicine, 155(9):569-580.
27. Tran, M.D., Holly, R.G., Lashbrook, J. & Amsterdam, E.A. (2007). Effects of Hatha Yoga
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28. Van Middelkoop, M., Rubinstein, S.M., Kuijpers, T., Verhagen, A.P., Ostelo, R., Koes, B.W., et
al. (2011). A systematic review on the effectiveness of physical and rehabilitation interventions for
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29. Van Tulder, M.W., Koes, B. & Malmivaara, A. (2006). Outcome of non-invasive treatment
modalities on back pain: an evidence-based review. European Spine Journal, 15 Suppl 1:S64-S81.
30. Walker, B.F., Muller, R. & Grant, W.D. (2004). Low back pain in Australian adults: prevalence
and associated disability. Journal of Manipulative and Physiological Therapeutics, 27:238–244.
31. Williams, K.A., Abildso, C., Steinberg, L., et al. (2009). Evaluation of the effectiveness and
efficacy of iyengar yoga therapy on chronic low back pain. Spine,34(19):2066-2076.
32. Williams, K.A., Petroni, J., Smith, D., Goodrich, D. et al. (2005). Effect of Iyengar yoga therapy
for chronic low back pain. Pain, 115: 107–117.
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Увод
Corresponding author: [email protected]
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Слика 1.
Слика 2.
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Слика 3.
Метод рада
Резултати
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Старос
Батерија т телесне вежбе /програм трајање
Аутор
тестова испини (трајање једног третмана) програма
ка
Oswestry
Хаха јога,
Disability Index
60 минута,
(ODI), Контрол
2 пута
Beck Depression на
недељно,
Galanti Inventory (BDI), (нису
уз
no et функционални апликова
30–65 инструкто 6 недеља
al., тест не
ра
2004 флексибилности никакве
асане
(Sit and Reach, телесне
нису
SR) и баланса вежбе)
именован
(Functional
е
Reach, FR).
Roland Вежбе, Писме
Disability Scale, 75 на
Винијога, 26 недеља
Short Form-36, минута, упутст
Sherma 75 мин, (међумере
Health Survey, 7 вежби ва
n et al., 20–64 17 ње на 6,
Упит: „Да ли аеробних (према
2005. положаја 12
вежбате код – 10 Moree
недеља)
куће?“ вежби et al.,
истезања 1999)
Short Form-
McGill Pain
Questionnaire
Иyенгар,
(SF-MPQ),
1недељно
Tampa Scale of
у трајању Контрол
Kinesiophobia(T
1,5х на
SK), Survey of
Willia инструкто (нису
Pain Attitudes
ms et ра и 5 пута апликова
(SOPA), 23–67 16 недеља
al., по 30 не
Strategies
2005. минута никакве
Questionnaire-
код куће телесне
Revised (CSQ-
самосталн вежбе)
R),
о,
Self-Efficacy
29 асана
Scale (BPSES),
тест обима
покрета (ROM).
Willia Oswestry 18–70 Ајенгар, (SMB) 24 недеље
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Дискусија
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Закључак
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Introduction
Xenon is a noble gas that is used as an inhalation anesthetic and sedative. Today,
the xenon therapy is an effective and safe method of treatment and prevention of
the patients being in a condition of a constant stress with raised indicators of
anxiety and depression. Modern approach and improvement of the accompanying
equipment and equipment for carrying out inhalation and as development of
techniques allows expanding indications for application of this method in the most
various directions of medicine and sports (Dingley et al., 2001; Rossaint et al.,
2003).
We carried out the comparative analysis among the patients taking a course of a
xenontherapy with various indicators of alarm and a depression. Despite the
expressed sedative effect, many patients who didn't have before experience of
similar treatment, felt in the first some seconds when carrying out inhalation
raising feeling of anxiety after which there came a relaxation. At supervision came
to light that at anxiety emergence, the patients noting this phenomenon, didn't
carry out standard respiratory equipment. At anxiety emergence instead of
Corresponding author: [email protected]
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observance of the standard protocol of breath patients started breathing in the got-
off rhythm that raised an expense of a gas mix, reduced comprehensibility xenon
of an oxygen mix and reduced time of primary procedure.
Research objective:
The goal of this research is the comparative analysis of results of experimental and
control group of patients undergoing xenon therapy procedure where the control
group performs yoga breathing techniques and control group don’t.
Tasks
Methods
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Research course
Before carrying out research to patients collecting the anamnesis and data about
accompanying diseases for observance of identical conditions in two groups was
carried out. There were also taken measurements of arterial pressure was made for
control of the general state of health and the prevention of possible complications.
Before the research has been conducted, it was checked tha none of the patients
went through xenon therapy procedure. According to the general rules of carrying
out the first inhalations were made with concentration of xenon in a contour of
25% at women and 30-35% at men. Inhalation was carried out on three breaths
with a breath delay in both groups, with the subsequent relaxation and habitual
breath. Before carrying out inhalation buy the members of exeprimental group, the
detailed explanation and trial exercises for training was carried out. Patients in the
control group were given explanation to breath as usual, without special
instructions.
Poll of patients on HADS system was carried out before procedure of inhalation
and two weeks later after carrying out the last inhalation. For all patients the
carrying out protocol xenon - oxygen inhalation was identical:
- three days in a row;
- one inhalation per day;
- exposition time three minutes.
Results
Table 1. HADS data at patients of studied group before and after research
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Table 2. HADS data at patients of control group before and after research
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Indicators of frequency of warm reductions were fixed in the first 20 seconds from
the moment of the inhalation beginning. The condition of the increased uneasiness
is characterized by pulse increase without decrease in a saturation of oxygen in
blood that was noted in all cases where this phenomenon was noted. Concentration
of oxygen in a contour in the first seconds since the inhalation beginning on the
average made not less than 60%.
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Discussion
Conclusions
References:
1. Dingley J, King R., Hughes L., Terblanche C., Mahon, S. Hepp M., Youhana A. and Watkins A.
(2001). Exploration of xenon as a potential cardiostable sedative: a comparison with propofol after
cardiac surgery. Anaesthesia, 56, pages 829-835.
2. Rossaint, R., Reyle-Hahn, M., Esch, J. S., Scholz, J., Scherpereel, P., Vallet, B., ... & Xenon Study
Group. (2003). Multicenter randomized comparison of the efficacy and safety of xenon and
isoflurane in patients undergoing elective surgery. Anesthesiology, 98(1), 6-13.
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Увод
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Циљ истраживања
Задаци
Методе
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Ток истраживања
Резултати
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Дискусија
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Закључци
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Abstract: The Kalmyk people, the people of Mongolic origins and Buddhist-
Lamaist religion who lived people in Belgrade from 1920 till 1944. They came to
Serbia as a part of the vast group of Russian refugees, who had fled Russia after
the October Revolution. Majority of them (300-400 out of 500 in total) had settled
in Belgrade, where the biggest Kalmyk colony in Europe was founded. Pagoda,
which was built by them in Belgrade after smaller pre-war Buddhist pagodas in
Russia, had been the first pagoda in Europe to have been built. The Belgrade
Kalmyk colony ceased to exist in 1944, after its members had fled to Germany and
later to the USA. During the struggle for liberation, the Pagoda was partly
demolished and its function was altered later in absence of believers and
equipment.
Kalmyks are the West Mongolian people originating from the area of lower flow
of the Volga. Ancestors of Kalmyk people (Goryats, Western Mongols) lived in
Dzungaria, a vast, waterless, continental area between Tian Shan and Altay
mountains, which is Xinjiang province in Western China nowadays. Due to over-
population, Kalmyks were forced to migrate in the past. Kalmyk tribes (the
Oyrats) mainly moved to the areas, which later became parts of the Russian
Empire. Kalmyks are mainly nomadic tribes. Not only had Russian Empire striven
to use Kalmyk people for defence of their southern borders from Tatars and
highlanders from Caucasus since the Kalmyk people settled in the Russian Empire,
but it also used them for warfare in Europe and Asia. Kalmyks had been waging
wars as the elite horsemen, in special regiments, alongside with Russian Kozakhs.
Kalmyk language is a member of the family of the Uralo-Altaic languages. Their
alphabet was developed in 13th century and the writing systems were from top to
bottom and from left to right. At the end of the second decade of th 20th century
Corresponding author: [email protected]
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there had been a reform of Kalmyk language and Russian Cyrillic alphabet was
adopted as a Kalmyk alphabet, which was used by Kalmyk refugees every time
their publications were printed and published. Kalmyks’ literature was modest in
their fatherland and it was predominantly oral (heroic epics, poems, fairy tale,
fables, proverbs). Their literature was being developed under the influences of
Buddhism and ancient Mongolian, Chinese, Hindu and Korean national literatures.
Kalmyks who settled in Serbia were part of numerous group of Russian
immigrants, who had fled Russia after the October Revolution. When the refugees
from the largest “evacuation of the Crimea” had spread in Europe, at the beginning
of April in 1920 until the end of the 1923 there were 21500 refugees from Russia,
among whom there were about 500 Kalmyks. The State Commission for the
reception and accommodation of Russian allocated refugees, with the help of
district and county authorities, cities and villages.
The majority of Kalmyks, around 300-400, settled in Belgrade, creating the largest
Kalmyk settlement in Europe. In Belgrade they were stationed in the southern
and southeastern outskirts of the city, close to tilery and construction sites on
which they worked, starting from Karaburma on the Danube River, and through
Bulbuder, Zvezdara, Cvetko market all up to Crveni krst, and many of them
settled in suburban village Mali Mokri Lug . This neighbour’s name used to be
Mustafa Pasha fountain and Pašino brdo and it was being used as the hunting area
as well (part of Učiteljsko naselje).
First years after Kalmyk settlement in Belgrade there was a difficult adjustment to
the new environment, which was partly eased due to the fact that all Kalmyk
settlers had spoken Russian alongside with Kalmyk language, so they quickly
learned Serbian. Belgraders called them simply: “Chinese people” because of their
looks. Among Russian settlers, who also mostly lived in Belgrade, there was a lot
of members of aristocracy, property owners, contractors, employees and its
military officer staff. Group of Kalmyk refugees had already been the poorest part
of Russian settlers, both materially and educationally.
Shortly after the arrival of a group of refugees in the Yugoslav capital, Kalmyk
leader – Lamaist priest asked Belgrade industrialist and landowner Milos
Jaćimović to have Kalmyks employed in his tilery in Mali Mokri Lug. Tilery was
located at the present-day Cvetkova pijaca in Zvezdara. Jaćimović hired them and
gave them land near the tilery. He gave them the bricks of which Kalmyks built
about thirty storey houses, which enabled them to move out of the rented houses .
In addition to workers who have worked at a tilery in this village their relatives
settled there as well. Every house was shared by two or three Kalmyk families and
dwellings were modest. Besides the houses gardens, common well and shared
bathroom were located.
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At the beginning, most of the Kalmyks worked on the excavation of clay and its
transport to the tilery. Over time, some of them progressed, bought horses for
themselves and became independent. They had more than one job to feed their
families-transport of woods, coal ,etc. Some of them have worked as coachmen .
Kalmyks were great lovers of horses and used them at various times as a means of
generating revenue . In this way the new environment continued the tradition of
horse breeding . You were engaged in agriculture. Were preserved and some local
crafts , and were especially adept at knitting and sewing . Given that the main role
in the family leads to men , women Belgrade Kalmyks are not employed , but they
contribute to the household budget making slippers and fur jackets that are sold in
the market . It is also known that a number of Kalmyks , as unskilled laborers
worked late twenties to build a bridge over the Danube , and was also engaged in
the construction of the Albania Palace in Belgrade.
In the first years after arriving in Belgrade men had worn ragged Russian military
uniforms, later they wore a simple civil suits which did not differ from the Serbian
population in the area. The geographical position of the region in which they lived
at what was then the outskirts of the city, in a working-class neighborhood Mali
Mokri Lug , proves that the Belgrade Kalmyks settlements in socio – economic
terms was marginal community. However, with the gradual improvement in the
economic situation of some families, their needs were being increased as well.
Kalmyk community was quite conservative and was not open to the surroundings,
being connected with single language and origins, immigrant destiny and
especially belonging to the Buddhist religious community Their contacts with its
surroundings and abroad were rare , and only the Kalmyk clergy maintained ties
with compatriots in Paris. There were occasional high clergies from Paris to have
participated in rituals during major holidays. Kalmyks were not politically active.
They did not returneto the USSR after the Soviet declaration of amnesty for war
refugees in 1923, despite strong pro-return advocacy of the Kalmyk Society for
the Return to the Motherland with the headquarters in Prague. In Serbia, Kalmyks
made friends with the first Serbian farmers from Mali Mokri Lug, who called
them Chinese due to their exotic looks. It is known that there had been several
mixed marriages. Kalmyk children played with Serbian neighbours’ children, and
they had a football field , which was named the Chinese court. They attended
primary school together. Upon having settled in Belgrade , in the new environment
a new problem for the Kalmyks emerged- the education of children because
enrollment in primary school had been obligatory, so they all the children had to
start attending school . Kalmyks became more streamlined in the education of their
descendents and the main care was to ensure conditions for their children to
graduate from higher schools as possible.
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open their national school where the children could learn their mother tongue and
script of the Buddhist faith , Kalmyk history and geography . However, despite the
resulting approval , such schools had not started working due to lack of funds.
During the great economic crisis of the early thirties of the 20th century , which had
been felt throughout the world, the life of Kalmyks in Yugoslavia was affected too.
After having completed primary schools, some of had Kalmyks attended high
schools, usually one in Russian language, but they had also gone to study abroad,
mostly in Prague.
Starting of the Second World War and the occupation of Yugoslavia had a major
impact on change of lifestyles of Kalmyk families. Due to worsening of food
supplies, the biggest concern of most citizens in Serbia and Kalmyks as well was
how to feed and survive. A number of Kalmyks went to Germany at the beginning
of the war, because there had been a severe shortage of skilled and unskilled
labour force during the war years in German industry. Some Belgrade Kalmyks
went to the Eastern front as German soldiers . Most Kalmyk families moved from
Belgrade and some other Serbian citires went to Germany via Vienna at the end of
the Second World War and the most during 1944. After German capitulation they
were stationed at camps near Munich that had been led by American charities,
where they had lived with other Kalmyk refugees (about 800 people) until the
winter of 1951/1952, when they moved to the United States, mainly to the states
of Pennsylvania and New Jersey. A small number of Kalmyks who remained in
Yugoslavia after the WW2 was mostly deported to the Soviet Union like most of
Russian immigrants and since then they disappeared without a trace. In this way,
Kalmyk settlements in Belgrade were completely disintegrated.
Kalmyks today live mainly in the United States as a nation that has been slowly
disappearing because of assimilation in the American environment, in which they
live. They do not have their national schools and mixed marriages contribute to
their assimilation as well. They speak the languages of the countries in which they
reside and only a small part of the Kalmyks adhere to the Buddhist religion.
However, in the capital of the Republic of Kalmykia, which is part of the Russian
Federation, largest Buddhist temple in Europe for 6,000 worshipers was
consecrated in 2011.
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During the fight for the liberation of Belgrade, which was being conducted in the
vicinity of Mali Mokri Lug, the upper part of the attic of the Kalmyk Pagoda was
partially demolished. Belgrade Baksha Umaldinov left Yugoslavia to Germany
with his associates, gelongs Menkov and Ignatov. It is assumed that Kalmyks
probably took the equipment of Belgrade pagoda with them. Baksha Umaldinov
died in 1946. in Bavaria. Photos of the German officer Helmut Klar were made in
Belgrade during a visit Kalmyk temple in 1944. That was the last photo of very old
baksha (Helmut.Klar, 1954). After damage in the bombing, the tower and
sanctuaries ground were destroyed and turned into a cultural centre. Then it had
been demolished, after which RO Buducnost-servis Hladjenje was founded there.
Dilapidated building is still at that location.
Building of pagoda
Kalmyks are Buddhis and the Kalmyks who had settled in Belgrade were
Buddhists – Lamaist . More specifically, their religion was Lamaism with
additions of Mongolian shamanism, the pantheon of local deities and cults pre-
Buddhist historical figures. Among the members of the Kalmyk community
custom of solidarity, which consisted of mutual legal assistance, as well as to
visiting religious rites, and financing the sanctuary was a prevalent custom.
Among the Kalmyks who fled Russia there had been one of their priests and the
refugees had been working hard to provide a space in which to practice religious
rituals (pagoda) immediately after the immigration. The high priest Baksha ( enior
lama, “master of the religion” adviser). In 1924, Manchuda Borinov asked and
received permission from the competent authorities for the decoration of
provisional Buddhist shrines in a rented apartment at 47 Vojislava Ilica Street (the
house still exists). It was a modest space, consisting of two bedrooms with carpets.
Several symbolic figures decorated it, there was a bronze figure of the Buddha.
Since late 1925, the shrine is located at a rented house at 51 Metohijska Street.
Baksha Borinov was dressed in a dark blue priestly robes, and his head was
covered with a round, gold- embroidered cap. Not only had Baksha been in charge
of the ritual, but he had also been the chief adviser to his countrymen in all of
decisions concerning life, having been visiting them at work at tilery, having been
encouraging them to endure and be patient. Belgrade Kalmyks were said to be
very industrious and responsible and gained the trust of Belgraders . Kalmyks were
saying that the Serbs treated them very nice. When John D. Prince, the ambassador
of the United States in Yugoslavia from 1926 till 1933, visited a Buddhist Pagoda
in 1927 and attended the service which was held on this occasion he wrote in his
report that he had spoken to the “ head Lama “ about the conditions in which
Kalmyks had been living in Belgrade.” He was also informed that Kalmyks had
not complained about the treatment and that the government had let them perform
religious rites in a private house (ie, in the house of the Lama ), though, as Lama
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added, they probably would have complained if they had been proposedeven a
small pagoda to be built since Buddhism had not been recognised by Yugoslav
laws.” (Prince , 1928).
The construction of the pagoda was supported by Dimitrije, the patriarch of the
Serbian Orthodox Church.. In a letter to the Ministry of Religion, Patriarch wrote:
“Although public expression of Buddhism is not recognized by the Constitution
and laws of our country , we find that there would be no damage to the state, or by
any other religious community, if this small group of people in our country were
provided means to satisfy their religious needs, while it would be damage to leave
them without spiritual guidance.”(AJ, 69-175-276 Letter of the Patriarch of the
Serbian Orthodox Church, Postal code 234 3/21 January 1925, the Ministry of
religion, Belgrade).
The temple was built on the lot given to them by Milos Jacimovic, at the street
which was named Buddhist, after the Pagoda (now Budvanska Street). Sanctuary
brick hurul, in the form of a pagoda built by themselves, collecting
donations. Financial assistance came from Kalmyks, the state, city, municipalities,
retailers and royal family. Donor are listed by their names in preserved documents,
and the sum given as well (one of the donors was the Princess Jelena, sister of
King Alexander).Although the question of attribution of Buddhist temple remained
open, it is likely that that was a project of Russian engineer Andrej Klepinin. The
pagoda was built as a rather small one, with a square base of a cross, after smaller
pagodas in Russia dating before the First World War. Lovely exterior of the
pagoda captivated the picturesque roof construction Far architecture of China and
Japan. The building was modest in size, so it happens that the big Kalmyk holidays
could not accommodate all worshipers. Therefore, during 1934 and 1935 the
Kalmyks sought and received permission to repair a temple. Extensive
modifications that they wanted to make were very expensive and were reduced to
the building on a detached entrance and altar work.They managed to expand the
temple for only 38 m2. The reconstruction project of Kalmyk Buddhist Temple
was done by architect Jovan Novakovic 1935th The (Historical Archives of
Belgrade, IAB, OGB, TD, XIX-49-1935 (1883-1942).There are few data about the
architect Jovan Dj. Novakovic, although after World War I he had been a trustee
of the Board for Reconstruction of Belgrade, and although he had done projects for
many notable private homes in Belgrade (see D. Djuric – Zamolo Builders 1815-
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Among rare texts about Kalmyk settlement in Belgrade press of that time, inspired
text Stevan Popovic dedicated to celebration of the tenth anniversary of pagoda
stands out: quiet, working, they go silent, as fearing that someone does not hold
this against them, of hurting them . In Belgrade, they are not very much
noticed. Here, however, the hours of coming home from work, one can see a little
more of them, their wives and their children. Never noisy, never drunk and
Belgrade police have never recorded any Kalmyk in their chronicles. They are,
however, three hundred of them and they have been here for twenty years! ... Sons
of the steppes are being suffocated by the town. Tall buildings reduce their
horizons. Town dust bothers them. They are used to the countryside. So they went
to the outskirts of Belgrade. There, where there still are uncultivated fields, where
wheat is more yellow in the summer and where the corn rustling in the wind, they
feel better. So there they are uncommon. Their dream would be to colonise some
of our villages. There, in full nature they cherished their horses, their cattle,
worked the land and would be satisfied ... Their pleasure is their pagoda. A
Belgrade industrialist gave them land and a lot of building materials and Kalmyks
were doing, he gave them money and – pagoda, theirpagoda, appeared one day in
1929 here in Belgrade. The only Kalmyk Buddhist Temple in Europe! Belgrade
can be proud of them ... “(S. Popovic, 1939). On tenth anniversary of the
construction of the church, 1939, a solemn ritual in honor of the benefactor Milos
Jaćimović was held at pagoda. Kalmyks thanked him with calligraphy
Acknowledgement. After the ceremony guests were invited to the room and
offered tea and cakes. Jaćimović’s grandson gave the Acknowledgement to the
Belgrade City Museum. When the general architecture of the Kalmyk pagodas is
analysed, it can be noticed that the construction of wooden buildings was present
in their tradition. Since the late 18th century, their pagodas had been built of brick
and stone and usually had a large central area with a tower crowned with richly
decorated carvings, murals and paintings and bronze sculptures. Compared with
the complex temples for which Mongols and Kalmyks are known, it is concluded
that the Belgrade shrine were few and modest. Church in Belgrade is built in the
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shape of a pagoda with three slightly twisted edge of the roof, which is one of the
main types of the Mongol shrines that reflect Chinese architectural influence.
Church is located in a fenced yard and surrounded by fruit trees. Alongside with
temple, there was building with rooms for priests and classrooms for Russian and
Serbian languages. Belgrade pagoda at the corners of the roof contained metal
bells, which are echoed in the wind. At the top of the roof, there wae the sky-
double vajra pointed towards sky. Vajra Lamas is a symbol of truth and
knowledge-the Absolute attribute the Tibetan deities and ritual objects in Lamaist
ceremonies. On the front of the building, above the door, there was a Buddhist
emblem, two gazelles, as a symbol of joining the faith, and between them , the
lotus flower, the wheel of Buddha’s teachings with eight compartments (PAOK),
which marked the eight paths of salvation from earthly suffering. On the ground
floor there was only one window, while in each of the two upper floors there were
four hole windows which were also painted and contributed to the creation of
vibrant atmosphere of this temple. Apparently, the Kalmyks equipped pagoda with
decorations from Russia. Opposite from the entrance to the lodge, was the altar.
Upon the altar there were the next two statues of Buddha and iconic objects and
relics, and below them bowls with sacrificial gifts. Left of the altar, in front of the
window, there were two low tables for two Lamas and monks, and shelves for
storing religious texts.Traditional religious images were hung on the walls – thin,
as well as photos of Mongol and Kalmyk high religious dignitaries. Among the
paintings hanging on the walls there was a picture the world’s largest invaders
Mongols of Genghis Khan. Besides images, which decorated the interior of the
pagoda, ther were lots of colored ornaments, floor was made of ordinary boards ,
and covered with industrial-made carpets. Higher ceiling was supported by four
wooden colorful painted pillars with Buddhist symbols (the wheel of Buddha’s
teachings, lotus flower, etc..), which hung from the ceiling of the Buddhist flag
colors (white, red, yellow, blue green) in the middle of the temple, in the opening
high dome, under a canopy, there was a large round mirror (“As you see yourself
in the mirror as they are, black or white, so you fully see the Buddha”). In the
Belgrade pagoda there was the urn of lame Arcad Chubanov (1840-1894),who had
the Lama of Kalmyks of the Don for twenty-one years. The remains of the great
lamas were seen as a holy relic. The urn was located at Belgrade’s pagoda until the
Kalmyks had left Belgrade in 1944 They took it with them to Germany and later in
the United States, where it is still today (baron temple , Howell, New Jersey).
Lamaist ritual objects were arranged on the tables of both the priests: the rosary
with 54 strawberries,ochir (double vajra), a ring (a symbol of spreading the
Buddha’s teachings , cymbals, sacred records in Tibetan language, the contact line
between the believers and the clergies, bowls with various grains, bowls of holy
water ( ater of Saffron), bowls with a peacock feather (and bum), incense and
fragrances.
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Believers attended ceremonies in the temple of the Lamas by several hours waiting
for spiritual purification and absolution in the next incarnation. Their participation
in the ceremonies was based on the promotion of the welfare of not only the direct
participants, but also the entire Kalmyk communities. In addition to the liturgy that
was done three times a day, there were also significant dates in the life of Buddha ,
the Full Moon Feast , Feast of the New Moon , Tibetan New Year and others.
A comprehensive description of lamaist rituals in the temple of Kalmyks in
Belgrade is given by John D . Prince in the aforementioned report, while visiting
the temple in 1927.
Two priests serve and a singer, standing so close to each other, they start intoning
mostly harmonious varying only two deep tones, prescribed hymns in honour of
Buddha from Tibet Lamaist books in Tibetan ritual language. With great interest, I
noticed that at the end of long phrases singers breathed a restrained sound.
In certain moments of the service, I think the name of the Buddha was mentioned
in fervor, the chief lama covered his right hand with orange scarf to the ankle, so
that three soaking double drink-offering consecrated sweetened water from one
bronze bowl in which he previously laid layer of barley grain. Taking the pieces of
this mixture, lama throws them to the right and left, and then sprinkles holy water,
sprinkles the altar, but not the others who serve or present believers, which
obviously means that the offering of the consecrated water makes the
Buddha. Tissue is switched to his left hand whenever his left hand to touch the
holy water is used. It is interesting to note that the sprinkles on top were made of a
peacock feather. Being well known that the peacock is a symbol dedicated to evil
or negative influences, I asked the lama why he used such an obviously harmful
emblem of holy water. He told me it was evil and “poisonous” thing, that
peacock’s feather served to prevent malicious spirits to approach and poison the
holy water; interesting example of Eastern homeopathy!
As the service continued and finally reached a climax suddenly ending up,
chanting became very fourtone chanting that end with the word that resembled a
very great role model our Amine. The individual would TROPAR chanter hit one
of the other two curved silver pieces, all in the rhythm of singing. The main lama
was clad in orange color vestments with a belt in the same color and over the left
shoulder is a pale yellow orarion. Once or twice during the orarion serving he put
orarian to his chest, almost in the same way they are Orthodox priests. Cloaking
lame assistant was of the same cut but much darker orange color while his orar
was also bright yellow. Singer was also dressed in a chasuble and a belt much
darker but he had orarion which is the priestly insignia.” (Prince, 1928).
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Kalmyks celebrated holidays related to the Buddha, miracles that Buddha did
(February), the birth, enlightenment, entry into nirvana (May), the first sermon
(July) and descend of Tushit from the sky (October) as well. Staying at a Buddhist
pagoda in Belgrade in 1932.during the July holidays related to Buddha’s life – first
sermon, journalist Slovenian daily “Jutro” published a valuable description of the
temple, which, inter alia, evidence that the equipment in Belgrade pagoda time
changed and significantly supplemented:
“In Buddhist pagoda there is a pleasant shade. Windows are covered with beautiful
curtains so that make sanctuary quite dark. Lights and large glass bowl shine from
the ceiling. In the midst of the temple, the wall is an altar on which the oriental
way of sitting there is the Buddha himself. Above and below it is ruled by two
Buddhist saints, of which the first executive committee Buddhist lama named
Baksha. There are gifts of Buddhist believers on the altar. Today they celebrated
their greatest holiday and believers donated everything could due to their
poverty. Some of them gave rice, other gave sweets and cakes ... and ten-dinar
coin,.I saw them on the altar ...There are pictures of senior priests and prophets of
the Buddhist religion. On the right side of the altar there are mattresses on which
Avalon sits during a religious ceremony that lasts for at least three to four hours.”
(Suchy, 1932).
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Belgrade Kalmyks ate their meals at the garden of the pagoda during the important
holidays. They drank tea mixed with butter, milk and salt, and sometimes they ate
horse meat as well. Some holiday changed or even lost in new environment. For
example, out of the three traditional holiday male competition (running, wrestling,
and arrowing) only wrestling preserved.
Rites of burial changed as well. Before they moved from Russia, Kalmyks were
burning their dead but such an act was prohibited in Serbia. However, the cult was
kept in symbolic form. Belgrade Kalmyks were burying their dead compatriots at
the New cemetery, but according to the rites of their religion. When burying the
dead, a Buddhist priest drew a human figure on a piece of paper and wrote out the
initial letter of the name of the deceased , after which it was symbolically burned
paper on the vigil and the ashes mixed with the earth. A mixture of earth and ashes
was poured in the mold shape of the pyramid, which was at the end of the ritual
throwing of liquid water .
Kalmyk clergy see the overall life of each family and participated in all areas of
their lives. Thus Avalon (until the end ordained monk who has completed twelve
years of education under the guidance of senior Lamaist monks) named children,
determined the day of the wedding , healed the sick, performed funeral rites. This
important role of the clergy was fully retained in Belgrade Kalmyk community
since its establishment in 1920 until closing in 1944 year.
Conclusion
Kalmyks are a people of Mongol origin – Buddhist religion of the Lamas. They
arrived in Serbia at the beginning of April in 1920 as part of the major group of
Russian immigrants after the October Revolution Most of them ( 300-400 out of
500 refugees ) settled in Belgrade, forming the largest colony of Kalmyks in
Europe. They quickly adapted to Belgrade and its residents . Soon after settling in,
led by Buddhist elders to their high priest Baksha Manchunda Borinov (1872-
1928), an initiative to build a Buddhist temple was launched. The temple was built
in 1929 in the district of suburban villages of Mali Mokri Lug, street was named
Buddhist ( nowadays Budimska ) . The project was made by a Russian architect
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Andrej Klepinin in 1935 and prepared by the Belgrade architect Jovan Novakovic.
The pagoda was built as a rather small pagoda, with a square base of a cross,
modeled after Buddhist temples in Russia in the period before the First World
War. On the beautiful exterior of the temple there was a roof construction of
architecture of China and Japan which stood out ). Kalmyk pagoda of Belgrade
was the first Buddhist pagoda in Europe. Belgrade Kalmyks settlement ceased to
exist in 1944 when its members fled to Germany and later to the United States .
The temple had partially been destroyed during the struggle for liberation and its
purpose was changed later due to the lack of believers. Despite modest
architectural structure, the Buddhist – Lamaist pagoda of Belgrade was a reflection
of tolerance and symbol of opennes of Serbian society to foreign influences and
news. Serbian authorities had sympathy for the preservation of national
consciousness of Kalmyks and other representatives of emigration In the period
between the two world wars, Belgrade was the only one in Europe with a Buddhist
pagoda.
References:
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16. Vukotić Lazar, M., Danilović-Hristić, N., Borovnjak, Đ. (2013). Prvi budistički hram u Evropi
(1929–1944), Istorijski uslovi koji su doveli do formiranja kolonije Kalmika u Beogradu, izgradnje i
rušenja njihovog verskog objekta, Istorijski zapisi br. 1-2/2012, Podgorica, 127–144.
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Corresponding author: [email protected]
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Калмичка деца су најчешће похађала руску основну школу или пак српске
основне школе. Током тридесетих година прошлог века Калмици су
настојали да отворе своју националну школу у којој би деца учила матерњи,
калмички језик и писмо, будистичку веру, калмичку историју и географију.
Међутим, и поред добијеног одобрења, таква школа није прорадила због
недостатка материјалних средстава.
Наиме, велика привредна криза почетком тридесетих година 20. века, која се
осећала у читавом свету, одразила се и на живот Калмика у Југославији.
После завршене основне школе, неки од Калмика ишли су у средње школе,
најчешће у оне на руском језику, али су ишли и на школовање у
иностранство, углавном у Праг.
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Калмици данас углавном живе у САД и као народ полако нестају, јер се
утапају у америчку средину у којој живе. Немају своје националне школе, а
њиховој асимилацији доприносе и мешовити бракови. Говоре језицима
земаља у којима су настањени, а само мали део Калмика придржава се
будистичке религије. Међутим, у главном граду Републике Калмикије, која је
у саставу Руске Федерације, освећен је 2011. године у Елисти највећи
будистички храм у Европи, за 6.000 верника.
Током борби за ослобођење Београда, које су, 1944. године вођене у близини
Малог Мокрог Луга, делимично је порушен горњи део поткровља калмичког
будистичког храма. Са групом који су из Југославије отишли у Немачку био
је београдски бакша Умалдинов са својим сарадницима, гелонзима
Менковим и Игнатовим. Претпоставља се да су, склањајући се, Калмици
вероватно са собом понели и опрему београдског светилишта. Бакша
Умалдинов је умро 1946. године у Баварској. Фотографије које је немачки
официр Хелмут Клар направио у Београду при посети калмичком храму
1944. године последње су фотографије остарелог бакше. Такође су то и
последње објављене фотографије храма док је служила својој намени
(Helmut.Klar, 1954). После оштећења у бомбардовању, срушена је и кула
светилишта и приземље претворено у Дом културе. Потом је и порушен да
би се на том месту подигла зграда РО „Будућност“ – сервис „Хлађење“.
Оронула зграда и данас постоји на том месту.
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Закључак
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CONTRIBUTOR’S NOTES
International Scientific Yoga Journal Sense affirms researches in the field of yoga, in different
scientific disciplines. All articles published in the journal are available in major libraries in the world.
International Scientific Yoga Journal Sense which is published once a year in English and Serbian
language and gathers yoga researchers from different scientific fields. We invite all scientific
researchers to submit their articles. Scientific articles can be sent to the following address:
[email protected]
For all further information you can contact us through the phone +381 63 8398 120, our web
site www.yoga-science.rs or the above mentioned email address.
ABSTRACT GUIDELINES
Abstract should contain: 1. Title of thematic field that the paper belongs to; 2. Title of the paper,
author’s name and surname, address (including e-mail), name of institution; 3. Scope of abstract:
abstract should not exceed 300 words, Font 11, Times New Roman, key words should not exceed 5
words.
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1. SCOPE OF PAPER: 8 to 10 pages; 2. MARGINS: File – Page Setup – Margins – Top, Bottom:
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FORM OF THE PAPER: 1. Title of the paper: Bold, Uppercase – 14 pt, Centered; 2. Title, name
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Paper must be original and published for the first time. Journal is the owner of the copyrights.
Authors whose papers are financed by the third party, should state the source of funds. In scientific
papers with more than one author, there should be submitted explanation of all authors’ contribution.
Journal supports the scientific dishonesty prevention in accordance to the document published on the
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CONFLICT-OF-INTEREST STATEMENT
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УПУТСТВО АУТОРИМА
Међународни научни часопис о јоги Смисао афирмише истраживања из области јоге у
различитим научним дисциплинама. Сви чланци објављени у часопису доступни су у свим
већим библиотекама света. Међународни научни часопис о јоги Смисао излази једном
годишње на енглеском и српском језику и окупља истраживаче јоге из различитих научних
области. Позивамо све научне истраживаче да пошаљу своје радове. Научни радови могу се
послати на следећу адресу: [email protected]
За све додатне информације може се остварити контакт путем телефона +381 63 8398 120,
нашег веб сајта www.yoga-science.rs или преко горе наведене електронске адресе.
Рад мора бити оригиналан и први пут објављиван. Сва ауторска права прелазе на часопис.
Аутори којима је финансиран рад треба да наведу извор финансирања. Код научног рада са
више аутора треба да се достави изјава у којој се исказује допринос сваког од аутора. Часопис
подржава превенцију научне неискрености у складу са документом који је објављен на страни
http://www.yoga-science.rs/pdf/prevencija-naucne-neiskrenosti.pdf
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is the national branch federation that was founded with the goal to improve the
quality of the yoga practice. YFS conducts programs of continual yoga education
for certified instructors. Members of the YFS made consent upon the Statute,
Regulations and Ethical codex, as well as the manner of the certified yoga
instructors register maintenance, with intention to establish standards, support
continual improvement and a common cooperation. All members of the YFS
established the standards declared by the World and European Yoga Federation,
whose member is YFS. Having this goal, Yoga Federation of Serbia initiated
founding of the International Yoga Academy. Yoga is understood as a discipline,
science, experience and philosophy of life. www.yogasavezsrbije.com
has been carried out under the guidance of Prof. Predrag Nikic, PhD – a doyen of
yoga in Serbia, president of the Yoga Federation of Serbia and International Yoga
Master, with participation of the greatest international yoga authorities, guest
professors and practitioners of yoga. There has been established cooperation with
the greatest high educational institutions in the field of yoga, in the world.
International Yoga Academy gathers individuals interested in education for Yoga
Instructors through gaining knowledge, practical exercises and accepting
philosophy and moral standards that Yoga recommends. Education of candidates
for Yoga Teachers includes 240 hours of theory of yoga, practice of yoga,
colloquia, exam and the final exam with a demonstration of graduate class in front
of a commission made of three members. Academy adjusted standards of
education with requested standards of International Yoga Federation and its
certificate is recognized in all countries in the world. www.joga-akademija.com
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ACCREDITED PROGRAMS
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АКРЕДИТОВАНИ ПРОГРАМИ
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796.41:233-852.5Y
СМИСАО
Међународни научни часопис о jоги
SENSE
International Scientific Yoga Journal /
уредник Предраг Никић, год. 1, бр. 1
(дец. 2011) Београд (Гандијева101):
Међународно друштво за научна
интердисциплинарна истраживања у области јоге,
2011 – (Београд: Стандард 2) – 24cm
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