Economic

MAT
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ECO OMIIC A
ANAALYSSIS –II
IIII Sem
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C E
B ECON
BA E NOM
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U VERS
UNIV SITY OF
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SCH
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Calicut Un
niversity P.O. Malapp
puram, Kerrala, India 673
6 635
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School of Distance Education

UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT
SCHOOL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION
STUDY MATERIAL
COMPLEMENTARY COURSE
III Semester
MATHEMATICS FOR ECONOMIC ANALYSIS -II

Prepared by Modules
Ibrahim. Y.C,
I
Associate Professor,
Department of Economics,
Government College Kodanchery
II & V Rahul. K
Assistant Professor,
NMSM Government College, Kalpetta.
III Shabeer.K.P,
Government College, Kodanchery.
IV & VI Radeena.D.N
NMSM Government College, Kalpatta.
Scrutinised by: Dr. C. Krishnan,
Associate Professor ,
Govt. College, Kodanchery.
Layout: Computer Section, SDE
©
Reserved
Mathematics for Economic Analysis II Page 2


CONTENTS PAGE No.
CHAPTER 1 - THE DERIVATIVE AND THE RULES OF

5
DIFFERENTIATION
CHAPTER 2 - CALCULUS AND MULTIVARIABLE

40
FUNCTIONS
CHAPTER 3 - SPECIAL DETERMINANTS AND MATRICES 60

IN ECONOMICS
CHAPTER 4 - INTEGRAL CALCULUS: THE INDEFINITE

80
INTEGRAL
CHAPTER 5 - INTEGRAL CALCULUS : THE DEFINITE

93
INTEGRAL
CHAPTER 6 - INTRODUCTION TO DIFFERENTIAL

99
EQUATIONS AND DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS




CHAPTER 1
THE DERIVATIVE AND THE RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION
I. 1: LIMITS
The concept of limit is useful in developing some mathematical techniques and

also in analyzing various economic problems in economics.
For example, the rate of interest depends up on the availability of capital in the
economy. But rate of interest can never fall to zero even if the quantity of capital
available in the economy is very large. That shows, there is a minimum limit below
which ‘r’ cannot fall. Let this minimum limit of the rate of interest ‘r’ be 5% then, if ‘K’
stands for capital and ‘C’ is a positive constant, we can write the function as
r=5+
If K is small ‘r’ is large

If K is large ‘r’ is small
If K is very large (infinite) ‘r’ will never be less than
5%. Therefore the limit ‘r’ as ‘K’ increases is 5
It can be written as
lim 5 lt 5
→ →
A function f(x) is said to approach the limit ‘L’ as ‘x’ approach to ‘a’ if the
difference between f(x) and ‘L’ can be made as small as possible by taking ‘x’ sufficiently
nearer to ‘a’.
lim
→
Example: Limit x2 as ‘x’ approach to 4 is 16.

This can be expressed as
lim 2 16
→
i.e., the difference between x2 and 16 can be made as small as possible by taking ‘x’
sufficiently nearer to 4.


Rules of Limits
1. If K is a constant
lim
→
2. If ‘n’ is a positive integer
lim
→
3. If ‘K’ is a constant
lim lim
→ →
4. lim lim → lim →

→
5. lim . lim → . lim →

→
6. lim lim → lim →

→
lim → 0]
7. lim → lim →
Examples
1. lim 10 10 [Rule 1]

→
2. lim 2 52 25 [Rule 2]
→
3. lim 5 4 5 lim 4 5 24 5 16 80 [Rule 3]

→ →
4. lim 3 3 lim 3 lim 3 [Rule 4]

→ → →
= 23 + 3 x 2 = 8 + 6 = 14
lim
5. 8 5 lim 8 . lim 5 [Rule 5]
→ →
→
= (4 + 8)(4 - 5) = -12


6. 4 2 5 10 [Rule 6]
lim lim 4 2 5 10 lim 10 5
→ 10 5 → →

= =
7. If f(x) = (x + 2) [Rule 7]
lim 22 lim 2 2 3 2 2 52 25
→ →
INDETERMINATE FORM
If the value of the function becomes indeterminate like , on substituting the

value of the variables, mere substitution method may not be feasible. In such cases
factorization of the function may remove the difficulties.
For example: lim = =

→

∴ write
–
= =x+3=6
[Note (a2 – b2) = (a + b)(a – b)]

Example 2: lim =
→α
Here to find the limit value we have to divide the numerator and denominator by
x2
1

lim
→ α 1

=

Since, → 0 as x → α


We get =1
========
Example 3: lim

→
Factorizing the function we get
= = = =
======
Problems:
1. Find lim [ Ans: -1]

→
2. Find lim [Ans: 2]

→
3. Find lim [Ans: ]

→

→

→

6. Find lim [Ans: ]
→
7. Find lim [Ans: ]

→
1.2 CONTINUITY
A function is said to be continuous in a particular region if it has determinate

value (or finite quantity) for every value of the variable in that region. A continuous
function is one which has no breaks in its curve. It can be drawn without lifting the
pencil from the paper.


Conditions for continuity
1. f(x) is defined ie exists at x = a
2. lim exists

→
3. lim
→
Y
Y
f(x)
g(x)
Fig 1.1 (a) x 0 (b) x
Graph of continuous function Fig 1.2 Graph of discontinuous function
If the conditions for continuity are not satisfied for any value of x, f(x) is said to be
discontinuous for that value of ‘x’.
1. Example: If f(x) = and lim

→
If x → 2, f(x) does not have a finite value
∴f(x) is continuous for any value of ‘a’ except 2 and f(x) is not continuous at a = 2.
Problems:
Indicate whether the following function is continuous at the specific points.
1. f(x) = 5x2 – 8x + 9 at x = 3
f(3) = 5(3)2 – 8(3) + 9 = 45 – 24 + 9 = 30
lim5 x 2– 8x 9 5 3 2 – 8 3 9 45 – 24 9 30

→


lim 30 = f(3)
→
∴ f(x) is continuous at x = 3.
2. f(x) = at x = 3
f(3) = =
i.e., function is not defined at x = 3
So cannot be continuous at x = 3 even though the limit value exist at x = 3
3 3
lim 2 lim
→ 9 → 3 3
= lim =
→
lim = ≠ f(3)
→
∴ f(x) is discontinuous at x = 3.
3. Check for continuity of function at x = 1 when f(x) =
[Ans: Not continuous]
4. Check whether the function x2 + 3x – 2 is continuous for x = 2
[Ans: Continuous]
1.3 THE SLOPE OF A CURVI LINEAR FUNCTION
The slope of a curvilinear function is differ from point to point; i.e., the slope of
each point is different. The slope at a given point is measured by the slope of a line
tangent to the function at that point. So in order to measure the slope of a curvilinear
function at different points we requires separate tangent lines.


Y Secant line S
Y
Tangent line
f(x) 3 ∆Y 3 Y2 = f(x1 + ∆x)
g(x)
2 ∆X 3
∆Y 2
∆X 2
1 Y1 = f(x1)
∆Y 1
∆X 1
X1 ∆X X2= x1 + ∆x
Fig 1.3 x Fig 1.4
The slope of a tangent line is derived from the slopes of a family of secant lines
(secant line ‘S’ is a straight line that intersects a curve at two points.)
Slope S =
Here x2 = x1 + ∆x, and y2 = f(x1 + ∆x) and y1 = f(x1)
We can express the slope ‘S’ as
∆
Slope S =
∆
∆
=
∆
If the distance between x2 and x1 is made smaller and smaller ie. if ∆x → 0, the
secant line pivots back to the left and draws progressively closer to the tangent line. If
the slope of the secant line approaches a limit as ∆x → 0, the limit is the slope of the
tangent line T, which is also the slope of the function at that point.
∆
Slop T= lim
∆ → ∆
Example: Find the slope of a curvilinear function, such as f(x) =4x2
Ans.
∆
Slop T= lim
∆ → ∆
Substituting the function we get


∆
Slope T = lim
∆ → ∆
∆x 2 is in the a
∆ ∆
= lim [ x b 2 form
∆ → ∆
∆ ∆
= lim
∆ → ∆
∆ ∆
= lim
∆ → ∆
Dividing through out by ∆x we get

Slope T = lim 8 4∆x
∆ →
∴ Slope = 8x
=====
1.4 THE DERIVATIVE
The derivative of a function at a chosen input value is the best linear

approximation of the function near that input value. For a real valued function of a
single real variable, the derivative at a point equals the slope of the tangent line to the
graph of the function at that point.
Given the function y = f(x), the derivative of f(x) with respect to x is the function
f’(x) and is defined as
∆ –
f’(x) = lim Here f’(x) is the derivative of ‘f’ with respect to ‘x.
∆ → ∆
Example:
Find the derivative of the following function using the definition of the
derivative f(x) = 4x2 + 10x + 25.
Solution: The definition of derivative is

∆ –
f’(x) = lim
∆ → ∆
Plugging the given function into the definitions of derivative we get


4 ∆ 10 ∆ 25 4 10 25
lim
∆ ∆

4 2 ∆ ∆ 10 10∆ 25 4 10 25
lim
∆ ∆

4 8 ∆ 4 ∆ 10 10∆ 25 4 10 25
lim
∆ ∆

8 ∆ 4 ∆ 10∆
lim
∆ ∆
dividing throughout by ∆ we get
So the derivative f’(x) = 8x +10
1.5 DIFFERENTIABILITY AND CONTINUITY
A function is ‘differentiable’ at a point if the derivative exists at that point.
Conditions for differentiability at a point are :-
(a) A function must be continuous at that point.

(b) A function must have a unique tangent at that point.
f(x) r P
q q
P r
O a b Y
fig.1.5
In the fig.1.5 f(x) is not differentiable at ‘a’ because gap exist in the function at that
point, and the derivative cannot be taken at any point where the function is
discontinuous.


Continuity alone does not ensure differentiability. In the above figure f(x) is
continuous at ‘b’, but it is not differentiable at ‘b’ because at a sharp point or kink (cusp)
an infinite number of tangent lines line such as pp, qq, rr in the figure can be drawn.
There is no one unique tangent line for that sharp point or kink.
1.6 DERIVATIVE NOTATION

The derivative of a function can be written in many ways.
If y = f(x), its derivative can be expressed as f’(x), y’, , ,
Example:- If y = 10 + 5x – 15, the derivative can be written as
y', 10 + 5x – 15 or [10 + 5x -15]
1.7 RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION
Rule No. 1 : The constant Functions Rule
The derivative of a constant function is zero.
If y = K where ‘K’ is constant
Then = 0
Ex. If y = 10 =0
The derivative of the product of a constant and a function is equal to the product
of the constant and the derivative of the function.
If y = where ‘a’ is constant and a 0
= =
Rule No. 2: The Linear Function Rule
If y = mx + c where ‘m’ and ‘c’ are constant
Then = = = m
Example
If y = 10x + 100 find

=10


Rule No. 3: The Power Function Rule
The derivative of a power function where ‘n’ is any real number is

ie If y = =
Examples

(1) y = ; =5 =5

(2) y = =-4× = 4 =
=5 3 5

(3) y = , 3
= 52 = 52

(4) y= ,
Rule No. 4: Addition Rule of Sum Rule
The derivative of a sum of two function is simply equal to the sum of the separate
derivatives.
If u =f(x) and v = g(x) are the two functions
then (u +v) = + (Derivative the first function + Derivative of second)
Ex. 1:
If y = +6 - 5x + 10
= + 6 5 10
=3 +6 - s x+ 10
=3 12 5
=========
Ex. 2
If y = 10 3 +4 +10 +5find
= 60 + 12 - 12 + 20x


Rule No.5: Subtraction Rule
The derivative of a difference of two functions is equal to the difference of the separate
derivates.
If y = u – v then
= - (ie derivative of the first function – minus the derivative of the second
function)
Ex. 1
If y = -4 -6 +10
= -4 - 6 + 10
= 5 - 12 - 12x
=========
Ex. 2
If Q = 20 -2 - 4P - 50 find
20 -2 -4 P- 50
= 60 –8 –4
=====
Rule No. 6: Product Rule or Multiplication Rule

The derivative of the product of two functions is equal to the first function
multiplied by the derivative of the second function plus the second function multiplied
by the derivative of the first function.
If u = f(x) and v = g(x) are the two given function
Then
(u.v) = u +v
Ex. 1
If y = 3 2 5 find
Solution : Consider u =3 , v = (2x – 5)
=12 , =2


= (3 2) + (2x-5) 12
=6 + 24 - 60
= 30 - 60
=====
Ex.2
Find if y = ( )
=u + v.
= [( ) + (2x +1) + ( +x) (4 +3 )

=2 + +2 + +4 +3 +4 +3
= 6 - 10 + 4
==========
Rule No. 7: Quotient Rule or Division Rule
The derivative of the quotient of two functions is equal to the denominator multiplied by
the derivative of the numerator minus the numerator multiplied by the derivative of the
denominator, all divided by the square of the Denominator.
If y = where u = f(x) and v = g(x) then
.
=
Ex. 1.
Given f(x) = find
here u =5 = 15
v = 4x + 3 =4
=
40 45
= 4 3
Ex.2.
If y = find


u= = 6
V = = 3

=

= =
Rule No. 8: Chain Rule or Function of Function Rule
If ‘y’ is the function of ‘u’ where ‘u’ is the function of ‘x’,then the derivative of ‘y’
with respect to ‘x’ ie is equal to the product of the derivative of ‘y’ with respect to ‘u’
and the derivative of ‘u’ with respect to ‘x’.
ie. If y = f(u), where u = f(x)
then =
Ex. 1
If y = 7u + 3 and u = 5 find
=
= = 7, 10x
= 7×10x = 70x
Ex.2
If y = 5 3 find using the chain rule
Let u = 5 3
y=
=


= 4 = 10x
=4 10
Substituting for 5 3 ‘u’ we get

4 5 3 10
= 40x 5 3
Problem 1. If y = 10 and z = find
[Ans : 21 ]
Problem 2. Find If y = 3
[Ans: 6 + 24 +18x]
Rule No.9: Parametric Function Rule
If both ‘x’ and ‘y’ are the differential function of ‘t’ then the derivative of ‘y’ with
respect to ‘x’ is obtained by dividing the derivative of ‘y’ with respect to ‘t’ by the
derivative of ‘x’ with respect to ‘t’. ie. If x = f(x) and y = g(t) then
= = ÷
Examples
Find if x = and y =4at

= 4a =4
= =
Rule No. 10: Exponential Function Rule
The derivative of Exponential function is the exponential itself, if the base of the function
is ‘e’, the natural base of an exponential.
If y = , then =
If y = , then =
If y = , then =


Examples
1. If y = find
= 2
If y = , where u = g(x), then
= . =
Examples
Ex. 1
Find if y =
Let u = 3, then = 2x
y=
= = 2x
=2x since u = +2
=====
Ex. 2
Find if y =

Let u = = 2x
= 2x
=====
Ex. 3

Find if y =

[Ans : ( ) (12 +12x)
Rule No.11. Logarithmic Function Rule

The derivative of a logarithmic function with natural base such as is
log
= =

If y = log u, when u = g(x), then
= .


= · = ·
Ex. If y = log x3 find
Let u = x3 then = 3x2
Y = log u since x3 = u
= · 3x2
= · 3x2 since u = x3
= =
Rule No. 12: Differentiation of One function with respect to another Function
Let f(x) and g(x) be two functions of ‘x’ then derivative of f(x) with respect to g(x)
is

=

(ie differentiate both function and divide)

Examples.
1. Differentiate (x2 + 1) with respect to( 2x-1)

x2 1 = 2x

x2 1 = 2x

= =1

2. Differentiate (3x2 + 2x) with respect to (x2 + 5x)

3x2 2x = 6x + 2

x2 5x = 2x + 5

=



3. Differentiate with respect to
Let u =
=
Let u
=
=
= =
Rule No. 13. Inverse Function Rule
The derivative of the inverse function (ie )is equal to the reciprocal of the
derivative of the original function ie
ie =
Examples:
1. Find the of the function y = x5
= 5x4


= =
2. Find the derivative of the inverse function
y = (x2 + 2) (x2 + 4)
= (x2 + 2)(2x) + (x2 + 4)(2x)

= 2x3 + 4x + 2x3 + 8x
= 4x3 + 12x
=
4x3 12x
1.8 HIGHER ORDER DERIVATIVES (DERIVATIVES OF DERIVATIVES)

′
The first order derivatives of ‘y’ with respect to ‘x’ is or , then second
order derivative is obtained by differentiating the first order derivatives with respect to
‘x’ and is writer as

= and is denoted as ″
It measures the slope and the rate of change of the first derivative, just as the first
derivative measures the slope and the rate of change of the original or primitive function.
The third order derivative measures the slope and the rate of change of the second
order derivative etc.
Ex. If f(x) = 5x4 + 4x3 + 3x2 + 10x
′ = 20x3 + 12x2 + 6x + 10
″ = 60x2 + 24x + 6
= 120x + 24
120
Problems
1. If y = 5x2 + 3x2 – 8x + 2 find [Ans: 30]

″ ″
2. If y = x4 + x2 – x find and [Ans: = 12x2 +2, = 24x]


1.9 IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION
An equation y = 10x2+5x+2 directly expresses ‘y’ in terms of ‘x’. Hence this
function is called ‘Explicit Function’.
As equation x3y + xy + 2x = 0 does not directly express ‘y’ in terms of ‘x’. This
types of function is called ‘Implicit Function’. Some implicit functions can be easily
converted to explicit function by solving for the dependent variable in terms of the
independent variable, others cannot. For those not readily convertible, the derivative
may be found by implicit differentiation.
In order to find the derivative of implicit function every term in both sides of the
function is to be differentiated with respect to ‘x’.
Examples:
1. Find of the following 3x-2y = 4

= 3x - 2y = 4

=3–2 = 0

= -2 = -3

= = 3/2 = 1.5
2. Find the derivative of 4x2 – y3 = 97

Take the derivative with respect to ‘x’ of both sides

4x2 - y3 = 97

4x2 = 8x, 97 = 0

y3 =3.y2

= 3y2
The derivative of the function is

8x – 3y2 =0

– 3y2 = -8x

= =


3. Find the derivative of the function 3y5 – 6y4 + 5x6 = 243 [Ans: ]
USE OF THE DERIVATIVE IN MATHEMATICS AND ECONOMICS

1.10 INCREASING AND DECREASING FUNCTIONS
A function is and increasing function if the value of the function increases with an
increase in the value of the independent variable and decrease with a decrease in the
value of the independent variable.
For a function y f(x)
When x1 < x2 then f(x1) ≤f(x2) the function is increasing
When x1 < x2 then f(x1) < f(x2) the function is strictly increasing
A function is a decreasing function if the value of the function increases with a fall
in the value of independent variable and decrease with an increase in the value of
independent variable.
For a function y = f(x)
When x1 < x2 then f(x1) ≥ f(x2) the function is decreasing
When x1 < x2 then f(x1) > f(x2) the function is strictly decreasing
The derivative of a function can be applied to check whether given function is an
increasing function or decreasing function in a given interval.
If the sign of the first derivative is positive, it means that the value of the function
f(x) increase as the value of independent variable increases and vice versa.
i.e. a function y = f(x) differentiable in the interval [a, b] is said to be an increasing
function if and only if its derivatives an [a, b] is non negative.

i.e. > 0 in the interval [a, b]
A function y = f(x) differentiable in the interval [a, b] is said to be a decreasing

function if and only if its derivative an [a, b] is non positive.

i.e. < 0 in the interval [a, b]
The derivative of a curve at a point also measures the slope of the tangent to the
curve at that point. If the derivative is positive, then it means that the tangent has a


positive slope and the function (curve) increases as the value of the independent variable
increase. Similar interpretation is given to the to the decreasing function and negative
slope of the tangent.
A function that increases or decreases over its entire domain is called monotonic
function.
Y Fig. 1.7
Y Fig. 1.6
O a X O b X
Increasing function at x = a slope > 0 Decreasing function at x = b slope < 0
Example:1 Check whether the function 3x3 + 3x2 + x – 10 is increasing or decreasing

Solution: 3x3 3x2 x – 10
= 9x2 + 6x + 1 = (3x+1)2
The function is always positive because (3x+1)2 is positive since square of a real
number is always positive. Therefore the function is increasing.
Example:2 Test whether the following functions are increasing, decreasing or

stationary state at x = 4
(a) 2x2 – 5x + 10 [Ans: Increasing}
(b) X3 – 10x2 + 2x + 5 [Ans: Decreasing]
(c) Y = x4 – 6x3 + 4x2 – 13 [Ans: Stationary]


1.11 CONCAVITY AND CONVEXITY
Convex Function
A function is convex at x = a if in an area very close to [a, f(a)] the graph of the
function lies completely above its tangent line.
″
i.e. if second derivative of a function f(x) is positive i.e. > 0, the function is
said to be a convex function in the given interval.
″
> 0 f(x) is convex at x = a.
Graphs of the function convex at x = a
Y Fig. 1.9
Y Fig. 1.8
O a X O a X
′ ″ ′ ″
> 0, >0 < 0, >0
Concave Function
A function f(x) is concave at x = a if in some small region close to the point [a, f(a)]
the graph of the function lies completely below its tangent line.
″
i.e. if the second derivative of a function f(x) is negative i.e. < 0 , then the
function is said t be a concave function in the given interval.
″
< 0, f(x) is concave at x = a.
Graph of the function concave at x = a


Y
Y
O a X O a X
Fig. 1.11
Fig. 1.10
′ ″
′
> 0, ″
<0 < 0, <0
Example: 1
Show that the curve of y = 2x – 3 +1 convex from below for all positive values of
x.
Solution:
Y = 2x – 3 + 1
=2-1
=2

Since =2 > 0 for x > 0 the curve is convex from below for all positive
values of x.
Example: 2
Show that the demand curve P = – 8 is downward sloping and convex from
below


=
Since (slope) is negative the demand curve is downward sloping.

= is positive, the demand curve is convex from below.
Example:3
Test to see if the following functions are concave or convex at x = 3
(a) Y = -2x3 + 4x2 + 9x – 15 [Ans: Concave]
(b) Y = (5x2 – 8)2 [Ans: Convex]
1.12 RELATIVE EXTREMA

A relative extremum is a point at which a function is at a relative maximum or
minimum. To be at a relative maximum or minimum at a point ‘a’, the function must be
at a relative ‘plateau’, i.e. neither increasing nor decreasing at ‘a’. If the function is
neither increasing nor decreasing at ‘a’, the first derivative of the function at a must equal
to zero or be undefined. A point in the domain of a function where the derivative equals
zero is called critical point of critical value.
The second derivative is used to distinguish between relative maximum and
minimum mathematically.
′
If we assume =0
″
(a) > 0 shows function is convex, graphs of function lies completely above its
tangent line at x = a and the function is at a relative minimum at x = a.
″
(b) < 0 shows function is concave, graphs of function lies completely below its
tangent line at x = a and the function is at a relative maximum at x = a.
″
(c) = 0, the test is inconclusive.


Y
Y
O a X O a X
Fig. 1.13
Fig. 1.12
Relative Minimum at x = a Relative Maximum at x = a
Ex. 1
Find the relative extrema for the following functions by (a) finding the critical
value (b) determining if at the critical values the function is at a relative maximum or
minimum
(a)
f(x) = -7x2 + 126x – 23
′ = -14x + 126
x
x = 9 critical value
″ = -14
x
″ = -14 < 0 concave, relative minimum
x
(b)
f(x) = 3x3 – 36x2+ 135x – 13

[Ans: x = 3, x = 5 critical values]
″ = 18x - 72
x
″ = -18 < 0 [concave, relative maximum]
3
″ = 18 > 0 [convex, relative minimum]
5


1.13 INFLECTION POINTS
An inflection point is a point on the graph where the function crosses its tangent
line and changes from concave to convex or vice versa.
Inflective points occurs only where the second derivative equals zero or is
undefined. The sign of the first derivative is immaterial.
Conditions
1. ″ a = 0 or is undefined
2. Concavity changes at x = a
3. Graph crosses its tangent line at x = a
a a a
a ′
a =0 ′
a <0 ′
a >0
′
a =0 ″
a =0 ″
a =0 ″
a =0
″
a =0
Example:
For the following function find the critical values and test to see it at the critical
values the function is at a relative maximum, minimum or possible inflection point.
If y = (5 = x)3
′
= 3(5-x)2 -1 = -3(5 – x)2 = 0
X = 5 critical value.


″
= 6 (5 – x)
″
(5) = 6(5 – 5) = 0 test inconclusive
Since the second derivative is zero the function is at an inflection point at x = 5 not
relative maximum or minimum.
1.14 CURVE SKETCHING
Whether we are interested in function as a purely mathematical object or in
connection with some application to the real world; it is often useful to know what the
graphs of the function looks like. We can obtain a good picture of the graph using certain
crucial information provided by derivatives of the function and certain limits. Curve
sketching is a practical application of differential calculus. We can make a fairly accurate
sketch of any function using derivatives.
By using the first and second derivatives we can determine whether a function is
maxima or minima at a particular value of ‘x’ the concavity of the function, the point of
inflection etc.
The General guide lines for curve Sketching
The following steps are helpful when sketching curves. Since they are the general
guidelines for all curve, each step may not always apply to all functions.
(a) Domain: Find the domain of the function. This will be useful when finding
vertical asymptotes and determining critical numbers.
(b) Intercepts: Find the ‘x’ and ‘y’ intercepts of the function if possible. To find the ‘x’
intercept, we set y = 0 and solve the equation for x. Similarly for ‘y’.
(c) Symmetry: Determine whether the function is an odd function, an even function
or neither odd nor even. If f(-x) = f(x) for all ‘x’ in the domain, then function is
even and symmetric about the ‘y’ axis. If f(x) = -f(x) for all ‘x’ in the domain, then
the function is odd and symmetric about the origin.
(d) Asymptotes: For vertical asymptotes, check for rational functions zero
denominators, or undefined by function points. For horizontal asymptotes,
consider lim
(e) Determine critical numbers: Checking where ′ x = 0 or ′

x does not exist
and finding intervals where ‘f’ is increasing or decreasing.
(f) Local Maximum/Minimum: Use the first derivative test to find the local
maximums and minimums of the function.


(g) Concavity and points of Inflection: Determine when ″ x is positive and
negative to find the intervals where the function is concave upward and concave
″
downward and also determine inflection point checking where x = 0 or
″′
x does not exist.
(h) Plot intercepts, critical points, inflection points, asymptotes, and other points as
needed.
(i) Connect plotted points with smooth curve.
1.15 OPTIMIZATION OF FUNCTION
Optimization is the process of finding the relative maximum or minimum of a
function. Without the help of graph, this is done with the techniques of relative extrema
and inflection points.
Steps
(1) Take the first derivative, set it equal to zero, and solve for the critical points. This
step is known as necessary condition or first order conditions. It shows the
function is neither increasing no decreasing; but at a plateau at that level of ‘x’.
(2) Take the second derivative, evaluate it at the critical point and check the signs. If
at a critical point ‘a’.
″
< 0, the function is concave at ‘a’ and hence at a relative maximum.
″
> 0, the function is convex at ‘a’ and hence at a relative minimum.
″
= 0, the test is inconclusive.
This test is known as second order condition or sufficient condition.
Relative Maximum Relative Minimum

′ ′
=0 =0
″ ″
<0 >0
Example: Optimize f(x) = 2x3 – 30x2 + 126x + 59

′
= 6x2 – 60x + 126
Critical points is at 6x2 – 60x + 126 = 0
= 6(x-3)(x-7) = 0


X = 3, x = 7
″
= 12x – 60
″
3 = 12 3 – 60 = -24 < 0 concave, relative maximum
″
7 = 12 7 – 60 = 24 > 0 convex, relative minimum.
i.e. the function is maximum at x = 3 and minimum at x = 7
Successive Derivative Test for Optimization
If ′ = 0 as in the case of point of inflection of different type, the second

derivative test is inconclusive. In such cases without a graph, the successive derivative
test is helpful for obtaining optimum value.
Conditions
(1) If the first non zero value of a higher ordered derivative, when evaluated at a
critical point, is an odd numbered derivative (3rd , 5th etc.), the function is at an
inflection point.
(2) If the first non zero value of a higher ordered derivative, when evaluated at a
critical point ‘a’ is an even numbered derivative, the function is at a relative
extremum at ‘a’.
Marginal Concepts
Marginal cost in economics is defined as the change in total cost incurred from the
production of an additional unit.
Marginal revenue is defined as the change in total revenue brought about by the
sale of an extra good. Marginal Cost (MC), Marginal Revenue (MR) can each be
expressed mathematically as derivatives of their respective total functions.
i.e. If TC = TC (Q); then MC =
If TR = TR (Q); then MR =
Examples: 1
If TC = 25Q2 + 7Q + 10
Then MC = = 50Q + 7


If TR = 50Q - 2Q2
Then MR = = 50 - 4Q
Ex. 2
Given the demand function P = 50 – 5Q, then the marginal revenue function can
be found by first finding the total revenue function and then taking the derivative of the
function with respect to Q.
Demand function P = 50 - 5Q
TR = P Q = (50 – 5Q)Q
= 50Q – 5Q2
MR = = 50 – 10Q
Ex. 3
Find maximum profits ‘π’ for a firm, given total revenue R = 4000Q – 33Q2 and
total cost function C = 2Q3 – 3Q2 + 400Q + 5000, assuming Q > 0.
Profit function: π = R – C
Π = (4000Q – 33Q2 )– (2Q3 – 3Q2 + 400Q + 5000)
= -2Q3 – 30Q2 + 3600Q – 5000
Taking the first derivative, set it equal to zero, and solving this for Q we get
critical points.
′ = -6Q2 – 60Q + 3600 = 0
= -6(Q2 + 10Q + 600) = 0
= -6(Q + 30)(Q – 20) = 0
Q = -30 Q = 20 critical points
[We can also use Quadratic formula]
Taking the second derivative we get

″
= -12Q – 60
″
(20) = -12(20) – 60 = -300 < 0
[Taking Q = 20 ignoring negative value]


The function is concave and relative maximum. It means profit is maximum at Q = 20
When Q=20 the profit π is
π(20) = 2(20)3 – 30(20)2 + 3600(20) – 5000 = 39000
Ex. 4
Maximize the following total revenue TR function by finding the critical values,
testing the second order conditions and calculating the maximum TR If TR = 32Q – Q2
TR = 32Q – Q2
TR′ = 32 – 2Q
Setting TR′ = 0, 32 – 2Q = 0
32 = 2Q Q 32/2 = 16 critical value
TR″ = -2 < 0 concave, relative maximum

TR when Q = 16 is 32(16) – 162 = 256
Ex. 5
Given the total revenue R = 15Q – Q2 find the Average Revenue (AR), Marginal
Revenue (MR) and the level of output Q that maximizes Total Revenue (TR).
TR = R = 15Q – Q2
AR = = = 15 – Q
MR = TR′ = = 15 – 2Q
Setting TR′ = MR = 0 we get 15 – 2Q = 0

15 = 2Q and Q = 7.5 critical value.
TR″ = -2 < 0 concave, relative maximum.

TR when Q = 7.5 is
15(7.5) – (7.5)2
= 112.5 – 56.25 = 56.25
The output that maximize TR=7.5
AR when Q=7.5 is 15-7.5=7.5


MR when Q=7.5 is 15-2(7.5)=15-15=0
Ex. 6.
From the total cost function TC = Q3 – 5Q2 + 60Q find (1) the average cost AC
function (2) the critical value at which AC is minimized and (3) the minimum average
cost.
TC = Q3 – 5Q2 + 60Q
(1) AC = = = Q2 – 5Q + 60
(2) AC is minimum at
AC′ = 2Q – 5 = 0, Q = 2.5
AC″ = 2 > 0 convex, relative minimum

(3) AC (2.5) = (2.5)2 – 5(2.5) + 60 = 53.75
Ex. 7:
A firm has the following total cost, C and demand function Q
C = 1/3 Q3 – 7Q2 + 111 Q + 50 and P = 100 – Q
(1) Write down the total revenue function R in terms of Q
(2) Formulate the total profit function
(1) Price function P = 100 – Q
Revenue = P Q
The revenue function is R = PQ = 100Q – Q2
(2) Profit function is TR – TC functions
= (100Q – Q2) – (1/3 Q3 – 7Q2 + 111Q + 50)
Π = -1/3 Q3 + 6Q2 – Q – 50
Ex. 8.
A producer has the possibility of discriminating between the domestic and foreign
markets for a product where the demands functions are
Q1 = 24 – 0.2P1 Q2 = 10 – 0.05P2


Where TC = 35 + 40Q, what price will be firm charge (a) with discrimination and
(b) without discrimination.
(a) With discrimination
Q1 = 24 – 0.2P1
(Multiply with 5 to get 1P1)
5Q1 = 120 – P1
P1 = 120 – 5Q1
TR1 = (120 – 5Q1)Q1 = 120Q1 -5 Q12
MR1 = 120 – 10Q1
The firm will maximize profit where MC = MR1 = MR2
TC = 35 + 40 Q
MC = 40
When MC = MR1, 40 = 120 – 10 Q1, Q1 = 8
When Q1 = 8, P1 = 120 – 5(8) = 80
In the second market with Q2 = 10 – 0.05P2
Multiplying with 20 on both sides
20 Q2 = 200 – P2
P2 = 200 – 20 Q2
TR2 = (200 – 20 Q2) Q2 = 200 Q2 - 20 Q22
MR2 = 200 – 40 Q2
When MC = MR2, 40 = 200 - 40 Q2
Q2 = 4
P2 = 200 – 20(4) = 120
Hence P1 = 80, P2 = 120, Q1 = 8, Q2 = 4
(b) If the producer does not discriminate, P1 = P2 = P and two demand function can be
combines as follows.
Q = Q1 + Q2 = 24 – 0.2 P + 10 – 0.05 P
= 34 – 0.25P


P = 136 – 4Q
TR = (136 – 4Q)Q = 136Q – 4Q2

MR = 136 – 82
At profit maximizing level MC = MR
40 = 136 – 8Q
Q = 12
At Q = 12 P = 136 – 4(12) = 88


CHAPTER 2
CALCULUS AND MULTIVARIABLE FUNCTIONS
2.1 FUNCTIONS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES
It is evident that all sciences are concerned with large number of inter-related
variable quantities and that only by a process of severe simplification can functional
relations between two variables be applied at all. For example, in economics, when one
individual considers his purchases on a market, the demand for any good depends, not
only on the price of the good, but also on his money income and on the prices of related
goods.
To measure the effect of a change in a single independent variable on the

dependent variable in a multivariable function, the partial derivative is needed. In a
function Z = f(x, y), the two variables x and y can be varied in any way quite
independently of each other. In particular, one of the variables can be allotted a fixed
value and the other allowed to vary. Two functions can be obtained in this way, Z as a
function of x only (y fixed) and z as a function of y only (x fixed). The derivative of each
of these functions can be defined at any point and evaluated according to the familiar
“partial derivatives” of the function Z = f(x, y), the term “partial” implying that they are
defined only for very special variations of the independent variables. One partial
derivative follows when x is varied and y kept constant, the other when y is varied and x
kept constant.
The partial derivative of z with respect to x measures the instantaneous rate of

change of z with respect to x while y is held constant. It is written as , , fx (x, y), fx or
zx. Expressed mathematically,
∆ , ,
= lim∆
∆
The partial derivative of z with respect to y measures the instantaneous rate of

change of z with respect to y while x is held constant. Expressed mathematically,
, ∆ ,
= lim∆
∆
Example 1:
Given Z = f(x, y) = 3x2+xy+4y2. Find the partial derivatives.


When finding (or fx), we must bear in mind that y is to be treated as a constant
during differentiation. As such, y will drop out in the process if it is an additive constant
(such as the term 4y2), but will be retained if it is a multiplicative constant (such as in
term xy). Thus we have
= fx = 6x + y
Similarly, by treating x as a constant, we find that
= fx = x + 8y
Example 2:
Given z = f(u, v) = (u + 4) (3u + 2v), the partial derivatives can be found by use of
the product rule. By holding v constant, we have
fu = [(u+4) 3] + [1 (3u+2v)]
= 2(3u+v+6)
Similarly, by holding u constant, we find that
fv = [(u+4)2] + 0(3u+2v)
= 2(u+4)
Example 3:
Given z = (3x – 2y)/(x2 + 3y), the partial derivatives can be found by use of the
quotient rule.

= fx =

=

= fy =

=


2.2 RULES OF PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION
Partial derivatives follow the same basic patterns as the rules of differentiation in
one-variable case. A few key rules are given below.
1. Product Rule:
Given z = g(x, y) h (x, y)
= g(x, y) + h (x, y)
= g(x, y) + h (x, y)
Example:
Given z = (3x + 5) (2x + 6y), by the product rule
= (3x + 5) 2 + (2x + 6y)3
= 6x + 10 + 6x + 18y
= 12x + 18y + 10
= (3x + 5)6 + (2x + 6y)0
= 18x + 30 + 0
= 18x + 30
2. Quotient Rule
,
Given z =
,
, ,

=
,
, ,
=
,
Example:
Given z = (6x + 7y)/5x+3y), by the quotient rule


=

=

=

=

=

=
3. Generalized Power Function Rule:
Given z = ,
=n ,
=n ,
Example:
Given z = 9
=5 9 4
= 20 9
=5 9 18
= 90y 9
2.3 SECOND – ORDER PARTIAL DERIVATIVES
Given a function z = f(x, y), the second-order (direct) partial derivative signifies
that the function has been differentiated partially with respect to one of the independent
variables, twice while the other independent variable has been held constant.


= = fxx
= = fyy
In effect, fxx measures the rate of change of the first order partial derivative fx with
respect to x while y is held constant. And fyy measures the rate of change of the first-
order partial derivative fy with respect to y while x is held constant.
The cross (or mixed) partial derivatives fxy and fyx indicate that first the primitive
function has been partially differentiated with respect to one independent variable and
then that partial derivative in turn been partially differentiated with respect to the other
independent variable.
fxy = =
fyx = =
By young’s theorem, if both cross partial derivatives are continuous, they will be
identical.
Example:
The first, second, and cross partial derivatives for z = 2x3 – 11x2y + 3y2
First order partial derivatives
= fx = 6 22
= fy = 11 +6
Second – order direct partial derivatives
= fxx = 12x – 22y
= fyy = 6


Cross – partial derivatives
22
2
22
2.4 OPTIMIZATION OF MULTIVARIABLE FUNCTIONS
For a multivariable function such as z = f(x, y) to be at a relative minimum or

maximum, three conditions must be met:
(1) The first – order partial derivatives must equal zero simultaneously. That is
= fx = 0
= fy = 0
This indicates that at the given point (a, b), called a critical point, the function is
neither increasing nor decreasing with respect to the principal axes but is at a relative
plateau.
(2) The second – order direct partial derivatives, when evaluated at the critical point (a,b)
must both be negative for a relative maximum and positive for a relative minimum. That
is,
For a relative maximum
= fxx < 0
When x = a and y = b, the
values derived from the first
= fyy < 0
condition
For a relative minimum
= fxx > 0
= fyy > 0


This ensures that from a relative plateau at (a, b) the function is concave and
moving downward in relation to the principal axes in the case of a maximum and convex
and moving upward in relation to the principal axes in the case of a minimum.
(3) The product of the second – order direct partial derivatives evaluated at the critical
point must exceed the product of the cross partial derivatives also evaluated at the
critical point. Since fxy = fyx by Young’s theorem, this condition can also be written as
fxx . fyy – (fxy)2 > 0

This added condition is needed to preclude an inflection point or saddle point.
If fxx . fyy – (fxy)2 < 0, the function is at an inflection point when fxx and fyy have
the same signs and the function is at a saddle point when fxx and fyy have different signs.
If fxx.fyy – (fxy)2 = 0 the test is inconclusive.
Example:
Find the critical points and test whether the function is at a relative maximum or
minimum, given
Z = 2y3 – x3 + 147x – 54y + 12
(a) Take the first – order partial derivatives, set them equal to zero, and solve for x and y
= -3x2 + 147 = 0
3x2 = 147
x2 = 49
x=±7
= 6y2 - 54 = 0

6y2 = 54
y2 = 9
y = ±3
With x = ±7, y =±3, there are four distinct sets of critical points:
(7, 3), (7, -3), (-7, 3), (-7, -3)
(b) Take the second – order direct partial derivatives, evaluate them at each of the critical
points, and check the signs


fxx = -6x
(i) Point (7, 3) fxx = -42 <0

(ii) Point (7, -3) fxx = -42 <0
(iii) Point (-7, 3) fxx = 42 >0
(iv) Point (-7, -3) fxx = 42 >0
fyy = 12y
(i) Point (7, 3) fyy = 36 >0

(ii) Point (7, -3) fyy = -36 <0
(iii) Point (-7, 3) fyy = 36 >0
(iv) Point (-7, -3) fyy = -36 <0
Since there are different signs for each of the second direct partials in (i) and (iv) ,
the function cannot be at a relative maximum or minimum at (7, 3) or (-7, -3). With both
signs of the second direct partial derivatives negative in (ii) and positive in (iii), the
function may be at a relative maximum at (7, -3) and at a relative minimum at (-7, 3), but
the third condition must be tested first to ensure against the possibility of an inflection
point.
(c) Take the cross partial derivatives and check to make sure that fxx . fyy – (fxy)2 > 0
fxy = 0
fxx . fyy – (fxy)2 = -42 -36 – 0 = 1512 > 0
at (7, -3) and
fxx . fyy – (fxy)2 = 42 36 – 0 = 1512 > 0
at (-7, 3)
The function is maximized at (7, -3) and minimized at (-7, 3).
2.5 CONSTRAINED OPTIMIZATION WITH LAGRANGE MULTIPLIERS
Differential calculus is also used to maximize or minimize a function subject to

constant. Given a function f(x, y) subject to a constraint g(x, y) = k, where k is a constant,
a new function L can be formed by setting the constraint equal to zero (that is, k – g(x, y)


= 0), multiplying it by (that is, [k – g(x, y)]), and adding the product to the original
function:
L = f(x, y) + [k – g(x, y)]
Here L is the Largrangian function, is the Lagrange multiplier, f(x, y) is the

original or objective function, and g(x, y) is the constraint. Since the constraint is always
set equal to zero, the product [k – g(x, y)] also equals zero, and the addition of term
does not change the value of the objective function. Critical values x0, y0 and 0 at which
the function is optimized, are found by taking the partial derivatives of L with respect to
all three independent variables (x, y and ), setting them equal to zero, and solving
simultaneously.
= Lx = 0
= Ly = 0
=L =0
The second – order conditions can now be expressed in terms of a bordered

Hessian |H| as
Where
fxx =
|H| =
0
fyy =
fxy =
If all the principal minors are negative, the bordered Hessian is positive definite,
and a positive definite Hessian always satisfies the sufficient condition for a relative
minimum.
If all principal minors alternate consistently in sign from positive to negative, the
bordered Hessian is negative definite, and a negative definite Hessian always meets the
sufficient condition for a relative maximum.


Example:
Optimize the function

Z = 4x2 + 3xy + 6y2
Subject to the constraint
X + y = 56
(1) Set the constraint equal to zero by subtracting the variables from the constant.
56 – x – y = 0
(2) Multiply this by
(56 – x – y) = 0
(3) Add the product to the objective function is order to form the Lagrangian function L
L = 4x2 + 3xy + 6y2 + (56 – x – y)
(4) Take the first order partial derivatives with respect to x, y and and set them equal
to zero.
= Lx = 8x + 3y – =0
= Ly = 3x + 12y – =0
= L = 56 – x – y = 0
(5) Solving these equations simultaneously, we get
X = 36, y = 20 and = 348
(6) Substituting the critical values (that is, x = 36, y = 20) in the objective function we get
Z = 4(36)2 + 3(36)(20) + 6(20)2

= 4(1296) + 3(720) + 6(400)
= 9744
(7) To see whether this is relative minimum or maximum, we consider second – order
condition in terms of bordered Hessian.
8 3 1
|H| = 3 12 1
1 1 0


Starting with the second principal minor |H|
|H | = |H| = 8(-1) – 3(-1) + 1(-9) = -14
With |H |< 0, |H| is positive definite, which means that Z is at a minimum.
2.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE LAGRANGE MULTIPLIER
The Lagrange multiplier approximates the marginal impact on the objective

function caused by a small change in the constant of the constraint. With = 348 in the
example presented above, for instance, a one-unit increase (or decrease) in the constant of
the constraint would cause z to increase (or decrease) by approximately 348 units.
Lagrange multipliers are often referred to as shadow prices. In utility maximization
subject to a budget constraint, for example, will estimate the marginal utility of an extra
unit of income.
2.7 DIFFERENTIALS
The derivative may be treated as a ratio of differentials in which dy is the

differential of y and dx the differential of x. Given a function of a single independent
variable y = f(x), the differential of y, dy, measures the change in y resulting from a small
change in x, written dx.
Given y = 2x2+5x+4, the differential of y is found by first taking the derivative of y

with respect to x, which measures the rate at which y changes for a small change in x.
= 4x + 5 a derivative or rate of change and then multiplying that rate at which y

changes for a small change in x by a specific change in x (that is, dx) to find the resulting
change in y (that is, dy).
dy = (4x + 5)dx
Example:
If y = 8x3 + 10x2 – 7
dy = (24x2 + 20x) dx
2.8 TOTAL AND PARTIAL DIFFERENTIALS
For a function of two or more independent variables, the total differential

measures the change in the dependent variable brought about by a small change in each
of the independent variables. If z = f(x, y), the total differential dz is expressed
mathematically as


dz = dx + dy
Where and are the partial derivatives of z with respect to x and y

respectively, and dx and dy are small changes in x and y. The total differential can thus
be found by taking the partial derivatives of the function with respect to each
independent variable and substituting these values in the formula above.
Example
Given z = 2x3 + 6xy + 5y3
= 6x2 + 6y; = 6x + 15y2
dz = (6x2 + 6y)dx + (6x + 15y2)dy
2.9 TOTAL DERIVATIVES

Given a case where z = f(x, y) and y = g(x), that is, when x and y are not
independent, a change in x will directly affect z through the function f and indirectly
through the function g. To measure the effect of a change in x on z when x and y are not
independent, the total derivative must be found. The total derivative measures the direct
effect of x on z, , plus the indirect effect of x on z through . In brief, the total
derivative is
= +
Example:
Given z = x4 + 8y and y = x2 + 2x + 10, the total derivative with respect to x is
= +
= 4x3; = 8; = 2x + 2
Substituting, we get
= 4x3 + 8 (2x + 2)
= 4x3 + 16x + 16


2.10 IMPLICIT AND INVERSE FUNCTION RULES
Functions of the form y = f(x) express y explicitly in terms of x and are called
explicit functions. Functions of the form f(x, y) = 0 do not express y explicitly in terms of
x and are called implicit functions. For example, x2 + y2 = 16 is an implicit function
between x and y.
If an implicit function f(x, y) = 0 exists and 0 at the point around which the
implicit function is defined, the total differential is simply
+ =0
Since a derivative is a ratio of differentials, we can then rearrange the terms to get
the implicit function rule.
Notice that the derivative is the negative of the reciprocal of the corresponding
partial derivatives. That is,
1
= =
Given a function y = f(x), an inverse function x = f-1(y) exists if each value of y

yields one and only one value of x. Assuming the inverse function exists, the inverse
function rule states that the derivative of the inverse function is the reciprocal of the
derivative of the original function. Thus, if y = f(x) is the original function, the derivative
of the original function is , the derivative of the inverse function [x = f-1 (y)] is ,
and
= provided 0
Example 1:
Given 6x2 – 5y = 0 the derivative is found as follows


=

=

Example 2:
Given y = 40 – 4p, find the derivative for the inverse of the function.
= =-
2.11 APPLICATION OF CALCULUS OF MULTIVARIABLE FUNCTIONS IN

ECONOMICS
(1) Marginal Productivity
The marginal product of capital (MPk) is defined as the change in output brought
about by a small change in capital when all other factors of production are held constant.
Given a production function such as
Q = 36 KL – 2K2 – 3L2
the MPK is measured by taking the partial derivative . That is
MPK = = 36L – 4K
Similarly, the marginal product of labour (MPL) is measured by taking the partial
derivative .
That is,
MPL = = 36K – 6L


Example:
Find the marginal productivity of inputs x and y, given the production function
Q = x2+2xy+3y2
MPx = = 2x + 2y
MPy = = 2x + 6y
(2) Income and Cross Elasticities of Demand
Income elasticity of demand y measures the percentage change in the demand for
a good resulting from a small percentage change in income, when all other variables are
held constant. Cross elasticity of demand c measures the relative responsiveness of the
demand for one product to changes in the price of another, when all other variables are
held constant. Given the demand function
Q1 = a – bP1 + cP2 + mY
Where y = income and P2 = the price of a substitute good, the income elasticity of
demand is
y
=
=m
=
– 1 2
And the cross elasticity of demand is
c
=
=c
2
=
– 1 2
Example:
Given the demand for beef


Qb = 4850 - 5Pb + 1.5 Pp + 0.1Y with Y = 10,000, Pb = 200, and the price of
pork Pp = 100.
y
=
= 0.1
.
=
4850 5 200 1.5 100 0.1 10000

=
4850 1000 150 1000
= 0.2
c
=

= 1.5
4850 5 200 1.5 100 0.1 10000
.
=
4850 5 200 1.5 100 0.1 10000
= 0.03
(3) Differentials and Incremental Charges
Frequently in economics we want to measure the effect of a change in an

independent variable (labour, capital, items sold) on the dependent variable (costs,
revenue, profit). If the change is a relatively small one, the differential will measure the
effect. Thus, if z = f(x, y), the effect of a small change in x on z is given by the partial
differential
dz = dx
The effect of larger changes can be approximated by multiplying the partial derivative by
the proposed change. Thus


∆z ≈ ∆x
If the original function z = f(x. y) is linear.
∆
=
∆
and the effect of the change will be measured exactly
∆z = ∆x
Example:
A firm’s costs are related to its output of two goods x and y. The functional
relationship is
TC = x2 – 0.5xy + y2
The additional cost of a slight increment in output x will be given by the

differential
dTC = MCx dx
= (2x – 0.5y)dx
The costs of larger increments can be approximated by multiplying the partial

derivatives with respect to x by the charge in x. Mathematically,
∆TC ≈ ∆x
≈ (2x – 0.5y) ∆x
(4) Optimization of Multivariable Functions in Economics
In economics, we have to deal with multi-product firms or firms selling different

varieties of the same product. Maximizing profits or minimizing costs under these
conditions involve function of more than one variable. Thus, the basic rules for
optimization of multivariate functions are required.
Example:
A firm producing two goods x and y has the profit function.
Π = 64x – 2x2 + 4xy – 4y2 + 32y – 14


To find the profit-maximizing level of output for each of the two goods.
(a) Take the first order partial derivatives, set them equal to zero, and solve for x
and y simultaneously
Πx = 64 – 4x + 4y = 0
Πy = 4x – 8y + 32 = 0
When solved simultaneously, we get
X = 40 and y = 24
(b) Take the second-order direct partial derivatives and make sure both are
negative, as is required for a relative maximum.
Πxx = -4 < 0
Πyy = -8 < 0
(c) Take the cross partial derivatives to make sure that Πxx Πyy – (Πxy)2 > 0
Πxx = -4, Πyy = -8, Πxy = 4
Πxx Πyy – (Πxy)2 = (-4) (-8) – 42 = 6 > 0
Therefore, profit is indeed maximized at x = 40 and y = 24
At that point, π = 1650
(5) Constrained Optimization of Multivariable Functions in Economics
Solution to economic problems frequently have to be found under constraints

(example, maximizing utility subject to a budget constraint or maximizing profit subject
to resource constraint or minimizing costs subject to some such minimal requirement of
output as a production quota). Use of Lagrangian function greatly facilitates this task.
Example:
Find the critical values for minimizing the costs of a firm producing two goods x
and y when the total cost function is C = 8x2 – xy + 12y2 and the firm is bound by contract
to produce a minimum combination of goods totaling 42, that is subject to the constraint
x + y = 42.
(a) From the Lagrangian function
L = 8x2 – xy + 12y2 + (42 – x – y)
(b) Take the first order partial derivatives and set them equal to zero.


Lx = 16x – y – =0
Ly = -x +24y – =0
L = 42 – x – y = 0
(c) Solving simultaneously, we get
X = 25, y = 17 and = 383
(d) Consider the second-order condition in terms of bordered Hessian |H|to ensure
that the critical values x = 25, y = 17 and = 383 minimizes the function
16 1 1
|H| = 1 24 1
1 1 0
|H | = 1(-1 - 24) – 1(16 + 1)
= -25 – 17 = -42 < 0
With |H | < 0, |H| is positive definite and c is minimized.
The minimum value of c is attained by substituting the critical values in the

objective function. That is,
C = 8 (25)2 – (25)(17) + 12 (17)2
= 8 (625) – 425 + 12 289
= 5000 – 425 + 3468
= 4621
(6) Marginal Utility
The marginal utility of a commodity X (MUx) is defined as the change in total

utility brought about when all other commodities (quantity consumed) are held constant.
Given a utility function
U = 3x2 + 5xy + 6y2
the MUx is measured by taking the partial derivative . That is
MUx = = 6x + 5y


Similarly, the marginal utility of commodity y (MUy) is measured by taking the
partial derivative . That is
MUy = = 5x + 12 y
(7) Marginal Rate of Substitution or Rate of Commodity Substitution
Marginal Rate of Substitution of x for y (MRSxy or RCSxy) is the rate at which x is

substituted for y (number of y foregone to attain one more unit of x), when utility held
constant. Given a utility function
U = 3x2y + 5xy2 + 7
The MRSxy is measured by taking the ratio of partial derivatives of the utility function
with respect to x and y. That is
6 5 2
MRSxy = =
3 2 10
The negative sign prefixed indicates that an increase in x should result in a decrease in y.
(8) Marginal Rate of Technical Substitution (MRTSLK)
Marginal Rate of Technical Substitution of Labour for capital (MRTSLK) is defined

as the rate of substitution of labour for capital, keeping output constant. Given a
production function
Q = AL K
The MRTSLK is measured by taking the ratio of partial derivatives of the production
function with respect to labour and capital. That is,

MRTSLK = =

(negative sign shows the inverse relation)


CHAPTER III
SPECIAL DETERMINANTS AND MATRICES IN ECONOMICS
3.1. THE JACOBIAN
The Jacobian determinant permits testing for functional dependence. A Jacobian

determinant, denoted as |J|, is composed of all the first order partial derivatives of a
system of equations arranged in ordered sequence.
Given, Y1= f1(x1, x2)
Y2= f2(x1, x2)
Then, |J|=
Note that the elements of each row we the partial derivatives of one function with
respect to each of the independent variables x1, x2, …… If |J|=0, the equations we
functionally dependent and if |J| ≠ 0, the equations we functionally independent.
,
Sometimes Jacobian is also expressed as |J| =
,
Example 1:
Use Jacobian to test for functional dependence
Y1 = 2x1 + 3x2
Y2 = 4x12 + 12x1x2 + 9x22
|J| =
=2
= 3


= 8x1 + 12x2
= 12x1 + 18x2
2 3
∴|J| =
8x1 12x2 12x1 18x2
|J| = 2(12x1 + 18x2) – 3 (8x1 + 12x2)
|J| = 0
Since |J| = 0, there is functional dependence between the equations.
Example 2:
Use Jacobian to test for functional dependence for the following system of equations
Y1 = 6x1 + 4x2
Y2 = 7x1 + 9x2
|J| =
=6
= 4
=7
=9
6 4
∴|J| =
7 9
|J|= 26
========


Example 3:
Test for functional dependence by means of Jacobian
Y1 = x12 - 3x2 + 5
Y2 = x14 - 6x12x2 + 9x22
|J| =
= 2x1
= -3
= 4x13 – 12x1x2
= -6x12 + 18x2
2x1 3
∴|J| = 3
4x1 – 12x1x2 6x12 18x2
|J| = 2x1 (-6x12 + 18x2) – -3 (4x13 – 12x1x2)
|J| = 0
Since |J| = 0, the equations are functionally dependent .
Example 4:
Y1 = 1.5x12 + 12x1x2 + 24x22
Y2 = 2x1 + 8x2
Find out Jacobian?


|J| =
= 3x1 + 12x2
= 12x1 + 48x2
=2
=8
3x1 12x2 12x1 48x2

∴|J| =
2 8
|J| = (3x1 + 12x2)8 – 2(12x1 + 48x2)
|J| = 0
3.2 THE HESSIAN
A Hessian determinant or simply a Hessian denoted as | | is a determinant

composed of all the second order partial derivatives. In the two variable case,
Z = f(x, y) then
| | =
Thus, | | is composed of second under partial derivatives, with second order

direct partials on the principal diagonal and second order cross partials off the principal
diagonals in the Hessian determinant Zyx = Zxy following Young’s Theorem.
If the first element on the principal diagonal or first principal minor, IH1I = Zxx is
positive and the second principal minor IH2I = is also positive, then the
Hessian is called positive definite. That is, if IH1I>0 and IH2I > 0, then IHI is positive
definite.


Positive definite Hessian fulfils the second order condition for minimum. Similarly, if
the first principal minor IH1I =Zxx is negative and second principal minor IH2I =
is positive, then the Hessian is negative definite. That is, if IH1I < 0 and IH2I
> 0, the Hessian is negative definite. A negative definite Hessian fulfills second order
condition for maximum.
Example 1:
Given Z = 3x2 – xy + 2y2 – 4x – 7y + 12 use Hessian to check second order condition.
| | =
Zx = 6x – y – 4
Zxx = 6
Zxy = -1
Zy = -x + 4y – 7
Zyy = 4
Zyx = -1
| | = 6 1
1 4
The first principal minor | 1| = Zxx = 6 > 0
6 1
Second principal minor | 2| = = 23 > 0
1 4
Since | 1| 0 and | 2| > 0, the Hessian is positive definite and Z is minimized.
Example 2:
If Q = 5u2 + 3uv + 2v2 find out if Q is positive or negative definite
| |=
Qu = 10u + 3v
Quu = 10


Quv = 3
Qv = 3u + 4v
Quv = 3
Qvv = 4
10 3
∴| |=
3 4
| 1| = 10 > 0
10 3
2= = 31 > 0
3 4
∴ Q is positive definite.
Example 3:
Examine the following function for maximum or minimum
U = 2x2 + y2 – 4x + 8y
| |=
Ux = 4x - 4
Uxx = 4
Uxy = 0
Uv = 2y + 8
Uyx = 0
Uyy = 2
4 0
∴| |=
0 2
| 1| = 4 > 0
4 0
2= =8>0
0 24
∴ U is minimum.


Example 4:
Given the profit function π = 15Q1 + 18Q2 – 2Q12 – 2Q1Q2 – 3Q22, use the Hessian for
second order condition
| | = π11 π12
π21 π22
Π1 = 15 – 4Q1 – 2Q2
Π11 = -4
Π12 = -2
Π2 = 18 – 2Q1 – 6Q2
Π21 = -2
Π22 = -6
4 2
∴| |=
2 6
| 1| = -4 < 0
4 2
| 2| = = 20 > 0
2 6
∴ U is minimum.
Since | 1| < 0 and | 2| > 0, Hessian is negative definite, and the profit function (Π) is
maximized.
3.3 THE DISCRIMINANT
The discriminant is used for positive or negative definiteness of any quadratic

form. The determinant of a quadratic form is called the discriminate and is denoted as
| |.
Given the function of two variable, Z= f(x, y), the quadratic form is
Z = ax2 + bxy + cy2
The discriminant | | is formed by placing the coefficients of squared terms on the

principal diagonal and dividing the coefficients of the nonsquared terms equally between
the off diagonal positions. That is,


| |=
If the first principal minor | 1| = a is positive and the second principal minor | 2|
= is also positive then the discriminant | | is called positive definite. That is, if
| 1| > 0 and | 2| > 0, | | is positive definite and z is positive for all non-zero values of x
and y. If | 1| < 0 and | 2| > 0, the discriminant | | is negative definite and z is negative
for all non-zero values of x and y.
Example 1:
Given Z = 2x2 + 5xy + 8y2, use discriminate to test for definiteness.
2
| |=
8
| |= 2 2.5
2.5 8
| 1| = 2 > 0
| 2| = 2 2.5
= 9.75 > 0
2.5 8
Since | 1| > 0 and | 2| > 0, z is positive definite.
Example 2:
Find discriminant if Q = 22Y12 + 46Y1Y2 + 42Y22, use discriminate to test for definiteness.
22
| |=
42
| | = 22 23
23 42
| 1| = 22 > 0


22 23
| 2| = = 395 > 0
23 42
Since | 1| > 0 and | 2| > 0, Q is positive definite.
Example 3:
Is Q= 5U2 + 3UV + 2V2 either positive or negative definite.
| |= 5 1.5
1.5 2
| 1| = 5 > 0
| 2| = 5 1.5
= 7.75 > 0
1.5 2
Since | 1| > 0 and | 2| > 0, Q is positive definite.
Example 4:
Use discriminant to determine the sign of definiteness, given
Y = -2x12 + 4x1x2 – 5x22 + 2x2x3 – 3x32 + 2x1x3
2
| |= 5
3
2 2 1
| |= 2 5 1
1 1 3
| 1| = -2 < 0
| 2| = 2 2
=6>0
2 5
2 2 1
| 3| = 2 5 1
1 1 3
| 3| =-2 5 1 2 1 2 5
-2 1
1 3 1 3 1 1
| 3| = -7 < 0


Since | 1| < 0, | 2| > 0 and | 3| < 0, Y is negative definite.
3.4 THE HIGHER ORDER HESSIANS
Given Y = f(x1, x2, x3) the third order Hessian denoted as | | consist of the
elements of various second order partial derivatives of Y. That is,
11 12 13
| |= 21 22 23
31 32 33
Conditions for a relative minimum or maximum depend on the signs of first,
second and third principal minors respectively. The principal minors are
| 1| = Y11
| 2| = 11 12
21 22
| 3| | |
If | 1| > 0, | 2| > 0 and | 3| > 0 then Hessian is positive definite and fulfills the
second order conditions for a minimum. If | 1| < 0, | 2| > 0 and | 3| < 0, then Hessian
is negative definite and fulfills the second order conditions for a maximum.
That is, if all principal minors of Hessian is positive, | | is positive definite and
second order conditions for a relative minimum we met. If all principal minors of
alternative sign between negative and positive |H| is negative definite and second order
conditions for a relative maximum are met.
Example 1:
Given the function Y = 5 + 10 + -2 4 2 -4 . Use

Hessian to check second order condition
Y Y Y
|H| = Y Y Y
Y Y Y
Y = -10 + 10 +
Y = -10 Y =0


Y = 1
Y = -4 +4+2
Y = 0 Y = -4 Y 2
Y = 2 8
Y = 1 Y =2 Y 8
10 1 1
H= 0 4 2
1 2 8
|H | = -10 0
|H | = 10 0
= 40 0
0 4
|H | = -10 4 2 0 2 0 4
-0 +1 = - 276
2 8 1 8 1 2
|H | 0, |H | 0 , |H | 0, |H| is negative definite and function is maximised.
Example 2:
Find extreme value of Z = 2 4 +2
Z Z Z
|H| = Z Z Z
Z Z Z
Z = 4 + +
Z = 4 Z =1
Z = 1
Z = + 8
Z = 1 Z =8 Z 2
Z = 2


Z = 1 Z =0 Z 2
4 1 1
|H| = 1 8 0
1 0 2
|H | = 4 0
|H | = 4 1 = 31 0
1 8
|H | = 4 8 0 - 1 1 0 + 1 1 8
0 2 1 2 1 0
= 54 0
|H | 0, |H | 0 and |H | 0, |H| is positive definite and Z is minimum
Example 3:
Use Hessian to check second order condition
Y= 3 5 6 4 2 4 +2 3
Y Y Y
|H| = Y Y Y
Y Y Y
Y = 6 -5- - 3
Y = 6 Y = -1
Y = -3
Y = - + 12 - 4+ 2
Y = -1 Y = 12 Y 2
Y = 2 8 2 3
Y = -3 Y =2 Y 8


6 1 3
|H| = 1 12 2
3 2 8
|H | = 6 0
|H | = 6 1
= 71 0
1 12
|H | = 6 12 2 - -1 1 2 -
+ 3
1 12
2 8 3 2 3 2
= 448 0
|H | 0, |H | 0 and |H | 0, |H| is positive definite Y is minimized.
Example 4:
Examine the profit function
= 180Q 200Q 150Q 3Q Q 2Q Q 2Q Q 4Q 5Q 4Q
for maximum
|H| =
= 180 -3Q -2Q -8Q
= -8 = -3
= -2
= 200-3Q - 2Q -10Q
= -3 = -10 2
= 150 2Q 2Q 8Q
= -2 = -2 8


8 3 2
|H| = 3 10 2
2 2 8
|H | = 8 0
|H | = 8 3
= 71 0
3 10
|H | = -8 10 2 - 3 2 - 3 10
- 3 + 2
2 8 2 8 2 2
= -520
|H | 0, |H | 0 and |H | 0, |H| is negative definite and profit is maximised.
3.5 BORDERED HESSIAN FOR CONSTRAINED OPTIMISATION
Optimisation means minimisation or maximization. Differential calculus can be

used to minimize or maximize a function subject to a constraint. Given a function, Z =
f(x, y) subject to a constraint g(x, y) = k, where k is a constant, a new function F can be
formed by
1) Setting the constraint equal to zero
2) Multiplying the constraint by language multiplier,
3) Adding the product to the original function.
That is, F = g(x, y) + [k- g (x, y)]
The first order conditions are found by taking partial derivatives of F with respect to all
three independent variables and setting them equal to zero. That is, Fx = 0, Fy = 0, F =
0. The second order conditions can be expressed in terms of bordered Hessain, denoted
as
|H| can be written as
F F g
|H| = F F g
g g 0


or
0 g g
|H| = g F F
g F F
If |H| 0 the function is maximized (H is negative de inite and if |H| 0 the function is

minimized H is positive de inite .
Example 1:
Optimise the function Z = 4 + 3xy + 6 subject to the constraint x + y = 56
Setting the constraint equal to zero,
56 – x – y = 0
Multiplying with and adding to the original function, we have
Z=4 + 3 xy +6 + [56 – x - y]
Taking the first order conditions
Zx = 0 8x + 3y – =0
Zy = 0 3x + 12y - =0
Z = 0 56 - x - =0
Zxx = 8 Zxy = 3
Zxy = 3 Zyy = 12
= 1 = 1
8 3 1
|H| = 3 12 1
1 1 0
|H| 12 1 3 1 3 12
8 – 3 +1
1 0 1 0 1 1
|H| -14 0
The function is minimized


Example 2:
Maximise the utility function U = 2xy subject to a budget constraint equal to 3x + 4y = 90.
Find out the critical values of , and and use bordered Hessian to test for second
order condition
Applying , we have
U = 2xy + [90 – 3x – 4y]
Ux = 2y –3 =0
Uxx = 0 Uxy = 2 3
Uy = 2x - 4 =0
Uyx = 2 Uyy = 0 4
U = 90 – 3x – 4y = 0
To apply Cramer’s rule, in matrix form, Ax = B
0 2 3 0
2 0 4 = 0
3 4 0 90
|A| = 0 0 4
-2
2 4 - 2
+ 3
0
4 0 3 0 3 4
= 48
0 2 3
|A | = 0 0 4
90 4 0
0 4 0 4 - 0 0
|A | = 0 -2 + 3
4 0 90 0 90 4
= 720
| |
x= | |
= = 15
0 0 3
A = 2 0 4
3 90 0


0 4 2 4 - 2 0
|A | = 0 -0 + 3
3 0 3 0 3 90
|A | = 540
| |
y = | |
= = 11.25
0 2 0
A = 2 0 0
3 4 90
|A | = 0 0 0
-2
2 0
+0
2 0
4 90 3 90 3 4
| |
λ = | |
= = 7.5
Using Bordered Hessian to test for second order condition
U U g
|H| = U U g
g g 0
0 2 3
|H| = 2 0 4
3 4 0
|H| 0 4 2 4 2 0
0 – 2 -3
4 0 3 0 3 4
|H| 48 0
U is maximized and |H| is negative definite
Example 3:
Find maximum of U = xy + x under the condition that 6x + 2y = 110
U = xy + x + [110 – 6x – 2y]
Ux = 0 y + 1 - 6 = 0
Uxx = 0 Uxy = 1 g =6
Uy = 0 x - 2 = 0


Uyx = 1 Uyy = 0 g =2
U =0 100 - 6 x 2y = 0
In matrix form A = B
0 1 6 1
1 0 2 = 0
6 2 0 110
|A| = 0 0 2
-1
1 2 - 1
+ 6
0
2 0 6 0 6 2
= 24
1 1 6
A1 = 0 0 2
110 2 0
|A1| = -1 0 2
-1
0 2 -
+ 6
0 0
2 0 110 0 110 2
= 224
| |
x = | |
= = 9.33
0 1 6
A2 = 1 0 2
6 110 0
|A2| = 0 0 2 - 1 2 - 1 0
- 1 + 6
110 0 6 0 6 110
|A2| 672.
| |
y= | |
= = 28
0 1 1
A3 = 1 0 0
6 2 110
0 0 1 0 1 0
|A3| = 0 -1 + -1
2 110 6 110 6 2
= 112


| |
λ= | |
= = 4.66
Forming Boarded Hessain
U U g
|H| = U U g
g g 0
0 1 6
|H| = 1 0 2
6 2 0
0 2 1 2 1 0
|H| 0 – 1 +6
2 0 6 0 6 2
|H| 24
Since |H| 0 U is maximized and |H| is negative definite.
Example 4:
Minimise the total cost C = 45 + 90 xy +90 when the firm has to meet a production
quota equal to 2x + 3y = 60
C = 45 + 90 xy +90 + [60 – 2x - 3y]
Cx = 0 90x + 90y - 2 = 0
Cy = 0 90x + 180y - 3 = 0
C =0 60 - 2x 3y = 0
In matrix form AX = B
90 90 2 0
90 180 3 = 0
2 3 0 60
Solving by Cramer’s rule we will have
x = 12
y = 12
= 1080


C C g
Now forming bordered Hessian |H| = C C g
g g 0
90 90 2
|H| = 90 180 3
2 3 0
|H| = - 450
Since |H| 0 C is minimized
Reference
1. Edward Dowling : “Introduction of Mathematical Economics”

Shaum Outline series
2. Alpha C Chiang : “Fundamental Methods of Mathematical Economics”
3. Taro Yamane : “Mathematics for Economics : An Elementary Survey”
4. Barry Bressler : “A Unified Introduction to Mathematical Economics”
5. Manmohan Gupta : “Mathematics for Business and Economics”


CHAPTER IV
INTEGRAL CALCULUS: THE INDEFINITE INTEGRAL
Differentiation is the process of finding out the rates of changes. If Y=f(x) is a

function of x, we can find the rate of change of Y with respect to x by differentiating the
function and thereby obtaining or f ‘(x). Thus if the hypothetical total utility function
is U= , where q is the quantity consumed, then =2q is the rate of change of total utility
as given by the differential coefficient of U with respect to q, and is the marginal utility
function.
But here an important question is, if the marginal utility function is 2q, what is the
total utility function? The problem is reversed here: because we are now given the
marginal utility function and we are to find the total utility function, or in other words
we are given the change in quantities and we have to calculate the total effects of the
change. This reverse process involves summation of the differences. Process of such
calculations is called integration.
Thus, reversing the process of differentiation and finding the original function
from the derivative is called integration or antidifferentiation. The original function F(x)
is called the integral, or antiderivative, of F’(x).
Definition
If the differential coefficient of F(x) w.r.t. x is f(x), then the integral of f(x) with respect to x
is F(x).
In symbols : if = f(x), then
The sign ‘ ’ is used to denote the process of integration. The differential symbol ‘dx’ is
written by the side of the function to be integrated to indicate the independent variable
with respect to which the original differentiation was made and with respect to which we
are now to integrate. In this way . means integration of f(x) w.r.t. x.
That is, suppose we want to integrate .
We know that 1 1
. =


Since is differential coefficient of ( )
the integral of is
In symbols therefore,
It may be noted that differentiating , we obtain .
Indefinite Integration (Constant of Integration)
Let us have a function F(x) = +C, then
= ; because differential coefficient of constant is zero
Hence by the definition of an integral
where C is called the constant of integration. Since C can take any constant value, the
integral is called indefinite integral. Here the left-hand side of the equation is read, “the
indefinite integral of f with respect to x.” The symbol is the integral sign, f(x) is the
integrand, and C is the constant of integration.
Rules of Integration
The following are the basic rules of integration.
Rule 1. Power Rule

1
(n 1)
1
Examples
1.
6


2.
1
2
3.
1
4.
√ dx = +C= √ +C
5.
dx = +C= C
Rule 2. Exponential Rule
, since = and

ie.
= +C
Rule 3. Logarithmic Rule

1 1
log ,
Rule 4. Integral of sum and difference
Integral of sum (or difference) of a number of functions is equal to the sum (or difference)
of their separate integrals.
i.e. = , and
Example
1. 1 =
1
=
+ - + +x +
=
- +x+C
Note : In the final answer we have to add up all the constants into a single constant C


Rule 5. The integral of a Constant
The integral of a constant k is
Rule 6. The Integral of the Negative
The integral of the negative of a function is the negative of the integral of that function.
ie For – , 1, thus

–
Rule 7. Integral of a Multiple
If a function is multiplied by a constant number, this will remain a multiple of the

integral of the function
Example
1. 4 =4 = + C = +C
2. 5 =5 - +4
=5 + + 4log x + C
Standard Results
In the following +C is implied in all the results.
1.
=
2.
= log
3.
=
4.
.


Initial conditions and Boundary Conditions
The initial condition mean y assumes a specific value when x equals zero (ie y =
when x = 0) and the boundary condition means y assumes a specific value when x
assumes a specific value (ie y = when x = ) In many problems an initial condition or a
boundary condition uniquely determines the constant (+C) of integration. By permitting
a unique determination of constant C, the initial or boundary condition clearly defines
the original function.
Examples
1. Given the boundary condition y = 11 when x = 3, the integral y = 2 is evaluated

as follows.
y= 2 2
Substituting y = 11 when x = 3, we have
11=2(3) + C
ie. C = 5
Therefore, y = 2x + 5. Note that even though C is specified, 2 remains an

indefinite integral because x is unspecified. Thus, the integral 2x + 5 can
assume an infinite number of possible values.
2. Find the integral for y = 3 dx given the initial condition y = 0 when x

=0
Here y = 3 dx
= 6
Substituting the initial condition y = 0 when x = 0 we get c = 0,
Hence y = 6
Integration By Substitution
Integration by substitution is a method of integration. Integration often is not

easy. Many functions may not be integrated at all. In order to integrate any given
function, we try to transform the function to a standard form by suitable substitution and
then use the standard result. For example, Integration of a product or quotient of two
differentiable functions, such as


12 2
cannot be done directly by using the simple rules. However if the integrand can be
expressed as a constant multiple of another function ‘ ’ and its derivative , integration
by substitution is possible. By expressing the integrand f(x) as a function of ‘ ’ and its
derivative , and integrating with respect to x.

The substitution method reverses the operation of the chain rule and the generalized
power function rule in differential calculus.
Examples
1. Find the integral of 12 2

Here the integrand can be converted to a product of another function ‘ and its
derivative times a constant multiple.
Let u = + 2, then
3 (take the derivate of u)
Then solving algebraically for dx, we get
dx =
Then substitute ‘ ’ for + 2, and for dx in the original integrand
=
12 2 12 . .
3
=
4
= (where 4 is a constant multiple of u)

4 ,
Then integrate w.r.t. ‘u’ using the power rule of integrate we get
4 4 =2


convert back to the terms of the original problem by substituting 2 for u, we have
12 2 =2 +C
=2 2 +C
when checking the answer by differentiating with the generalized power function
rule or chain rule, we have
2 2 4 2 3 12 2 which is the original function.
2. Integrate 5 7
Here we shall try to reduce it to the standard form : for this the obvious
way is to substitute u = (5x + 7). Then the given integral becomes
I= dx
But dx too will have to be changed to ‘du’ otherwise integration will not be possible.
Since u = 5x + 7
=5
or,
du = 5.dx
dx =
Therefore I = =
= +C
= +C
Putting back the value of u = 5x + 7, we get I = + C, which will be original

function.


Integration By Parts
If an integral is a product or quotient of differentiable functions of x and cannot be
expressed as a constant multiple of u. , integration by parts is frequently useful. This
method is derived by reversing the process of differentiating a product.
[f(x)g(x)] =f(x)g’(x) + g(x)f ’(x)
Taking the integral of the derivative, we get
f(x)g(x) = ’ ’
Then solving algebraically for the first integral on the right hand side.
’ ’
For more complicated functions integration tables are generally used. Integration tables
provide formulas for the integrals of as many as 500 different functions.
Example
1. Integrate 4 1
Here integration by parts is used to determine 4 1
First separate the two parts amenable to the following formula.
As a general rule, consider first the simpler function for f(x) and the more complicated
function for g’(x). By letting f(x) = 4x and g’(x) = 1 Then
f '(x) =4, and
g(x) = 1 , This can be integrated by using the simple power rule
then g(x) = 1 1 +
Then substitute the values for f(x), f ‘(x) and g(x) in the formula, we get
4 1 = f(x)g(x) – .


= 4x 1 – 1 4
=x 1 +4 – 1 4 dx
Then use the power rule + C, we get
4 1 =x 1 4 - 1 -4 x+C
=x 1 – 1 +C
Then check the answer by letting y(x) = x 1 - 1 +C and using the product
and generalized power function rules,
y'(x) = .4 1 1 .1 – 1
= 4x 1
=====
2. Find the integral 2

Here the integral 2 is determined as follows.
Let f(x) = 2x, and
g'(x) =
then f ’(x) = 2
g(x) = dx =
Substitute the values in the formula of integration by parts
= dx, we have
2 = . . .
= 2 . - 2
= 2 . -2
By applying the constant rule of integration, we have the original function as

=2 -2 +C
Then check the answer by finding y’(x) where
y =2 -2 + C, as
y ‘(x) =2 . + + 2 -2 = 2x


Economic Applications
Integrals are used in economic analysis in various ways.
Investment and Capital Formation
Capital formation is the process of adding to a given stock of capital, as the net
investment is defined as the rate of change in capital stock formation K over time, t. If the
process of capital formation is continuous over time, I(t) = . From the rate of
investment, the level of capital stock can be estimated. Capital stock is the integral with
respect to time of net investment
= =K(t) + C = K(t) + Ko
Here = I(t) is an identity, it shows the synonymity between net investment and
the increment of capital. Since I(t) is the derivative of K(t), it stands to reason that K(t) is
the integral or antiderivative of I(t), as shown in the last equation.
K(t) =
or K(t) =
where C = the initial capital stock
Example
/
1. The rate of net investment is given by I(t) = 140 and the initial stock of capital
at t = 0 is 150. What is the time path of capital K?
By integrating I(t) with respect to t, we obtain
=
= 140
= 140
By the power rule
K = 140 +C
= 80 +C
But C = =150, Therefore
K = 80 +150


Estimate Total Function From a Marginal Function
Given a total function (e.g, a total cost function) the process of differentiation can yield
the marginal function (eg., marginal cost function). Because the process of integration is
the opposite of differentiation, it should enable us, conversely, to infer the total function
from a given marginal function.
For example, since marginal cost is the change in total cost from an incremental
change in output MC = , and only variable costs change with the level of output, then
TC = dQ = VC + C = VC + FC
Since C = the fixed or initial cost FC
Problems
I. Determine the following Intergrals
a) 3.5
b)

c)
d)
e) 4
f)
g)
h) 5 2 3
i) Find the integral for y = 3 given the initial condition y = 0 when x = 0
j) Find the integral for y = 10 3 given the boundary condition y = 21

when x = 1
II. Determine the following integral using the substitution method
a) 10 3
b) 9
c) dx


d)
III. Use Integration by parts to evaluate the following integral
a) 15 4
b) dx

c) 16
IV. Economic Application
a) The rate of net investment is I =40 and capital stock at t = 0 is 75. Find the
capital function K
b) The rate of net investment is I =60 ,and capital stock at t = 1 is 85. Find K
c) Marginal cost is given by MC = =25+ 30 -9 , fixed cost is 55. Find i) Total
cost ii)Average cost and iii) variable cost function
d) Marginal revenue function is given by MR = 60 – 2Q -2 . Find i)TR function and
ii) the demand function P =f(Q)
Answers
a) 3.5x + C
b) x +C
c)
d) +C
e)
f) +C
√
g) logx + C
h) + + +C
i) +6


j) y = 2 – 3x + 22
II)
a) 3 +C
b) 9 +C
c) - +C
d) +C
III)
a) 6x 4 - 4 +C
b) - + C

c) −16x – 16 +C
IV)
a) K = 25 + 75
b) K = 45 + 40
c) i)TC =25Q + 15 –3 + 55
ii) AC = 25 + 15Q - 3 +
iii) VC = 25Q +15 -3
d) i) 60Q -- - +C
ii) 60 – Q -
REFERENCES
1. Edward T. Dowling, “ Introduction to Mathematical Economcs”, Third Edition,

Schaum’s Outline Series, Mc Graw – Hill International Edition.
2. Alpha C. Chiang & Kevin Wain wright, “Fundemental Methods of Mathematical

Economics”, Fourth Edition, Mc Graw – Hill International Edition.
3. Knut Sydsaeter & Peter J. Hammond, “Mathematics for Economic Analysis”,

Pearson Education.
4. Mehta & Madamani, “Mathematics for Economists”, Sultan Chand & Sons.
5. R.G. D. Allen, “Mathematical Analysis for Economics”, A.I. T. B.S. Publishers &
Distributers.

School of Distan on
nce Educatio

C
CHAPTE
ER V
INTEG
GRAL CALCUL
C LUS : TH
HE DEFIN
NITE IN
NTEGRA
AL
5.1. AR
REA UNDE
ER A CUR
RVE
The graph
h of a contin
nuous fun
nction y = f(x) is draw
wn in Fig 5..1.
If we seekk to measu ure the (sh

haded) areaa A enclossed by thee curve and d the x axxis
betweeen the two points a and b in thee domain, we may proceed in tthe followiing manneer.
First, we
w divide the interval (a, b) in nto n subin ntervals (n
not necessaarily equall in length h).
Four of these aree drawn in n Figure 5.1(a) – thatt is, n = 4 – the first being (x1, x2) and th he
last, (x4, x5). Sincce each of these reprresents a change
c in x,
x we may y refer to them
t as ∆x x1,
∆x2, ∆xx3, and ∆x4 respectiveely. Now, on the sub bintervals let
l us consstruct four rectangula ar
blocks such that the heigh ht of each block is equal to th he highest value of the t functio on
attaineed in that b
block (whicch happens to occur at the left--side bound dary of eacch rectang gle
here. The
T first block
b thus has the heeight f(x1) and the width
w ∆x1, aand, in gen neral, the ith
block has
h the heiight f(xi) and the wid dth ∆xi. The total arrea A* of th his set of blocks
b is th
he
sum
A* = (n = 4 in Fig. 5.1 (a) )
This, thou
ugh, is obv
viously nott the area under
u the curve we seek, but only a verry
rough approximaation thereeof.
Mathema nomic Analysiis II
atics for Econ Page 93
9


What makes A* deviate from the true value of A is the unshaded portion of the
rectangular block; these make A* an over estimate of A. If the unshaded portion can be
shrunk in size and be made to approach zero, however, the approximation value A* will
correspondingly approach the true value A. This result will be materialize when we try
a finer and finer segmentation of the interval (a, b), so that n is increased and ∆xi is
shortened indefinitely. Then the blocks will become more slender (if more numerous),
and the protrusion beyond the curve will diminish, as we can be seen in Figure 5.1 (b).
Carried to the limit, this “slandering” operation yield
Lim Lim
∑ ∆x i = A* = area A
n→∞ n→∞
Provided this limit exists. This equation, indeed, constitutes the formal definition
of an area under a curve.
5.2 DEFINITE INTEGRAL
For a given indefinite integral of a continuous function f(x),
If we choose two values of x in the domain, say a and b (a < b), substitute them
successively into the right side of the equation, and found the difference
- = F(b) – F(a)
We get a specific numerical value, free of the variable x as well as the arbitrary
constant C. This value is called the definite integral of f(x) from a to b. We refer to a as
the lower limit of integration and to b as the upper limit of integration.
In order to indicate the limits of integration, we now modify the integral sign to
the form . The evaluation of the definite integral is then symbolized in the
following steps:
b
= F(b) – F(a)
a
b b b
Where the symbol (also written as or ………….. ) is an instruction to
a a a
substitute b and a, successively, for x in the result of integration to get F(b) and F(a), and
then take their difference. As the first step, however, we must find the indefinite integral,
although we may omit the constant c, since the latter will drop out in the process of
difference – taking any way.


Example 1:
Evaluate 3 2
Since the indefinite integral has the value x3 + c , the definite integral is
a
3 3
3 2 = x3 b = 5 – 1 = 125 – 1 = 124
Example 2:
Evaluate 2
2 = ln 5 16 - ln 1 0
= ln 5 16
A Definite Integral as an Area under a Curve

The area under a group of continuous function such as that in Figure 5.1 from ‘a’
to ‘b’ (a < b) can be expressed more succinctly as the definite integral of f(x) over the
interval ‘a’ to ‘b’. Put mathematically,
lim ∆
Here ‘a’ is the lower limit and ‘b’ is the upper limit of integration.
Properties of Definite Integrals
(i) Reversing the order of the limits changes the sign of the definite integral
(ii) If the upper limit of the integration equals the lower limit of integration, the
value of the definite integral is zero.
0
(iii) The definite integral can be expressed as the sum of component subintegrals.

School of Distan on
nce Educatio

(iv) The su
um or diffeerence of two
t integrrals with identical
i liimits of in
ntegration is
equal to
t the defin
nite integra
al of the su
um or diffeerence of th
he two funcctions.
(v) The deefinite inteegral of a constant times

t a fu
unction is equal to the
t constan
nt
times the
t definitee integral of
o the functtion.
5.3 AR
REA BETW
WEEN CUR
RVES
The area oof a region between tw wo or morre curves can be evaluated by applying
a th
he
properrties of deffinite integ
grals outlin
ned above.. The proccedure can
n be demo onstrated by
b
using the
t examplle given beelow:
Examp
ple:
Using the propertiees of integrrals, the area

a of thee region beetween tw wo functionns
such ass y1 = 3x – 6x +8 and
2 d y2 = -2x + 4x + 1 frrom x = 0 to
2 t x = 2 is ffound in th
he followin
ng
way.
(a) Dra
aw a rough
h sketch of the graph of the funcction and shade
s in th
he desired area
(b) Notte the relattionship beetween thee curves. Since

S y1 liees above y2, the desirred region is
simply
y the area u under y1 minus
m the arrea under y2 between n x = 0 and
d x = 2. Heence,
Mathema nomic Analysiis II
atics for Econ Page 96
9


A= 3 2 6 8 2 2 4 1
A= 3 2 6 8 2 2 4 1
(Using property (iv) )
A= 5 2 10 7
= 3 5 2 7 0
2
= 20 14 - 0
CONSUMERS’ SURPLUS
A demand function p = f(Q) represents the different prices consumers are willing
to pay for different quantities of a good. If the equilibrium price is PE and equilibrium
quantity is QE, then consumers who would be willing to pay more than PE benefit. Total
benefit to consumers is called consumers’ surplus. Mathematically,
Consumers’ surplus = - QEPE
Example
Given the demand function P = 42 – 5Q – Q2. Assuming that the equilibrium price
is 6, the consumer’s surplus is evaluated as follows
at P = 6 42 – 5Q – Q2 = 6
Q2 + 5Q – 36 = 0
(Q + 9)(Q – 4) = 0
Therefore, Q = -9 or Q = 4
Since negative quantity is not feasible, we consider Q = 4
Consumers’ Surplus = 42 – 5Q – Q2 4 6

4
= 42 - 24
0


= 168 40 - 24
= - 24
PRODUCERS’ SURPLUS
A supply function Ps = fs (Qs) represents the prices at which different quantities of

a good will be supplied. If the market equilibrium occurs at (QE, PE), the producers who
would supply at a lower price than PE benefit. Total gain to producers is called
producers’ surplus. Mathematically,
Producers’ Surplus = QE PE -
Example
Given the supply function P = (Q + 3)2, find the producers’ surplus at PE = 81 and
QE=6
Producers’ Surplus = 6 x 81 - 3 2
3 3
6
= 486 -
0
= 486 - 243 9
= 486 – 234 = 252

=========


CHAPTER 6
INTRODUCTION TO DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND
DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS
Definition and concept of Differential Equations

The theory of differential equations is one of the most fascinating fields of
mathematics and also one of great practical importance. Differential equations play a
fundamental role in Physics, because they can express many of the laws of nature.
Indeed, this is why systematic studies of differential equations were begun by Newton
and Leibniz in the seventeenth century. Differential equations are also used in
economics.
Consider the marginal revenue function MR = . Here . This equation

involves an independent variable x (quantity sold) and derivative of a dependent
variable R w.r.t the independent variable x. This equation is termed as a Differential
equation.
Thus, as the name suggests, differential equation in an equation and unlike the
ordinary algebraic equations, in differential equations.
1. The unknown is a function (often of time), not a number.
2. The equation includes one or more of the derivatives of the function
Examples of differential equation include
5 9 y’ = 12y and y”-2y’+19 = 0
Definition
A differential equation is an equation which express an explicit or implicit
relationship between a function y = f (t) and one or more of its derivatives or differentials
y’, y”, ……… yn.
Symbolically a differential equation may be written as F(t, y’, y”, ……, yn) = 0
By integrating both sides of the differential equation, we are able to find the
relation between the dependent variable and the independent variable.


Example
To solve the differential equation y” (t) = 7 for all the functions y (t) which satisfy
the equation, simply integrate both sides of the equation and find integrals, i.e.,
y’ (t) = 7 dt = 7t + c1
y (t) = ∫(7t + c1 )dt = 3.5 t2 + c1 t + c
This is called a general solution which indicates that when c is unspecified, a

differential equation has an infinite number of possible solutions. If c can be specified,
the differential equation has a particular or definite solution which alone of all possible
solution is relevant.
KINDS OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
Ordinary Differential Equation:

An ordinary differential equation is one involving a single independent variable,
for which unknown is a function of only one variable.
For example f (x, t) where x = x (t) is the unknown function.
Partial Differential Equation:

For a partial differential equation, the unknown or the dependent variable is a
function of two or more variables, and one or more of the partial derivatives are
included.
For example = kz is a partial differential equation in the unknown

function z = z (x, y).
Order of Differential Equation

The order of a differential equation is the order of the highest derivatives in the
equation.
For example
1. = 2 x2 – 3x + 4 is the 1st order differential equation
2. = 3x – 4 is the 2nd order differential equation


3. = 4x + 3 is the 3rd order differential equation
4. 75 is the 3rd order differential equation
Degree of Differential Equation

The degree of a differential equation is the highest power to which the derivative
of highest order is raised.
For example
1. = 2x + 6 is the first degree differential equation
2. 5 = 0 is the fourth degree differential equation
3. 75 is the fifth degree differential equation
4. + 12 is the first degree differential equation
5. 4 is the fourth degree difference equation
Definition and concepts of Difference Equations

Economists often study the development through time of economic variables like
national income, the interest rate, the money supply, the production of oil and the price
of wheat etc. The focus is not on relating continuous changes of variables, but on discrete
changes. In planning models, for example, the comparison is between the initial base
year and the terminal year and the change in investment over the period is related to
change in time over a period. Both the changes are said to be discrete. The behavior of
these discrete equations that relate such quantities at different times are analysed in
difference equation.
Definition
A difference equation expresses a relationship between a dependent variable and
a lagged independent variable or variables whish changes at discrete intervals of time.
For exempt It = f (yt – 1), where I & Y are measured at the end of each year and
thus difference equation relates the independent variable, the dependent variable and its
successive difference.


Therefore F (t, yt , ∆ yt , ∆ yt, ……………… ) = 0 is a difference equation
The order of Difference Equation

The order of a difference equation is determined by the greatest number of periods
tagged. The first order difference equation expresses a time lag of one period; a second
order difference equation expresses a time lag of two periods and so on. The change in y
as t changes from t to t + 1 is called the first difference of y. It is written as
= Δ = Δ -

Where Δ is an operator replacing which is used to measure continuous change in
differential equation.
Example
1. It = a (yt-1 – yt-2) is a difference equation of order 2
2. Qs = a + b pt-1 is a difference equation of order 1
3. yt+3 - 9 yt+2 + 2 yt+1 +6 yt = 8 is a difference equation of order 3
4. Δ = 5 yt, that is
yt+1 – yt = 5 yt
i.e. yt+1 = 6 yt is a difference equation of order 1
5. Δ +Δ = yt is equivalent to
yt+2 - 2 yt+1 + yt + yt+1– yt = yt

or yt+2 – yt-1 - yt =0 is a difference equation of order 2
Problems
1. Find the order and degree of following differential equations
a) + = 18x
b) = 3
c) + y – 4 =0
d) -5 =0


e) + + 0
2. Find the order of the following difference equations

a) Δ = 8
b) Δ = a yt
c) Δ
d) yt+2 + a1 yt+1 + a2 yt = c
Answers
I a) Third order, first degree
b) First order, first degree
c) Third order, first degree
d) First order, fourth degree
e) Second order, first degree
II a) First order
b) First order
c) Second order
d) Second order
References
1. Edward T Dowling, “Introduction to Mathematical Economics” Third Edition,
Schaum’s Outline series, Mc Graw-Hill International Edition.
2. Knut Sydsacter & Peter J Hammond, “Mathematics for Economic Analysis”,
Pearson Education.
3. Mehta & Madanani, “Mathematics for Economists”, Sulthan Chand & Sons.
4. Alpha C Chiang & Kevon Wainwright, “Fundamental Methods of Mathematical
Economics”, Fourth Edition, Mc Graw Hill International Edition.
*****

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MAT

MATHEMATICS FOR ECONOMIC ANALYSIS -II

CONTENTS PAGE No.

CHAPTER 1 - THE DERIVATIVE AND THE RULES OF

CHAPTER 2 - CALCULUS AND MULTIVARIABLE

CHAPTER 3 - SPECIAL DETERMINANTS AND MATRICES 60

CHAPTER 4 - INTEGRAL CALCULUS: THE INDEFINITE

CHAPTER 5 - INTEGRAL CALCULUS : THE DEFINITE

CHAPTER 6 - INTRODUCTION TO DIFFERENTIAL

THE DERIVATIVE AND THE RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION

The concept of limit is useful in developing some mathematical techniques and

If K is small ‘r’ is large

Example: Limit x2 as ‘x’ approach to 4 is 16.

2. If ‘n’ is a positive integer

4. lim lim → lim →

5. lim . lim → . lim →

6. lim lim → lim →

7. lim → lim →

1. lim 10 10 [Rule 1]

3. lim 5 4 5 lim 4 5 24 5 16 80 [Rule 3]

4. lim 3 3 lim 3 lim 3 [Rule 4]

If the value of the function becomes indeterminate like , on substituting the

For example: lim = =

[Note (a2 – b2) = (a + b)(a – b)]

Example 3: lim

Factorizing the function we get

1. Find lim [ Ans: -1]

2. Find lim [Ans: 2]

3. Find lim [Ans: ]

5. Find lim [Ans: 2]

7. Find lim [Ans: ]

A function is said to be continuous in a particular region if it has determinate

1. f(x) is defined ie exists at x = a

2. lim exists

Fig 1.1 (a) x 0 (b) x

Graph of continuous function Fig 1.2 Graph of discontinuous function

1. Example: If f(x) = and lim

If x → 2, f(x) does not have a finite value

f(3) = 5(3)2 – 8(3) + 9 = 45 – 24 + 9 = 30

lim5 x 2– 8x 9 5 3 2 – 8 3 9 45 – 24 9 30

i.e., function is not defined at x = 3

So cannot be continuous at x = 3 even though the limit value exist at x = 3

3. Check for continuity of function at x = 1 when f(x) =

[Ans: Not continuous]

4. Check whether the function x2 + 3x – 2 is continuous for x = 2

1.3 THE SLOPE OF A CURVI LINEAR FUNCTION

Here x2 = x1 + ∆x, and y2 = f(x1 + ∆x) and y1 = f(x1)

We can express the slope ‘S’ as

Example: Find the slope of a curvilinear function, such as f(x) =4x2

Substituting the function we get

Dividing through out by ∆x we get

The derivative of a function at a chosen input value is the best linear

Solution: The definition of derivative is

Plugging the given function into the definitions of derivative we get

dividing throughout by ∆ we get

So the derivative f’(x) = 8x +10

1.5 DIFFERENTIABILITY AND CONTINUITY

A function is ‘differentiable’ at a point if the derivative exists at that point.

Conditions for differentiability at a point are :-