GLOBALIZATION

is a package of transnational flows of people, production, investment, information, ideas and

authority.

Alison Brysk in a digest paper stated that globalization is the growing inter-penetration of states,
Markets, Communications, and ideas. It is one of the leading characteristics of the contemporary world.

Assault on fundamental human dignity continue, and the very blurring of boarders and rise of
transnational actors that facilitated the development of a global human rights abuse.

GLOBALIZATION AS INTERNATIONALIZATION

It describe the growth in international exchange and interdependence . with growing flows of
trade and capital investment there is possibility moving beyond an international economy, to a
stronger’ version- the globalized economies are subsumed and rearticulated into the system by
international processes and transactions.

GLOBALIZATION AS LIBERARALIZATION

Is a process of removing government-imposed restrictions on movements between countries in

order to create an ‘’open ‘’, ‘’borderless’’ world economy.’’

GLOBALIZATION AS UNIVERSALIZATION

Global is used in the sense of being ‘’worldwide’’ and process of spreading various objects and
experiences to people at all corners of the earth. A classic example of this would be the spread of
computer, television etc.

GLOBALIZATION AS WESTERNIZATION OR MODERNIZATION

Globalization is understood as a dynamic, hereby the social structures of modernity ( Capitalism,

Rationalism, industrialism, bureaucratism, etc.) are spread the world over, normally destroying pre-
existent cultures and local self-determination in the process.
GLOBALIZATION AS DETERRITORIALIZATION

(or as the spread of Supraterritoriality). Globalization entails a configuration of geography, so that social
space is no longer wholly mapped in terms of territorial places, territorial distances and territorial
distances and territorial borders.

Anthony Giddens’ has thus defined globalization as the intensification of worldwide social relations
which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring many
miles away and vice versa.

Impacts of globalization and new technologies on drug-related crime and criminal organizations

IMPACT ON DRUG-RELATED ORGANIZED CRIME

Organized criminality has become more transnational and has been restructured and
decentralized; in other words, it too has globalized.

Trans national criminals do not respect borders in that , in carrying out their activities, they trail
their activities across several Jurisdictions to minimize law enforcement risks and maximize profit.

DRUG TRAFFICKING GROUPS UTILIZE NEW TECHNOLOGIES IN TWO DISTINCT WAYS:

A. To improve the efficiency of product delivery and distribution through the medium of secure,
instant communications;
B. To protect themselves and their illicit operations from investigation by drug law enforcement
agencies sometimes using techniques of counter-attack.
Drug traffickers use computers and electronic pocket organizers for storing information such as
Bank account numbers , contact details of associates, databases of assets and financial activity ,
sales and other business records, grid coordinates of clandestine landing strips and recipes for
synthetic drug manufacture and for electronic mail (e-mail) and other correspondence.

Surrogates receive instructions by telephone, Fax, Pager or computer on where to deliver

warehouse loads, whom to contact for transportation services and where to send the profits.

Columbian and Mexican drug cartels have used sophisticated equipment for the surveillance of
investigating officers and interception of their communications, collecting photographs of the
officers and other personal information.

Casinos have lo0ng been used as an outlet for laundering drug-related funds and other funds of
illicit origin; thus the extension of this activity through the internet is a logical step. Whereas
 many onshore gaming establishments follow regulations against money laundering, ‘’virtual
casinos’’ flourish in a completely unregulated environment.

EFFECTS OF GLOBALIZATION ON HUMAN RIGHTS

globalization is the trend to a single, interdependent, and integrated world. Globalization in
the20th century emerged with the linking of nations and people around the world through
transportation. Fast and efficient global transportation made possible bringing exotic fruits from warm
countries to colder countries and producing goods in one country using raw materials imported from
thousands of miles away. It brought cars and electronics from Asia to Europe and the Americas. It also
sent American software, films, and music to Asia, Europe, and Latin America. Globalization can also be
thought of as a process of integration and internationalization.

In the twenty-first century the speed of communications by telephone and the Internet has accelerated
the process of globalization. Another definition of globalization calls it an ensemble of developments
that make the world a single place, changing the meaning and importance of distance and national
identity in world affairs. This means that the positive and negative effects of bad news spread almost
instantaneously. As the planes hit the World Trade Center towers on

September 11, 2001, American stock exchanges dropped and closed, causing tremors that resounded in
European and Asian stock exchanges as soon as they opened a few hours later.

Materials and Methodology

Qualitative approach is the basic thrust in this study, moreover co relational approach has also been
adopted as impacts of globalization on human rights is the central theme of the study. First of all related
literature has been reviewed to rationalize the studied topic. Secondly Phenomenon of globalization has
been tackled in the context equation of this study and concept of human rights has been elaborated to
fit in this article. Then impacts of globalization on human rights have been analyzed.

Significance of Human Rights

Human rights are a set of universal claims to safeguard human dignity from illegitimate coercion,
typically enacted by state agents. The UN's inability to step into conflicts affects human rights around
the world. The United Nations Charter guarantees human rights to every man, woman, and child
regardless of nationality, religion, or race. If the UN is often powerless because strong lobbies form
among member nations who are not necessarily interested in human rights, it follows that the UN often
can't do much more than talk about human rights. United States still have to explain the invasion of Iraq
in 2003, and the validity of the American intervention is still being debated by people in the United
States and around the world. How do you protect the citizen of a democracy whose human rights are
violated outside his own country by a nondemocratic country? For example, some Chinese-Americans
who live permanently in the United States have been imprisoned in China for alleged crimes such as
publishing criticism of the Chinese government. In such cases, the U.S. government uses quiet
diplomacy, a process that may take years. Because no administration is willing to risk the important
trade relationship with China, the American citizen may languish in prison for some time until the

Chinese decide that release makes sense. Certainly the U.S. government or any government in a similar
position deplores the way its citizen is being treated, but unless it is ready to take drastic measures,
including war to protect its own citizen. It may take the case to the UN where a resolution might be
passed, but unless someone is willing to put "teeth" into it perhaps freezing the offending country's
accounts in international banks or denying an international loan there is no way for that citizen's own
country to protect him. In democracies, human rights are guaranteed by constitutions and laws. They
are protected by elected governments that may sometimes stray into abuses of human rights for
example, under the fear of terrorism and by judicial systems that are usually protected from
interference by legislative or administrative bodies.

POLICING MODELS

Police Structure: A Comparative Study of Policing Models Abstract

Policing is one of the most important of the functions undertaken by the every sovereign government.
For the state machinery, police is an inevitable organ which would ensure maintenance of law and
order, and also the first link in the criminal justice system. On the other hand, for common man, police
force is a symbol of brute force of authority and at the same time, the protector from crime. Police men
get a corporate identity from the uniform they wear; the common man identifies, distinguishes and
awes him on account of the same uniform. The police systems across the world have developed on a
socio cultural back ground, and for this reason alone huge differences exist between these police
systems. From the singular coordinated centralized system of police in Saudi Arabia organized under the
ministry of interior to the 42000 odd police forces that exist in (USA, policing mainly rests on either of
the two broad principles: (1) Policing by consent and (2) Policing by law. This paper tries to examine the
various police systems that exist in the world, taking Saudi Arabia, China, France, Spain, (united
kingdom, the United States of America and India, as examples of various types of policing models.
The paper takes cue from these systems, their positives and negatives, and tries to find out how the
Indian System, can be understood in the light of these policing models.
FORMS OF GOVERNMENT
1. Anarchy

Anarchism refers to the absence of government, a condition in which a nation or state operates without
a central governing body. This denotes an absence of public utilities or services, a lack of regulatory
control, limited diplomatic relations with other nation-states, and in most instances, a society divided
into different, locally-ruled settlements (or fiefdoms).

Real World Example

Following the outbreak of civil war in 1991, and the toppling of dictator Said Barre, Somalia entered into
a state of anarchy. The nation splintered into various autonomous regions, with tribal warlords claiming
authority over territorial domains. Following years of involvement from the international community,
the early 2000s saw the reestablishment of a transitional government, and in 2012, the passage of a
constitution, which established Somalia as a “federation,” or a union of partially self-governing states.

2. Aristocracy

Aristocracy refers to a form of government in which wealthy nobles are given power over those in lower
socioeconomic strata. Positions of leadership are reserved for those of an elite ruling class, a status
which is typically hereditary. The privileged ruling class is viewed, in this system, as possessing the
education, upbringing, and genetic traits required for rulership. Aristocracy promotes an inherent class
system that connects wealth and ethnicity with both the ability and right to rule.

Real World Example

Ancient Greece gives us both the word aristocracy (aristos=excellent; krato=power) as well as the
concept itself. In ancient Greece, a council of empowered leading citizens were viewed as offsetting the
absolute power bestowed upon a monarchy. Plato viewed the concept positively, referring to the
aristocracy as being comprised of “philosopher kings,” those with the knowledge and intellectual
curiosity to rule as well as the requisite wealth and bloodline. But as the idea of aristocracy has become
more distant from Ancient Greece, the dimensions of education and qualification have been stripped
from its meaning. Today, it more largely refers to an inherently unequal form of government in which a
small class of wealthy elites rules the majority population.

3. Bureaucracy

Bureaucracy refers to a form of government in which non-elected government officials carry out public
responsibilities as dictated by administrative policy-making groups. In a bureaucracy, rules, regulations,
procedures, and outcomes are formulated to maintain order, achieve efficiency, and prevent favoritism
within the system. Bureaucracies rarely serve as forms of government on their own but are instead
often used as mechanisms to underlie and strengthen overarching forms of government. Indeed,
bureaucratic streamlining of policy implementation can take place under the rule of a dictator or a
democracy.
Real World Example
Bureaucracy played an essential role in formalizing and equalizing taxation in Great Britain. In the 18th
century, as the United Kingdom engaged in an array of military campaigns around the world, it
established an encompassing taxation administration designed to the fund the war efforts. With a focus
on using improved technology and more efficient collection methodologies, the United Kingdom
established what would become the largest public administration network in the world to that date. The
tax collection bureaucracy — the Department of Excise — served the interests of the British monarchy
but would eventually give rise to the modern English bureaucracy, Her Majesty’s Civil Service.

4. Capitalism

Capitalism refers to a form of economy in which production is driven by private ownership. Capitalism
promotes the idea of open competition and extends from the belief that a free market economy — one
with limited regulatory control — is the most efficient form of economic organization. Its advocates
argue that capitalism promotes economic growth, improved standards of living, higher productivity, and
broader prosperity, whereas critics argue that capitalism inherently promotes inequality, exploitation of
the labor class, and unsustainable use of resources and land.

Real World Example

Capitalism takes various forms, from state and corporate capitalism to pure laissez-faire economy.
Present-day United States may be referred to as a liberal market economy, in which firms engage in
open competition within the context of existing hierarchies and market mechanisms. These hierarchies
and mechanisms tend to promote greater opportunities, access, and wealth for those who already enjoy
an ownership stake in the U.S. economy. It also limits opportunities for mobility and shapes
participation among those who do not have an ownership stake. Political influence is also directly
correlated to this ownership stake within the context of American capitalism.

5. Colonialism

Colonialism is a form of governance in which a nation will seek to extend its sovereignty over other
territories. In practical terms, colonialism involves the expansion of a nation’s rule beyond its borders.
This often entails occupation of indigenous populations and exploitation of resources to the benefit of
the ruling nation. The colonizer will also often impose its own economy, culture, religious order, and
form of government on an occupied people to strengthen its own authority.

Real World Example

In the 15th century, the European monarchies launched an age of nautical exploration. As merchants
and conquerors voyaged in search of new lands, they found indigenous cultures whose technology and
way of life they viewed as primitive. As was the tendency of European monarchies, British, French,
Spanish and Dutch colonists spread their influence and authority throughout the New World,
dismantling and sometimes eradicating entire cultures and peoples in the process. The most familiar
case is the race for occupation of North America, the establishment of the original 13 Colonies, the
systematic destruction of Native American culture, and the slave trade that gave way to the eventual
independence, prosperity, and cultural identity of the United States.
 6. Communism

In its purest form, Communism refers to the idea of common, public ownership of the economy,
including infrastructure, utilities, and means of production. Communism, as idealized by thinkers Karl
Marx and Friedrich Engels, denotes an absence of class divisions, which inherently requires the
subversion of the ruling class by the working class. As such, communism often incorporates the idea of
revolutionary action against unequal rule. Communism often positions itself as a counterpoint to the
economic stratification underlying capitalism. This resistance to stratification sometimes also takes the
form of a single-state authority, one in which political opposition or dissidence may be restricted. This
may manifest in some communist states as a more authoritarian form of governance, as typified by the
Soviet brand of communism that swept the globe during the mid-20th century.

Real World Example

Modern communism manifests as a descendant from Soviet communism — both ideologically and
materially — and is sometimes identified as the Marxist-Leninist variation on communism. Countries
that retain a single-party, Marxist-Leninist rulership include Cuba, Laos, Vietnam, and the People’s
Republic of China. Each of these nations adopted this form of government at the height of the Cold
War — between the 1940s and 1960s — under the auspices of Russian influence. While the Soviet
communist government crumbled in 1991, these nations remain committed to their own version of the
Marxist-Leninist ideology. Though North Korea refers to itself as communist, the singularity of its
rulership hews much closer to dictatorship.

7. Democracy

Democracy refers to a form of government in which the people are given a direct role in choosing their
leadership. Its primary goal is governance through fair representation, a system in which no single force
or entity can exercise unchecked control or authority. The result is a system which requires discourse,
debate, and compromise to satisfy the broadest possible number of public interests. Democracy is
typified by fair and free elections, civic participation, protection of human rights, and the rule of law.

Real World Example

While the notion of democracy finds its roots in Greek antiquity, its practice became the particular
province of settlers in the colonies of the United States. In the years leading up to the U.S. War for
Independence, the philosophical impetus of governance through representation played an important
role in building the case for revolt. It was also essential, as the framers of the Constitution constructed a
way of life around a concept called “representative democracy.” The colonists imported the racial,
ethnic, and socioeconomic inequalities of their European predecessors. But in representative democracy
and the Constitution, they also forged a framework for the marginalized to fight for their representation.
Today, just over half of the world’s nations self-identify as constitutional democracies.

8. Federalism

Federalism is a form of government that both combines and divides powers between a centralized
federal authority and an array of regional and local authorities. This is typically a system in which a set of
states, territories, or provinces are both self-governing and beholden to the authority of a broad,
unifying government structure. This is considered a balance in approach that provides roughly equal
status of authority to two distinct levels of government.

Real World Example

The United States was among the first true examples of a federation, a nation comprised from a set
regions, each with its own unique set of customs, laws, and demographic compositions. Today, much
philosophical debate exists over what level of independent authority states have versus the level of
central control that the federal government has over state laws. This debate — and the never-ending
stream of constitutional and judicial questions that arise from it — keep the state and federal authority
in constant and dynamic flux.

9. Feudalism

Feudalism is a social structure revolving around land ownership, nobility, and military obligation. Though
not a formal way of governing, feudalism refers to a way of life in which sharp, hierarchical divisions
separate noble classes, clergy, and peasantry. Opportunities for movement between these hierarchies is
largely impossible. In this system, peasants typically provided labor and military service in exchange for
occupancy of land and protection from outside forces under the authority of a noble lord. In turn,
lordships, or fiefdoms, often engaged one another politically, economically, and militarily. Feudalism
was a highly decentralized and agrarian way of life supplanted when the European monarchies created
the infrastructure to impose central rule over their various dominions.

Real World Example

France of the 11th century is particularly noteworthy for the decentralization of power and the
splintering of rulership into many smaller entities. During this period, travel through France would take
one through a series of fiefdoms in which small, ruling families would charge various fees for passage,
participation in trade, or use of the woodlands. Though feudalism would become largely extinct with the
rise of the monarchy, this brief revolution in France would represent a moment of evolution for the
ideas of private ownership and personal power.

10. Kleptocracy

Kleptocracy is a form of government in which the ruling party has either come to power, retained
power, or both, through means of corruption and theft. This is not a form of government that a ruling
class would ever self-apply but a pejorative term used to describe a group whose power rests on a
foundation of embezzlement, misappropriation of funds, and the transfer of massive amounts of wealth
from public to private interests. These private interests will typically overlap the ruling party’s own
economic interests.

Real World Example

Vladamir Putin’s post-Soviet Russia is a clear example of kleptocratic behavior by a ruling class. In the
early 1990s, as the former Soviet Union collapsed and confusion reigned, Putin and his allies from within
the leadership of the KGB squirreled away billions of dollars in public money. They would ultimately use
this money to fund a rise to power and, subsequently, the establishment of a quasi-authoritative regime
that handed central banking authority over to cronies, awarded friends with enormous no-bid contracts
to build the notoriously shoddy Sochi Olympic Village, and, in 2003, took control of a privately owned oil
company. In the latter case, Putin demonstrated his absolute power by claiming fraud against oil
magnate Mikhail Khodorkovsky. The charges led to the billionaire’s imprisonment for a decade and
parceling of his Yukos Oil Company to Putin’s friends and allies. In spite of its democratic facade, Putin’s
Russia meets the basic qualifications of a true kleptocracy.

11. Meritocracy

Meritocracy refers to a system in which authority is vested in those who have demonstrated the merits
deemed pertinent to governing or public administration. Often, these merits are conferred through
testing and academic credentials and are meant to create an order in which talents, abilities, and
intellect determine who should hold positions of leadership and economic stewardship. The result is a
social hierarchy based on achievement.

Real World Example

In a sense, America’s educational tradition suggests a meritocracy in which higher degrees denote
access to greater opportunity. However, because earning this degree does not itself confer any
automatic authority upon a person, the U.S. is not a true meritocracy. Today, Singapore offers a modern
example that aligns closest to the concept of meritocracy. Here, academic achievements play a deeply
determinant role in opportunities for economic advancement, professional mobility, and civic
leadership. Though this approach has helped Singapore to become a thriving economy, some express
concern that its meritocracy enforces sharp hierarchical divisions between members of the public and a
small population of intellectual elites.

12. Military Dictatorship

A dictatorship is a nation ruled with absolute power, in the absence of a democratic process, and
typically under the thumb of a single authority figure. In a military dictatorship, this authority usually
heads the nation’s armed forces. A military dictatorship often comes to power by subverting the existing
seat of government — sometimes though claims of corruption, weakness, or ineffectiveness — and
which subsequently uses the military to establish its own brand of law and order. Military dictatorships
will frequently prioritize law and order over due process, civil liberties, or political freedoms. Dissent or
political opposition can be dangerous or even deadly for those living under a military dictatorship.

Real World Example

In 2014, Thailand’s general election was disrupted by widespread protests against the government. The
result was a nullified election and the subsequent dismantling of the civilian government. In the vacuum
of power, General Prayut Chan-o-cha declared martial law, dissolved the senate, and placed himself in
control of the nation. Since then, Thailand has persisted under dictatorial military rule. The military
junta, called the National Council for Peace and Order, imposed nationwide curfews, forbids political
gatherings, threatens arrest for political opponents or activists, controls the media, and enforces
widespread internet censorship.
 13. Monarchy

Monarchy refers to a form of rule in which absolute power and authority are held by a single member of
a royal bloodline. In a monarchy, the individual in the seat of power is often believed to have been
placed there by “divine right,” or the will of God. In a monarchical society, power is inherited within a
line of succession that relates to one’s bloodline and birth-order within the ruling royal family. Though
the monarchy has historically indicated absolute power, the concept has become increasingly diluted
with the evolution of democratic principles. Today, some monarchies exist but are merely symbolic,
whereas others coexist within constitutional structures. However, until the 19th century, monarchy was
the most common form of government in the world.

Real World Example

Today, 45 nations in the world are governed by some form of monarchy. In many cases, this monarchy is
largely symbolic and subservient to a constitution, as with the 16 commonwealth states recognizing
Britain’s Queen Elizabeth II. By contrast, monarchies continue to enjoy far-reaching political authority in
Brunei, Liechtenstein, Monaco, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and Swaziland.

14. Oligarchy

Oligarchy refers to a form of government in which a smattering of individuals rule over a nation. In many
ways, oligarchy is a catch-all for any number of other forms of governance in which a specific set of
qualities — wealth, heredity, race — are used to vest power in a small group of individuals. So, forms of
government regarded as aristocratic, plutocratic, or totalitarian, for instance, can be referred to as
oligarchic. Oligarchies are often characterized by tyrannical or authoritarian rule and an absence of
democratic practices or individual rights.

Real World Example

The apartheid government that ruled South Africa from 1948 to 1991 was a racially constructed
oligarchy, one in which the minority white population exercised dominance and imposed segregation
over the nation’s black population. The minority population controlled policy, public administration, and
law enforcement, all to the explicit end of oppressing South Africa’s majority black population. The
concentration of power in the hands of a minority population as a function of racial identity, as well as
the resultant authoritarian rule vested in this minority population, qualifies South Africa’s now defunct
apartheid government as an oligarch. Today, even with the Apartheid government dismantled, the
vestiges of racial inequality remain in South Africa’s economy and political structures.

15. Plutocracy

Plutocracy refers to a system of rule in which power is determined as a direct function of wealth.
Plutocracy mirrors the economic hierarchy of aristocratic systems but lacks the philosophical
imperatives used to justify the latter. Whereas aristocratic forms of governance justified economic
hierarchy by presuming an equivalence between wealth, heredity, and the qualification to lead,
plutocracy refers in simpler terms to the ascendance of the wealthy to positions of power. Think of it as
the difference between “old money” and “new money.” As with the phrase “new money” itself,
plutocracy is rarely a term that a ruling class will self-apply. Rather, it is often used as a derogatory term
meant to highlight the inequality inherent in capitalist societies.

Real World Example

The label of plutocracy has been lobbed against a number of societies over the course of history and
generally as a way of critiquing inequality. In both the United States and post-Soviet Russia — where a
select group of billionaires possess 50% and 35%, respectively, of all national wealth — social critics have
identified patterns of plutocracy. These critics would argue that the outsize power and influence of the
wealthy in these societies tends to undermine equality and fair economic competition.

16. Republicanism

Republicanism, the form of government — not to be conflated with the Republican political party
specific to U.S. politics — refers to a system in which power is vested in the citizenry. In technical
definition, a republic is a nation in which the people hold popular sovereignty through the electoral and
legislative processes as well as through participation in public and civic life. In its earliest form, the
republic was perceived as a counterbalance to monarchy, an approach which merged monarchy and
aristocracy with some trappings of democracy.

Real World Example

Informed by the philosophical ideals of the enlightenment, particularly the writing of Jean-Jacques
Rousseau, the revolutionaries who toppled the French monarchy in the 1790s established a new
republic in their wake. Though the République française was short-lived — Napoleon’s rule transformed
France into an aristocracy by the turn of the next century — its founding on the principles of Rousseau’s
Social Contract would be particularly influential to the myriad nations soon to emerge from crumbling
European monarchies and splintering colonial empires.

17. Socialism

Socialism refers to a form of government in which the people own the primary means of production. A
counterpoint to the competitive nature and unequal proclivities of capitalism, socialism has existed in
many forms and to widely variant degrees of strictness throughout history and around the world. From
small communal societies to state-level governments that provide encompassing public services such as
universal healthcare, the concept of socialism permeates governments the world over. By contrast to
the less compromising and often more authoritarian nature of communism, socialism tends to be a
malleable concept. Some adherents view socialism as referring to a strict policy of shared ownership and
equal distribution of resources, while others believe free market capitalism can coexist with socialist
forms of public administration. To wit, the Social Security system of the declaratively capitalist United
States is inherently socialist in nature.

Real World Example

The Nordic model of social democracy represents perhaps the most effective real world implementation
of socialist principles. The Scandinavian nations of Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden
adhere to policies that combine free market capitalism with extensive public works, including free
healthcare, free education, a comprehensive welfare state, and high percentages of unionized workers.
This approach essentially combines the social consciousness of socialism with the private ownership and
competitive opportunity of capitalism.

18. Theocracy

Theocracy refers to a form of government in which a specific religious ideology informs the leadership,
laws, and customs of a nation. In many instances, there will be little to no distinction between scriptural
laws and legal codes. Likewise, religious clergy will typically occupy roles of leadership, and in some
instances, the highest office in the nation. Because religious law usually extends from writings and
traditions that are many centuries old, and therefore impose practices that may not conform with
present-day standards of ethical justice or constitutional law, theocracies frequently run afoul of
organizations and agencies advocating for global human rights.

Real World Example

Iran is perhaps the most important and powerful theocratic state in the world today. Since a 1979
Islamic student revolution toppled the Iranian monarchy, the ayatollahs have ruled the country. Here, a
“supreme leader” serves as head of state and delegates authority to other religious leaders. In Iran, the
elected president is subservient to this supreme Islamic scholar. Likewise, while Iran has developed
some dimensions of a modern legal code, judiciary system, and administrative process, all of these must
first be based on Islamic criteria. In essence, the Sharia — the primary legal doctrine of the Islamic
faith — is the primary legal doctrine for the nation of Iran.

19. Totalitarianism

Totalitarianism is an authoritarian form of government in which the ruling party recognizes no

limitations whatsoever on its power, either in the public life or private rights of its citizens. Power is
often vested in the hands of a single figure, an authority around whom significant propaganda is built as
a way of extending and retaining uncontested authority. Totalitarian states often employ widespread
surveillance, control over mass media, intimidating demonstrations of paramilitary or police power, and
suppression — usually violent — of protest, activism, or political opposition.

Real World Example

Though North Korea identifies itself as the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, this is truly the
clearest example of a totalitarian dictatorship in the modern world. Kim Jong-un rules with singular and
unchallenged authority, commanding over his public without political opposition. With absolute control
over the state-run media, an enormous military apparatus at his disposal, and an endless cycle of
propaganda and misinformation helping to sustain his power, Kim Jong-un rules his state in a vacuum
from world affairs. Criticism of the supreme leader or protest of his policies is a crime punishable by
death, as are countless other crimes for which due process is not required. North Korea’s propensity
toward human rights violations is said to be unparalleled in the modern world.

20. Tribalism
Tribalism refers to a form of governance in which there is an absence of central authority and where,
instead, various regional tribes lay claim to different territories, resources, or domains. In this system,
trade, commerce, and war may occur between different tribes without the involvement or oversight of a
unifying structure. This was a particularly common way of life in the pre-modern world, where different
families and clans would establish a set of common rules and rituals specific to their community. While
many tribes have forms of internal leadership — from councils and chiefdoms to warlords and
patriarchs — tribes are also distinct for having relatively limited role differentiation or role stratification
within. In some regards, this can make the customs internal to some tribes particularly egalitarian. That
said, tribalism as a way of life has been threatened, and in many parts of the world extinguished, by
modernity, development, and the imposition of outside authority.

Real World Example

Afghanistan is a nation naturally predisposed to tribalism. Centuries of interference from outside
invaders — the Soviet Union and the United States chief among them — have created an ongoing state
of disarray for the central government of Afghanistan. This — combined with a sprawling and
treacherous geography — reduced Afghanistan to a state of regional tribes. In many instance, the
authority of local warlords, drug cartels, or Islamic clergy take on far more immediate importance than
the authority of a central government. Today, the tribal dynamics that permeate Afghanistan represent
a more direct influence on the lives of local populations than any international or federal ruling
structure.

THEORIES OF COMPARATIVE POLICING SYSTEM

The term “comparative policing” may at first glance seem very simplistic, simply A compare and
contrast exercise in which similarities and differences between the selected cases or variables are
analyzed. Are comparative studies of policing or its institutions an exercise that is purely at the
discretion of the analyst or is there a need for some grounded constructs on which comparisons can be
made? Without an understanding of the influences these constructs exert on policing, comparative
studies will be lacking philosophical and theoretical substance. Obviously, The objectives will determine
what will be compared but this article argues that there are fundamental constructs that dictates the
nature of policing and contextual constructs that influence policing strategies and operations.
“Comparative Policing” implies similarities and contrasts. The question is, how do we go about
comparative analyses scientifically? As with all social sciences research and teaching, theory should be
our guiding principle. there are many theories in social sciences and management, many analytical tools
and the world has 190 countries with Interpol membership, each having their own political, economic
and demographic variables as well as, global, regional and national influences. In turn, each police
organization has its own adopted policing philosophy and strategic management approach. Furthermore
there are a plethora of other variables influencing policing in a country, area or precinct. This
complicates matters and alerts us to the fact that comparative policing studies are not a simple

CJS PROCEEDINGS
Criminal justice is a process, involving a series of steps beginning with a criminal investigation
and ending with the release of a convicted offender from correctional supervision. Rules and decision
making are at the center of this process.

Rules

Sources of rules in criminal justice include the U.S. Constitution and Bill of Rights, state
constitutions, the U.S. Code, state codes, court decisions, federal rules of criminal procedure, state rules
of criminal procedure, and department and agency rules and regulations. The Federal Rules of Criminal
Procedure, for example, govern the procedure in all criminal proceedings in courts of the United States.

Discretion

Decision making in criminal justice involves more than the learning of rules and the application
of them to specific cases. Decisions are based on discretion, that is, the individual exercise of judgment
to make choices about alternative courses of action. Discretion, or making decisions without formal
rules, is common in criminal justice. Discretion comes into play whenever police make choices about
whether to arrest, investigate, search, question, or use force. Similarly, prosecutors exercise individual
judgment in deciding whether to charge a person with a crime and whether to plea‐bargain. Judges also
use discretion when setting bail, accepting or rejecting plea bargains, ruling on pretrial motions, and
sentencing. Parole board members exercise discretion when deciding whether and when to release
inmates from prison.

Steps in the criminal justice process

The major steps in processing a criminal case are as follows:

1.Investigation of a crime by the police. The purpose of a criminal investigation is to gather evidence to
identify a suspect and support an arrest. An investigation may require a search, an exploratory
inspection of a person or property. Probable cause is the standard of proof required for a search.
Probable cause means there are facts or apparent facts indicating that evidence of criminality can be
found in a specific place.
 2.)Arrest of a suspect by the police. An arrest involves taking a person into custody for the
purpose of holding the suspect until court. Probable cause is the legal requirement for an arrest. It
means that there is a reasonable link between a specific person and a particular crime.

3.)Prosecution of a criminal defendant by a district attorney. When deciding whether to charge

a person with a crime, prosecutors weigh many factors, including the seriousness of the offense and the
strength of the evidence.

4.)Indictment by a grand jury or the filing of an information by a prosecutor. Under the Federal
Rules of Criminal Procedure, an indictment is required when prosecuting a capital offense. A prosecutor
has the option of an indictment or an information in cases involving crimes punishable by imprisonment.
In about half the states and the federal system, a grand jury decides whether to bring charges against a
person in a closed hearing in which only the prosecutor presents evidence. The defendant has no right
to be present at grand jury proceedings and no right to have a defense attorney represent him or her
before the grand jury. The standard for indicting a person for a crime is probable cause. In the remaining
states, a prosecutor files a charging document called an information. A preliminary (probable cause)
hearing is held to determine if there is enough evidence to warrant a trial. The defendant and his or her
attorney can be present at this hearing to dispute the charges.

5.)Arraignment by a judge. Before the trial, the defendant appears in court and enters a plea.
The most common pleas are guilty and not guilty.

6.)Pretrial detention and/or bail. Detention refers to a period of temporary custody prior to trial.
Bail is an amount of money paid by a defendant to ensure he or she will show up for a trial.

7.)Plea bargaining between the defense attorney and the prosecutor. Usually, in plea
bargaining, the defendant agrees to plead guilty in exchange for a charge reduction or sentence
reduction.

8.)Trial/adjudication of guilt by a judge or jury, with a prosecutor and a defense attorney

participating. A trial is held before a judge or jury. The standard of evidence for a criminal conviction is
guilt beyond a reasonable doubt—less than 100 percent certainty but more than high probability. If
there is doubt based on reason, the accused is entitled to be acquitted.
 9.)Sentencing by a judge. If the accused is found guilty, a judge metes out a sentence. Possible
sentences include a fine, probation, a period of incarceration in a correctional institution, such as a jail
or prison, or some combination of supervision in the community and incarceration.

10.)Appeals filed by attorneys in appellate courts and then ruled on by appellate judges. If an
appellate court reverses a case, the case returns to trial court for retrial. With a reversal, the original
trial becomes moot (that is, it is as though it never happened). Following a reversal, a prosecutor
decides whether to refile or drop the charges. Even if a prosecutor drops the charges, the defendant can
still be prosecuted later as long as the statute of limitations for the crime the defendant is accused of
committing hasn't run out. Such a statute imposes time limits on the government to try a case.

11.)Punishment and/or rehabilitation administered by local, state, or federal correctional

authorities. Most inmates do not serve the complete term and are released before the expiration of
their maximum sentences. Release may be obtained by serving the maximum sentence mandated by a
court or through an early release mechanism, such as parole or pardon.

The criminal justice process is like a funnel, wide at the top and narrow at the bottom. Early in
the criminal justice process, there are many cases, but the number of cases dwindles as decision makers
remove cases from the process. Some cases are dismissed, while others are referred for treatment or
counseling. Another way of expressing the funnel effect is to say that there are many more suspects and
defendants than inmates. As criminal justice scholar Joel Samaha notes, the U.S. Constitution requires
the government to support every deprivation of privacy, life, liberty, or property with facts. The greater
the deprivation, the more facts that government agents are required to produce. A stop on the street
requires fewer facts than an arrest; an arrest requires fewer facts than an indictment; an indictment
requires fewer facts than a criminal conviction.
 INTERPOL
The International Criminal Police Organization (INTERPOL) is the world's largest
international police organization with 192 member countries. The main purpose of its establishment is
to enable the world police to ensure the safety of the human beings all over the world.

The first idea of establishing Interpol was hit in 1914 in the first International Criminal Police
Congress held in Monaco. It was officially established in 1923 as 'International Criminal Police
Commission'. This organization began to be known as "INTERPOL" in 1956. INTERPOL's headquarter is
located in Lyon (France).Its current chairman is "Meng Hongwei". INTERPOL's General Assembly is its
Governing body.

What are the functions of INTERPOL?

INTERPOL enables international police to work together to fight international crime in 192
member countries. It primarily uses its police expertise and capabilities for these three types of crimes.

1. Counter-Terrorism

2. Organized crime

3. Cyber Crime

Interpol works in conjunction with all member countries and international organizations like the
United Nations and European Union to combat international crime.

Main Functions of INTERPOL are as follows:

1. Securing Global Police Communication Services

Interpol has developed a global police communication system, which is known as I-24/7
(Information 24x7), which allows any member country to safely obtain and communicate data related to
crime, criminals etc. The Liaison Bureau (LB) is connected to this Communication system and chief
officer of any country can get Interpol services through Liaison Bureau.

2. Operational data services and databases for police

Through the database I-24/7, member countries can get this data directly when they need it.
Here member countries, including the security forces have direct and immediate access to a wide range
of databases, stolen motor vehicles, including stolen and lost travel documents, stolen works of Art,
nominal data, DNA Profile, counterfeit payment cards and fingerprints.

3. Issuing of notices against global criminals

INTERPOL also publishes severe crime-related data through a system of international notices.
INTERPOL's General Secretariat (IPSG) issues notice in the four official languages of the organization i.e.
English, French, Arabic and Spanish at the requests of member countries.
4. Reducing organized and new types of crime

INTERPOL is committed to reduce organised crimes, criminal networks and the destruction of
illegal markets and protection of weaker communities. INTERPOL issues 7 types of notices to nab the
criminals all over the world. The Indian government is taking the help of INTERPOL to arrest Dawood
Ibrahim who is wanted in Mumbai serial blasts, 1993.

5. Counter Terrorism Operations

One of the main works of INTRPOL is to ensure global solidarity against international terrorism
and measures to deal with chemical attacks, biological attack, radiological attack, nuclear attack all over
the world.

6. Cyber Crime

Cyber crime is the new type of challenge of the 21st century. There are so many incidences
taking place related to cyber crime all over the world. As recently Ransomware attack shook the world
by hacking the system of so many organisations all over the world.

So in the above paragraphs, you have read about what kind of functions are done by the INTERPOL for
global peace and prosperity. It is expected that in the coming years also the role of INTERPOL will get
more crucial to deal incidences of global terrorism, cyber crime and human trafficking.

‘’TYPES OF NOTICE’’

-Red Notice: To seek the location and arrest of wanted persons wanted for prosecution or to serve a
sentence.

-Yellow Notice: To help locate missing persons, often minors, or to help identify persons who are unable
to identify themselves.

-Blue Notice: To collect additional information about a person’s identity, location or activities in relation
to a crime.

-Black Notice: To seek information on unidentified bodies.

-Green Notice: To provide warning about a person’s criminal activities, where the person is considered
to be a possible threat to public safety.

-Orange Notice: To warn of an event, a person, an object or a process representing a serious and
imminent threat to public safety.
-Purple Notice: To seek or provide information on modus operandi, objects, devices and concealment
methods used by criminals.

INTERPOL–United Nations Security Council Special Notice: Issued for groups and individuals who are the
targets of UN Security Council Sanctions Committees.

‘’Notices must meet legal criteria’’

A Notice is only published if it complies with INTERPOL’s Constitution and fulfils all conditions for
processing the information as defined by our Rules on the Processing of Data. This ensures the legality
and quality of information, and the protection of personal data.

For example, a Notice will not be published if it violates Article 3 of INTERPOL’s Constitution, which
forbids the Organization from undertaking any intervention or activities of a political, military, religious
or racial character.

The legal basis for a Red Notice is an arrest warrant or court order issued by the judicial authorities in
the country concerned. Many of our member countries consider a Red Notice to be a valid request for
provisional arrest.

Any individual who is subject to an INTERPOL Notice should be considered innocent until proven guilty.

‘’Diffusions – less formal’’

Member countries may also request cooperation from each other through another alert mechanism
known as a 'diffusion'. This is less formal than a notice and is circulated directly by an NCB to all or some
of our member countries. Diffusions must also comply with INTERPOL’s Constitution and the Rules on
the Processing of Data.

Kim Jong Yang's biography

INTERPOL’s current President is Kim Jong Yang, who was elected at the 87th General Assembly
in Dubai in November 2018. Mr Kim will serve as President until 2020, completing the four-year
mandate of his predecessor Mr Meng, who resigned in 2018.
 HISTORY OF INTERPOL
Interpol traces its history to 1914, when a congress of international criminal police, attended by
delegates from 14 countries, was held in Monaco. In 1923, following a significant increase in
international crime that particularly affected Austria, representatives of the criminal police forces of 20
countries met in Vienna and formed the International Criminal Police Commission (ICPC) that year. The
ICPC’s headquarters were established in Vienna, and the head of the Vienna police, Johann Schober,
became the organization’s first president. The ICPC flourished until 1938, when Nazi Germany annexed
Austria; the ICPC’s records were subsequently relocated to Berlin. The outbreak of World War II
effectively ended the ICPC’s activities.

After the war the ICPC accepted an offer from the French government of a headquarters in Paris
together with a staff for the General Secretariat consisting of French police officials. The ICPC was thus
revived, though the loss or destruction of all its prewar records required that it be completely
reorganized. In 1949 the ICPC was granted consultative status by the United Nations. From 1946 to 1955
its membership grew from 19 countries to 55. In 1956 the ICPC ratified a new constitution, under which
it was renamed the International Criminal Police Organization (Interpol). The organization moved to its
present headquarters in Lyon in 1989.

Interpol was at first mainly a European organization, drawing only limited support from the
United States and other non-European countries (the United States did not join the ICPC until 1938).
Under the leadership of French Secretary General Jean Népote (1963–78), Interpol became increasingly
effective. By the mid-1980s the number of member countries had risen to more than 125, representing
all of the world’s inhabited continents; by the early 21st century membership had surpassed 180.

In the 1970s the organization’s ability to combat terrorism was impeded by Article 3 of its
constitution—which forbids “intervention or activities of a political, military, religious or racial
character”—and by a 1951 resolution of the General Assembly that defined a “political” crime as that
whose circumstances and underlying motives are political, even if the act itself is illegal under criminal
law. One source of these obstacles was removed in 1984, when the General Assembly revised the
interpretation of Article 3 to permit Interpol to undertake antiterrorist activities in certain well-defined
circumstances.

Interpol was reorganized in 2001 following the September 11 attacks on the United States. The
new post of executive director for police services was created to oversee several directorates, including
those for regional and national police services, specialized crimes, and operational police support.