Civil Orientation

1. What is Civil Engineering?

The goal of environmental engineering is to ensure that societal development and the use of
water, land and air resources are sustainable. This goal is achieved by managing these
resources so that environmental pollution and degradation is minimized.

Environmental engineers study water, soil and air pollution problems, and develop technical
solutions needed to solve, attenuate or control these problems in a manner that is compatible
with legislative, economic, social and political concerns. Civil engineers are particularly
involved in such activities as water supply and sewerage, management of surface water and
groundwater quality, remediation of contaminated sites and solid waste management.

The activities of such engineers include, but are not limited to, the planning, design,
construction and operation of water and wastewater treatment facilities in municipalities and
industries, modelling and analysis of surface water and groundwater quality, design of soil
and remediation systems, planning for the disposal and reuse of wastewaters and sludges,
and the collection, transport, processing, recovery and disposal of solid wastes according to
accepted engineering practices.

Environmental engineers are called upon to play an important role in environmental

protection, because engineering solutions are required to meet the environmental standards
set by legislation.

Consulting firms, municipalities, government agencies, industries and non-governmental

organizations and specialized contractors are potential employers for civil engineers with a
specialization in environmental engineering.

Geotechnical engineering is the study of the behaviour of soils under the influence of loading
forces and soil-water interactions. This knowledge is applied to the design of foundations,
retaining walls, earth dams, clay liners, and geosynthetics for waste containment. The goals
of geotechnical engineers could range from the design of foundations and temporary
excavation support, through route selection for railways and highways, to the increasingly
important areas of landfill disposal of wastes and groundwater contamination. As such, the
geotechnical engineer is involved in field and laboratory investigations to determine t he
engineering properties of site soils and other geomaterials and their subsequent use in the
analytical study of the problem at hand.

Recent computational and computer advances are extending our ability to predict the
behaviour of soil and soil-water systems under a wide variety of conditions. In recent years,
the activities of geotechnical engineers have also involved geoenvironmental engineering.
Geoenvironmental engineers design strategies for the clean-up of contaminated soils and
groundwater and develop management systems for contaminated sites.

Employment opportunities include geotechnical and engineering consultants, public utilities,

governmental agencies, environmental agencies, specialized contractors and resource
industry companies.

Water resources engineering is the quantitative study of the hydrologic cycle -- the
distribution and circulation of water linking the earth's atmosphere, land and oceans. Surface
runoff is measured as the difference between precipitation and abstractions, such as
infiltration (which replenishes groundwater flow), surface storage and evaporation.
Applications include the management of the urban water supply, the design of urban storm -
sewer systems, and flood forecasting.

Hydraulic engineering consists of the application of fluid mechanics to water flowing in an

isolated environment (pipe, pump) or in an open channel (river, lake, ocean). Civil engineers
are primarily concerned with open channel flow, which is governed by the interdependent
interaction between the water and the channel.

Applications include the design of hydraulic structures, such as sewage conduits, dams and
breakwaters, the management of waterways, such as erosion protection and flood protection,
and environmental management, such as prediction of the mixing and transport of pollutants
in surface water. Hydroelectric-power development, water supply, irrigation and navigation
are some familiar applications of water resources engineering involving the utilization of
water for beneficial purposes. More recently, concern for preserving our natural environment
and meeting the needs of developing countries has increased the importance of water
resources engineering.

Civil engineers play a vital role in the optimal planning, design and operation of water
resource systems. Job opportunities in hydrology and water resources are quite varied.

Positions are available in large and small consulting firms, and at all levels of government
(municipal, provincial and federal). Particularly in Quebec, due to its abundant w ater
resources, hydrology has played an important role in the social and economic development of
the province.
Structural engineers are concerned with the conception, analysis, design and construction of
components or assemblies to resist loads arising from internal and external forces. Solid
mechanics is the study of the distribution of stresses that a given load produces when applied
to a solid element, and the calculation of the resulting strains, given the characteristics of the
materials that make up that element.

The application of solid mechanics enables the structural engineer to assemble elements,
such as beams and columns, into a structure that will resist both static and dynamic loads,
such as gravity, wind, snow and earthquakes.

In addition to steel and concrete, new materials that are being developed and used in
structural engineering include reinforced plastics and polymers. The rehabilitation of existing
structures weakened by corrosion continues to be an important task.

While typical civil engineering structures include large buildings, bridges and dams,
graduates with a specialization in structural engineering may also be concerned with
designing the structures of machinery, vehicles, aircraft and spacecraft.

Employment opportunities include work with consulting structural engineers, construction

companies, building development companies, engineering departments of private
corporations, aircraft and aerospace related companies, public utilities, and government
agencies.

Transportation has always played an essential role in the development of society, originally
with regard to trade routes and harbours, but more recently with regard to land - and air-
based systems as well. It is the transportation engineer's responsibility to plan, design, build,
operate and maintain these systems of transport, in such a way as to provide for the safe,
efficient and convenient movement of people and goods.

Increasing environmental concerns have revived an interest in the development and

management of public transportation systems. Professional activities can range from road
and transit design and operation at the urban scale, to railroad, seaway and airport location,
construction and operation at the regional and national scale. Transportation engineering in
North America focuses on automobile infrastructures, although it also encompasses sea, air
and rail systems.

Automobile infrastructures can be split into the traditional area of highway design and
planning, and the rapidly growing area of traffic control systems. The transportation engineer
faces the challenge of developing both network links and major terminals to satisfy
transportation demands, with due regard for the resultant land-use, environmental and other
impacts of these facilities.

Employment opportunities are available both in the public sector (e.g., federal and provincial
government transportation ministries, regional and municipal roads, traffic and transit
agencies) and the private sector (e.g., engineering consultants, trucking, railroad and airline
companies, vehicle manufacturing). The undergraduate core and technical complementary
program provide for a solid grounding in transportation engineering sufficient for related
professional employment.

Civil Engineering has been an aspect of life since the beginnings of human existence.
The earliest practices of Civil engg may have commenced between 4000 and 2000 BC in
Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia (Ancient Iraq) when humans started to abandon a
nomadic existence, thus causing a need for the construction of shelter. During this time,
transportation became increasingly important leading to the development of the wheel
and sailing.
Until modern times there was no clear distinction between civil engg and architecture,
and the term engineer and architect were mainly geographical variations referring to the
same person, often used interchangeably. The construction of Pyramids in Egypt (circa
2700-2500 BC) might be considered the first instances of large structure constructions.
Around 2550 BC, Imhotep, the first documented engineer, built a famous stepped
pyramid for King Djoser located at Saqqara Necropolis. With simple tools and
mathematics he created a monument that stands to this day. His greatest contribution
to engineering was his discovery of the art of building with shaped stones. Those who
followed him carried engineering to remarkable heights using skill and imagination.
Ancient historic civil engineering constructions include the Qanat water management
system (the oldest older than 3000 years and longer than 71 km,) the Parthenon by
Iktinos in Ancient Greece (447-438 BC), the Appian Way by Roman engineers (c. 312
BC), the Great Wall of China by General Meng T’ien under orders from Ch’in Emperor
Shih Huang Ti (c. 220 BC) and the stupas constructed in ancient Sri Lanka like the
Jetavanaramaya and the extensive irrigation works in Anuradhapura. The Romans
developed civil structures throughout their empire, including especially aqueducts,
insulae, harbours, bridges, dams and roads.
Other remarkable historical structures are Sennacherib's Aqueduct at Jerwan built in
691 BC; Li Ping's irrigation projects in China (around 220 BC); Julius Caesar's Bridge
over the Rhine River built in 55 BC, numerous bridges built by other Romans in and
around Rome(e.g. the pons Fabricius); Pont du Gard (Roman Aqueduct, Nimes, France)
built in 19 BC; the extensive system of highways the Romans built to facilitate trading
and (more importantly) fast manoeuvring of legions; extensive irrigation system
constructed by the Hohokam Indians, Salt River, AZ around 600 AD; first dykes
defending against high water in Friesland, The Netherlands around 1000 AD; El Camino
Real - The Royal Road, Eastern Branch, TX and Western Branch, NM (1500s AD).
Kansai International Airport
Kansai International Airport (関西国際空港 Kansai Kokusai Kūkō, colloquially known
as Kankū (関空)) (IATA: KIX, ICAO: RJBB) is an international airport located on an artificial island in
the middle of Osaka Bay off the Honshu shore, 38 km (24 mi) southwest of Ōsaka Station,[3]located
within three municipalities,
including Izumisano (north),[4] Sennan (south),[5] and Tajiri (central),[6] in Osaka Prefecture, Japan.
Kansai opened on 4 September 1994[citation needed] to relieve overcrowding at Osaka International Airport,
which is closer to the city of Osakaand now handles only domestic flights. It consists of two
terminals: Terminal 1 and Terminal 2. Terminal 1, designed by Italian architect Renzo Piano, is the
longest airport terminal in the world with a length of 1.7 km (1.1 mi). The airport serves as an
international hub for All Nippon Airways, Japan Airlines, and Nippon Cargo Airlines, and also serves
as a hub for Peach, the first international low-cost carrier in Japan.
In 2016, 25.2 million passengers used the airport making it the 30th busiest airport in Asia and 3rd
busiest in Japan. Freight volume was at 802,162 tonnes total, of which 757,414 t were international
(18th in the world), and 44,748 t were domestic.[7] The 4,000 m × 60 m (13,123 ft × 197 ft) second
runway was opened on 2 August 2007. As of June 2014, Kansai Airport has become an Asian hub,
with 780 weekly flights to Asia and Australasia (including freight 119), 59 weekly flights to Europe
and the Middle East (freight 5), and 80 weekly flights to North America (freight 42).[8]
In the 1960s, when the Kansai region was rapidly losing trade to Tokyo, planners proposed a new
airport near Kobe and Osaka. Osaka International Airport, located in the densely populated suburbs
of Itami and Toyonaka, was surrounded by buildings; it could not be expanded, and many of its
neighbours had filed complaints because of noise pollution problems.[citation needed]
After the protests surrounding New Tokyo International Airport (now Narita International Airport),
which was built with expropriated land in a rural part of Chiba Prefecture, planners decided to build
the airport offshore. The new airport was part of a number of new developments to revitalize Osaka,
which had been losing economic and cultural ground to Tokyo for most of the century.[9]
Initially, the airport was planned to be built near Kobe, but the city of Kobe refused the plan, so the
airport was moved to a more southerly location on Osaka Bay. There it could be open 24 hours per
day, unlike its predecessor in the city.
Construction[edit]

Satellite photo of Kansai Airport (lower-right island) in Osaka Bay. Kobe Airport is being built on the unfinished
island near the middle of the photo. Central Osaka is in the upper-right corner, along with Osaka International.

Airport Map

An artificial island, 4 km (2.5 mi) long and 2.5 km (1.6 mi) wide, was proposed. Engineers needed to
overcome the extremely high risks of earthquakes and typhoons (with storm surges of up to 3 m,
10 ft). The water depth is 18 m on top of 20 m of soft Holocene clay which holds 70%
water.[10][11][12][13] A million sand drains were built into the clay to remove water and solidify the clay.[12][13]
Construction started in 1987. The sea wall was finished in 1989 (made of rock and
48,000 tetrapods). Three mountains were excavated for 21 million m3 (27 million cu yd),[citation needed] and
180 million m3 (240 million cu yd) was used to construct island 1.[11] 10,000 workers and 10 million
work hours over three years, using eighty ships, were needed to complete the 30-metre (98 ft) (or 40
m)[11] layer of earth over the sea floor and inside the sea wall. In 1990, a three kilometer bridge was
completed to connect the island to the mainland at Rinku Town, at a cost of $1 billion.[citation
needed]
Completion of the artificial island increased the area of Osaka Prefecture just enough that it is
no longer the smallest prefecture in Japan (Kagawa Prefecture is now the smallest).
The bidding and construction of the airport was a source of international trade friction during the late
1980s and early 1990s. Prime Minister Yasuhiro Nakasone responded to American concerns,
particularly from Senator Frank Murkowski, that bids would be rigged in Japanese companies' favour
by providing special offices for prospective international contractors,[14] which ultimately did little to
ease the participation of foreign contractors in the bidding process.[15] Later, foreign airlines
complained that two-thirds of the departure hall counter space had been allocated to Japanese
carriers, disproportionately to the actual carriage of passengers through the airport.[16]
The island had been predicted to sink 5.7 m (19 ft) by the most optimistic estimate as the weight of
the material used for construction compressed the seabed silts. However, by 1999, the island had
sunk 8.2 m (27 ft) – much more than predicted. The project became the most expensive civil works
project in modern history after twenty years of planning, three years of construction and fifteen billion
(US) dollars of investment. Much of what was learned went into the successful artificial islands in silt
deposits for New Kitakyushu Airport, Kobe Airport, and Chūbu Centrair International Airport. The
lessons of Kansai Airport were also applied in the construction of Hong Kong International Airport.[17]
In 1991, the terminal construction commenced. To compensate for the sinking of the island,
adjustable columns were designed to support the terminal building. These are extended by inserting
thick metal plates at their bases. Government officials proposed reducing the length of the terminal
to cut costs, but architect Renzo Piano insisted on keeping the terminal at its full planned
length.[18] The airport opened in 1994.
On 17 January 1995, Japan was struck by the Kobe earthquake, whose epicenter was about 20 km
(12 mi) away from KIX and killed 6,434 people on Japan's main island of Honshū. Due to
its earthquake engineering, the airport emerged unscathed, mostly due to the use of sliding joints.
Even the glass in the windows remained intact. In 1998, the airport survived a typhoon with wind
speeds of up to 200 km/h (120 mph).[citation needed]
On 19 April 2001, the airport was one of ten structures given the "Civil Engineering Monument of the
Millennium" award by the American Society of Civil Engineers.[19]
As of 2008, the total cost of Kansai Airport was $20 billion including land reclamation, two runways,
terminals and facilities. Most additional costs were initially due to the island sinking, expected due to
the soft soils of Osaka Bay. After construction the rate of sinking was considered so severe that the
airport was widely criticized as a geotechnical engineering disaster. The sink rate fell from 50 cm
(20 in) per year during 1994 to 7 cm (2.8 in) per year in 2008.[20]

Operation[edit]

Kansai International Airport with the terminal building in the background

4th floor ticketing hall, illustrating the terminal's airfoil roof

Opened on 4 September 1994, the airport serves as a hub for several airlines such as All Nippon
Airways, Japan Airlines, and Nippon Cargo Airlines. It is the international gateway for Japan's Kansai
region, which contains the major cities of Kyoto, Kobe, and Osaka. Other Kansai domestic flights fly
from the older but more conveniently located Osaka International Airport in Itami, or from the newer
Kobe Airport.
The airport had been deeply in debt, losing $560 million in interest every year. Airlines had been
kept away by high landing fees (about $7,500 for a Boeing 747), the second most expensive in the
world after Narita's. In the early years of the airport's operation, excessive terminal rent and utility
bills for on-site concessions also drove up operating costs: some estimates before opening held that
a cup of coffee would have to cost US$10.[21] Osaka business owners pressed the government to
take a greater burden of the construction cost to keep the airport attractive to passengers and
airlines.[22]
On 17 February 2005, Chubu Centrair International Airport opened in Nagoya, just east of Osaka.
The opening of the airport was expected to increase competition between Japan's international
airports. Despite this, passenger totals were up 11% in 2005 over 2004, and international
passengers increased to 3.06 million in 2006, up 10% over 2005. Adding to the competition was the
opening of Kobe Airport, less than 25 km (16 mi) away, in 2006 and the lengthening of the runway
at Tokushima Airport in Shikoku in 2007. The main rationale behind the expansions was to compete
with Incheon International Airport and Hong Kong International Airport as a gateway to Asia, as
Tokyo area airports were severely congested. Kansai saw a 5% year-on-year increase in
international traffic in summer 2013, largely supported by low-cost carrier traffic to Taiwan and
Southeast Asia overcoming a decrease in traffic to China and South Korea.[23]
The airport authority was allotted 4 billion yen in government support for fiscal year 2013, and the
Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport and Ministry of Finance have agreed to reduce this
amount in stages through fiscal year 2015, although local governments in the Kansai region have
pressed for continued subsidies.[24]
Kansai has been marketed as an alternative to Narita Airport for international travelers from
the Greater Tokyo Area. By flying to Kansai from Haneda Airport and connecting to international
flights there, travelers can save the additional time required to get to Narita: up to one and a half
hours for many residents of Kanagawa Prefecture and southern Tokyo.

Expansion[edit]

Second phase of Kansai International Airport under construction

The airport was at its limit during peak times, owing especially to freight flights, so a portion of Phase
II expansion—the second runway—was made a priority.[25] Thus, in 2003, believing that the sinking
problem was almost over, the airport operators started to construct a 4,000 m (13,000 ft) second
runway and terminal.
The second runway opened on 2 August 2007, but with the originally planned terminal portion
postponed. This lowered the project cost to JPY¥910 billion (approx. US$8 billion), saving ¥650
billion from the first estimate.[26] The additional runway development, which was opened in time for
the IAAF world athletics championships in Osaka, has expanded the airport size to 10.5 square
kilometres (2,600 acres). The second runway is used for landings and when there are incidents
prohibiting take off use of runway A. The new runway allowed the airport to start 24-hour operations
in September 2007.[27][28]
A new terminal building opened in late 2012.[29] There are additional plans for several new aprons, a
third runway (06C/24C) with a length of 3,500 m (11,483 ft), a new cargo terminal and expanding the
airport size to 13 km2 (5.0 sq mi). As of 2012, the Japanese government is postponing these plans
for economic reasons.

Relationship with Itami Airport[edit]

Kansai Airport in 2006

Since July 2008, Osaka Prefecture governor Toru Hashimoto has been a vocal critic of Itami Airport,
arguing that the Chuo Shinkansen maglev line will make much of its domestic role irrelevant, and
that its domestic functions should be transferred to Kansai Airport in conjunction with upgraded high-
speed access to Kansai from central Osaka.[30] In 2009, Hashimoto also publicly proposed moving
the functions of Marine Corps Air Station Futenma to Kansai Airport as a possible solution for the
political crisis surrounding the base.[31]
In May 2011, the Diet of Japan passed legislation to form a new Kansai International Airport
Corporation using the state's existing equity stake in Kansai Airport and its property holdings at Itami
Airport. The move was aimed at offsetting Kansai Airport's debt burden.[32]
The merger of the Itami and Kansai airport authorities was completed in July 2012. Shortly following
the merger, Kansai Airport announced a 5% reduction in landing fees effective October 2012, with
additional reductions during overnight hours when the airport is underutilized, and further discounts
planned for the future, including subsidies for new airlines and routes. As of October 2012 these
moves were intended to bring Kansai's fees closer to the level of Narita International Airport, where
landing fees were around 20% lower than Kansai's, and to improve competitiveness with other Asian
hubs such as Incheon International Airport in Korea.[33]
Since its formation, the new operating company has also made efforts toward international
expansion, bidding for operating concessions at Yangon International Airport and Hanthawaddy
International Airport in Myanmar.[34]
KIAC conducted a public tender to sell the operating rights for Kansai and Itami Airport in May
2015. Orix and Vinci SA were the sole bidder for the 45-year contract, at a price of around $18
billion.[35] The new operating company, Kansai Airports, took over on April 1, 2016.[36] It is 80% owned
by Orix and Vinci, with the remaining 20% owned by Kansai-based enterprises such as Hankyu
Hanshin Holdings and Panasonic.[37]

Typhoon Jebi[edit]
On 4 September 2018, the airport was hit by Typhoon Jebi. The airport ceased operations after the
typhoon inundated the island under meters[citation needed] of seawater. The situation was further
exacerbated when a large tanker crashed into the bridge that links the airport to the mainland,
effectively stranding the people remaining at the airport.[38] All flights at the airport were cancelled
until 6 September, at which date Prime Minister Shinzō Abe announced the airport would partially
resume domestic operations

Terminal 1[edit]
The main KIX passenger terminal, Terminal 1, is a single four-storey building designed by Renzo
Piano Building Workshop (Renzo Piano and Noriaki Okabe), and has a gross floor space of 296,043
square metres (3,186,580 sq ft). As of 2018, at a total length of 1.7 km (1.1 mi) from end to end,
Terminal 1 is the longest airport terminal in the world.[41] It has a sophisticated people mover system
called the Wing Shuttle, which moves passengers from one end of the pier to the other.
The terminal's roof is shaped like an airfoil. This shape is used to promote air circulation through the
building: giant air conditioning ducts blow air upwards at one side of the terminal, circulate the air
across the curvature of the ceiling, and collect the air through intakes at the other side. Mobiles are
suspended in the ticketing hall to take advantage of the flowing air.
The ticketing hall overlooks the international departures concourse, and the two are separated by a
glass partition. During Kansai's early days, visitors were known to throw objects over the partition to
friends in the corridor below. The partition was eventually modified to halt this practice.

Terminal 2[edit]

Terminal 2 departures lobby

Terminal 2 Restricted area shops

Terminal 2 is a low-cost carrier (LCC) terminal designed to attract more LCCs by providing lower
landing fees than Terminal 1. It is exclusively occupied by Peach, Spring Airlines and Jeju Air. Other
LCCs serving Kansai, such as Jetstar Airways, Jetstar Japan, and Cebu Pacific Air, use the main
Terminal 1.[42]
Peach requested that Terminal 2 have a simplified design in order to minimize operating
costs.[43] The terminal is a single-story building, thus eliminating the cost of elevators. Passageways
to aircraft have no air conditioning.[44] The terminal also has no jet bridges, having one boarding gate
for domestic departures and one boarding gate for international departures. In case of rain,
passengers are lent umbrellas to use as they walk to the aircraft.[45]
Terminal 2 is not directly connected to Terminal 1 or to Kansai Airport Station. Free shuttle buses
run between the two terminals, and between Terminal 2 and the railway and ferry stations. It is also
possible to walk between the terminals through the KIX Sora Park, a four-hectare park located
adjacent to Terminal 2.[46]

In the mid-1980's Osaka's Itami Airport was woefully inadequate

for the needs of the Kansai region of Japan. The Kansai region
includes not only Osaka, the second largest city of Japan and a
major commercial center, but also the major cities of Kyoto and
Kobe. The old airport was hemmed in by urban development in
more ways than one. The urban development prevented any spatial
expansion, but it also restricted the hours of use because of the
aircraft noise in the late hours of the night would disturb the sleep of
the residents in the vicinity of the airport.

The limitation of the old airport was forcing the exporters of the
Kansai region to ship their aircargo to Tokyo for shipment abroad.
This inconvenience was probably limiting those exports.

The airport authorities considered finding a land site for a new

airport, but they looked at the experience of Tokyo in building the
Narita Airport. The protests of the farmers to the forced sale of
their land mobilized a movement that delayed the completion of the
airport for years. It is little appreciated outside of Japan that there
is a substantial group of violent radical activists in Japan who will
flock to any public protest movement and turn it into vicious
showdown of force. In the Narita Airport construction these radicals
fire bombed the heavy earth-moving equipment and endangered the
lives of the equipment operators. There were several deaths in the
Narita Airport protests and three thousand radical activists were
arrested.

It is quite possible that the radical activists could prevent a new,

land-based airport for the Kansai region from ever being built. That
motivated the consideration of a water-based airport. An airport
operating from an island in Osaka Bay could operate 24 hours per
day. Radical activists could be prevented from getting access to the
construction site.

Since there is no island in Osaka Bay where the airport is needed,

one would have to be built. That would be costly be not impossible.
There are several factors that have to be considered. The Kansai
region is subject to severe earthquakes and earthquakes can liquify
the sort of land-fill that might be used to construct such an island.
Also Japan is subject to typhoons (hurricanes in the Pacific). A
typhoon in 1934 created a surge that raised water levels ten feet in
the Osaka area for several hours. An island airport would have to be
high enough to withstand severe typhoon water surges.

When serious design work started on the island airport the

authorities headed off a potential protest from Osaka Bay fishermen
who would have their livelihood disturbed by the construction. A
generous payment was offered by the airport authorities and
accepted by the fishermen.

The designers
envisioned an airport
2.5 miles long and
4000 feet wide. The
site selected was
three miles from
land and there the
water depth was 60
feet. The water depth
was not a serious
impediment. The
problem was the
condition of the soil
under the water. Soil
immediately under
the water was a soft clay called alluvial clay. This alluvial clay went
down 100 meters. Japanese engineers had solved the problem of
building in this soil. They would drive down pipes which would be
then packed with sand. The pipes would then be pulled up leaving
columns of sand in place to absorb the moisture in the alluvial clay.
The uncertainty for the construction came from the layer of clay
lying below the alluvial clay. This clay was called dialluvial clay and
extended about one thousand feet down. The compressibility of this
clay was uncertain and because of its depth nothing could be done to
modify that compressibility.

The airport authorities had a number of experts estimate how much

the airport island would sink as a result of the weight of its weight.
The estimates ranged from 19 feet to 25 feet.

The official looked at the estimates of the degree of sinking and did
what now seems to have been the worse possible thing. They
accepted the smallest estimate, 19 feet, in what appears to have been
wishful thinking. The design of the airport was then based upon a
sinking of 19 feet.

The construction started in 1987. The alluvial clay was stabilized

with sand columns as described above. The perimeter of the island
was defined by means of 69 steel chambers which were sunk to the
bay floor. These chambers were 75 feet in height and 75 feet in
diameter. They weighed 200 tons each. The spaces between the
chambers were filled with 48,000 specially shaped concrete blocks.
Irregular stones weighing one to two tons were added to the walls.

The cavity within the walls was filled with rocks and coarse gravel
to avoid the danger of liquification of earth-fill during an
earthquake. The fill came two mountains which were leveled in the
process.

The radicals, not to be denied their opportunity to commit violence,

attached the quarries where the fill material for the island was being
escavated. Altogether there were about two dozen attacks.

The island airport had to be linked to the land. That part of the
project was started in 1987 and by March of 1990 the bridge link
was completed, at a cost of $1 billion. The trussed bridge framework
carried a railway on its lower level and a motor vehicle highway of
the upper level.

By 1990 the island and its link to the land had been completed. Ten
thousand people had worked on the project. The trouble was that
the airport island was sinking more than the design provided for.
The maximum estimate was 25 feet. The airport authorities took the
minimum estimate of 19 feet. The actual sinkage by 1990 was 27 feet
and the island was still sinking at a rate of about per feet per year at
that time.

The authorities added another 11.5 feet of fill at a cost of $150

million. The runway was covered with asphalt rather than concrete
to avoid cracking. The terminal facilities were yet to be constructed.

The RION-ANTIRION Bridge (Greece) is located in a zone of difficult environmental conditions

characterised by deep soil strata of weak alluviums, large depth of water and strong seismic design
motion. All these constraints have called for an original design presenting innovative features, such as
big, 90 m foundations, resting on soil reinforced by means of metallic inclusions and continuous cable-
stayed deck, fully suspended for its total length of 2,252 m. Construction methods are also
unconventional, particularly for preparation of the seabed.

The RION-ANTIRION Bridge is located over the Gulf of Corinth, Western Greece, and is intended to
replace an existing ferry system. Its environment presents an exceptional combination of physical
conditions which makes this project quite complex: large water depth (up to 65 m) deep soil strata of
weak alluviums a strong seismic activity possible tectonic movements The structure will span a stretch of
water of some 2,500 m. The seabed presents fairly steep slopes on each side and a long horizontal
plateau at a depth of 60 to 70 m. No bedrock has been encountered during soil investigations down to a
depth of 100 m. Based on a geological study, it is believed that the thickness of sediments is greater
than 500 m. General trends identified through soils surveys are the following: ß a cohesionless layer is
present at mudline level consisting of sand and gravel to a thickness of 4 to 7 m, except under pier M4,
where its thickness reaches 25 m. ß underneath this layer, the soil profile, rather erratic and
heterogeneous, presents strata of sand, silty sand and silty clay. ß below 30 m, the soils are more
homogeneous and mainly consist in silty clays or clays

Figure 1: Design horizontal spectrum The seismic conditions to be taken into account are presented in
the form of a response spectrum at seabed level given in figure 1. The peak ground acceleration is equal
to 0.48 g and the maximum spectral acceleration is equal to 1.2 between 0.2 and 1.0 s. This spectrum is
supposed to correspond to a 2000 year return period. In addition, the bridge has to accommodate
possible fault movements up to 2 m in any direction, horizontally and/or vertically. 2. DESCRIPTION OF
THE BRIDGE These difficult environmental conditions called for an original design based on large
foundations able to sustain seismic forces and large spans in order to limit the number of these
foundations.

The bridge consists of (see figure 2): ß the cable-stayed main bridge, 2,252 m long, built on 4 large
foundations with a span distribution equal to 286 m – 560 m – 560 m – 560 m – 286 m : ß the approach
viaducts, 392 m on Rion side and 239 m on Antirion side, made of prefabricated prestressed beams.
Foundations consist of large diameter (90 m) caissons, resting on the seabed (see figure 3). The top 20 m
of soils are rather heterogeneous and of low mechanical characteristics. To provide sufficient shear
strength to these soil strata, which have to carry large seismic forces coming from structural inertia
forces and hydrodynamic water pressures, the upper soil layer is reinforced by inclusions. These
inclusions are hollow steel pipes, 25 to 30 m long, 2 m in diameter, driven into the upper layer at a
regular spacing of 7 to 8 m (depending on the pier); about 250 pipes are driven in at each pier location.
They are topped by a 3 m thick, properly levelled gravel layer, on which the foundations rest. These
inclusions are not required under pier M4 owing to the presence of a thick gravel layer.
Figure 3: Foundation and inclusions The cable-stayed deck is a composite steel structure made of two
longitudinal plate girders 2.2 m high on each side of the deck with transverse plate girders spaced at 4 m
and a concrete slab, the total width being 27 m

Figure 4: Typical deck cross section Each pylon is composed of four concrete legs 4 x 4 m, joined at the
top to give the rigidity necessary to support unsymmetrical service loads and seismic forces (see figure
5). The pylons are rigidly embedded in pier head to form a monolithic structure, up to 230 m high, from
sea bottom to pylon top

Figure 5: Pier and pylon The stay cables, forming a semi-fan shape, are in two inclined arrangements,
with their lower anchorages on deck sides and their upper anchorages at the pylon top. They are made
of parallel galvanised strands individually protected. The deck of the main bridge is continuous and fully
suspended by means of stay cables for its total length of 2,252 meters. In the longitudinal direction, the
deck is free to accommodate all thermal and tectonic movements. At its extremities, expansion joints
are required to accommodate movements of 2 m. In the transverse direction, the deck is connected to
each pylon with 4 damping devices. The capacity of each device will be in the range of 3,500 kN,
operating in both tension and compression. The dynamic relative 5 1115 movement between the deck
and the pylon, during an extreme seismic event is in the order of ± 1.30 m, and the velocities reached
exceed 1 m/sec. 3. DESIGN CONCEPT From the beginning it has been clear that the critical load for most
of the structure is the design seismic loading, despite the fact that the bridge also has to sustain the
impact of a 180,000 dwt tanker sailing at 18 knots. The choice of the present design of the bridge was
made after examination of a wide range of possible solutions in term of span type (suspension spans vs.
cable-stayed spans) and foundation concepts. Particularly with regard to the foundations, the bearing
capacity was a major concern in these difficult environmental conditions characterised by poor soil
conditions, significant seismic intensities and large depth of water. Alternative foundation concepts
(such as piles foundations, deep embedded caissons and soil substitution) have been investigated with
their relative merits in terms of economy, feasibility and technical soundness. This analysis showed that
a shallow foundation was the most satisfactory solution as long as it was feasible to significantly improve
the top 20 m of soils. This will be achieved by means of metallic inclusions, as described here above.
Although the foundations resemble piled foundations, they do not at all behave as such: no connection
exists between the inclusions and the caisson raft, which would allow for the foundation to uplift or to
slide with respect to the soil; the density of inclusions is far more important and the length smaller than
would have been the case in piled foundations. This type of soil reinforcement through metallic
inclusions is quite innovative and necessitated extensive numerical studies and centrifuge model tests
for its validation. Another unique feature of this project lies in its continuous cable-stayed deck, which,
in addition to being the longest in the world, is totally suspended. This creates an effective isolation
system significantly reducing seismic forces in the deck and allowing the bridge to accommodate fault
movements between adjacent piers. However, this disposition necessitates installing at each pylon
transversal damping devices able to limit lateral displacements of the deck and dissipate large amount
of energy during a seismic event. This isolation system must also allow slow tectonic movement and
restrain the deck for wind action. These requirements demand large capacity dampers, which are still
under investigation. Two solutions are being examined: hydraulic and elastoplastic dampers. Prototype
tests will be conducted to confirm their performance.

4. CONSTRUCTION METHODS Construction methods for the foundations are those commonly used for
the construction of offshore concrete platforms: ß construction of the foundation footings in a dry dock
up to a height of 15 m in order to provide sufficient buoyancy; ß towing and mooring of these footings
at a wet dock site; ß construction of the conical part of the foundations at the wet dock site; ß towing
and immersion of the foundations at final position. However some features of this project make the
construction process of its foundations quite exceptional. The dry dock has been established near the
site. It is 200 m long, 100 m wide, 14 deep, and can accommodate the simultaneous construction of two
foundations. It has an unusual closure system: the first foundation is built 6 1115 behind the protection
of a dyke, but once towed out, the second foundation, the construction of which has already started, is
floated to the front place and used as a dock gate. Dredging the seabed, driving 750 inclusions, placing
and levelling the gravel layer on the top, with a depth of water reaching 65 m is major marine operation
which necessitates special equipment and procedures. In fact, a tension-leg barge has been custom-
made, based on the well known concept of tension-leg platforms but used for the first time for movable
equipment. This concept is based on active vertical anchorage to dead weights lying on the seabed (see
figure 6). The tension in these vertical anchor lines is adjusted in order to give the required stability to
the barge with respect to sea movements and loads handled by cranes disposed on its deck. By
increasing the tension in the anchor lines, the buoyancy of the barge allows the anchor weights to be
lifted from the seabed, then the barge, including its weights, can be floated away to a new position.

As already stated, once completed the foundations will be towed then sunk at their final position.
Compartments created in the footings by the radial beams will be used to control trim by differential
ballasting. Then the foundations will be filled with water to accelerate settlements, which are expected
to be significant (in the range of 0,5 m). This pre-loading will be maintained during pier shaft and pier
head construction, thus allowing a correction for differential settlements before erecting pylons. The
deck of the main bridge will be erected using the balance cantilever technique, a usual construction
method for cable-stayed bridges. The steel deck elements will be 12 m long, topped by a concrete slab
formed of precast elements. 7 1115 5. CONCLUSIONS The Rion-Antirion bridge is a major structure,
presenting exceptional features in term of design and construction methods, mainly commanded by its
seismic resistance. The design and construction of this highly innovative project have been undertaken
under a private concession scheme, led by the French company Groupe GTM. The detailed design is in
an advanced state and the construction of the first foundations will start before the end of year 1999,
for a completion of the whole project due in 2004. For more information on the design of the bridge,
please refer to the paper “Structural response of the RionAntirion Bridge” by J. Combault in the present
proceedings.