Understanding Culture, Society and Politics

Prepared by: Allan L. Navida

I. Society in its broader sense involves:

a. social (i.e., actions and interaction)
b. cultural (i.e., practices and traditions)
c. political (i.e., power relations)

The social as the merging point of the sociological, anthropological, and political reflections.
As disciplines, they provide a precarious yet captivating portrayals of social life as
i. impinged upon by social forces (sociology)
ii. routinized by cultural practices (anthropology)
iii. constantly enmeshed in power relations (political science)

A. SOCIOLOGY - highlights the external influences that facilitate or constrain human

actions
B. ANTHROPOLOGY - highlights the role of cultural structures in organizing human
interactions
C. POLITICAL SCIENCE – focuses on power relations and how these produce layered
modalities of opportunities among social actors

II. Gender and Gender Roles

People play different roles in society depending on age and occupation. There are jobs that require
a specific gender to perform tasks while other jobs are open to both men and women.

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 A. Gender
Gender refers to social, cultural, and psychological characteristics or traits related to males and
females based on certain social contexts.
It is different from sex, which refers to the biological characteristics that distinguish a male from
a female.
Thus, sex makes a person male or female, while gender makes a person masculine or feminine.
B. Gender Roles
Gender roles refer to attitudes and behaviors that the society expects a person to exhibit based on
his or her sex.
For example, in traditional Philippine society, women are expected to be plain housewives and
take care of their children, while men are expected to be professionals and provide the needs of
their family.
Another example is that society expects women to be more emotional and sensitive while men are
expected to be strong and capable of doing things that women cannot do.

III. Culture and Society

Culture and society are two different concepts. Each has its own meaning and function.
A. Culture
• According to Edward B. Tylor, culture is "that complex whole which encompasses beliefs,
practices, values, attitudes, laws, norms, artifacts, symbols, knowledge, and everything that
a person learns and shares as a member of society."
• Culture also encompasses social institutions like the family, church, school, and
government.
• Our culture defines who we are.
• Whatever it is that we do is part of our culture.
B. Society
• Society can be defined as the interaction among people where a common culture can be
shared.
• Society can also refer to people from a particular place that shares the same culture.
• A common location may not just develop a common culture. It can also be formed by
gender, shared beliefs, values, norms, or activities.

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For example, people from Bicol love spicy food while people from Iloilo are known to be sweet
and caring.
Can you identify a common cultural practice in your society?

IV. Culture is defined as the set of learned behaviours, beliefs, attitudes, values, and ideals
that are characteristics of a particular society or population (Ember 1999).

A. Characteristics of Culture

1. Culture is learned. The first essential characteristics of culture is that it is learned.

2. Culture is shared by a group of people. For a thought of an action to be considered
cultural , it must be commonly shared by some population or group of individuals.
3. Culture is cumulative. Knowledge is stored passed on from one generation to the next ,
and new knowledge is being added to what is existing.
4. Cultures change. All cultural knowledge does not perpetually accumulate. At the same
time that new cultural traits are added, some old one are lost because they are no longer
useful.
5. Culture is dynamic. No culture is ever in a permanent state.
6. Culture is ideational. Culture is an ideal pattern of behaviour which the members are
expected to follow.

B. Aspects of Culture

There are different aspects of culture like art, music, language, food, daily life, clothing,
and religion to name a few. These aspects of culture show us that culture is dynamic,
flexible, and adaptive.

Culture constantly changes and adapts to the current state of society. It continuously
restores itself whenever customs do not fit in the current situation anymore. It does not
remain stagnant.

Aspects of Culture: Shared and Contested

Culture is learned and acquired through different interactions with people. Culture is a
shared learning experience. Because culture constantly changes, we get to share the
learning process with other people.

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 C. Material and Non-material Culture
1. Material
Tangible products. Things that we can physically interact with.

Examples: Oldowans, Axe, Jars, Rosetta Stones

2. Non-material
Intangibles. Concepts. Ideas. Behaviors. These are things that we cannot
physically interact with.

Examples: Norms, Values, Traditions,

D. How is Culture Transmitted

1. Enculturation. It is the process learning culture of one’s own group.

2. Acculturation. It is the process of learning some new traits from another
culture.
3. Assimilation. It is the term used for a process in which an individual
entirely loses any awareness of his/her previous group identity and take on
the culture and attitudes of anther group.

V. Ethnocentrism

o Ethnocentrism is the idea that one’s own culture is above or superior than others'.

o It is also the belief that one's own culture is the main standard by which other
cultures may be measured or understood.

o Ethnocentrism is failing or refusing to see the world and its aspects in a wider or
encompassing perspective. It may cause people to practice bias and intolerance.

o Seeing the belief and behavior of others which are different from yours as brutish,
confusing, or unbecoming is an ethnocentric thought or behavior.

o The tendency to be avoidant, doubting, or questioning towards members of another

culture is also a manifestation of ethnocentrism.

VI. Cultural Relativism

• There are people who accept and respect the evident differences of members of
the society. When people recognize that each culture is naturally different from
others, that is cultural relativism.

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 • Cultural relativism does not mean that we should immediately accept and
tolerate cultural differences. Instead, it requires understanding the culture of
other people in their own cultural context that is free from another’s biases.

• With cultural relativism, it is suggested that the way people live should be
evaluated not based on their own cultural context but on the social community
the people themselves inhabit. Cultural relativism means respect and tolerance.

VII. Biological Evolution of Man

The current biological makeup of humans has long and complex origins. The biological evolution
of man refers to the long evolutionary history of the human species from primates to its current
form, the Homo sapiens. Evolution is not an overnight phenomenon. It took millions of years to
end up with the specific set of biological traits that humanity presently has. In this lesson, the
origin, factors, and developments involved in this evolutionary process will be discussed.
The Meaning and Significance of Human Evolution
Evolution is the process of developing physical and biological change in a species over a period
of time. Natural changes and events forced species to adapt to the environment while some faced
extinction for being unable to do so. In this case, modern humans, belonging to the genus Homo,
are seen as by-products of events and processes that occurred in the past.

A. Key Terms

1. DEVELOPMENT. The process in which someone or something grows or changes

and becomes more advanced.
2. ADAPTATION. In biology, process by which an animal or plant species becomes fitted
to its environment; it is the result of natural selection's acting upon heritable variation.
3. ENVIRONMENT. The surrounding conditions or forces (as soil, climate, and living
things) that influence a plant's or animal's characteristics and ability to survive.
4. EVOLUTION. Is change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over
successive generations.

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B. The Transition from Early to Modern Humans

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VIII. ARTEFACTUAL EVIDENCES

• The source of knowledge in understanding the lifestyle and the developments humans in
the past.

A. FOSSILS
These are artefactual remains that were preserved in rock.

B. OLDOWAN
These are stone-made tools that were used in hunting by the early humans.

IX. Cultural Evolution

Cultural evolution explains the changes in the beliefs, knowledge, customs, skills, attitudes, and
languages of humans over time. It proposes that as humans transform themselves, their culture
becomes progressively complex due to social, environmental, and biological factors.

The cultural evolution of early humans can be traced back to the beginning of the Stone Age when
they started creating and using tools made out of stones. This is the earliest known period of human
culture which started roughly 2-3 million years ago and ended around 6000 and 3000 BCE. This
period is also known as the prehistoric period because writing was not yet invented during this
time. It is divided into three separate periods:

• Old Stone Age (Paleolithic),

• Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic), and
• New Stone Age (Neolithic).

A. Paleolithic Period

The Paleolithic period is the first phase of the Stone Age. This period started the creation and use
of crude stone tools which are the most primitive among the three periods. The word "paleolithic"
is derived from the Greek words palaios (old) and lithos (stone) to collectively mean "old stone
age."

The early humans who existed during this period showed their skills with fire and stones that
changed their diet and food consumption. Hunting and fishing were the primary activities of the
early humans during the Paleolithic period. They also had their religious rituals based on nature
and developed their own language based on sounds and hand signals.

B. Mesolithic Period
The Mesolithic period is the second phase of the Stone Age. It was considered as the transition
period between the Paleolithic and Neolithic periods. The word "mesolithic" is derived from the
Greek words mesos(middle) and lithos (stone) that collectively mean "middle stone age."

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Early humans during this period gradually domesticated plants and animals. They also started to
form their own settlements and communities. Hunting, fishing, and food gathering were the
primary activities of the early humans. They also started to use microliths or smaller and more
delicate stone tools.

C. Neolithic Period
The word "neolithic" was derived from the Ancient Greek words neos (new) and lithos (stone) that
collective translates to "new stone age."
The Neolithic period started during the last phase of the Stone Age and at this point, modern
humans started to exist. From being food gatherers, they became food producers and introduced
the concept of farming. They also became herders from being hunters during the Paleolithic and
Mesolithic periods. They crafted better stone tools and invented the axe. Pots and jars were evident
during this period which served as their food containers and storage. Modern humans also formed
their permanent homes and started to have their own tribes and villages.

X. The Neolithic Revolution

The Paleolithic period saw humans as hunter-gatherers in society. They were nomadic people
who could easily transfer from one area to another to hunt animals or gather plants for
consumption and survival. This had been the practice until around 12,000 BCE when humans
started to domesticate animals and crops. This era of this newfound lifestyle is called the Neolithic
Revolution.
From hunter-gatherers or nomads, people became farmers through domestication, the
process of increasing human control in breeding animals or plants to regulate certain traits
that will make them useful for other human needs. The domestication of animals and plants
implied that humans stayed in a particular area to enable their resources to grow and expand. Some
plants and animals utilized for domestication included wheat, barley, corn, nuts, cattle, goats, and
sheep.
One of the first Neolithic societies recorded in existence was Mesopotamia, which is at present,
the country of Iraq. It was believed that it concurrently existed with other Neolithic societies in
China, the Americas, and Africa.

XI. Democracy and Democratization

A. Democratization refers to the spread or expansion of democracy.

B. Democracy means "rule by the people." The term comes from the Greek words demos,
which means "people," and kratos, which means "rule." While democracy is often traced

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 back to the Greeks, particularly the Athenian democracy during 5th century BCE, a form
of primitive democracy is said to have existed during the hunting and gathering period in
independent tribes.

C. The Beginnings of Democratization

The developments in the Greek city-states led to the birth of democracy and the rise of
democratization in societies.

Oligarchy

• Greek Kings were deposed by the noblemen.

• City-states began to change the form of leadership into oligarchy where rulers were from
aristocratic families.
• Because of inexpensive and accessible weaponry and the ongoing wars between city-
states, even ordinary people like the farmers learned to arm themselves and rebel against
drastic changes.
• The oligarchic government ruled in favor of the noblemen and aristocracies, so ordinary
people also used their collective power against an abusive government.

Tyranny

• Since there were few noble people in government, city-states, in effect, were ruled by a
tyrant, a positive term for a Greek leader that means “boss.”
• Tyrants became effective in ensuring fair treatment for both land owners and farmers.
• For some time, peace and equality emerged among social classes.
• In the second generation of tyrant rule, however, the son of a tyrant made some wrong
and abusive decisions that eventually lead to another revolution, ousting the tyrant rule.

Birth of Democracy

• Because of the tyrant's abuse of power, intelligent leaders of Greek city-states proposed
that power must be held by the common people.
• This led to the creation of a more broad-based constitution, eventually developing the
city-states to have a democratic setting.
• In 594 BCE, Solon gave Athens a new constitution. This event was considered as the rise
of democracy in Greece.
•
• The form of democracy during 500 BCE in city-states is said to be a form of direct
democracy where citizens participate directly in decision-making. On the other hand, the
evolved form of democracy**representative democracy**that became widespread in
nation-states is where officials are elected to represent a group of people.

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XII. Becoming a Member of the Society

A. Enculturation
• the process by which an individual adopts the behavior patterns of the culture in which a
person is immersed
B. Socialization
• It is the process through which people learn to understand the societal norms, expectations
and values as members of society.

C. Identity Formation
Identity formation starts when one learns to socialize and be aware of the culture, behaviors,
language, morals, and norms of where he or she belongs in. However, as a person grows, he or she
learns to make his or her own set of beliefs, values, and morals. This is how a person develops an
identity. This is what makes a person different from others.
Identity
Identity is what makes a person distinct from others. It is the total knowledge and understanding
of an individual about who he or she is.
Types of Identity
1. Personal
• the concept an individual develops about himself or herself
• the sense of oneself as a distinct or unique individual
• may depend on the age and circumstances of a person
Example: Rolen is an African girl. She is the most quiet student in her class. She believes that
time is gold, so spends her free time studying her lessons.
2. Cultural
• the identity of the culture to which a person belongs in
• the feeling or sense of belongingness to a group
• a collective sense of companionship that involves the same beliefs, interests, and
fundamental principles of living
Example: In the Philippines, the Agta tribe has been practicing a unique culture for centuries. Old
men wear the bahag, a unique style of clothing. They prefer to stay in the forest than to stay in
lowlands. They mainly look for natural food sources.

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 D. Discipline
• a way of behaving that expresses a willingness to obey rules or laws
• behavior that is judged by how well a person follows a set of rules or orders
Kinds of Discipline
Discipline is categorized into different types.
1. Discipline of Nature or Reality
A person meets this kind of control every time he or she tries to do something. A person learns to
do things on his or her own without the supervision of others.
Example: Ryan rented a bicycle near his town. He does not know yet how to ride the bike. He fell
many times, but he did not stop trying. He was so motivated to learn how to ride the bike that he
tried to learn on his own, and eventually, he was able to ride it.
2. Discipline of Culture or Society
What this discipline instills in every culture is distinct, different, and unique. A person learns
according to what he sees in his society or his culture.
Example: Mika wears the trendiest dresses these days. She wears them so she can be “in” with
the latest social trends.
3. Discipline of Superior Force
This discipline is the opposite of the discipline of nature or reality. In this training, a person learns
through supervision and guidance.
Example: A single mother raised Patricia. Her mother always reminded her not to fall in love
because of her personal idea that men are cheaters. Even if Patricia does not know how it feels to
be brokenhearted, she does not entertain any suitor.

E. Development of Personal Identity and Aspirations

Personal identity develops in many ways, depending on preferred directions.
• It may be through enculturation and socialization.
• It may also come through observation of a role model.
• You tend to imitate a successful person that leads to changes in personality.
• Your personal identity may change and eventually, you may develop a clear sense of
yourself.

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Aspiration is a strong desire and ambition with which someone is motivated to work hard.
Example: Rico at 20 years old identified himself as a happy-go-lucky guy. He might discover that,
at 35 years old, he is a different person. Perhaps he is living a good life with his family. He would
like his children to have a comfortable life in the future.

F. Norms
Norms are standards or sets of accepted behaviors that a person is expected to follow or exemplify
in the society where he or she belongs in. It pertains to specific guidelines of conduct in society
that guides its members on how to act in particular situations.
Classification of Norms
Norms can be classified in many ways. Norms are either formal or informal.

Norms are also categorized by their relative importance to society. This classification is
distinguished from the intensity of feelings they initiate and the consequences that flow from
violations of them.
Folkways
They are the customs of people that came from repetition and routines.
Examples:
• the practice of waiting in line
• courtesy to older people
Mores
• stricter than folkways
• determines what is the moral and ethical behavior
• dictates what is right and wrong
Examples:
• religious doctrines such as the prohibition of pre-marital sex
• the belief that forms of discrimination and suppression are unethical (e.g.racism and
sexism)
Taboos
• very strong negative norms
• strict prohibition of certain behaviors that society holds firmly

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 • violating it results in extreme disgust or expulsion from the group or society
Examples:
• cannibalism
• incest
Laws
• formally instituted by the government
• exist because its violation can result in injury or harm to other members of society
• impose sanction on people who disobey the authority
Examples:
• curfews for minors
• laws against domestic violence

G. Values
Values refer to the abstract idea of people about what is necessary or worthwhile. Values are
general guidelines that are fundamental parts of our lives. They stand for the things we believe in.
Most of the values we have are learned from family, friends, school, media, and other sources in
society.
Classification of Values
Values can be classified into two types.
1. Individual Values
These values are those that are connected with the development of human personality.
Examples: honesty, loyalty, honor
2. Collective Values
These values are those that are connected with the development of unity in the community or
society.
Examples: equality, justice, solidarity

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Relationship Between Norms and Values
Here are some significant relationships between norms and values.

H. Statuses
Our society is guided by a network of similar statuses and roles that govern human interactions
that we call social structure. It also refers to the manner in which society is arranged into
predictable interactions.
Status
• describes the position an individual occupies in a particular setting, in a group, or in society
• defines and clarifies the rights and obligations expected from a person
Example: a farm boy, a teacher, a human rights defender
Classifications of Statuses
There are three kinds of statuses.
1. Ascribed Status
• a position a person holds in a social system that one attains involuntarily or by birth
• inherited and not based on the person’s abilities, accomplishments, or efforts
• can be rigid and unchanging since it is given to a person when he is born and is often
involuntary

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Example: a Filipino national, a male or a female, a king or a queen, a son of a vendor, a firstborn
2. Achieved Status
• a position one holds in a social system that one attains based on merit or effort
• acquired due to unique skills, knowledge, or abilities, and are based on standards that can
be controlled
• a position that has been earned or chosen and is mostly dictated by abilities, skills, and life
choices
Example: a student, an employee, a doctor, an artist
3. Master Status
• the greatest role in a person’s life that determines social identity and general position in
society
• can be based on any status, such as gender, ethnicity, economic status, religious or spiritual
tradition, employment status, or family responsibility such as a parent or grandparent
• may come with a sense of prestige for some−the consensus from the community around
them that a status is to be desired
Example: a CEO, an activist, a Pope
The chart shows the differences among the three statuses.

I. Roles
• expectations that are set for a person given the status he or she occupies
• pertains to the norms, behaviors, values, and personal characteristics that are attached to
the status of the person
Examples:
• Status: student
Roles: attending classes, studying lessons, communicating with the teacher
• Status: teacher
Roles: teaching, giving feedback, assessing or evaluating the performance of the students

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 • Status: call center agent
Roles: answering questions, solving problems, researching information
The chart below shows the different statuses and their corresponding roles.

Role Exit and Role Conflict

What are some issues concerning roles?
Role exit pertains to the course of disengaging a person from his or her role that is essential to his
or her self-identity.
Example: when a person retires from a long career and must shift from the role of an employee
with responsibilities to someone just living a comfortable life, or when an individual becomes a
parent and has to change their lifestyle.
Role conflict arises when incompatible expectations occur from two or more statuses that a person
is occupying. Performing the assigned role of one status makes it challenging for the person to
play the assigned role of another status.
Example: It is very challenging for a woman to be the best mother to her children and the best
employee to her company all at the same time.

J. Conformity and Deviance

In our everyday lives, we notice that there are specific standards for our actions, simple or complex,
set by society. People tend to have different responses with these imagined pressures depending
on their upbringing, values, or ideals. These reactions are called conformity and deviance.
Conformity
• is linked to the obedience of a person to the norms in order to be acceptable in a particular
society, group, or social setting

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Example: The majority of the class members, through a group consensus, agreed to accept the
proposal.
Deviance
• is the non-conformity or violation of the standards of conduct, expectations, or norms of a
particular group or society
Example: There are power struggles among netizens who disagree on the re-imposition of the
death penalty.

K. Social Control
It is believed that society must have a social order to function smoothly. The social order includes
social standards, laws, rules, and norms which are set by society, whether they are by the majority
or by a hierarchy. Ideally, people must exhibit social order, but in reality, no society succeeds in
getting all its members to behave as expected all the time. If social order is seen as the only way
for communities to survive, they must have ways of making people conform to social norms.
Social Control Theory
• This is based on the idea that a person's fundamental belief system, values, morals,
commitments, and relationships promote a protected environment.
• Oftentimes, individuals who have these beliefs and commitments have a level of self-
control over their actions.
• It examines or evaluates how society affects criminal behavior.
• It emphasizes the idea that when people are involved and in contact with their community,
they are less likely to perpetrate criminal acts.

L. Gossip, Social Ostracism, and Laws and Punishments

Failure to embrace the accepted norms and values of society or inability to perform the roles of a
person’s status may lead to consequences in the form of gossip, social ostracism, and laws and
punishments.
Gossip
• refers to the idle talk or rumors about the personal or private matters of others
• may lead to the discrediting of the reputation of the subject
Social Ostracism
• refers to the exclusion of an individual from being socially accepted

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 • includes the removal of social privileges and friendship with the general members of the
society
• a result of one's actions that give him or her an impression of not being a worthy member
of that society
Laws and Punishments
Laws refer to the set of rules by the government to regulate the way in which society behaves.
Punishments pertain to the pain, penalty, or suffering that is imposed on a person who violates a
law.
People learn the mechanisms of social control through interactions with other people. Couples who
are expected to have a respectable family choose not to quarrel out loud to avoid being talked about
around their neighborhood.
An individual will conform with his peers to avoid social rejection or ostracism. To avoid
punishment, people must follow the law.

M. Human Dignity and Rights

As stated, “All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.” No color of skin,
physical disability, sexual orientation, or religious belief can stop anybody from protecting his or
her dignity and enjoying his or her rights as a person. Human dignity and rights go together and
are essential to the attainment of common interest.
Human Dignity
There are two ways to understand human dignity.
The religious aspect believes that humans have a unique place in the world and that human life is
sacred.
In moral, ethical, legal, and political discussions, human dignity is used to express the idea that
a being has an innate right to be valued, respected, and to receive ethical treatment.
Human dignity
• an individual or group's sense of self-respect and worth, physical and psychological
integrity, and empowerment
• affirms that every person is worthy of respect; that our value as people should never be
debated
• means having a quality life and not experiencing oppression or manipulation
• is uplifted when people are granted with their rights

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It is, therefore, true to say that any right safeguarded by the International Human Rights Law is
substantiated by the dignity of the human person.

N. Human Rights
• are rights inherent to all people, regardless of nationality, place of residence, sex, national
or ethnic origin, color, religion, language, or any other status
• are the freedom and privileges that belong to every person in the world
• guarantees that all people shall be ensured to enjoy life, liberty, and security
Characteristics of Human Rights
Human rights are universal and inalienable, indivisible, interdependent, and interrelated.
Universality and Inalienability
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
Indivisibility
Whether they relate to cultural, civil, economic, political, or social issues, human rights are
inherent to the dignity of every human person.
Interdependence and Interrelatedness
The fulfillment of one right often depends on, wholly or in part, the fulfillment of others.
Both human dignity and rights should not be taken away, but sadly, they are denied to some people
as manifested by poverty, illiteracy, crime, and discrimination in society.

O. Inclusive Citizenship
Inclusive citizenship is a governing policy that promotes human dignity and human rights.

• It focuses on legal equality for each citizen directed at giving all citizens a strong feeling
that they are part of the overall society.
• Its policies include laws that provide non-segregated access to all citizens, regardless of
their race, gender, religious affiliation, and socioeconomic status.
• While a government cannot guarantee equality in all private organizations, inclusive
citizenship focuses on the legal rights of all individuals in cases where the government
determines their rights of inclusion.
• It establishes a governing foundation where it gives its citizens a sense of security so that
they will feel that their government hears and respects their ideas.
• In return, people will be more inclined to voice out their grievances through proper
channels, such as petitioning a representative to investigate their situation.
• Moreover, this right can motivate the citizens to participate in government activities,
raising voter turnout, civic participation, and serving in the military.

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 • Under inclusive citizenship, there are rights that the government provides for its citizens.
Examples of these are the equal right to vote, equal right to serve in the military, same
right to marry, similar tax responsibilities, and equal right to represent others in the
government.
• Citizens also have access to public funds, public organizations, and equal rights and
acceptance by national figures.

Reference:

Understanding Culture, Society and Politics. Retrieved from:

https://link.quipper.com/en/organizations/5468be662294ee08bc0001d1/curriculum#curriculum

Tamayao, A. (2014). Social Dimensions of Education. Sampaloc, Manila: Rex Bookstore Store,
Inc.

A.P.Contreras, et.al. Understanding Culture, Society and Politics. Phoenix

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