Yukiko Inoue, Yukiko Inoue - Cases On Online and Blended Learning Technologies in Higher Education - Concepts and Practices-Information Science Reference (2009)

Cases on Online and
Blended Learning
Technologies in Higher
Education:
Concepts and Practices
Yukiko Inoue
University of Guam, Guam
InformatIon scIence reference

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Cases on online and blended learning technologies in higher education :

concepts and practices / Yukiko Inoue, editor.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-60566-880-2 (hardcover) -- ISBN 978-1-60566-881-9 (ebook) 1.
Education, Higher--Computer-assisted instruction--Case studies. 2.
Educational technology--Case studies. 3. Blended learning--Case studies. I.
Inoue, Yukiko.
LB2395.7.C417 2010
378.1'734--dc22
2009034981
British Cataloguing in Publication Data

A Cataloguing in Publication record for this book is available from the British Library.
All work contributed to this book is new, previously-unpublished material. The views expressed in this book are those of the
authors, but not necessarily of the publisher.
Editorial Advisory Board
Kyle Smith, University of Guam, Guam
Mark Goniwiecha, University of Guam, Guam
List of Reviewers
Martin Reardon, Virginia Commonwealth University, USA
Roisin Donnelly, Dublin Institute of Technology, Ireland
Roberto Di Scala, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Italy
Katarzyna Grzybowska, Poznan University of Technology, Poland
Linda De George-Walker, University of Southern Queensland, Australia
Patrick Danaher, University of Southern Queensland, Australia
Richard Engstrom, Georgia State University, USA
Chris Morgan,Southern Cross University, Australia
John J. Doherty, Northern Arizona University, USA
Kam Hou Vat, University of Macau, China
Paul Shield, Queensland University of Technology, Queensland
Table of Contents
Foreword .............................................................................................................................................. xi
Preface ................................................................................................................................................ xiv
Acknowledgment ............................................................................................................................... xxii
Section 1
Implementing Blended Learning Technologies
A: Programs/Environments
Chapter 1
The Nature of Complex Blends: Transformative Problem-Based Learning and Technology
in Irish Higher Education ........................................................................................................................ 1
Chapter 2
Experiences and Perceptions of Learner Engagement in Blended Learning Environments:
The Case of an Australian University ................................................................................................... 23
Abdul Hafeez-Baig, University of Southern Queensland, Australia
Raj Gururajan, University of Southern Queensland, Australia
Patrick, A. Danaher, University of Southern Queensland, Australia
Chapter 3
Instructional Leadership and Blended Learning: Confronting the Knowledge Gap in Practice .......... 44
Martin R. Reardon, Virginia Commonwealth University, USA
Chapter 4
Blended Learning in a Creative Writing Program: Lessons Learned from a Two-Year
Pilot Study............................................................................................................................................. 63
Chris Morgan, Southern Cross University, Australia
Janie Conway-Herron, Southern Cross University, Australia
Chapter 5
Blended Learning for Adaptation to Needs .......................................................................................... 76
Joan E. Aitken, Park University, USA
B: Courses
Chapter 6
Virtual Reality or Virtually Real: Blended Teaching and Learning in a Master’s Level
Research Methods Class ....................................................................................................................... 91
John Lidstone, Queensland University of Technology, Australia
Paul Shield, Queensland University of Technology, Australia
Chapter 7
Teaching Online: What Does Blended Learning Require? ................................................................. 112
P. Toyoko Kang, University of Guam, Guam
Chapter 8
The Perfect Blend?: Online Blended Learning from a Linguistic Perspective ................................... 132
Chapter 9
Reflections: Two Years after Implementing a Blended Educational Research Course ....................... 145
Yukiko Inoue, University of Guam, Guam
Section 2
Integrating Online Learning Technologies
Chapter 10
A Case of Using Wikis to Foster Collaborative Learning: Pedagogical Potential
and Recommendations ........................................................................................................................ 167
Hong Lin, Oklahoma State University, USA
Kathleen D. Kelsey, Oklahoma State University, USA
Chapter 11
Virtual Organizing Professional Learning Communities through a Servant-Leader Model
of Appreciative Coaching ................................................................................................................... 183
Kam Hou Vat, University of Macau, Macau
B: Courses
Chapter 12
Bothering with Technology: Building Community in an Honors Seminar ........................................ 208
Chapter 13
Online Materials for Teaching Japanese ............................................................................................ 227
Kai Masumi, University of Guam, Guam
Chapter 14
Composition Goes Online: How a Small Pacific Island is Blogging into the Future ......................... 249
Michelle Bednarzyk, University of Guam, Guam
Merissa Brown, University of Guam, Guam
Chapter 15
Integrating Classroom and Online Instruction in an Introductory American
Government Course ............................................................................................................................ 283
Compilation of References .............................................................................................................. 296
About the Contributors ................................................................................................................... 313
Index ................................................................................................................................................... 318

Detailed Table of Contents
Foreword .............................................................................................................................................. xi
Preface ................................................................................................................................................ xiv
Acknowledgment ............................................................................................................................... xxii
Section 1
Implementing Blended Learning Technologies
Chapter 1
The Nature of Complex Blends: Transformative Problem-Based Learning and Technology
in Irish Higher Education ........................................................................................................................ 1
Qualitative data from focus groups, reflection papers, and participant observations emphasize the need
for effective interaction between pedagogy and technology to ensure that both are used to best effect in
implementing problem-based learning in a blended learning environment.
Chapter 2
Experiences and Perceptions of Learner Engagement in Blended Learning Environments:
The Case of an Australian University ................................................................................................... 23
Abdul Hafeez-Baig, University of Southern Queensland, Australia
Raj Gururajan, University of Southern Queensland, Australia
Patrick, A. Danaher, University of Southern Queensland, Australia
The authors make an attempt to extend current understandings of blended learning, and realize that ongo-
ing challenges cannot necessarily be resolved easily or permanently because several factors influencing
the challenges lie outside the control of individual course team members.
Chapter 3
Instructional Leadership and Blended Learning: Confronting the Knowledge Gap in Practice .......... 44
Martin R. Reardon, Virginia Commonwealth University, USA
The course was particularly designed to engage participants, who were seeking endorsement (i.e., certifi-
cation) at the school district superintendent level, in examining the instructional leadership ramifications
of the effective integration of digital technology and learning.
Chapter 4
Blended Learning in a Creative Writing Program: Lessons Learned from a Two-Year
Pilot Study............................................................................................................................................. 63
Chris Morgan, Southern Cross University, Australia
Janie Conway-Herron, Southern Cross University, Australia
The authors express the strong need for a flexible learning approach offering a variety of formats to meet
the needs of a diverse student body spread across the university’s three campuses, and including older
students. Many challenges were exposed through the initiative discussed.
Chapter 5
Blended Learning for Adaptation to Needs .......................................................................................... 76
Joan E. Aitken, Park University, USA
Describing the experiences of institutions using various levels of distance learning integration, the infor-
mation of this case includes the type of technology used, the way blended learning has been configured
in several contexts, and questions for the future applications of blended learning.
B: Courses
Chapter 6
Virtual Reality or Virtually Real: Blended Teaching and Learning in a Master’s Level
Research Methods Class ....................................................................................................................... 91
John Lidstone, Queensland University of Technology, Australia
Paul Shield, Queensland University of Technology, Australia
As the authors maintain, it may be that technology has become virtually transparent, so that people have
moved from the ‘e’ to the ‘learning,’ or, in other words, from thinking of pedagogy in terms of virtual
reality to a student experience that is virtually real.
Chapter 7
Teaching Online: What Does Blended Learning Require? ................................................................. 112
P. Toyoko Kang, University of Guam, Guam
This case shows simple ways to make currently incomprehensible input comprehended, and to increase
input, with the benefit of a memory efficient approach developed from human parser learning theory
(HPLT), justifying why input comprehension matters according to HPLT.
Chapter 8
The Perfect Blend?: Online Blended Learning from a Linguistic Perspective ................................... 132
This case identifies the many challenges facing the University of Modena and Reggio Emilia as it at-
tempts to find the optimum blend of components. The University has offered blended e-learning courses
for its distance learning programs to ensure that the ‘human touch’ is included.
Chapter 9
Reflections: Two Years after Implementing a Blended Educational Research Course ....................... 145
Yukiko Inoue, University of Guam, Guam
Based on the instructor’s observations, as well as the student self-ratings and self-narratives, this case
confirms the prediction drawn from the literature that, after all, pedagogical and technological difficul-
ties present major challenges for blended course instruction.
Section 2
Integrating Online Learning Technologies
Chapter 10
A Case of Using Wikis to Foster Collaborative Learning: Pedagogical Potential
and Recommendations ........................................................................................................................ 167
Hong Lin, Oklahoma State University, USA
Kathleen D. Kelsey, Oklahoma State University, USA
The author argues that although wikis have increasingly been used for collaborative classroom writing
and have been hailed as a learning/writing tool that is more powerful than blogs and e-mails, the peda-
gogical impacts of using wikis is thus far underrepresented in the literature.
Chapter 11
Virtual Organizing Professional Learning Communities through a Servant-Leader Model
of Appreciative Coaching ................................................................................................................... 183
Kam Hou Vat, University of Macau, Macau
The author is very much interested in enhancing the student’s experience by designing a collaborative
and problem-based learning environment, which relies on the virtual organizing of the various profes-
sional learning communities distributed throughout the institution.
B: Courses
Chapter 12
Bothering with Technology: Building Community in an Honors Seminar ........................................ 208
The author contends that instructors of honors courses, who might be predisposed to more traditional
teaching methods, need to ‘bother’ with technology in order to provide their students with the combina-
tion of learning strategies that are most efficient and effective.
Chapter 13
Online Materials for Teaching Japanese ............................................................................................ 227
Kai Masumi, University of Guam, Guam
The author asserts that although new software has yet to show dramatic change in student learning, it
clearly gives different stimuli to the student and is useful for the student’s self study, based upon the
theory that technology affect the process of foreign language learning.
Chapter 14
Composition Goes Online: How a Small Pacific Island is Blogging into the Future ......................... 249
Michelle Bednarzyk, University of Guam, Guam
Merissa Brown, University of Guam, Guam
This case provides a detailed historical background of the course development; insights from two instruc-
tors about the process of teaching this way for the University of Guam’s diverse student population; and
suggestions for future successes based on current challenges and issues.
Chapter 15
Integrating Classroom and Online Instruction in an Introductory American
Government Course ............................................................................................................................ 283
The author discusses online components to provide course material that the students would otherwise
have missed due to decreased lecture time, and recognizes the opportunity to add the components as a
chance to address the usual limitations of large, introductory sections.
Compilation of References .............................................................................................................. 296
About the Contributors ................................................................................................................... 313
Index ................................................................................................................................................... 318

xi
Foreword
In the Middle Ages, the educated class consisted largely of priests and monks, who copied the Bible and
missals by hand on leaves of parchment. Each hand-written book was unique, including transcription
errors (some inadvertent, some maybe deliberately introduced) and even whimsical doodles. Little other
than prayer books was available when the Church was in charge of information dissemination. Later on,
the need for copies of business documents was filled by public scribes who worked in the town square
near the office of the clerk or registrar of documents.
Johann Gutenberg’s invention of printing from movable type in the 1450s changed everything about
our world. Not only did he introduce the revolutionary technology to make multiple copies of a book,
but also, the new medium of printing altered the content of the book product.
In addition to religious works, new secular subjects, such as histories, biographies, novels, poems,
and newspapers began to appear. More people learned to read as more printed literature was produced.
Merchants and tradesmen wanted an education, too, creating a middle class. The number of persons
attending high school increased. More universities were established.
In The Gutenberg Galaxy, Marshall McLuhan (1962) explored the symbiotic relationship between
the mass media, in general, especially printing, in particular, and the larger socioculture, human self-
awareness, circumspection and cognizance. McLuhan’s Understanding Media (1964) and The Medium
Is the Massage (1967) continued his analysis of how the medium affects the message itself. The tech-
nology is more than just the method of transmission employed. The means (the medium) alters the end
(the content).
At St. Clement Schools, which I attended in Center Line, Michigan, for 11 years, teachers used the
latest technology available—slide projectors, filmstrips with sound, and later, movies, then referred to
as “moving pictures.” In the state-of-the-art language laboratory, the teacher, Sister Francis Marie, a
Catholic nun, could monitor interactively each student’s progress and oral performance—listen and re-
peat, conjugate a verb, demonstrate subject-predicate agreement. She could speak to one student through
his headphones to attempt to improve pronunciation, or she could broadcast directions to everyone in
Spanish class.
Typing with carbon paper and wet mimeograph duplicators reeking of fumes gave way to dry photo-
copiers. Mainframe computers, then personal computers, spelled the end of the typewriter. High school
yearbook classes and clubs, then newspaper and magazine production rooms, made the transition from
cut-and-paste page layouts to computerized composition. The invention of electronic mail, then the
Internet, changed forever the way people communicate, search for, retrieve and deliver information.
Each new technological invention introduced new means, and along with that, new ways of perceiving
the message itself.
xii
Educators have been in the forefront in the introduction and employment of new technologies in the
classroom. Students utilize and master the technologies, then go on in their own careers to design new
ones.
Every era and every step forward have had its doomsday naysayers. Education of the masses in free
public schools would make the world a more vulgar place, some claimed. Free public libraries would
denigrate learning, they said.
But the historical record and empirical evidence have not born out those fears. Instead, the United
States Congress went ahead anyway and established the land grant university system to locate and sup-
port with federal funding a “state university” in every state and territory. Cities undertook the founding
of free public libraries for everyone, city colleges and city universities, using local tax regimes approved
by voters. Sons and daughters of farmers, teamsters, coopers, butchers and bakers went to college, earned
degrees, became intellectually productive knowledge workers, and moved up the rungs of the economic
and social ladder to join the ranks of the middle class. From personal experience, I know that the son
of a factory assembly line worker can become a university professor capable of understanding complex
concepts, conducting lectures, making academic presentations, producing research results, and writing
them up for publication.
When Barack Obama, the son of a visiting Kenyan student father and a Kansan-Hawaiian mother,
can become a lawyer, professor, senator, and be elected president of the United States, almost anything
is possible. American students know that, through their earnest endeavors, they can achieve higher
aspirations.
Other nations are studying, emulating and replicating free public schools for all children, free public
libraries for everyone, and political systems that provide fair and equal treatment and suffrage for all.
Dictators are afraid of open societies and the free flow of information.
The introduction of the Internet promises new possibilities for educating students. Moodle and other
interactive programs allow students in distant, even remote and isolated, locations to pursue courses and
programs not previously offered in their areas. On small islands, such as in Micronesia, and in other
developing countries, students can use the Internet and email to enroll in and complete university courses
and finish entire distance education degrees successfully.
Professors have identified ways to use email and the Internet in their traditional courses, by keeping
in touch with their students via listservs, with course Web sites, posted syllabi, reserve readings online,
and important links to explore. Students on campus can also take advantage of the new technologies,
using the Internet and e-mail, to enhance the classroom experience in blended learning opportunities.
Students can send in their assignments via email to the professor, or upload them to the Web page, where
they can be viewed and critiqued by other readers, fostering a collaborative environment. Students can
communicate with each other, and with the instructor, outside of class, using the Web page. Professors
can send out questions or new assignments electronically, or return corrected assignments.
In the chapters of this book of cases, researchers present their findings concerning professors’ class-
room use of listservs, course Web sites, Wikis, blogs, and Moodle for teacher-student interaction and
learning. The process is interactive and the learning occurs on both sides. Professors learn from the
students. Students learn from the teachers and from each other.
The possibilities and progress are limited only by our imagination and creativity. Research, such as
that in the present work, serves to analyze, evaluate, assess, and improve some of the new functions,
roles, and perceptions. Collaborations, critiques, analyses, and syntheses will develop still further uses,
xiii
and newer methods and media, on future journeys in education. Indeed, this book of cases celebrates
such new journeys. It’s a brave new world, and we are creating it.
Mark C. Goniwiecha
September 2009
Mark Goniwiecha is a professor of library science at the University of Guam. He is the author of numerous publications,
including articles in Taiheiyo Gakkai Shi—Journal of the Pacific Society—(Tokyo, Japan), Government Publications Review
(New York), Contemporary Pacific (Honolulu, Hawaii), Reference Services Review (Ann Arbor, Mich.), Libri (Copenhagen,
Denmark), The Nation (Bangkok, Thailand), Pacific Daily News (Hagåtña, Guam), and others. He served two terms as the
Guam Library Association chapter representative to the American Library Association Council. Email: [email protected].
edu
REFERENCES
McLuhan, M. (1962). The Gutenberg galaxy: The making of typographic man. Toronto, Canada:
University of Toronto Press.
McLuhan, M. (1964). Understanding media: The extensions of man. New York: McGraw-Hill.
McLuhan, M. (1967). The medium is the massage: An inventory of effects. New York: Bantam Books /
Random House.
xiv
Preface
In the Internet Age, the notion that a traditional classroom with face-to-face instruction, by itself, is no
longer adequate for higher education teaching and learning as one that has considerable intrinsic merit.
Institutions of higher education, therefore, realize that lecture-based teaching methods alone will not
prepare students for the challenges they will face. The State University of New York and the University
of Illinois, for instance, have entirely abolished the separation of online programs from campus-based
programs, awarding the same degree for both programs and allowing students themselves to combine
campus and online coursework as best suits their individual needs and choices (Theil, 2008). Further-
more, in Theil’s words:
The move to such hybrids will be driven by students questioning why they should sit in lectures taking
notes three times a week when they can go once and do the rest at their own pace online…. By combining
face-to-face interaction with new online options in more powerful ways, these programs should offer
the best of both worlds—rendering moot today’s debate over whether virtual or in-person degrees are
best. (p. 65)
In spite of both substantive and specious concerns about the pervasive ongoing role of computers in
modern life, the Internet is already well established in higher education and promises to continue to fill
all the crevices of the educational fabric (Rudestam & Schoenholtz-Read, 2002, p. 9). Higher education
is now available at the students’ fingertips, as technology enables them to do their tasks more efficiently,
effectively, comfortably, and quickly (Sethy, 2008, p. 29). Moreover, the rapid growth in the use of new
technologies, particularly in the use of the Internet and Web-based communication, has provided higher
education instructors and institutions with new options that enable them to experiment with the most
suitable mix of instructional approaches and learning environments.
An especially important aspect of today’s higher education environment is that students are more
diverse than ever before. In the United States, for example, in addition to a more diversified student
population in terms of ethnicity, social status, and expectation, the proportion of non-traditional university
students has been steadily increasing. Higher education institutions are thus being challenged, not only
by the rapidly developing information and communication technologies, but also by the non-traditional
character of today’s university students as well (Orhan, 2008). These changing student demographics
and expectations, as well as technological innovation and the imperatives of a lifelong learning agenda,
are transforming higher education for the 21st century.
THE COMING OF THE AGE OF BLENDED LEARNING
Internet-based online distance education is certainly becoming an important long-term strategy for many
institutions of higher education throughout the world. However, blended learning promises to be an even
xv
more significant modality than an entirely online learning approach. Blended learning is not entirely
new. “Back in the last century, the term ‘blended learning’ was invented, accompanied with typical
e-learning hype…. It was thought that developing a blended learning solution was all about choosing
from an ever-widening selection of methods and media” (LINE Communications, 2006, p. 1). In the past
five years, particularly, the concept of blended learning has become widely accepted in both academic
and corporate worlds: the term is now generally used to mean a structured process that involves a mix
of teaching and learning activities, including e-learning, face-to-face instruction, and telephone contact
(CILIP, 2008). Blended learning is viewed as having myriad possibilities for enhancing higher educa-
tion instruction, primarily “because new ways of thinking about course design are required to reconcile
traditional values and practices with evolving expectations and technological possibilities” (Garrison
& Vaughan, 2008, p. 3).
In a study by Orhan (2008) focused on blended learning and teaching, college students felt that: “the
integration of face-to-face and online learning environments was more enjoyable than purely online
distance learning or purely face-to-face environments” (p. 61). In Orhan’s words:
Blended learning can improve students’responsibility for their own learning through online activities and
improve their motivation through face-to-face interactivity. In blended learning environments, instruc-
tors may be able to spend less time delivering content and more time guiding students…when trying to
implement a student-centered learning environment. (p. 64)
Orhan (2008), therefore, recommends that instructors should be (1) encouraged to forego strictly
traditional lecturing in favor of courses designed to incorporate blended learning approaches, and (2)
trained for the dual roles of both content developer and facilitator in courses redesigned for blended
learning environments.
Based upon the view that the value of blended learning lies in identifying situations in which technol-
ogy-enhanced learning experiences might prove more effective and efficient in supporting meaningful
learning, the following success factors for blended e-learning described by CILIP (2008) are useful for
instructors in designing effective blended learning courses:
• work with and within the context (blended e-learning is most effective when it is designed and
developed within and for a specific context);
• use blended learning as a driver for transformative course redesign (the best results are obtained
when blended learning is used as a driver for course redesign that includes analyzing the current
course and obtaining feedback from stakeholders, especially students);
• help students develop their own conceptions of the learning process (students are more likely
to engage in learning and teaching activities if they understand the rationale for it); and
• disseminate and communicate results of findings (the report authors highlight the importance
of disseminating the findings from research about blended e-learning). (p. 3)
The mixture of blended learning can incorporate a variety of teaching and learning styles, course
materials, and learning technologies, such as traditional classroom settings (including lecture theaters,
and laboratory environments), CD-ROMs and DVDs, e-mails, course management systems, e-books,
virtual learning environments (including message boards and chart rooms), asynchronous online delivery
and tools such as Wikis and blogs, and synchronous online delivery and tools such as instant messaging
(Gulc, 2006). The choice of a blend is best determined by the nature of the course and its learning objec-
xvi
tives, instructor experiences and teaching styles, and student needs. Blended learning is also concerned
with effectively leveraging the strengths of differing kinds of learning activities and venues in achiev-
ing some overarching learning objectives (Howard, Remenyi, & Pap, 2006, p. 1). Insofar as the aim of
blended learning is to meet the challenges of widely differing situations, the following characterization
is intriguing:
Blended learning isn’t really about assembling media or methods. It isn’t design by numbers. What
blended learning must do is to provide an integrated environment in which to learn. It must provide an
experience that is more effective than the sum of its parts. In fact, blended learning is like so much that
happens in our increasingly networked world: it’s not the individual components that matter, but the
way they relate. It’s not the nodes in the network, but the way they link together. (LINE Communica-
tions, n. d., p. 1)
Blended learning is considered to be an effective first step toward implementing fully online learning.
Even when it is the first step, “maximizing success in a blended learning initiative requires a planned
and well-supported approach that includes a theory-based instructional model, high-quality faculty
development, course development assistance, learner support, and ongoing formative and summative
assessment” (Dziuban, Hartman, & Moskal, 2004, p. 3). This point deserves emphasis. The potential
for new technologies to increase the quantity and timeliness of information from learning activities
performed in different venues will be realized only if higher education instructors are motivated to use
this information to improve the quality of teaching (Howard et al., 2006). That is why preparing faculty
for blended and online learning is so important.
PURPOSE OF THIS BOOK
Blended learning, as previously discussed, has many faces (including combining instructional modalities
or delivery media, and integrating instructional methods). In this publication, Cases on Blended and
Online Learning Technologies in Higher Education: Concepts and Practices, blended learning is gener-
ally understood as a balanced combination of traditional classroom-based activities with appropriately
designed online learning experiences, or the convergence between traditional campus-based learning
and online/distance learning.
Despite the growing interest in blended learning approaches, there are few published cases that
provide specific insights into how blended learning courses should be designed, implemented, and
evaluated in order to maximize teaching effectiveness and learning quality. The interest “in blended
learning—thoughtful fusion of classroom and online learning experiences—has surged in the past two
to three years throughout higher education. The need to provide more engaged learning experiences—
and greater flexibility for students and faculty—are at the core of this interest” (Rochester Institute of
Technology, 2008, p. 1).
Three guiding principles of the book are as follows:
• Blended learning might be the solution. It is a time to think about redesigning courses for
blended learning, reconciling “traditional values and practices with evolving expectations and
technological possibilities” (Garrison & Vaughan, 2008, p. 3). In this regard, the cases in the book
focus on the challenges and directions of redesigning courses, especially for student-directed learn-
xvii
ing, based upon a wide range of designs, methodologies, and applications of blended and online
learning—thus from course design to assessment of learning outcomes.
• Experience is the best teacher, as the adage goes. This is especially true for the contributors of
cases who are eager to discuss and share their real-life examples and experiences in order to make
a positive impact on blended and online learning. Their examples and experiences can be applied
to any other settings or institutions of higher education throughout the world.
• Lifelong learning is an educational agenda. Lifelong learning is one of the most important en-
gines driving education in the 21st century (Magoulas, 2008). Providing cases of blended and online
learning technologies and environments for different needs and settings, the book discusses the role
today’s higher education instructors and institutions can play as they become genuinely lifelong
instructors and institutions, better helping students to survive in a technologically sophisticated
society.
The aim of this book of cases is to contribute to an educational transformation based upon new models
of teaching and learning, and made possible by “the confluence of new pedagogies (e.g., the change in
emphasis from teaching-centered to student-centered learning paradigms), new technologies (e.g., the
rapid spread of the Internet, World Wide Web, and personal computers), and new theories of learning
(e.g., brain-based learning and social constructivism)” (Dziuban et al., 2004, p. 2). It is hoped that the
book will be a valuable resource for both the conceptual understanding and practical application of
blended and online learning technologies in higher education.
ORGANIZATION OF THIS BOOK
This book of cases consists of 15 chapters. A brief description of each of the cases follows:
Chapter One, “The Nature of Complex Blends: Transformative Problem-Based Learning and Technol-
ogy in Irish Higher Education,” discusses the case of blending technology and problem-based learning
(PBL) group interaction in the context of academic staff development with two objectives in mind: (1)
to establish, in a PBL tutorial setting, the factors that govern the success of blended PBL; and (2) to
identify technical, academic, and interactional indicators of learning in the online and face-to-face PBL
tutorial. Qualitative data from focus group interviews, reflection papers, and participant observations
emphasize the need for effective interaction between pedagogy and technology to ensure that both are
used to best effect in implementing PBL in a blended learning environment. Thus pedagogy and technol-
ogy must work effectively together.
Chapter Two, “Experiences and Perceptions of Learner Engagement in Blended Learning Environ-
ments: The Case of an Australian University,” discusses the case of a collaboration by the faculty of
business and education, presenting a detailed examination of three postgraduate courses in relation to
design, development, and management of blended learning as it intersects with learner engagement.
The authors make an attempt to extend current understandings of blended learning: what it is, in what
contexts it occurs, how its effectiveness can be maximized, and what its connections with learner en-
gagement are and should be. The authors realize that these ongoing challenges, including issues such
as student retention and attrition, cannot necessarily be resolved easily or permanently because several
factors influencing the challenges lie outside the control of individual course team members.
Chapter Three, “Instructional Leadership and Blended Learning: Confronting the Knowledge Gap in
Practice,” discusses an initiative taken by a professor in the educational leadership department to explore
the concept of blended instruction in his own delivery of a doctoral course. This course was designed
to engage participants, who were typically seeking endorsement (i.e., certification) at the school district
xviii
superintendent level, in examining the instructional leadership ramifications of the effective integration
of digital technology and learning. Many challenges were exposed through the initiative discussed. It
may be that the advantage of this approach from the disruptive innovation perspective was a disadvan-
tage for those developing the program in that the very remoteness of the participants exacerbated the ill
effects of the unexpected missteps encountered in developing the new program.
Chapter Four, “Blended Learning in a Creative Writing Program: Lessons Learned from a Two-
Year Pilot Study,” discusses the case of a two-year pilot study of blended learning in an undergraduate
creative writing program. The authors express the strong need for a flexible learning approach offering
a variety of formats in order to meet the needs of a diverse student body spread across the university’s
three campuses, and including older students with competing family and work commitments. Drawing
from the evaluation data, the case details both the successes and problems encountered in the transi-
tion to a blended learning format, along with lessons learned along the way. The author concludes that
although the entrenched inequities between distance and on-campus students are no longer necessary
or conscionable, achieving parity will require reform at the institutional level as well.
Chapter Five, “Blended Learning for Adaptation to Needs,” discusses the author’s observation and
experience with multiple blended approaches in communication arts, and emphasizes that blended learn-
ing is more than the old learning modes of correspondence and televised courses. The study describes
the experiences of both state and private institutions using various levels of distance learning integration.
The case information includes the type of technology used, the way blended learning has been configured
in several contexts, and questions for the future applications of blended learning in undergraduate and
graduate programs. The author believes that blended communication is a process of individuals’ adapt-
ing to the Internet to increase their overall communication effectiveness.
Chapter Six, “Virtual Reality or Virtually Real: Blended Teaching and Learning in a Master’s Level
Research Methods Class,” discusses implementing blended learning approaches in the case of a master’s
level research methodology course, which was intended to help students become critical professional
consumers of research reports. The authors recognize that higher education instructors are now placed in
a pivotal position and are required to take up the work of designing high-quality teaching and learning
for students in order to meet standards set by governments, which include demands for increased use
of technology. As the authors maintain, it may be that technology has become virtually transparent, so
that people have moved from the “e” to the “learning,” or, in other words, from thinking of pedagogy
in terms of virtual reality to a student experience that is virtually real.
Chapter Seven, “Teaching Online: What Does Blended Learning Require,” asks the following question
in a study of blended learning for foreign/second language acquisition: How can the instructor increase
input, and improve the comprehension of input, in a second-language classroom? Describing blended
learning and teaching for foreign/second language classes, this case attempts to answer the above-stated
question by showing simple ways to make currently incomprehensible input comprehended, and to
increase input, with the benefit of a memory efficient approach developed from human parser learning
theory (HPLT). The author justifies why input comprehension matters according to HPLT, and shows
how simply the instructor can make audio files, for example.
Chapter Eight, “The Perfect Blend?: Online Blended Learning from a Linguistic Perspective,” discusses
the case of online degree courses offered by the communication sciences and economics faculty at the
University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, where the author is currently a contracted professor in charge
of two courses in English language. Since 2002, the University has offered blended e-learning courses
for its distance learning programs that provide actual, physical links between teachers and students so
as to ensure that the “human touch” is included. The study identifies the many challenges facing the
University as it attempts to find the optimum blend of components, and also notes the problems posed
by extraneous factors such as obsolete phone-line connections.
xix
Chapter Nine, “Reflections  Two Years after the Implementation of a Blended Educational Re-
search Course,” discusses a pilot study incorporating blended learning in an introductory educational
research course at an American Pacific island university, and presents a detailed overview of how the
instructor applied blending learning design to this particular course. The author compares her goals for
the course with the concept of blended learning, and discusses reasons why the two complemented one
another. Based on the instructor’s observations, as well as the student self-ratings (quantitative data)
and self-narratives (qualitative data), this case confirms the prediction drawn from the literature that
pedagogical and technological difficulties present major challenges for blended course instruction.
The need for future research to obtain additional empirical evidence about student achievements and
outcomes is also noted.
Chapter Ten, “A Case of Using Wikis to Foster Collaborative Learning: Pedagogical Potential and
Recommendations,” discusses a Wikibook project involving graduate students teaching adult education
in the American mid-South. Findings from this case challenge idealistic hypotheses that Wiki work,
without careful design and implementation, is naturally beneficial. Although Wikis have increasingly
been used for collaborative classroom writing and have been hailed as a learning/writing tool that is more
powerful than blogs and e-mails, the pedagogical impacts of using Wikis is thus far underrepresented
in the literature. It is the belief of the authors that the Wiki work presented in this case is consistent
with is consistent with Fishman and Pea’s statement about enhancing learner’s networked learning and
encourages learners to become self-directed lifelong learners through collaborative writing and public
presentation of their work.
Chapter Eleven, “Virtual Organizing Professional Learning Communities through a Servant-Leader
Model of Appreciative Coaching,” presents the case of a set of empowerment concerns in the context
of transforming classes of student and teacher learners, considered as department-wide learning units in
higher education, into professional learning communities (PLCs). In particular, the author is interested
in enhancing the student’s experience by designing a collaborative and problem-based learning environ-
ment, which relies on the virtual organizing of the various PLCs distributed throughout the institution.
Of specific interest to the author is the generative potential of the PLCs when nurtured by the practice of
appreciative coaching, adapted from the established positive change paradigm of appreciative inquiry,
through a servant-leader model of student-centered education.
Chapter Twelve, “Bothering with Technology: Building Community in an Honors Seminar,” discusses
the use of technology to enrich the learning experiences of students in a first year honors course in critical
reading and writing, and examines the framework of Web-based learning. Noting that honors courses
involve an especially concentrated curriculum, the author contends that instructors of honors courses,
who might be predisposed to more traditional teaching methods, need to “bother” with technology in
order to provide their students with the combination of learning strategies that are most efficient and ef-
fective. The highlight of this case is an extensive discussion of four strategies to build community through
interaction and engagement. The case also provides the course syllabus and teaching materials.
Chapter Thirteen, “Online Materials for Teaching Japanese,” examines the merits and demerits of
learning the Japanese language through blended and online instruction, based upon the theory that
technology-based learning methods affect the process of foreign language learning in terms of motiva-
tion, performance, and effectiveness. Hiragana practice software developed by the author was used in
teaching Japanese. The author asserts that although new software has yet to show dramatic change in
student learning, it clearly gives different stimuli to the student and is useful for the student’s self study.
Moreover, a blended learning course comprised of both face-to-face instruction and online learning is
promising because learning a language requires both memorization and repeated exercise outside the
classroom.
xx
Chapter Fourteen, “Composition Goes Online: How a Small Pacific Island is Blogging into the Future,”
provides a historical background of the course development; insights from two instructors about the
process of teaching this way for the University of Guam’s diverse student population; and suggestions for
future successes based on current challenges and issues. This was the first offering of an online version
of the English course at the University. As emphasized in the chapter, the authors argue that students at
the University are ready for more technology in their classroom environments, and the University should
accommodate their requests in order to successfully prepare them for their careers.
Chapter Fifteen, “Integrating Classroom and Online Instruction in an Introductory American Govern-
ment Course,” compares two sections of an introduction to American government course. One section
involved both lecture and online components, while the other was taught as a typical lecture course. The
author designed the online components to provide course material that the students would otherwise
have missed due to decreased lecture time, and also with the intention of improving the course. The
author recognizes the opportunity to add a significant online course component as a chance to address
the usual limitations of large, introductory sections. The author also believes hybrid online classes will
most likely be adopted on a case by case basis, depending on the interest of the instructor.
The prospective audience thus includes professors, researchers, trainers, library media specialists,
teachers, administrators, and educational technologists (who design instruction, produce instructional
materials, and manage instructional computing services or learning resources collections) in academic
communities particularly. This book will be helpful to all professionals who are enthusiastic about ex-
ploiting the potential of blended and online learning to maximize the teaching-learning process of higher
education. The book can also serve as a library reference, faculty manual, course supplement, reading
text, and resource for instructors.
Finally, it should be emphasized that the goal of this book is to appeal to all higher education
stakeholders—especially students, faculty, and administrators—with a professional interest in blended
and online learning technologies and environments. Anyone working with blended or online learners,
or anyone engaged in such learning, will also find this book beneficial.
Yukiko Inoue
Mangilao, Guam
April 2009
REFERENCES
CILIP. (2008). Developing the best blend? From blended e-learning to blended learning. Retrieved
January 20, 2009, from http://www/cilip.org.uk/publications/updatemagazine/archieve/archiv...
Dziuban, C. D., Hartman, J. L., & Moskal, P. D. (2004, March 30). Blended learning. EDUCAUSE ECAR
Research Bulletin, 7. Retrieved April 2, 2008, from http://www.educause.edu/ecar
Garrison, D. R., & Vaughan, N. D. (2008). Blended learning in higher education: Framework, principles,
and guidelines. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass (A Wiley Imprint).
Gulc, E. (2006). Using blended learning to accommodate different learning styles. Retrieved January
13, 2009, from http://escalate.ac.uk/2916
xxi
Howard, L., Remenyi, Z., & Pap, G. (2006). Adaptive blended learning environments. Paper presented
at the 9th International Conference on Engineering Education. Retrieved January 13, 2009, from http://
www.vanth.org/docs/ICEE%20Howard%20Remenyi%20Pap.pdf/
LINE Communications. (n. d.). Blended learning. Retrieved January 10, 2009, from www.line.co.uk
Magoulas, G. (2008). E-infrastructures and technologies for lifelong learning. Retrieved January
14, 2009, from http://vwresearchersgroup.pbwiki.com/E-Infrastructures+and+ Technologies+
for+Lifelong+Learning
Orhan, F. (2008). Redesigning a course for blended learning environment. Turkish Online Journal of
Distance Education, 9(1), 54-66. (ERIC Database #ED499473)
Rochester Institute of Technology. (2008). Update on blended learning. Retrieved December 20, 2008,
from http://online.rit.edu/about/newsletter/one_article.cfm?which=131
Rudestam, K. E., & Schoenholtz-Read, J. (Eds.). (2002). Handbook of online learning: Innovations in
higher education and corporate training. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Sethy, S. S. (2008). Distance education in the age of globalization: An overwhelming desire towards
blended learning. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, 9(3), 29-44.
Theil, S. (2008). Tune in tomorrow. Newsweek (Aug 18- 25), p. 65.
xxii
Acknowledgment
Producing a book of cases is an exciting but complex endeavor. I would like to thank the staff at IGI
Global, especially Mehdi Khosrow-Pour, Kristin Klinger, Jan Travers, Jennifer Neidig, Kristin Roth,
Andrew Bundy, and particularly Tyler Heath who worked with me from start to finish. Their assistance
and expertise was invaluable to me throughout the production process—from the initial prospectus to the
edited book. As always, working with the reliable and high-energy team at IGI Global was a thoroughly
enjoyable experience.
Producing a book of cases involves the efforts of many other individuals as well. I would especially
like to thank editorial advisory board members and all those who reviewed the cases. Without such
reviewers’ comprehensive, critical, and constructive comments and suggestions, this book would not
have been possible. Special thanks to Mark Goniwiecha, professor of library science at the University
of Guam, who wrote the Foreword to the book. His extensive knowledge and experience, not only in
library/information literacy but also in the use of technology for diverse learners, made his contribution
especially valuable.
More than anything else, a book of cases represents the synthesis of its many contributions. I would
like to express my sincere appreciation to all the case contributors who wrote, revised, clarified, and
responded to my many inquiries, especially during the editing phase. Many of the case contributors were
also the case reviewers. This book and its value are truly built upon these contributions, which come
from countries as diverse as Australia, Guam, Island, Italy, Macao, and the United States. Most of the
contributors would not identify themselves as technologists; rather, they are using new technologies,
in both blended and online learning, to deliver or to reinforce the content in their areas of expertise.
The case contributors have shared their real-life experiences—thus their own practices, applications,
challenges, and discoveries— as they seek to improve university teaching and learning in the Internet
Age of today.
In closing, I would like to thank my colleagues and my students at the University of Guam for their
encouragement and their countless helpful suggestions during the development of this book. Finally,
I want to acknowledge and thank Kazuko Onodera, a retired educator and my academic and lifelong
mentor, who has never lost faith in my scholarly endeavors and personal aspirations.
Yukiko Inoue
Mangilao, Guam
April 2009
Section 1
Implementing Blended Learning
Technologies
1
Chapter 1
The Nature of Complex Blends:
Transformative Problem-Based Learning
and Technology in Irish Higher Education
Roisin Donnelly
Dublin Institute of Technology, Ireland
ABSTRACT
This chapter discusses the complexities of blending technologies and problem-based learning (PBL)
group interaction within the context of academic development in higher education. For both designers
and tutors, it is important to seek best practices for combining instructional strategies in face-to-face
and computer-mediated environments that take advantage of the strengths of each and avoid inherent
weaknesses. A qualitative case study of the lived experiences of 17 academic staff participants in a
blended PBL module over a two year period was considered likely to provide a much-needed analysis
of current thinking and practice on the potential of interaction in this form of higher education profes-
sional academic development. Specific aspects of interaction (technical, peer, content, and the learning
experience) within blended PBL tutorials are analysed to provide research-based evidence on the reali-
ties of delivering a PBL programme using technology. The study reported in the chapter argues that the
intersection of PBL and learning technologies can offer an innovative way of teaching and learning and
is a reflection of pedagogy and technology as an integrated model that can work effectively together.
The findings show that the synergy from the collaborative blended PBL approach in this module can
result in the coherent and comprehensive provision of training, support, and research throughout higher
education institutions.
INTRODUCTION become an increasingly important challenge in

academic staff development. As a field, blended
In higher education institutions (HEIs) in Ireland, learning has impacted on higher education in local,
as elsewhere, the use of online technologies has national and global contexts and is fast-changing,
highly fragmented, but still rapidly growing. The
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-60566-880-2.ch001 Internet has made it impossible for HEIs to ignore
Copyright © 2010, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
The Nature of Complex Blends
technology in fulfilling their strategic mission academic development in higher education; the
and responding to the expectations of a diverse chapter begins with an illumination on the back-
student body. ground and context of the case study on the blended
The promises of blended learning in the litera- PBL module for academic development, with the
ture are extensive: increased learning, a reduction associated literature review focusing on the fields
in the need for ‘brick and mortar,’ increased en- of PBL, e-learning, and the convergence of the
gagement, collaboration, and higher quality learn- two. Special attention is given to the importance
ing. However, there has been little examination or of interaction in the blended learning environment.
questioning of the interplay of new technologies Thereafter the case study is discussed and details
and pedagogies in the context of higher education provided on the research findings. Current chal-
academic development. Transformative learning lenges are outlined and conclusions drawn.
theory is being proposed in this study as a means
to understand the complexities of education in
an age where information and communication BACKGROUND
technologies (ICTs) are constantly reshaping
and redefining our accepted notions of what it The role of blended learning within a pedagogi-
means to teach and learn in a HE environment. cal approach such as PBL has been gaining in-
It is recognised that transformative learning is a ternational recognition among practitioners and
complex process of interaction among people, academic educators alike. Research into the con-
the tools they use and the context in which they cepts, tools, and methodologies of both e-learning
are embedded. and PBL has increased in momentum in recent
By analysing the blended problem-based years. However, contemporary commentators
learning (PBL) tutorial within a framework of have voiced concerns with the speed at which
transformative learning in professional academic technology has been proceeding at the expense of
development in higher education, the purpose of pedagogical advances. Within the specific field of
this chapter is to illuminate a complex situation blended learning, Jones (2006) has concluded that
so as to understand it better and therefore be en- the practice of blended learning has outpaced the
abled to facilitate beneficial change. Based upon research owing, in part, to the rapid increase in
extensive empirical research in higher education both the quantity in use of and the sophistication
in recent years, Savin-Baden (2006) has concluded of the technology.
that the objective of combining PBL and e-learning Issues related to the design and implementation
is in itself complex. of blended learning environments have increas-
There are two objectives of this case study: ingly surfaced in recent years, as technological
advances continue to blur the lines between dis-
• To establish, in a PBL tutorial setting, the tributed learning and traditional campus-based
factors that govern the success of blended learning. This has raised questions about advances
PBL in technology during that last decade that have
• To identify technical, academic and inter- brought challenges and opportunities to the ways
actional indicators of learning in the online in which individuals are educated and trained, in
and face-to-face PBL tutorial particular through online instruction.
There is a qualitative difference between
This chapter argues for a much-needed analysis ‘teaching online’ and merely ‘putting a course
of current thinking and practice on the transfor- online’; a central feature of academic staff develop-
mative potential of interaction in professional ment involves conveying the difference between
2
using technology as a delivery mechanism and many academic staffs lack the online experience
using it as a communications medium. The impetus of the Internet generation, and so do not feel as
for blended learning depends partly on a growing confident in an online environment as they do in
acceptance that higher educational and training a traditional classroom setting. In this context,
programmes should be student-centred and partly the problem is a social rather than a pedagogical
on the need to develop enhanced efficiency in the one and lecturers may need to experience being
provision of teaching. online students themselves in order to gain the
This case study is taking cognisance of the necessary confidence to move to facilitating an
need for strong and effective interaction between online environment. Putting staff training online
pedagogy and technology to ensure that both can be one response to this problem, but making
are used to best effect in implementing PBL in more efficient use of lecturer time is more often
a blended learning environment. Gredler (2005) the reason why the online environment is used.
in his consideration of learning and instruction Such moves can lead to a negative rather than a
suggests that the role of technology in learning positive experience of the online environment,
remains an issue for theory development and rein some cases leading academic staff to believe
search. Specifically, there is a need for research that buying in to this growing phenomenon means
on learning principles that address teacher-student subscribing to their own eventual redundancy.
interactions, student-to-student communication As increasingly it is also becoming important
and student-to-subject-matter interactions for not just to make such training more accessible,
various uses of computer technology in blended but explicitly designed to produce qualitatively
environments. There seems to be much evidence improved pedagogy (Ham & Davey, 2005, p. 263),
in the literature that as blends of Internet-based it is important to ensure that the lecturer’s first
teaching and learning have proliferated, research- experience of an online environment is positive,
ers, theoreticians, and pedagogues have recog- one that will allow her or him to see the pedagogi-
nized that an educationally viable environment cal possibilities at her or his disposal.
requires students to interact with content and with The institution in which the study took place
one another. The chapter explores all these core is a large multi-campus, multi-discipline orga-
issues in depth. nization, with subjects offered within Applied
Arts, Built Environment, Business, Engineer-
ing, Science, Tourism, and Food. The current
THE RESEARCH CONTEXT and emerging higher education environment in
the Institute, as elsewhere, is seeking solutions
The focus of the research reported here is a to problems of changing paradigms of learning
Postgraduate Diploma module on designing e- and the influx of learning technologies. Skilbeck
learning for academic staff in an institution of (2001) believes: “the essential test for such higher
higher education, which will be referred to as the education institutions is their readiness to intro-
Institute. Within the context of the Irish higher duce policies and programmes to bring in and
educational system, a module is a unit of study on provide opportunity for ‘new blood’ as well as for
a programme. The diploma programme is typical the continuing development of the capabilities of
of many in HEIs today. In this context, the demand existing staff for amongst others, mastery of the
for institutions to put e-learning initiatives and new technologies in both teaching and research”
the accompanying academic staff training and (p. 10). “Well-handled,” he has concluded, “the
development firmly on their agendas has resulted opportunities of online education could improve
in a number of emergent issues. For example,
3
the relationships between staff and students and the module had discussion forums where the par-
foster a better quality of learning” (p. 72). ticipants posted their messages and its own email
This study presents the opportunity to work system that enabled the participants to exchange
with eager members of the teaching community private emails. For synchronous communications,
in offering a novel approach to their academic the module had ‘chat rooms’ where individuals
development. As all participants on the module exchanged instant messages at the same time.
are self-selecting and choose to pursue this pro-
fessional development opportunity themselves, Literature Review
arguably it is a situated reality that participants are
motivated and keen to explore the blended PBL There has been a consistent thread of research into
approach offered through the module. the fields of e-learning and PBL in recent years
As it is important to incorporate capacity de- and less in blended learning and online academic
velopment in formal courses on higher education development. There has not been a focused study
(Segrave, Holt, & Farmer, 2005), a postgraduate of the potential of blended PBL to transform the
programme in higher education learning and quality of the learning experience for academic
teaching was developed in 2001, and has over staff in their own learning and their subsequent
100 graduates today. The programme offered classroom practice. This current research repre-
to academic staff still needs to be integrated sents the convergence of three major activities in
with various levels and types of expert and peer higher education today: academic development;
practitioner support at faculty and institutional the blending of the technologies within e-learning;
levels, provided through online and face-to-face and the pedagogy of PBL. There have been many
encounters. In this way, translating their profes- practice-based studies in each of these fields, but
sional development experiences from the module arguably each remains under-researched in its
into their own environments could become easier, own right and engaging in critical debate in this
allowing them to work effectively within a blended converging research area is much needed. Gen-
environment in the future. erally, there have been unexamined actions and
The nature of these academic staff’s varied initiatives that have entrenched the issues of PBL
work responsibilities today is complex, with and e-learning and made each more intractable and
demands on their time (ranging from lesson less open to reasoned debate. Some of the main
preparation, student support and research to staff issues for the former centre on content coverage
meetings and curriculum development) pulling and use of appropriate assessment. It can impose
them in many directions. As a result of all the steep learning curves on both tutors and students,
pressures academic staff face in today’s higher and initial tutor awkwardness and student hostility
education environment, Donnelly and O’Farrell to the process are common. For the latter, the use
(2006) have argued that for their own professional of technology in education strongly depends on a
development they need to be provided with stream- variety of different factors such as staff training,
lined learning experiences which deliver essential consistent support, and funding.
topics and learning materials in readily accessible Informally enthusiasm among academic staff
formats. It is believed a central challenge here is to for blended learning continues to grow and where
create and sustain quality learning environments explicit institutional policies are lacking pressure
of enduring value for teachers. on lecturers to engage with new technologies is
The module used the WebCT course manage- coming from students and from their own peers.
ment system, which provided both asynchronous Alongside this, new pedagogical approaches
and synchronous interaction tools. For the former, emerge on the educational scene to support
4
complex, flexible and integrated learning and ventional notions of power and authority in the
the development of professional competencies. higher education classroom. McAuliffe and Lovell
Although not new, PBL is one which appears (2000) also propose that such online discussions
to have captured the imagination and support of result in a relatively egalitarian environment and
teachers; there has been a growing interest in the this is appropriate for teaching approaches that
last few decades, particularly in the collabora- critically examine societal patterns of power and
tive construction of knowledge through active dominance.
learning and the importance of higher order skills Issues related to the design and implementation
such as problem solving. Given our increasingly of blended learning environments have increas-
networked society, interest has grown in such new ingly surfaced in recent years, as technological
educational methods and in where and when to advances continue to blur the lines between dis-
teach them. PBL is an educational strategy that tributed learning and traditional campus-based
involves the presentation of significant, complex learning. This has raised questions about advances
and real-world problems to students that are struc- in technology during that last decade that have
tured in such a way that there is not one specific brought challenges and opportunities to the ways
correct answer or predetermined outcome. in which individuals are educated and trained, in
The blended PBL module at the heart of this particular through online instruction. McConnell
study itself strives to be both proactive and re- (2006) suggests that a major motivating factor in
sponsive to the changing needs of all academic the uptake of e-learning in organisations is “the
staff from across the Institute, and other institu- professional development of trainers, course de-
tions of higher education in Ireland. By giving the velopers and teachers in the new form of learning
participants the opportunity to be an online and a provision” (p. 25). This echoes the sentiments
face-to-face PBL tutor using principles of good of other researchers in the field (Segrave et al.,
practice in PBL, this study provides evidence of 2005), and forms the core of many institutions’
the online PBL tutor role and whether it can be e-learning strategies.
as effective as the tutor in the face-to-face PBL In addition to technological challenges for
tutorial. Central to the delivery of the module has teachers and academic developers, there are is-
been critical academic discourse in tandem with sues that arise during the change process from a
the exploration of innovations in practice. traditional delivery mechanism, such as the lecture,
This study recognises that there is still confu- to a problem-based educational model. Kolmos
sion about the models, media and environments (2002) has reported that, in spite of an extensive
used to support PBL that use technology in some staff development programme to introduce teach-
way, and is particularly concerned with illuminat- ers to the new PBL model, the change in the nature
ing current knowledge of PBL group-oriented of teaching caused problems with retention and
interaction. Central to this aim is the need for a curriculum. She urged academic developers to
better system for delivering education and training be aware of the need to facilitate the change at
for academic staff which Hameed et al. (2006) individual, culture and organisational levels, which
have recommended is paramount in the context of is a comprehensive challenge in itself.
the move to a knowledge economy. Myers (2006) McDonald and McAteer (2003) believe blend-
has made a case for such Internet-based courses ed learning, a blend of on-campus and external
being well suited for transformative pedagogy. education facilitated by technology, has emerged
He argues that online class discussions tend to in response to the global and educational changes
be more collegial and informal than those that experienced by HEIs mentioned earlier. Arguably
occur face-to-face, and thereby challenge con- it has also emerged as an alternative to fully online
5
programmes. As a result, research continually calls pends partly on a growing acceptance that higher
for an emphasis on pedagogy to drive the design of educational and training programmes should be
blended courses today. Most recently, Reinmann et student-centred and partly on the need to develop
al. (2007) in providing evidence from qualitative enhanced efficiency in the provision of teaching.
studies of blended learning in practical situations, Although these two forces can work in opposite
including PBL in higher education, draws on tu- directions, it is important to acknowledge what
tors’ and students’ perspectives to argue that the these shifts can imply in practice. McDonald
introduction of blended learning requires clear and Mayes (2005) believe that in the concept of
decisions to be made on a number of key areas; blended learning we see a measured approach to
these include the distribution of learning content, the delivery of education and acknowledge that
didactical approaches, ways of communicating and learning technology has a role in achieving a
characteristics of learning environments. student-centred approach. However, there remains
Certainly, if one text-byte can capture a trend a paucity of research on blended learning from
such as blended learning, then perhaps it is the HEIs in the United Kingdom and it is argued here
well known one by Rosenberg (2001): “the ques- that a similar situation exists in the Republic of
tion is not if we should blend…rather the ques- Ireland, although in an Irish higher education con-
tion is what are the ingredients” (p. 86). Bonk text O’Donnell and Garavan (2003) have reported
and Graham (2006) agree that the term blended there is “positive recognition for the benefits of
learning is being used with increasing frequency in blended learning” (p. 11).
academic conferences and publications in higher Sloman (2001) has highlighted that it has
education and, based on their global research widely been accepted for some time that technol-
perspective, the use of blended learning now ogy has the potential to enhance and transform
seems to be omnipresent across Asia, Australia, the traditional learning experience, for students
Europe, the Middle East, and the United States. and teachers alike. Gurrie (2003) has argued that
The comprehensive case studies included in their although very little research has been conducted
research would certainly signify this. In the midst to determine the effectiveness of PBL in the on-
of the current wave of enthusiasm for blended line environment, she believes it embraces many
learning in higher education, consciousness should of the concepts that have been identified as best
be raised about the criticism in recent years about practices in online teaching and learning. There
blended learning environments that fail to create appears to be a lack of comprehensive analysis
effective settings for learning. Informed by such of the activity and practices of blended PBL in
studies as Noble (2001) and Oliver and Herrington academic development to have taken place.
(2003), I am aware of the ubiquitous debate about Within this, a number of outstanding issues
the ongoing relationship between pedagogy and remain to be addressed, including the nature of
technology. This study is taking cognisance of the questioning, the character of informative feedback,
need for strong and effective interaction between the scheduling of reinforcements and the structur-
pedagogy and technology to ensure that both are ing of information for students. There is a pressing
used to best effect in implementing PBL in a need to address these gaps within the use of blended
virtual environment. PBL if academic development is going to include
In parallel with these developments, one of it as a widely accepted practice. It has been found
the pivotal debates in higher education in the that previous studies in the area of blended PBL
last few decades has centred on what has become have not prompted sufficiently diligent inquiry
known as a paradigm shift towards student-centred and serious debate. McShane (2006) has called
learning. The impetus for blended learning de- for further research into academics’ perceptions
6
of what it is to teach in a student-centred manner groups, coined by Wagner (2006) as interactions

in a blended environment. Similarly, Lycke et as transactions.
al. (2002) advocate in their ongoing project on Interaction has been and continues to be one
PBL and ICTs in Norwegian higher education of the most hotly debated constructs in the realms
that up-close studies are needed to answer vital of distance and e-learning, instructional design
questions such as how academic teachers can and academic transformation, to name but three.
promote effective e-learning strategies among The ability to interact—with tutors, students,
their students. Panda and Juwah (2006) note that content interfaces, features, code, channels and
the increased use of the Web for learning and environments—can be argued to be analogous to
teaching has “necessitated a re-examination of being connected. Whilst this may appear simplis-
some of the issues with e-learning and the profes- tic, for technology-mediated learning interaction is
sional development of academic staff engaged in undoubtedly a key value proposition. It continues
an online facilitation role” (p. 207). to be perceived as the defining attribute of qual-
Masie (2006) contends that blended learning ity and value in a blended learning experience.
has always been a major part of the landscape of Interactivity is the core of learning, and is evident
training, learning and instruction; however, in at all levels of engagement. However, the term
reality it has only become a noticeable feature interactivity is used so loosely that in the fields
of the higher education sector in the Republic of of e-learning and blended learning it has become
Ireland since the beginning of this new millen- almost synonymous with the notion of learning
nium. There has been a community of practitio- itself. This chapter proposes that, by bringing the
ners studying and working in blended courses for concept into sharper focus, real insight is gained
many years; nevertheless research in the main has into the nature of blended PBL. Interaction in the
been inadequate. This places this current study on context of this study is explored at three levels:
the continuum for revision and rejuvenation of interaction with concepts, tasks, and people (peer
the field of research into blended learning and a learners and tutors).
starting point for the exploration of blended PBL
as a model of academic development. The study
aspires to be a source of information, stimulation, CASE DESCRIPTION
and encouragement for those academics who have
not fully understood or accepted the concept of Interpretivism was the paradigm for this study.
blended PBL and is an attempt to capture the Interpretivism seeks to understand the complex
participant experience of learning using a blended world of lived experience from the perspectives of
PBL approach to their academic development in the participants. It draws on a broad combination
higher education and their subsequent exploration from the history of ideas, which includes herme-
of transformation in classroom practice. neutics, critiques of scientism and positivism,
practical philosophy and discourse analysis, and
Interaction in Blended PBL asserts that we can understand the world only by
interpreting it, as reality is subjective rather than
The research surrounding this module is based on objective. Within the spectrum of interpretivism,
the notion that interaction among participants in this study was situated in a position that interprets
the PBL group is the key element of a successful the participants’ discussions in the blended PBL
blended learning experience for all involved. This tutorials as both constitutive of the world and
is based on a sociological understanding of one constituted by the world. Mertens (2005) gives an
of the dimensions of interaction for describing elaboration of its philosophical core and points out
7
that the interpretive and constructivist paradigm included other methods beyond interview, such as
emphasises that research is a product of the values observations and content analysis in an ongoing
of the researcher and cannot be independent of educational context. For this study, the analysis
them. However, Cohen et al. (2000) highlight that of written transcripts, which have been created by
there is a risk in interpretive approaches: that “they the participants during computer conferencing,
become hermetically sealed from the world out- invariably takes the form of a systematic content
side the participants’ theatre of activity—they put analysis. Donnelly et al. (2007) believe whether
artificial boundaries around subjects’ behaviour” the analysis is used quantitatively or qualitatively,
(p. 27). Recognising that there is an interpretative, there is much to commend this type of approach
subjective aspect to the qualitative data gathered by higher education tutors wishing to assess the
in this study; therefore, I took appropriate steps progress of their students and further their under-
to preserve data quality, namely triangulation— standing of how students learn through computer
cross checking data collected using different conferencing technology.
sources of information; peer consultation; and The general research design was to observe the
maintaining accurate up-to-date data records to process of learning on the module in some depth.
assist in the establishment of a chain of evidence In order to ensure that sufficient observational data
(Merriam, 1998). had been collected for a thorough analysis of what
The interpretivist emphasis on meaning and was occurring in the module; three complementary
the relationship between language and meaning methods were chosen to provide the data relating
are addressed in the concept of discourse, which to the experiences of the participants, in addition
in this study is a Web of statements, categories, to my more obvious tutor role in the module de-
beliefs and practices. The aim of this approach livery. Collating computer mediated conferencing
was to explore the research objectives in ways (CMC) transcripts of online discussions were
that made connections among the words from the used to capture what was happening in the online
videos and online discussion forum transcripts, component of the blended PBL tutorial, and textual
the social functions these words perform and analysis of participants’ reflective papers was used
wider social practices. Interpretivism was chosen to explore transformations in learning and focus
to identify the essence of human experiences group interviews to augment the observational
concerning the phenomenon of blended PBL as data. The research methods employed to collect
a model of academic development, as described face-to-face and online observational data from
by the 17 participants in this study. It involved the module itself were participant observation,
this small number of participants in extensive and online discussion logs, open-ended focus group
prolonged engagement designed to provide a basis interview and self-reflective papers to capture
on which to understand their lived experiences the participant’s own thoughts and experiences
and develop what Creswell (1998) calls patterns of the blended PBL approach. Each method was
and relationships of meaning. Consequently, the chosen for the opportunity it could offer to explore
motivation of this research was to gain a rich insight interactions and dimensions of transformation,
into the PBL nature of the blended environment both of which were central to this study.
rather than focus on the statistical analysis of Figure 1 illustrates how the research methods
quantitative responses by participants. fitted together and have allowed me to gain deep
In research that is very pertinent to this study, insights into how interaction happens in a blended
in an exploration of the theoretical debate about environment within each of the groups. The ap-
Mezirow’s transformative learning, Taylor proach taken to the collection of data about the
(1997) has called for designs of research which blended PBL groups was multi-faceted. A major
8
Figure 1. Integration of data collection methods
concern has been to provide meaningful and ac- the blended PBL groups have become meaningful
cessible insights into the practice of blended PBL and perceptible to participants.
based on the analysis of real life situations. There Data collection took place over two years in
were two levels taken to the analysis of the data. this study, as the intention was to study more than
Level One was descriptive in nature and through one PBL group, and this was achieved with three
video observations explored the interactions groups in total. The activities of three blended
among the peers, the tutors and the content of the PBL groups, two of which were working at the
blended PBL tutorial. Level Two was a thematic same time but separately in the 2004-05 operation
analysis of transformative learning in blended PBL of the module, and one in the 2005-06 academic
and, through a combination of online logs, focus year were the observed focus of the study. The
group interviews, and participant self-reflective intention was to carry out a detailed study of the
papers, categories and themes emerged to inform work of each group for an extended period of time
the findings of the study and implications for (typically ten weeks) and produce an interpreta-
practice. Being engaged with the events as they tion of their academic discourse through close
happened in the field and attempting to bring examination of their activities. The PBL tutorial
holistic attention to the practices as constitutive observations for each group were transcribed. The
of a distinct culture were important to this study. face-to-face classroom and online observation was
As suggested by Hine (2000, p. 20), this study has complemented by two focus group interviews
examined those enduring practices through which for all three groups. It was important to observe
9
the groups over the complete ten week period of software recording capabilities were checked. I
the module in order to examine how the groups then drew up a schedule of the observations, and
negotiated the problem face-to-face and online, developed a standardised procedure for how the
how the group dynamics worked in the blended observation would run. Finally, as part of the initial
environment, how the life of the group unfolded preparation, I evolved a record-keeping system
thereafter and what influenced the participants in involving the videotapes, and a coding system.
reaching a transformation in their learning. A further challenge concerned the notion of
The four methods of collecting data for this addressivity of ‘compliant talk’ by the participants
study (participant observation, collation of asyn- in the study. Due to the dual role in the relationship
chronous online discussions of the PBL groups, between the researcher as tutor and the academic
focus group interviews, and textual analysis of staff who were learners on the module and par-
participants’ reflective papers) were continuously ticipants in the study, it is acknowledged that the
complemented by prolonged immersion in the lit- possibility that the participants may have said
eratures of the field. The sample for this study was what they thought you wanted to them to could
the total population (17 participants) of blended be considered a limitation. However by building
PBL groups undertaking the PBL module in the triangulation into the research process this pos-
two years that the data were collected in order to sibility was lessened.
explore the lived experience of a heterogeneous
population of academic staff in higher education; Discussion of Findings
there were three PBL groups in this study.
I now discuss the ethical and power issues This section of the chapter concentrates on the
involved in the process of reasonably informed findings from the content analysis of the CMC
consent. There are numerous sources of advice discussions. With the participants’ permission,
about preparations prior to embarking on field- the discussion space software was also employed
work (Davies, 1999), involving the more general to capture their contributions as text files and as
injunctions about intellectual preparation through prints of the discussion site pages. In addition to
familiarizing oneself with literature about the the text entered by the participants and tutors, the
area. A number of steps were undertaken in the files include automatic time and date stamping and
preparation for observation in the study. Firstly, it an indication of the source of each message.
was necessary to arrange access and this involved The content of messages and the extent to which
the module participants, guest tutors, the Head of they formed patterns of interaction between peers,
School and colleagues in the centre in which the tutors and content of the blended PBL module were
module is located. A formal ethics statement and analysed. In the literature, typically analysis of
statement of informed consent were prepared and CMC is at a number of different levels including
distributed to module participants and guest tutors. the frequency and patterns of interaction, categori-
It concerned areas such as selecting participants, zation of messages and thematic analysis to allow
types of questions asked, agreement of participants a much more detailed interactional analysis and
to be involved, storage of data from the research, message content. Individually, none of these al-
anonymity (pseudonyms were used throughout the low analysis of how online collaborative learning
study to protect the identity of the participants) takes place in PBL but a combination of detailed
and disclosure of results to participants. Inherent interaction plus content was very helpful in this
in this was the need for persons to review drafts to study. Bosley and Young (2006) have suggested
validate observations and descriptions. The video that ethical concerns may be among the reasons
cameras were prepared and the online discussion that group discussions are more commonly analy-
10
sed than one-to-one exchanges. There was the ries emerged and some early ones dropped. The
opportunity to access the data in these postings final categories derived are given in Table 1:
as messages sent through WebCT on the module These categories were not exclusive and
were stored and retrievable. together they provided some evidence about the
In order to analyse the dimensions of the learn- extent to which the contributions answered one
ing process in the asynchronous data transcripts, of the research objectives of this study. Clearly
a number of CMC analytical frameworks were the small numbers in this study do not support
considered for this study (Donnelly et al., 2007). comparisons between the different corpuses of
The conferencing contributions were analysed data in the field and it is not my intention to make
quantitatively (the number of messages per such comparisons.
participant and tutor to investigate the patterns The WebCT course management system au-
of interaction) and qualitatively (content of the tomatically numbers, in a threaded manner, the
messages were scrutinized to investigate the postings of the module according to the time a text
extent that participants were forming, critiquing was posted and placed on the discussion forum.
and communicating ideas online) in this study. All the postings on the discussion forums were
The paper transcripts were examined and each not modifiable by the participants and thus, all the
post was free coded to generate categories. These postings remained in their originally posted forms.
were then refined and divided into components While the WebCT system technically organized
that signified their use was to do with building of the online environment of the PBL groups, actual
community (that is, social) or cognitive (that is interactions took place through the actions and
exploring content issues relevant to the module reactions of the participants to the PBL learning
and the PBL problem). setting, module materials and activities, to tutor
An early issue was to decide on the most ap- and guest tutor directions and to peers’ ideas and
propriate and fruitful unit of analysis. Units of actions.
meaning were categorized into common themes There were eight enumerations collated from
and a list of codes devised to represent the emerging this data and all were taken at week 10 of the mod-
categories. Categories were modified, developed ule to explore the individual participant’s activity
and regrouped as analysis proceeded. New catego- in the discussion boards and the PBL group work
patterns in the online environment, so that some
comparisons could be made to face-to-face (f2f)
Table 1. Categories used for thematic content activity. Table 2 shows these findings for each
analysis of cmc discussions participant in the study:
Code Category
• Revealing levels of online activity for each
SE Posting is to share prior experience
individual participant required collation of
SR Posting is to share references and resources
the frequency of contributions of each par-
PF Includes positive peer feedback in response ticipant to the online PBL group discussion
C Provides/seeks clarification forum;
FI Forms a new idea • Exploring the development of substantive
CR Critiques peer response (expresses reservations/ discussion amongst all the participants in
disagrees with another contribution)
each of the three PBL groups needed the
GT Interaction with the international guest tutors
average messages per thread;
M Miscellaneous
U Unrequited messages from peers
11
Table 2. Breakdown of statistics for online participation of each participant
Participant Frequency of Average Amount Average Postings Number of Number Number of

Contributions Messages of Time Time Repeated Messages of threads Attachments
per Thread Online Online Read per PBL per
[per week] [whole Group Participant
module]
Ronan 73 postings /38 = 1.92 3.5 hours 35 hours - 245 (All) 38 31
Padraig 30 postings /38 = 0.78 3.5 hours 35 hours - 211 38 16
Aidan 45 postings /38 = 1.18 3 hours 30 hours 1 202 38 26
Loirin 48 postings /38 = 1.26 6 hours 60 hours - 194 38 21
Aine 49 postings /38 = 1.28 5 hours 50 hours 1 223 38 30
Niamh 47 postings /46 = 1.02 5 hours 50 hours 1 206 46 22
Eimear 46 postings /46 = 1 2 hours 20 hours 2 190 46 24
Sorcha 59 postings /46 = 1.28 5 hours 50 hours 1 231 (All) 46 26
Caitlin 38 postings /46 = 0.82 1.5 hours 15 hours 1 210 46 26
Dervla 41 postings /46 = 0.89 2 hours 20 hours 2 198 46 23
Declan 98 postings /55 = 1.78 4 hours 40 hours - 365 (All) 55 14
Michael 37 postings /55 = 0.67 2.5 hours 25 hours - 327 55 22
Darragh 33 postings /55 = 0.6 3 hours 30 hours - 312 55 17
Myra 89 postings /55 = 1.61 3.5 hours 35 hours - 365 (All) 55 37
Caolan 32 postings /55 = 0.58 2.5 hours 25 hours - 304 55 13
Maeve 40 postings /55 = 0.72 3 hours 30 hours - 297 55 15
Ryan 36 postings /55 = 0.65 1.5 hours 15 hours - 284 55 11
• Comparing the f2f and online contact in the • Showing the number of different conversa-
blended PBL tutorials required the amount tions happening online required the colla-
of time each participant spent online; tion of the number of threads created per
• Enabling comparison with f2f activity in PBL group; and
the PBL tutorial, the average time spent • Demonstrating evidence of reflection by re-
online per week for each participant was turning to the discussion forum with work
needed; on the PBL Problem necessitated the colla-
• Repeated postings (queries and requests tion of the number of attachments of learn-
for help) was collated; a low number ing material to postings per participant.
would indicate how comprehensively the
peers were responding to each other in There was an average of 49 postings made by
their groups and possibly ability in search- each participant over the ten weeks of the module.
ing through messages and reading them for Column 3 showing the average messages per
key words and phrases; thread for all the participants in each of the three
• Revealing individual levels of online pas- PBL groups and it indicates little development of
sive participation required the collation of substantive discussion with an average of 1 mes-
the number of messages read only by indi- sage posted per thread. However, Column 9 shows
vidual students; an average of 22 attachments of documentation
12
on the PBL Problem made to a posting by each very helpful to myself and Niamh who have been
participant. allocated this task.
Blended Community and

Cognitive Development Message no. 1711[Branch from no. 1704]
Results from a recent study by Dawson (2006) Posted by Ryan on Sunday, March 19, 2006
on online forum discussions reported that mere 10:06am
quantity of discussion postings is not an indica-
tor of community development; a significant
relationship is observed when contributions are Subject: Re: Many happy returns
codified into various discussion interaction types
(learner-learner; learner-content). Earlier research
by Harasim (1987) also endorsed the categorisa- Hi Myra and everyone,
tion of forum interactions and suggested that these
types of interactions were the most important for
enhancing the learning process. Similarly, in this Excellent summary - you are a hard act for me to
study, the online discussion forums provided the follow as Chair next week.
participants with an opportunity to enhance com-
munity building in their PBL group and extend
the collaborative dialogue from the face-to-face Asking for technical help
PBL tutorials. Postings from the discussion boards
from all three PBL groups are included below Posted by Eimear on Thursday, December 16,
whereby the participants were working towards 2004 10:19am
the building of community within their group both
online and face-to-face.
Subject: Ground Rules
Positive Peer Acknowledgment of Work
Message no. 779[Branch from no. 778] Help anyone? How can I create a new thread???
I know we covered it before in class but it eludes
Posted by Sorcha on Monday, December 20, me this morning.
2004 1:39pm
Peers Expressing Concerns:

Subject: Re: Philosophy statement Overwhelmed, Chaos,
Information Overload
Hi Dervla, you are doing absolutely Trojan work Message no. 694[Branch from no. 675]
and putting the rest of us to shame. I couldn’t face
any of it until yesterday and all your messages were Posted by Niamh on Friday, December 10, 2004
making me feel very guilty! Thanks for starting 6:34pm
the work on the learning outcomes as it will be
13
Subject: Re: re group task Subject: Final Group Report
Hi Sorcha, Thanks for this. I agree re the alloca- Hi Everybody,

tion of tasks. Like Eimear, I do feel adrift but I am
confident that after a lengthier discussion on
Please find attached Myra’s version posted on the
27th at 9.00pm after Declan’s and Michael’s excel-
Tuesday in class we will have a greater idea about lent tidy up job but with all the colours removed
where we are going. We haven’t really had an and every thing in black type. Declan, I hope you
opportunity to do that yet. don’t mind but I thought the Evaluation piece was
a bit weak and I was not sure if you would get any
time to add more, so I wrote a little just in case.
Message no. 684[Branch from no. 673] Essentially I feel we need to show cognizance of
several models of evaluation and also include a
Posted by Padraig on Thursday, December 9, theoretical basis for why we are doing so. Then
2004 9:52pm we should link this to the philosophical rationale
for our course and the instructional design model
we have adapted. Please feel free to come in on
Subject: Re: Group name this – a critical friend would be great just about
now on this part of the report!
I am coming late into this discussion and feel like

a real “Dumbledore”. I can vouch for one thing Myra, just an idea - rather than you being left
since I came late to the f2f tutorial on Tuesday to write up the conclusion by yourself, should
- now I feel I have missed a lot of info and direc- all members of the group contribute a reflec-
tion. However, moving from my student to my tive piece of writing? We could use some of the
teacher hat - it’s a useful lesson for me but also material from our reflective journals or from the
to be aware of it in designing online learning in reflective thoughts we wrote during our or just
the future. after our live online chats? Maybe everyone in
the group might use this thread and respond yes
Similarly, the evolving of a cognitive dimension or no. Maybe we can discuss this further when
to their work in PBL can be illustrated from the we meet at 9 on Thursday.
data and examples are set out below.
Sharing Work Completed on Individual Peers Sharing Resources

Task (Updating on Progress, Including
Asking for a Critique of Work, Message no. 765
and Debating Subject Issues)
Posted by Caitlin on Friday, December 17, 2004
Message no. 1778 3:14pm
Posted by Ryan on Monday, March 27, 2006

11:24pm Subject: Useful Journal Articles
14
I have attached an article I found on the Brit- Peers Taking the Lead on the
ish Education Index which I thought was quite Problem, Providing Clarification
interesting and which you might like to read. It and Encouragement to Each Other,
is entitled ‘When learners learn on-line, what Forming New Ideas, Updating
does the facilitator do?’, so it is directly relevant a Peer on Missed Work
to what we are doing. If I come across anything
else I will post it up under this thread. Message no. 710[Branch from no. 708]
Posted by Loirin on Saturday, December 11,

Peers Sharing Experiences 2004 9:36pm
Message no. 785[Branch from no. 748]

Subject: Re: re group task
Posted by Ronan on Monday, December 20,
2004 8:27pm
Hi Aine,
Subject: Re: Student survey

Nice to see someone else online with me on a Sat-
urday night! Am missing Strictly Come Dancing
I get phone calls almost every week from students at the mo! Getting my priorities straight! I know
or their parents asking for tuition for those who you missed the synchronous chat yesterday so you
have failed previous exams with math being their may feel a little out of the loop at the moment.
major difficulty. My line manager has asked me on
numerous occasions to assist students also.
We need a decision emanating from our group on
this issue; but don’t worry - there will be plenty
I have spoken to several colleagues in recent weeks of time on Tuesday morning when we all meet in
who all believe there is a need for extra tuition for the class to reorient ourselves as to the best way
weak students and am supportive of the concept forward. I feel this is the important time now when
of an online module. as a group, we are all happy with the decision
taken so we can work together on aspects that
particularly interest us. It will all come together
At the moment the evidence is anecdotal and based in the next couple of weeks, I’m sure.
on opinion but it is the opinion of experienced
educators so should we go with this at the moment
and elaborate on the needs for our final report. PBL Content Interaction
with Guest Tutors
Message no. 1413[Branch from no. 1347]
Posted by Myra on Wednesday, February 15,

2006 7:17am
15
Subject: Personal greetings • Answers to library questions
Hi all, • Declan will be the Chair.
We now seem to understand the importance of hav- • Tuesday 21st: dry run for the guest tutor video
ing this kind of non-formal discussion or messages. conference - 9am.
Some of us told you about visits in Finland, and
Scandinavia and I have been thinking a lot of my
visit too. I think it’s really interesting to explore • Questions for the guest tutor this week: thread
why we do this? I understand it is a reflective (or set up in Cyber club 7
not conscious) process of trying to understand
the other’s background and culture. And if we are
trying to reach a real dialogue, we need common Other notes:
ground and shared understanding.
• Divide up Webliography between us, and report

I think we need to keep this up as language is a on what we find.
tool which we use to reproduce the reality.
• Task 3 Home work: to be carried out over two

Linking to F2F Tutorial Directly weeks.
(Blended Approach)
Message no. 1357[Branch from no. 1356] • Note the Sunday night dead line!
Posted by Ryan on Saturday, February 11, 2006 Table 3 shows the breakdown of the community
12:33am and cognitive aspects of the online discussions
for each of the three PBL groups. The essential
elements of PBL learning conversations were
Subject: Re: Tuesday’s forthcoming f2f class provided though the sharing of multiple perspec-
tives on experience and research, complemented
by a range of individual disseminated research
Hi all, amongst the groups. PBL Group 1, self-titled CPD
challengers are in blue; PBL Group 2, self-titled
The Apprentices are in orange; PBL Group 3,
Well done Michael on your summary. I will reply self-titled Cyber Club Seven are in pink.
to your experience another thread. The use of direct quotations is now used to
provide evidence of both the shared enthusiasm for
the blended PBL process and some real concerns
Things to do for class next week: voiced by the participants. Whenever possible by
using the words of the participants themselves,
key issues have been highlighted.
16
Table 3. Community and cognitive online posts for three PBL groups
Community Categories Postings Cognitive Categories Postings

Positive peer acknowledgment of work 10 Sharing work completed on individual task (updating 16
20 on progress, including asking for a critique of work, and 69
37 debating subject issues) 31
Asking for technical help 9 (mainly in Peers sharing resources 13
early weeks) 12
5 (mainly in 12
early weeks)
5 postings and 9
peer responses
helping out
Peers expressing concerns: overwhelmed, 5 (present in first Peers sharing experiences 5
chaos, information overload 3-4 weeks only) 2
1 4
2
Peers simply announcing online presence 4 Peers taking the lead on the problem, responding to 7
2 peers on technical problems, summarizing and weaving 32
7 themselves, providing clarification and encouragement 49
to each other, forming new ideas, updating a peer on
missed work
Peer unrequited messages 2 PBL Content Interaction with Guest Tutors 19
0 44
4 61
Miscellaneous 5 Linking to f2f tutorial directly (blended approach) 3
(Humorous) 5 3
5 6
For inclusion of all participant quotes, the tutorials in the last 5 weeks of the module
following applies:FG = Focus Group Interview (Column 4, Row 1);
(either indicated by 1 or 2 for the first or second • In 2 groups, there was evidence of peers
interview)RP = Reflective Paper (numbered 1-17 taking over the tutor’s online role (Column
for each participant) 4, Row 4);
Commonalities existed between all three • All groups had members who felt the need
blended PBL groups in the online discussion to acknowledge their online presence with-
forums: out contributing to the discussion (Column
2, Row 4); and
• The most prolonged interactions over all • There were low levels of unrequited post-
three groups were with the guest tutor dis- ings in all groups (Column 2, Row 5);
cussions (Column 4, Row 5); throughout the life of these groups, it was
• Resource sharing and diffusion of expe- evident that members did reply to requests
riences dominated the first 4-5 weeks of and questions from other members. In the
online interactions over all three groups few instances where there was no response
(Column 4, Rows 2 and 3); to these, the second focus group interview
• Posting individual tasks and updating with ‘Cyber Club Seven’ offers a reason.
peers on progress dominated the use of the
threaded discussions (all had attachments
of work) conducted outside of face-to-face
17
I think there is a certain amount of maturity needed the others are, having more of an online pres-
online and you have to be in touch with your own ence - whatever that means. So I thought; am I
feelings so you can relate to others. If you put up contributing in class? Yes I am, and I am doing
something and hope for a response from others my work? – so what am I doing wrong? And there
because you think it is very important and none was this whole onus of guilt surrounding posting
comes, you can’t take it personally as people may that I didn’t like. (Caitlin, FG2)
have been too busy. (Ryan, FG2)
The postings became the only clues that the per-
If there were no postings by participants in a son was present and were made with a certain goal,
PBL group, it was perceived as their absence by i.e. to inform the other participants of Caitlin’s and
their peers. There was a strong sense across all Sorcha’s potential inactivity or invisibility. The
three groups that by making postings, participants other two groups did not experience this:
were embodying their presence in the group and
after an absence of more than a few days, some felt I think it was so important that we all felt comfort-
it necessary to post just to proclaim their online able if you didn’t have something to say, you didn’t
presence; reading others’ postings without this have to. (Loirin, FG2, ‘The Apprentices’)
proclamation was not considered good enough
by some. Reasons provided by participants about
some in the group not valuing online participation The main thing is that our group members came
as much as face-to-face and not understanding the in online at all times, and could say, I just don’t
mechanics of online communication moves into know what I am doing this week; and you felt able
the realm of lurking, but beyond the two-pronged to say that. (Maeve, FG2, ‘Cyber Club Seven’)
argument explaining such passive participation,
we must be aware of the lack of knowledge that The cognitive dimension of learning involved
we really have about their behaviour. the contribution of knowledge and experience and
the community dimension involved a balance of
I mean I was in WebCT all the time and I didn’t support and guidance with the creation of a pleas-
always feel the need to contribute a posting. For ant learning environment. Both cognitive and
me it was like people were making comments just community or social congruence is necessary for
for the sake of it and there wasn’t really anything effective group functioning. For all three groups,
to say sometimes. What I was doing in that time at the close of the ten week period, the cognitive
was reading a lot and then I was better equipped postings were significantly higher than the com-
to contribute to the discussions afterwards. (Sor- munity postings. This is akin to the cognitive
cha, FG2) apprenticeship models of learning, where learning
is scaffolded by both peers and experts. When one
looks at the relationship between the participant
I don’t like posting messages up until I have contributions and the sense of community in the
something to say. When I did log on and unless I group, findings from all three groups indicated
said - hello, it’s me, there was resentment there. that a significant relationship exists between the
I actually felt quite vetted because my name was quantity of peer-to-peer contributions and the
not up there as much as everyone else’s. And participant reported sense of community in the
why am I feeling guilty about this, and I think it group. The group composition appeared to con-
is simply because your name is not up there, and tribute towards the cohesion within.
18
We had a very supportive group, almost all of us notoriously difficult, especially when the goal is
from the Apprentice trades background. I thought to foster transformation in thinking and practice.
it really interesting from reading through these Tyack and Cuban (1995) have argued that pockets
categories and examples from the data that the of effective teaching exist but they seldom last
group who was having a less than positive experi- long or spread beyond a few dedicated pioneers.
ence were the ones who had the least amount of Clarifying the principles of effective problem-
postings. In other words if you participate at a based and e-learning pedagogies and sustaining
certain level you are more likely to get something the means to support its enactment in a wide
out of it. Perhaps if you participate at a minimal range of departments and institutions constitute
level you are not as likely to. (Ronan, Participant an abiding challenge of professional development
Verification Session, 08/02/07) for teachers.
To meet the demands facing academic staff
today, teachers need professional development op-
portunities that support them in a transformational
CURRENT CHALLENGES process and in a sustained way. Such transforma-
tion of curriculum and pedagogy is a complex
This study was an attempt to provide insights process for teachers; it is the findings of this
into blended PBL in a higher education academic dissertation that blending PBL and new technolo-
development context in order to encourage in- gies appears to hold promise in overcoming the
depth discussion and open debate on the field. traditional limitations of professional development
While there is much growing interest in blended which in this Institute and elsewhere in Ireland
PBL in practice, if this interest is not married to have tended to be short-term workshops, focused
current research and knowledge in the field it can on general topics rather than deep knowledge of
be argued that it will be of little, if any, transforma- subject matter and pedagogy, disconnected from
tive value for higher education. At this point, it is specific classroom practices and isolated from
important to acknowledge the obstacles to, and ongoing support from colleagues and tutors.
the limitations on, the enactment of transformative Systematic, comprehensive staff development
learning in this case of learning environment. It is is a crucial requirement of the contemporary learn-
acknowledged that there are hazards in entering ing organization and there are many different ways
the choppy waters of intellectual debate on trans- of providing for it other than conventional short
formational learning. Transformative learning in courses. Learning that involves the analysis of
blended PBL takes place when students elaborate complex problems and issues, and more complex
old or learn new frames of reference as well as higher order learning generally, are not amenable
transform old or learn new habits of mind. How- to this form of packaged e-learning. Something
ever transformative learning is a complex process more dynamic that addresses the complexity and
of interaction between people, the tools they use messiness of real life is needed.
and the context in which they are embedded. The issue of transferability of innovative ap-
It is contended that there is a need to focus on proaches and developing the capacity to respond
interactivity within blended PBL and its critical to innovation and change remains a key area for
application. The blended format coalesces Web- further research. Whilst this may appear to be an
based and face-to-face instruction into an entirely unpalatable position to take at times, realisation is
new model that holds potential to transform both required that for real and not just cosmetic change
learning and teaching in higher education. How- to take place a whole range of well-established
ever, the improvement of educational practice is cultural tools needs to be re-created to transform
19
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22
23
Chapter 2
Experiences and Perceptions of
Learner Engagement in Blended
Learning Environments:
The Case of an Australian University
Linda De George-Walker
University of Southern Queensland, Australia
Abdul Hafeez-Baig
Raj Gururajan
P. A. Danaher
ABSTRACT
One of the most significant challenges in learning and teaching is to maximize successful and sustain-
able learner engagement. The growing literature about blended learning environments and technologies
provides plenty of scope for an interrogation of the intersection between learner engagement and blended
learning. This chapter takes up that interrogation by presenting the case of the University of Southern
Queensland, Australia. The chapter focuses on three postgraduate courses offered by the institution:
two in the Faculty of Business and the other in the Faculty of Education; and each course representing
a different position along the continuum from blended to fully online. The chapter presents a detailed
examination of all three courses in relation to design, development, and management, informed by a
conceptualization of blended learning as it intersects with learner engagement. Several types of evi-
dence are deployed in evaluating the courses against the assembled information about experiences and
perceptions of learner engagement and blended learning communicated by students, academic staff
members, and program administrators. This evidence suggests some significant implications for the
ongoing theorization of blended learning, how its effectiveness can be maximized, and what its connec-
tions with learner engagement are and should be.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-60566-880-2.ch002
Experiences and Perceptions of Learner Engagement in Blended Learning Environments
INTRODUCTION It is therefore timely to bring together these

two streams of literature, as the chapter seeks to
One of the greatest challenges in learning and do. For example, it is important to integrate claims
teaching, regardless of delivery mode, is to maxi- about the educational benefits of blended learning
mize successful and sustainable learner engage- with evidence gleaned from contemporary case
ment, whether with fellow students, teaching staff studies about how learners and other stakeholders
members, content, context, or the educational view the enactment of blended learning in specific
technologies being used to provide the instruction educational programs. Likewise it is necessary to
(Guthrie, 2001; Linnenbrink & Pintrich, 2003; highlight strategies garnered from that evidence
McFadden & Munns, 2002; Zyngier, 2005). The as being demonstrably effective in moving from
complexity of this challenge derives partly from theory to practice in maximizing learner engage-
a lack of consensus in conceptualizing learner ment in blended learning environments.
engagement (Butler-Kisber & Portelli, 2003; The chapter takes up that challenge by pre-
Vibert & Shields, 2003; Zyngier, 2008), and partly senting the case of the University of Southern
from the difficulty of establishing a direct, one- Queensland (USQ), Australia. The chapter both
to-one correspondence between different types of links with and builds on current publications about
inputs and the desired output of learner participa- the case site (Danaher, Gururajan, & Hafeez-Baig,
tion and achievement. This is certainly the case 2009; Hafeez-Baig & Danaher, 2007a, 2007b) by
in exploring learner engagement with various focusing on three courses offered by the institution
educational technologies, including educational and not previously canvassed in those publications.
software (Bangert-Drowns & Pyke, 2001, 2002) As Table 1 indicates, the courses exhibit consider-
and simulations (Davies, 2002). able diversity: while all three are postgraduate,
The burgeoning scholarship about blended two are located in the Faculty of Business and the
learning environments and technologies pro- other in the Faculty of Education. Furthermore,
vides plenty of scope for an interrogation of the the courses occupy different positions along the
intersection between learner engagement and continuum from face-to-face to blended to online:
blended learning. Elements of that literature in- one course blends face-to-face, distance and online
clude efforts to define blended learning (Driscoll, delivery; one blends distance and online delivery;
2002; Osguthorpe & Graham, 2003), to explore and one is mainly online, with some face-to-face
examples in corporate, multinational, workplace, provision (the latter as potentially contrasting and/
and higher education contexts (Bonk & Graham, or overlapping with the other two courses).
2006), to elicit strategies for making it effective What these three courses have in common is
(Rossett, Douglis, & Frazee, 2003; Singh, 2003), a commitment to enhancing learner engagement
to maximize its facilitation of a sense of com- in varied combinations of learning environments.
munity (Roval & Jordan, 2004), and to elaborate Indeed, the variety of the selected courses – in
its transformative potential (Garrison & Kanuka, relation to paradigm, subject matter, and assess-
2004). Provisionally, for the purpose of orienting ment – is helpful in illustrating the multiple ways
the discussion in this chapter, we take Graham’s in which blended learning can be implemented to
(2006) account of the historical emergence of facilitate learner participation and achievement.
blended learning as the convergence between The chapter’s four objectives are as follows:
face-to-face and computer mediated learning
environments as the starting point – although, as (1) to outline a skeptical but hopeful conceptu-
we shall see, by no means the finishing line – in alization of blended learning gleaned from
defining blended learning.
24
Table 1. The three courses at USQ
Course number Course code and title Faculty Level Learning environment type
One CIS5001 Information Systems Business Postgraduate Blended between face-to-face, distance
for Managers and online
Two EDU8317 Educational Measure- Education Postgraduate Blended between distance and online
ment and Assessment in Inclusive
Education
Three CIS8011 Emerging Information Business Postgraduate Mainly online, with some face-to-face
Technologies provision
the contemporary literature, particularly in nated distance education providers of university

relation to learner engagement; education.
(2) to discuss the three courses in terms of their The organization was proclaimed the USQ in
design, development, and management; 1992, since when it has expanded its Australian
(3) to evaluate the courses against the assembled campuses as well as its international outreach
evidence of experiences and perceptions and its research activities (University of Southern
of learner engagement and blended learn- Queensland, n. d.). Its success in these endeavors
ing communicated by selected students, led to its being named Australian University of
academic staff members, and program the Year in 2000-2001 by the Good Universi-
administrators; and ties Guide (Smith, 2005). With the provision
(4) to contribute to the ongoing theorization of of distance and online education by most if not
blended learning on the basis of the outcomes all contemporary universities, USQ has worked
of the evaluation of the courses. meticulously to maintain and even to extend its
reputation in this dimension, for example win-
The chapter’s intended outcome is to extend ning the Commonwealth of Learning Award of
current understandings of blended learning: what Excellence for Institutional Achievement in 2004
it is, in which contexts it occurs, how its effective- for “its provision of flexible learning opportuni-
ness can be maximized, and what its connections ties for people with diverse social and cultural
with learner engagement are and should be. backgrounds” (Smith, 2005, p. 12).
Since 1977, USQ has been “a dual mode in-
stitution” (Smith, 2005, p. 1), with both on- and
BACKGROUND off-campus students, and with the developments
associated with the Internet it has enhanced its
USQ is a university in Queensland, Australia, with “triple option teaching styles” (Smith, 2005, p.
about 24,000 enrolled students. It is characteristic 1), offering courses on-campus, externally and
of many of the ‘new generation’ universities in online. The organization’s international standing
Australia, having been established in 1967 and is reflected in its study centers in many overseas
for most of its existence to date operating as an countries and in its enrollment of students from
institute of advanced education, serving simulta- over 30 countries. Blended learning is strongly
neously its local community (a regional area west represented in the increasing number of courses
of Brisbane, the capital city of Queensland) and that combine classroom teaching, electronic
thousands of students throughout Australia and discussions and sometimes intensive residential
internationally as one of eight nationally desig- schools.
25
USQ has worked hard to develop strong sup- underpins the finance, student administration,
port mechanisms for its off-campus students. Its and human resources systems, while in 2007
Distance and e-Learning Centre, which manages USQ changed its learning management system
students enrolled to study via external and Web from WebCT to Moodle. A necessarily simplified
modes, collects and dispatches over 200,000 as- representation of the intersection of these diverse
signments each semester from distance students, enterprise systems is provided in Figure 1:
provides learning resources through the post to A key implication of this approach to learn-
students who opt to study in the external mode ing and teaching management is that most USQ
using printed materials and CD-Roms, helps academic staff members teach across a number
students to identify resources on the learning of delivery modes. While it is fairly common for
management system, and directs enquiries from some academics to teach in both external and
students to staff desktops using a special software Web modes, and sometimes not to teach in the
application that can convert telephone messages on-campus mode (with the possible exception of
into a form that is compatible with computers. residential schools), it is less usual for academ-
This support infrastructure and the associated ics to teach fully on-campus with no exposure to
policies and processes are crucial to maintaining off-campus teaching. This trend has necessitated
USQ’s market reputation as a strong provider substantial change to academics’ roles and re-
of flexible learning – and thereby to enhancing sponsibilities and to the ways in which they enact
learner engagement with USQ’s blended learn- their professional identities. This change has been
ing courses. accompanied and supported by university-wide
training in specific aspects of the learning man-
agement system and by faculty-specific discus-
SETTING THE STAGE sions of learning and teaching that take account
of the technological developments. Nevertheless,
In common with all other Australian universities, the pressures to create engaging and meaningful
USQ undergoes continual review of its expendi- learning environments across all three delivery
tures and revenues, especially as these relate to modes are considerable, and are not necessarily
learning and teaching activities. It is committed easily accommodated within the short timelines
to expanding its student base, both Australian and and increased individual accountability charac-
international, and in doing so to providing the best teristic of contemporary universities.
possible combination of learning experiences and Similar pressures have been exerted on stu-
opportunities. At the same time, the real costs dents, who have had to adjust their learning aspira-
(including the often hidden labor costs associated tions and experiences to fit with the requirements
with implementing new policies and technologies) of learning management systems. Sometimes this
indicate that retaining traditional approaches to has included having to change delivery mode from
pedagogical provision is not viable, particularly on- to off-campus if there are insufficient num-
in courses with low enrollments (Smith, 2005). bers to operate on-campus classes. Furthermore,
Consequently USQ has invested considerable Australian university students are increasingly
resources, including time, in the development of a studying part- or even full-time while carrying out
set of university-wide enterprise systems, which part- or even full-time paid employment to cover
have provided the basis for coordination across tuition and related costs (Willans, Harreveld, &
the organization’s complex administrative, learn- Danaher, 2003). This trend places an additional
ing and teaching, and student support functions burden on blended learning’s capacity to generate
(Smith, 2005). The PeopleSoft enterprise software and expand learner engagement, because for many
26
Figure 1. Enterprise systems at USQ (Smith, 2005, p. 4)
students such engagement is only a part – and to teaching and tutorial resources, and transmit
sometimes a small part – of a complex set of diverse other information to students. Similar sentiments
activities. This is potentially complicated further in have been conveyed by Schibik, Harrington, and
the situation of international students, whose full Gordon (2005).
range of responsibilities and expectations are not It is clear from these developments that com-
necessarily known to USQ staff members. bining learning management systems and ICTs
Partly in response to these kinds of pressures, in blended learning environments is no easy
the higher education environment has moved – at mission: there are lots of complexities, some
least rhetorically – from ‘chalk and talk’ to student- of which cancel one another out in relation to
centered, independent, and flexible learning. This maximizing learner engagement. Despite these
development has constituted an attempt to engage complexities, and the diversity of the courses
with an increasingly diverse student population discussed below notwithstanding, the academic
and has reflected the need to exploit advances staff members involved in all three courses have
in information and communication technologies been committed to using all the pedagogical and
(ICTs) (Palalong, 2003). Under these circum- technological resources and strategies at their
stances, the use of learning management systems disposal to encourage students to use these tools
has become an integral part of distance and online for learning, to participate actively with other
education in recent years (Finkelstein & Pittinsky, learners, to conduct self-evaluation, to deploy
2003). Morgan (2003) reported that in most cases time management skills, and to enact effective
academics use learning management systems teamwork in diverse learning contexts. These are
to communicate with students, provide access the principles needed to optimize the links between
27
learner engagement and blended learning environ- Course Design, Development,

ments in contemporary universities. and Management
CIS5001 is offered with the help of printed ma-

CASE DESCRIPTION terial, such as an introductory book and a study
guide, especially designed for students to facilitate
We turn now to present the three courses that con- their study and their weekly course commitments.
stitute the case of learner engagement in blended A copy of this printed material is also provided
learning environments being analyzed in this online via the learning management system. Ex-
chapter. While the courses represent considerable ternal students rely heavily on the three systems
diversity, they have been analyzed according to a identified above (Moodle, EASE, and Turnitin),
common framework incorporating: whereas on-campus students are able to attend
the face-to-face lectures and tutorials. Usually the
• Course overview course is developed and managed by a team of three
• Course design, development, and academics and a group of external markers.
management Various discussion forums have been devel-
• Course evaluation oped to enable students to learn and to engage
with the various concepts and theories encountered
CIS5001 Information in the course. Since its inception the course has
Systems for Managers received positive feedback and course enrollments
have increased. The course design and develop-
Course Overview ment have been organized to provide maximum
possible support and flexibility to students with
CIS5001 Information Systems for Managers is a work commitments, as most of the students in
postgraduate core course in the Faculty of Business the course are working in middle to top level
at USQ. This course is offered in the on-campus, management positions.
external and Web delivery modes in Semesters The basic educational philosophy underpin-
1 and 2 each year, and on average attracts about ning the course is to help students to achieve the
500 students for each semester. Most students course objectives through active participation, by
enroll in the course in the external mode. External critiquing one another’s perspectives, through for-
and online students are supported by means of mal assessment items, and by sharing information.
the online resources associated with the learn- For example, weekly discussion questions provide
ing management system Moodle, including the an opportunity to share students’ experiences and
EASE online assignment submission system and knowledge, as all the questions are open ended
the Turnitin plagiarism checking system. These and encourage students to build the arguments
three systems are used extensively to facilitate the needed to justify their points of view. The major
easy delivery of course materials and the students’ assignment report requires students to analyze real
active engagement and participation. The course business scenarios, to evaluate problems, and to
has three formal summative assessment items: an present consultant reports with in-depth analysis
online quiz (weighting 5%) due in Week 4 of the and focused recommendations. The Turnitin
semester; a major written report (weighting 35%) plagiarism application enables students to assess
due in Week 9; and an open book examination their own work and teaches them how to analyze
(weighting 60%) at the end of the semester. and critique their peers’ work.
28
The pedagogy employed in the course com- • The blended learning environment and the
municates to students the course expectations and ICT tools helped to reduce the overall logi-
requirements on a weekly basis through online cal costs and to make the course more ef-
discussion forums, weekly discussion questions, fective and efficient.
weekly extra activities, and case studies. The • The blended learning environment gave stu-
course resources in conjunction with the learning dents the opportunity for engagement and
management system provide an opportunity for potentially for empowerment through dif-
all participants to interact in teams and individu- ferent kinds of interaction and through the
ally irrespective of their location or background. flexibility offered in the course by means
These interactions are monitored and moderated of various ICT tools and applications.
regularly by the course coordinator to maximize • The blended learning environment enabled
the richness of the discussion and the peer group the course participants to focus on prob-
teaching. Most of the interactions among the stu- lem-based learning (PBL), which in turn
dents and between the students and the teaching fostered greater learner engagement.
team members are in the online mode. • The blended learning environment provid-
ed students with a rich learning context in
Course Evaluation which they were equipped to achieve their
individual goals and to experience a con-
CI85001 is reviewed regularly to ensure that it siderable diversity of theoretical and ex-
provides students with understandings of the busi- periential knowledge, again enhancing the
ness world and of the implications for that world of depth and breadth of learner engagement
current and developing ICTs. Student interactions in the course.
were consistent throughout the semester, but un-
derstandably the intensity of those interactions was By contrast, the course evaluation explicated
extremely high immediately before the due date the following factors that potentially reduced the
of each summative assessment item. The overall level of learner engagement or otherwise indicated
analysis, gleaned from student course evaluations areas where our knowledge is not yet sufficiently
and the teaching team’s focused reflections on the developed to make definitive claims about such
course outcomes, was that at the beginning of the engagement:
course many students lacked confidence, but that
by the end of the course most students had enjoyed • Although students were able to interact
the learning process, with the course offering be- with the course coordinator in the blended
ing considered flexible and enjoyable. learning environment and using the ICT
In particular, the course evaluation elicited the tools, a number of students stated their
following motivators associated with enhancing preference for the positive effects of face-
the links between learner engagement and the to-face teaching during the course teaching
blended learning environment of the course: visits.
• The ICT tools and the other techniques
• The blended learning environment and the used in the course’s blended learning envi-
ICT tools provided students with substan- ronment did not provide specific evidence
tial opportunities for effective and sus- of individual interaction and progression,
taining interactions among all modes of so the evaluation of the level and types of
delivery. learner engagement in the course is neces-
sarily generalized.
29
• The potential of the blended learning en- enrolled in the Master of Education program
vironment was limited both by some limi- majoring in either Guidance and Counseling or
tations of policies and procedures at USQ Special Education in the Faculty of Education at
and by the restrictions of the existing USQ. The seven course modules introduce stu-
infrastructure. dents to the fundamentals of psycho-educational
• The cultural and political norms specific assessment and include topics about assessment
to the discipline in which the course is processes and procedures, basic measurement
situated tended to make the students’ en- concepts such as reliability, validity, and norms,
gagement passive rather than active, in the standardized and informal tests and testing, assess-
sense that that engagement was directed at ment accommodations, ethical and legal issues,
mastering existing understandings rather and reporting.
than necessarily creating new knowledge Prior to 2005, EDU8317 had been offered
(somewhat akin to the ‘master and appren- in the distance education mode, supplemented
tice’ analogy); this is undoubtedly true of with a mandatory mid-semester face-to-face resi-
other disciplines and paradigms as well. dential school. With many students, particularly
• It is difficult to analyze and evaluate the those enrolled overseas, finding it increasingly
balance among, and the most appropriate difficult to attend the residential school owing
combination of, various blended learning to time, financial, and other constraints, and an
techniques needed to optimize the students’ organizational imperative toward increased ac-
learning and teaching experiences. cess and flexibility for students, the decision was
• It is important to think further about en- made from 2005 to trial the replacement of the
gagement and interaction among all the face-to-face residential school component with
stakeholders in the course in the process online learning and teaching strategies.
of establishing a constructive framework Enabling this new course design was an exist-
for the most effective and efficient blending online course presence via the university’s
ed learning environment. For example, as learning management system. Before 2005, the
well as student to student and student to EDU8317 online course page tended to be used
academic staff member interactions, it is mostly as a resource repository and a point of
necessary to maximize such interactions administrative contact between students and staff
among academics and between academics members. If crucial learning goals were not to be
and industry and community representa- lost in the shift from a face-to-face/distance blend
tives, because those interactions inevitably to a distance/online blend, the use of the learning
impinge on the quality of learner interac- management system needed to become a teaching,
tion and hence engagement in the course. learning and engagement tool.
EDU8317 Educational Course Design, Development,

Measurement and Assessment and Management
in Inclusive Education
From 2005, students continued to be provided with
Course Overview printed study materials typical of most distance
offers at the university, including an introductory
EDU8317 Educational Measurement and Assess- book, a study guide, and a book of selected read-
ment in Inclusive Education is a postgraduate ings. Students were also expected to purchase two
course for Australian and international students set textbooks. Each study guide module followed
30
a consistent pattern: focus questions (learning than necessarily offering solutions (Savory &
objectives); text and explanatory notes related to Duffy, 2001).
the topic; prompts to complete the required text However, the change from face-to-face to on-
reading and selected readings; and independent line implementation of the PBL activity prompted
activities interspersed throughout the module that a reconsideration of the scheduling and integration
required learners to apply, evaluate, and synthesize of the PBL activities with the module activities.
the content. For the previous face-to-face residential school
The face-to-face mid-semester residential version, students had completed four modules
school had employed the instructional strategy over approximately eight weeks before engaging
of PBL to simulate and engage students in the with the PBL activities. With the new online ap-
‘real world’ of psychoeducational assessment. proach, the PBL activities were reconfigured into
Thus, during the residential school students were three sequential phases each of about two weeks’
engaged with fellow students and teaching staff in duration, which commenced from the start of the
the exploration of the curriculum content but also semester and were offered parallel with the mod-
the more generic skills of self-directed learning ule study. Consequently the online version of the
and collaborative problem solving – all required PBL component of the course moved closer to the
for real world assessment practice. From a learning intentions of PBL in that from the outset learning
perspective, it was considered essential that the was synthesized and organized in the context of
PBL component be retained in the course, but it the problem (Savory & Duffy, 2001).
would need to be modified for online delivery. With the removal of the mandatory residential
Few changes were made to the PBL content school, there was some concern about student en-
for the online version of the course. Taking a gagement and participation in the online PBL. As
case-based approach to PBL (Barrows, 1986), well as considering engagement from the perspec-
students worked with a hypothetical 12-year-old tive of creating engaging learning and teaching
learner who had been ‘referred’ to them for as- resources, explicitly sharing the rationale for the
sessment. Students were gradually exposed to task, and staff encouragement of participation,
richly presented case information and associated it was felt that assessment could play a role in
artifacts (for example, a referral letter, interview fostering and sustaining engagement. With the
transcripts, school records, and existing assess- mindset that a PBL associated assessment task
ment data) that were available from the online should be one that not only encourages engagement
course page. Students engaged with the case in the PBL task but also enhances the learning
to determine the significance of information, outcomes, the assessment task that was devised
synthesize that information, draw on course and involved students writing a reflective statement
other resources, formulate and adapt hypotheses about what they had learned about assessment
as necessary, and plan for additional processes and their approach to such assessment, and a self-
that they would undertake to progress toward critique of themselves as assessment practitioners
making sound educational recommendations for and lifelong learners. This was accompanied by
the case. The role of the teaching staff in the online a self-assessment of their assessment knowledge
version of the PBL component of the course was and skills in terms of how prepared they felt
also to remain as it had been for the face-to-face for the final assessment item where they were
version and consistent with the implementation to undertake an assessment of an actual student
of PBL – that is, encouraging and challenging and write a psychoeducational report. Thus, the
students to interrogate their thinking deeply rather reflective statement and self-assessment task
were an attempt not only to engage the students
31
in the PBL component of the course but also to interaction and dialogue and negatively affected
develop their skills as reflective practitioners. The the quality of the learning experience for the whole
two other items of course assessment were more team. After the first offer in 2005, students who
content focused and included a critical review of a wanted to participate actively in the discussions
standardized testing instrument and a PowerPoint were alerted to the opportunity to be additionally
presentation of a self-selected assessment topic. signed up to another, more active group if they
As well as independent engagement with the wished to do so. However, very few students
online version of the PBL activity, the other aspect took up this offer. Overall it was observed that
requiring careful consideration was facilitating only a few teams were engaged in high levels of
the collaborative engagement with other students genuinely collaborative discussion from start to
and staff considered crucial for student learning finish. Other teams started well but participation
from a constructivist educational philosophy but dwindled throughout the semester.
also as an authentic part of the PBL activities in Student feedback about the course was gained
that consultation and collaboration are necessary through the broad university course evaluations
processes when undertaking psychoeducational as well as course developed surveys and students’
assessment. Thus, for each of the three PBL phases, comments in the reflective statement assessment
students were allocated to small online teams and item. Generally students were very positive about
encouraged to use their teams’ asynchronous on- the course overall. More detailed analysis of the
line discussion forums to share their ideas and to student feedback revealed consistent themes in
collaborate with fellow students about the case. terms of the course and other aspects that both
The PBL information sheet included prompts and facilitated and challenged student engagement
scaffolding for the online discussion as well as and learning.
independent reflection to support what was for
most students their first experience of both the 1. Aspects that supported engagement and
content area of psychoeducational assessment and learning – Most students rated the quality of
the instructional strategy of PBL (see Figure 2). the distance module materials and resources
available on the learning management sys-
Course Evaluation tem as high. The majority of respondents
also reported that the PBL was important
Delivery and management of this course during for their engagement and learning in the
2005–2007 revealed to the teaching staff some course as a result of the following features:
consistent patterns in terms of engagement with the the practical, realistic, meaningful, and active
online version of the PBL component of the course. ‘hands on’ character of the PBL; exposure
All students engaged with the PBL activities, as to diverse points of view that enabled them
demonstrated by their completion of the associated to gauge their progress through the PBL
assessment task. However, not all students chose discussion forums; deeper and more applied
to engage collaboratively in the online discussion understanding of psychoeducational assess-
with some preferring to work independently, ac- ment content and processes; the requirement
companied by passive reading of the discussion for self-directed research and learning; and
forum postings. The effects of this were twofold: motivational effects that included being
not only did those students potentially affect the able to apply existing knowledge. These
quality of their own learning experience, but also features as noted by the EDU8317 students
their fellow students reported that team members’ are similar to those identified in the literature
lack of engagement in discussions meant less team as being particularly well addressed by PBL
32
Figure 2. Phase 1 prompts for the online PBL in EDU8317
instructional strategies (Barrows, 1986). (a) Student factors – Several students

Students also noted that online discussions noted that full engagement with the
and contact among students and between PBL materials took considerable
students and staff members using the learn- time. This in turn often led to posting
ing management system were highly valued, responses to the PBL focus questions
with one student noting that s/he felt like s/ close to deadline, thus leaving no time
he was studying on campus. for online discussion with peers. A
2. Aspects that challenged engagement few students noted that they hesitated
and learning – Three key themes emerged to participate in the online discussion
relating to aspects that challenged learner forums either initially or at all owing
engagement:
33
to a personal sense of inadequacy and • Assist students with their time manage-
self-consciousness. ment by providing them with a guide for
(b) Technical issues – The technical exper- participation in the online PBL – for ex-
tise required by students to participate ample, “It is recommended that you begin
was low, with students needing only posting to the discussion board within the
to download the PBL materials and first week of the PBL phase.”
to use the discussion forums. Some • Open one online forum discussion for each
students did, however, report some PBL phase rather than up to 10 separate dis-
personal technical problems (for ex- cussion areas for small teams. Additionally,
ample, Internet service provider issues the learning management system feature
and slower dial up Internet access) that requires students to make a posting be-
that affected their ability to download fore they can view other students’ postings
the PBL documents and to participate may increase active rather than passive
in the discussion forums before they (reading only) engagement in forums and
closed (for example, Internet service support those who are lacking confidence.
provider issues and slower dial up • Extend each PBL task from two to three
Internet access). weeks to allow students extra time to
(c) Pedagogical matters – Several stu- engage and also troubleshoot technical
dents noted difficulties with the asyn- problems.
chronous discussion forum and lack • To lessen downloading problems, ensure
of real-time discussion with peers and that all file sizes are as small as possible by
staff members and felt that this affected converting from Word to PDF formats.
engagement and motivation. Several • Streamline and integrate the two separate
students overcame this challenge by independent and discussion forum focus
initiating face-to-face dialogue and questions/activities in the PBL activity
mentoring in their local contexts. prompts (see Figure 2) under a single head-
ing of “For Forum Discussion” to simplify
Student feedback highlighted the course the process and orient students toward par-
mechanisms that both facilitated and challenged ticipation in forum discussion.
student engagement and learning, and provided • Trial the use of synchronous discussion fo-
some explanations as to the patterns of engage- rums in addition to the asynchronous dis-
ment observed by course staff during the delivery cussion forums to enable real-time engage-
and management of the course. Based on this ment and collaborative dialogue.
evaluation, the following areas are suggested as
improvements to be implemented in subsequent The shift from the face-to-face/distance blend
offers of the course: to the distance/online blend has been successful
in terms of increased flexibility for students by
• At the outset provide students with more not requiring their attendance at a residential
information about PBL and in particular school and replacing this with the online version
the importance of the collaborative discus- of the PBL course component. Evaluation of the
sion so that they are familiar with how to course has verified that equivalent learning goals
derive the maximum benefit from this in- can be achieved irrespective of face-to-face or
structional strategy. online delivery, provided that students engage in
all aspects of the PBL component, including col-
34
laborative engagement with peers and academic Course Design, Development,

staff members. However, it is encouraging all and Management
students to engage in this way that presents an
ongoing challenge. The educational philosophy framing the course de-
sign, development, and management for CIS8011
CIS8011 Emerging is founded on three key principles: learning by
Information Technologies application; learning by observation; and learn-
ing by critique.
Course Overview The learning by application component in-
volves students developing solutions for real life
CIS8011 Emerging Information Technologies is problems provided to them. The solutions are
principally an online postgraduate course in the presented in the form of a consultant’s report, a
Faculty of Business at USQ. It includes an intro- management report, and an analysis component.
ductory book and study guide, reading materials, The idea underpinning this component is to help
Web links, peer assessment, assessment submis- students to think of various alternatives and then
sion, and assessment marking, all in the online to generate feasible solutions taking into account
mode. The study resources used in the course are all the known constraints.
threaded as online content using hyperlinks to al- The learning by observation component en-
low easy access. Paper-based material is avoided ables students to benchmark their work against
in the course content. that of other students. This is done through peer
The course operates a peer review system assessments where students are given the oppor-
for weekly assessment by students of submitted tunity to evaluate one another’s work. In doing
journals, and it assesses students in relation to so, they are able to compare the quality of their
solutions that they produce for practical problems. work with that of others (see Figure 3).
A mandatory plagiarism check for all submitted The learning by critique component assists
work is also in place. Completed assessment students to analyze and to review critically the
includes a rigorous submission through three dif- work of others. This stimulates in-depth think-
ferent computing environments (anti-plagiarism ing because the subject matter is common to
software, the learning management system, and all students and they therefore have a mutually
the peer review system), with the emphasis being understood foundation for subsequent dialogue
on enabling students to learn from interacting and engagement. Furthermore, this component
with one another. This approach has improved helps students to improve the quality of their work
the overall quality of the course. in two distinct ways: while critiquing the work
The feedback received from students shows of others, students are required to demonstrate
that they are satisfied with the course outcomes and their in-depth subject knowledge; and students
are willing to recommend it to other students. The also receive an indication of others’ opinions of
course design and delivery have offered flexibility their own work. The combination of these two
to both the students and USQ. They have reduced aspects of quality enhancement potentially helps
the cost of producing course materials, facilitated all students to improve their overall standard of
easy delivery of study materials to students, and communication in the course (see Figure 4).
maximized easy access of course materials by USQ offers courses in different modes in order
students and academic staff members. The course to accommodate the specific needs of local and
allows a flexible delivery schedule, and operates distance students. Generally the main difference
a clear and transparent structure. among the delivery modes lies in the way that
35
Figure 3. Learning by observation in CIS8011
Figure 4. Learning by critique in CIS8011
36
information is delivered to students. For example, course. The provision of one book in CIS8001
a student might be resident locally and able to be also ensured that updates to materials could be
on-campus but still enroll in the distance mode. achieved easily with access to only one source.
Distance mode students are provided with printed All study materials are presented in the form of
learning materials suitable for self-study, and they pdf files. The advantage of this approach is easy
are able to attend the two week residential school addition to the reading sources without concern for
if they happen to be in the vicinity of the campus the size of the book and hence postage charges.
if such a school is part of the course. Web mode The course materials contain a number of
students do not have access to the residential school hyperlinks to thread the content into a continuous
or to printed versions of the learning materials. flow (see Figure 5). The front end is a collapsed
CIS8011 uses the Web delivery mode, which version of the course with a ‘telescopic’ view.
is based on online provision irrespective of study Students are able to expand the modules to access
mode (on- or off-campus). As noted above, the either reading guidelines or reading materials to
course material is offered through several hy- see how the task for a particular week can be ac-
perlinks enabling easy online access, and the complished. This provides flexibility to students
materials are delivered to enrolled students via depending on their level of understanding of the
the Moodle learning management system as the course content, and hopefully provides a strong
standard interface. This approach provides the foundation for enhancing learner interaction.
following advantages: The materials are presented with a set of stan-
dard readings. Each week certain sections of the
• Flexible timelines for the academic readings are referred to in the study guide and
staff members to submit materials to the students are asked to go through key elements of
Distance and e-Learning Centre these sections in order to comprehend the weekly
• Reduced costs in terms of printing materials. These are then linked to assessments,
• Flexibility in updating course materials which are presented in the form of weekly journals,
• Easy delivery of course materials to mainly to demonstrate students’ understanding of
students the weekly materials. These journals are assessed
• Shortened delivery schedule by the students’ peers, as noted above. This forms
the basis for their assignment and report work. This
Moreover, when the course was refined for enables students to remain focused on the same
the third semester in 2006, the modifications set of materials, while still having the flexibility
were easily incorporated into the course design to read other sources.
and delivery. Many students liked this approach The design of the course materials is intention-
because it was easy for them to have ready access ally simple. Each week students are presented with
to materials via the Internet instead of having to a topic outline and the learning outcomes expected
carry around printed copies. Students who enrolled of students in that topic. They are provided with
late received instant access and they were pleased a set of readings to help their understanding, a
by the rapid delivery of materials to them. Overall set of guidelines for additional resources (mainly
the benefits were significant. derived from the reference section of the readers),
An added feature was the integration of online and an assessment task to stimulate their thinking
study materials into a single book. USQ courses for which they are required to collect additional
in information systems traditionally provide two evidence. The students are then required to submit
books, one outlining the course details and the their work.
other containing the readings required for the
37
Figure 5. Example of threaded discussions in CIS8011
This process is the central theme for each week, ceived subsequently was encouraging. Three main
and it enables students to understand the delivery themes identified from that feedback were:
schedule of their work. Moreover, students must
submit all their work through a plagiarism ap- • The peer review system provides students
plication and ensure that the ‘plagiarism count’ with an opportunity to see what others are
(the percentage of material from other published doing and to compare their work with that
sources) is under 20%. This enables students to of their peers.
review their own work in order to avoid any alle- • The mandatory plagiarism check ensures
gations of plagiarism or collusion. The plagiarism that students avoid plagiarism and collu-
software is configured in such a way that students’ sion charges.
work is checked with available materials on the • The weekly journals enable students to
Internet as well as with their fellow students’ study on a weekly basis and this assists
work. This approach is considered a pre-requisite them to develop a disciplined routine.
to enhancing learner engagement in this blended
learning environment. Overall students expressed satisfaction with
the course and felt encouraged to recommend
Course Evaluation the course to other students. In order to ensure
students’ satisfaction with the course, periodic
The course was initially conducted as a pilot in telephone conversations were held with students
Semester 1, 2006. The course was evaluated by studying away from the main campus to make the
a professional evaluator (an ex-Gartner research assessment requirements clear to them.
consultant) as well as by a group of students. The On the other hand, students felt the burden of
evaluation was carried out in relation to the quality weekly journal submissions to be somewhat ex-
of materials, presentation format, time taken to cessive, especially when other assessments were
complete assessment tasks, and student workload. also due. Also the submissions are automated with
The course was refined by including the feedback strict date stamps and hence any delay in submis-
received from these two sources. sion results in an unsuccessful submission. One
The course was rerun in the second semester of improvement to the course can be the submission
2006 with 127 students. The student feedback re-
38
of three journals instead of five for the first and a difficulty in this regard for the first few weeks of
second assessments respectively. the semester. One possible remedy is to conduct a
The second improvement can be in terms of teaching school in the initial weeks of the course
peer assessment. Currently students are given a to prepare students to undertake these activities.
set of criteria to assess one another’s work. The This will hopefully lead to an overall improvement
criteria are loosely defined and are in need of in the quality of students’ submitted work.
more exact specification. Generally the experiences of students and
The third area for improvement is the presen- academic staff members in the course can be
tation format. Despite being given guidelines, summarized into lessons learned by all stakehold-
students use their own presentation styles and there ers involved in the process in relation to learner
is no uniformity. One possible solution could be engagement and blended learning:
the use of formats with strict word limits; this will
provide a uniform layout and will restrict students • Plagiarism cases were very low as students
to a fixed maximum in terms of word count. have been able to check their work before
Student evaluations indicated that the delivery final submission. It has been noticed that
of teaching materials is acceptable. However, on students are using these skills and resourc-
two occasions, owing to issues with the learning es in other courses, thereby improving the
management system and the USQ server, students quality of their learning.
were not able to access and submit assessment. • Peer review assessment has proved to be
This needs improvement. effective in changing students’ attitudes to-
As noted above, the students are given materials ward marks allocated to them and to their
in pdf format. Owing to large file sizes, there have fellow students. Students were generally
been occasional complications in downloading very critical of one another’s work. This
materials. It might be a good idea to recognize encourages students to produce assessment
automatically students’ access schemes and to materials of high quality.
deliver an alternative version of the materials. • Throughout the semester students are in
Dial up modems and slow broadband connections considerable control of their assessment
limit the academic staff members’ ability to pro- activities. This enables them to plan their
vide resources with larger file sizes. For example, future assessment items and to manage
course contact material is restricted to a small file their future enrollment options before the
size in order to accommodate students with dial end of the semester.
up or lower bandwidth Internet connections, and • There is clear evidence of interaction and
for that reason files with sounds, images, and engagement by students as active partici-
videos are avoided. pants in the course. Students are generally
Another area of weakness in the course is willing and able to engage and to become
the lack of examples of report formats, as the empowered as the course proceeds.
course has not been running long enough to have • Students are also exposed to experiences
established a significant corpus of such examples of time management, teamwork, organi-
available to students. This will be addressed in zational skills, project management skills,
later offerings of the course. academic writing, critical analyses of a
In addition, a number of overseas students given situation, the ability to defend their
struggled with the management report writing judgments, and the ability to plan and guide
style. Despite receiving examples and links to Web others. These skills provide students with a
sites where guidelines can be found, students had range of leadership training capacities.
39
Overall there was a positive experience for learning experiences and outcomes across modes
students and academics alike. Improvements of enrollment and delivery.
to the next delivery of the course will include a At the same time, it is clear that a set of chal-
uniform format for assessment reports, tighter lenges remains with regard to integrating learner
marking criteria for peer assessment, and perhaps engagement and blended learning environments in
an early teaching visit to the USQ Distance and all three courses. Perhaps inevitably, not all learn-
e-Learning Centre to increase students’ awareness ers are fully engaged all the time. Student retention
of management report writing styles. and attrition also remain a potential concern. These
are ongoing issues and not necessarily resolved
easily or permanently. This is so because several
CURRENT CHALLENGES factors influencing these challenges lie outside
FACING THE ORGANIZATION the control of individual course team members,
faculties or USQ as a whole – for example, stu-
This chapter has presented the case of an Australian dents’ busy lifestyles of which university study
university, USQ, in relation to multiple experi- is only a part.
ences and perceptions of learner engagement in Even in relation to those factors that are more
blended learning environments. It has done this amenable to action at the program and course
by focusing on three postgraduate courses at USQ levels, some issues are highly complex and dif-
in terms of their design, development, and man- ferentiated and do not admit of easy answers. A
agement, and has canvassed such issues as tech- prime example is assessment, which is attended
nology concerns and components, management by several tensions – for instance, between as-
and organizational concerns, and the cultural and sessment for and of learning, between assessment
philosophical assumptions of the academic staff to demonstrate mastery of existing knowledge
members coordinating and teaching the courses. and assessment to construct new understandings,
Despite their diversity, the common focus in the between varying levels of ownership of the assess-
courses has been on identifying and implement- ment process. The latter is signified by concerns
ing strategies needed to maximize the level and about plagiarism, which reflects wider debates
types of learner engagement and thereby to op- partly about academic integrity and partly about
timize the potential benefits of blended learning program quality.
environments. These recurring issues are likely to remain
It is clear that all three courses have succeeded precisely that: hardy perennials that each course
in highlighting this intersection between learner team must encounter and engage within each new
engagement and blended learning environments offering of the course. This is what we meant by
in several respects, reflected in positive experi- our point at the beginning of the chapter: that
ences and perceptions communicated by students, Graham’s (2006) depiction of blended learning
academic staff members, and program administra- as the convergence between face-to-face and
tors. The various types of evidence adduced here computer mediated learning environments is
demonstrate that the strategies deployed to design the starting point, but not the finishing line, in
and refine the courses have helped considerably defining and theorizing blended learning. For one
to encourage students to feel ‘at home,’ regardless thing, convergence is neither easy nor automatic
of their location and enrollment mode. Indeed, an to achieve: if not quite a never ending story, it is
important element of those strategies has been a highly complex assemblage of rapidly moving
efforts to render the divisions between delivery parts – of students, academics, administrators,
modes invisible and seamless, and to enhance other stakeholders, technologies, cultural prac-
40
tices, political imperatives, and the like – and ences and perceptions also help to distill certain
so any settlement implied by the notion of con- principles and strategies that might prove useful
vergence is liable to be tentative and temporary. in future efforts to maximize learner engagement
For another thing, convergence is a potentially in blended learning environments.
limited and limiting idea, in the sense that it im- All of this underscores that this chapter, along
plies a single meeting point (and hence a lowest with the others in this book, has sought to extend
common denominator). There is a possible risk our current understandings of blended learning and
that focusing excessively on convergence could its complex and sometimes perplexing relationship
lead to an elision of important and valuable dif- with learner engagement. The courses analyzed
ferences among various educational technologies here are three separate contexts in which that
and delivery modes. relationship is enacted. The strategies identified
From this perspective, we see the further here are efforts to optimize the alignment between
theorization of blended learning environments as the two phenomena, while allowing full rein for
needing to take account of these kinds of differ- the particularities of each. Learner engagement
ences, while attending also to equally significant and blended learning environments have much
questions of access, equity, quality, and sustain- to offer each other, with hoped for benefits for
ability. The evidence presented in this case study is learners and educators alike.
a ‘mixed bag’about those questions: many students
have found the respective courses enabling and
even empowering, while others have struggled ACKNOWLEDGMENT
with particular pedagogical and technological
concerns – as have the academic staff members Professor Yukiko Inoue has been an encouraging
charged with designing, delivering, and managing and facilitative editor, and two anonymous peer
those courses. reviewers provided useful feedback about the
submitted text. The authors are grateful to the
students and academic colleagues who participated
CONCLUSION in the courses discussed here for enabling the data
analysis presented in this chapter.
We have asserted that Graham’s (2006) depiction
of blended learning as the convergence between
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43
44
Chapter 3
Instructional Leadership
and Blended Learning:
Confronting the Knowledge Gap in Practice
Martin R. Reardon
Virginia Commonwealth University, USA
ABSTRACT
Dewey’s concept of experience as an active engagement with a process of action, feedback, and reflec-
tion permeates the setting of the case reported in this chapter. The case involves an initiative to engage
a group of experienced teachers and school administrators (in the context of a doctoral level course)
with reading and reflecting on a vision of the future of education in a professional learning community
permeated by the experience of blended learning. While the blended learning was heavily weighted
towards face-to-face meetings, issues relating to the integration of technology with education became
experienced realities for the group members. These issues included pre-service teacher education, equi-
table access to online resources, and the creation of an environment in which contemporary approaches
to curriculum, teaching, and learning can flourish.
INTRODUCTION education. Blended learning retains the benefits of

face-to-face social interaction with fellow learners
Christensen, Horn, and Johnson (2008) argued per- while taking full advantage of the affordances of
suasively that the traditional K-12 educational model the online environment like ubiquitous access and
is on the verge of a renovation so comprehensive virtual presence.
that it amounts to something of a revolution. They The exploration reported in this chapter was
typified the emerging educational model as “learner motivated by a belief that instructional leadership
centered,” and focused on the central mediating is an essential element in steering the implementa-
role of online resources in enabling the manage- tion of blended learning in the K-12 setting. The
ment and delivery of learner-specific approaches to perspective of this chapter is that contributions to
the present and forthcoming discussions of the role
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-60566-880-2.ch003 of blended learning and the evolving educational
Instructional Leadership and Blended Learning
model will be most credible if they emanate from The CERI (2008) question invokes one of the
instructional leaders’lived professional experience crucial advantages of the revolution foreseen by
and expertise. The credibility of educational lead- Christensen et al. (2008): learner-centered educa-
ers’ contributions is challenged by the contested tion. The Christensen et al. perspective is supported
concept of “digital natives” (Bennett, Maton, & by a range of findings. For example, Howell,
Kervin, 2007; Prensky, 2001a; Prensky, 2001b), West, and Peterson (2008) declared that “one of
in that many of those currently in instructional the latest education innovations to go mainstream
leadership positions are less comfortable with (was) online education” (Howell et al., 2008, ¶
technology than the younger teachers and, par- 1). To support their claim, they cited figures from
ticularly, the students. This generational difference the North American Council for Online Learning
gives rise to an imbalanced pedagogical situation (NACOL) that suggested that enrollment in online
and can result in the type of discordance between courses totaled 45,000 in 2000—a figure which
words and actions so pungently summed up as “the had grown to 1 million by 2007. Of these online
multi-prong problem” on a recent blog post: courses, according to Howell et al., 70 percent
were pitched at the high school level.
I have found it increasingly annoying to hear from Along similar lines, Zandberg, Lewis, and
on high that we need to integrate more technology Greene (2008) found nearly a 60 percent rise
in our classroom…. (We have to) still (use) old from 2002 to 2005 in the number of students
standbys because we don’t have the time to use enrolled in technology-based distance educa-
and troubleshoot our way through technology. (We tion programs in the U.S., with the total number
have to make) worksheets by copying and pasting of students growing from 317,070 to 506,950.
by hand. (We have to build) test questions from Although the “technology-based” label includes
book programs that only work on PCs or OS 9 prerecorded video, and interactive voice technolo-
on (sic) macs. (We want) to use videos from the gies (among others), Zandberg et al. found that
Internet only to find they are blocked. (We want “among districts with technology-based distance
to) post information to a Web site or build (our) education, 41 percent reported (using) two-way
own Web sites (only) to find that FTP is blocked, interactive video and 40 percent reported (deliv-
or that online-services are clunky, restrictive, and ering) Internet courses employing asynchronous
cumbersome. (Arizpe, 2008) computer-based instruction” (p. 44). Commenting
on likely future trends, Zandberg et al. (2008)
The larger question of the integration of digital cited the United States Department of Education
technology and education illustrated by Arizpe Office of Educational Technology in noting that
(2008) is not limited to just the United States. Dis- “online (Internet-based) technology is considered
tilling educationally related questions with respect by some policymakers to be the cornerstone of the
to information and communication technology educational landscape of the future” (p. 3). In this
(ICT) across the broad sweep of Organization regard, Singleton-Rickman (2008) reported, that
for Economic Co-operation and Development “Alabama’s high school students, beginning next
(OECD) countries, the Center for Educational year, will be required to pass a distance learning
Research and Innovation (CERI, 2008) asked class in order to obtain their high school diplomas”
“how far does, and should, (ICT’s) potential to (¶ 4) and that, “across the 16 states that make up
personalize learning get exploited, whether in the Southern Regional Education Board, there are
schools or in other places where learning can take about 200,000 students taking online courses” (¶
place?” (p. 57). 13), including 77,000 students in Florida.
45
This chapter presents and discusses an initiative of students, (c) offering Advanced Placement or
to engage a group of potential educational leaders college-level courses, (d) reducing scheduling
in a blended learning environment in the context conflicts for students, and (e) permitting students
of a course in a doctoral program. The adult- to retake courses they failed (p. 9).
learning setting and the 21st century curriculum
emphasis together constitute a fresh perspective Disrupting Class
on instructional leadership and blended learning.
The graduates of the focus course will be eligible Each of the five reasons listed by Picciano and
for high-level school district leadership upon Seaman (2007) conform with the theoretical
graduation, and, consequently, will be the ones position propounded by Christensen, Horn, and
most empowered to make strategic decisions in Johnson (2008) regarding the ways in which
terms of resource acquisition and allocation in the online learning can provide educational services
near future. The purpose of this initiative was to for those who have no option (as opposed to try-
encourage the participants to enrich their perspec- ing to supplant existing face-to-face teaching).
tive on the role of blended learning in the K-12 Christensen et al. argued strongly in favor of
setting by their engagement with a blended learn- student-centered education—implemented online
ing environment in this doctoral-level course. in some appropriately supportive framework—as
the way of the future.
Policy Implications Song (2008) detailed a real-world scenario in
which pragmatism could well motivate a move
Educational policymakers appear to be on secure to a form of online learning when he described
ground in their support for digital technology. For the issues surrounding college prep program of-
example, to directly support their “mainstream” ferings in Los Angeles Unified School District
claim from their own survey, Howell et al. stated (LAUSD)—the second-largest school district in
that “fully 69 percent of the public, and a solid the US. In 2005, the LAUSD Board of Education
majority of every subgroup, say that they ‘would moved to ensure that all students would have
be willing to have a child (of theirs) go through access to college prep classes by 2006, “and to
high school taking some academic courses over require (such classes) by 2012” (¶ 2). The human
the Internet” (Howell et al., 2008, ¶ 3). resource implications of this decision are daunting,
Shapira (2008) reported that “online school- but the situation could be alleviated by invoking
ing…is becoming more popular among students the concept of blended learning (Picciano & Sea-
and educators as a way to break from the traditional man, 2007). Concept presentations and appropriate
classroom setting” (¶ 1). Shapira’s attribution of learning resources could be made available on-line
“break from the traditional classroom setting” mo- for students. In the absence of a fully qualified
tivation to students and educators is not supported teacher, students could engage with these materials
by the findings of Picciano and Seaman (2007) under the guidance of an in-house tutor, allowing
in their survey of school district administrators. highly qualified teachers to be used in a visiting
They found that the reasons for implementing capacity. While this situation is not ideal, to return
online learning in districts were highly pragmatic. to the Christensen et al. (2008) perspective, it is
In order of importance, the reasons were: (a) better than its alternative (which is access to few
offering courses not otherwise available at the or no college prep courses).
school, (b) meeting the needs of specific groups
46
Blended Learning Merges Case Theme: Confronting the

Old and New Knowledge Gap in Practice
Picciano and Seaman (2007) defined a blended/ Clearly, leadership at both the school district
hybrid course as a course that blends online and school building levels is crucial for ensur-
and face-to-face delivery “where a substantial ing the creation of effective blended learning
proportion (30 to 79 percent) of the content is experiences for students. In this regard, many
delivered online” (p. 7). In this context, blended instructional leaders are not well versed in current
learning employed in a classroom environment online learning technologies which (in some cases)
is conceptualized as a way of merging the best were not invented when they were encouraged to
of the old- and new-era pedagogies. Ideally, the develop lesson plans of their own. The image of
burden of content delivery is shared by a variety of the knowledge gap being invoked in this case is
online resources, largely leaving to the face-to-face borrowed from the work of Tichenor, Donohue,
modality the creation of the social environment and Olien (1970) who proposed: that “as the
in which learning occurs (although the effective- infusion of mass media information into a social
ness of the virtual social environment should not system increases, segments of the population with
be underestimated—as discussed later in this higher socioeconomic status tend to acquire this
paper). The elegance of the blending of the old information at a faster rate than the lower status
and the new largely determines the effectiveness segments, so that the gap in knowledge between
of blended learning. these segments tends to increase rather than de-
The observed percentage growth figures cited crease” (pp. 159-160).
in the introduction to this chapter accord with the Applying the knowledge gap concept in this
expectations of Christensen et al. (2008) for the context, many instructional leaders are envisaged
emergence of online learning from its current as low in “technological SES,” whereas their
“beach head,” but the 1 million students involved students are high in “technological SES.” (In
in 2007 is small compared to the projected 15 support of this typology, see, for example, the
million students in 2007 in the upper grades undergraduate survey of Salaway, Caruso, and
alone predicted by the United States Department Nelson, 2008.) To continue the analogy in the
of Education Institute of Education Sciences Na- tradition of Tichenor et al. (1970), the infusion
tional Center for Educational Statistics (NCES, of educational technology into a social system
2008). It appears to be inevitable that there will be comprising both technological “haves” and “have-
many students who will not be engaged in “online nots” is likely to increase the gap in technological
learning” during their school career. However, knowledge between the two groups—the students
the conceptually intermediate step between “not will take-up the new technology faster than the
online” and “online” provided by “blended” instructional leaders.
learning relies on the wide array of educational The purpose of this chapter is to describe a
resources available online, while re-defining the semester-long, multi-session learning experience
role of the teacher as “fellow knowledge worker” (incorporating blended learning) intended to de-
rather than “omniscient guide.” crease the knowledge gap of a group of instruc-
tional leaders. Participants explored the potential
47
of online learning in the process of engaging in Leadership Department is one of the six School
a learning community to create blended learning of Education departments, and it caters for several
experiences in their fields of expertise. Gagné’s hundred masters-level participants (enrolled in
(1965) six varieties of performance associated administrative endorsement programs), and over a
with learning (specific responding, chaining, hundred doctoral-level participants in both Ed.D.
multiple discrimination, classifying, rule using, and Ph.D. tracks. The vast majority of courses are
and problem solving) were used as benchmarks delivered off-site at conveniently located school
against which to measure the learning that occurred district facilities. Most of the participants are in
among participants, with participants collaborat- cohort groups—which are usually at least partially
ing amongst themselves in a learning community supported by the participants’ school districts—
environment. although non-cohort participants are welcome.
In particular, participants considered a set of Class groupings often consist of mixed cohort
teaching models from a well-respected text com- and non-cohort participants.
monly found in undergraduate teaching courses
(Joyce & Weil, 2004), and how these could be re-
conceptualized in a blended learning environment. SETTING THE STAGE
From this common experience, participants set out
to create their own blended learning “units” as sig- Digital technologies are heavily supported in the
nificant learning experiences that would enhance School of Education—as they are in this university
teaching and learning in the 21st century. as a whole. The School of Education supports its
own technology department, which houses faculty
members who not only provide courses in educa-
BACKGROUND tional technology, but also ensure that School of
Education technology resources are maintained,
The university in which this exploration of assisted by a cadre of tech-savvy undergraduate
blended learning is set is a large, public, urban students—most of whom are taking educational
university in an east coast U.S. capital city. It was technology courses.
established in the middle of the 20th century, when At the university-wide level, the Center for
two pre-existing, thriving “down-town” public Excellence in Teaching (CET) actively supports
universities—one focused on medicine and the the integration of technology and teaching. In
health sciences, and the other focused more on addition to conducting many workshops on the
the arts—were merged. This university is rated as integration of technology and teaching, CET acts
exhibiting “high research activity” under the Basic as a sounding-board for faculty who wish to “push
Classification Description (The Carnegie Founda- the envelope” and explore ways of teaching that
tion for the Advancement of Teaching, 2007), but take advantage of “the proliferation of intercon-
the expectation that faculty will approach teach- nectivity and interactivity of Web-delivered
ing from a learner-centered perspective is made content” (Web 2.0, 2008). As a minimum, the
very clear in university documentation, as well university expects that faculty will utilize the
as being exemplified in the creation of learner- course-management aspects of Blackboard, but
centered administrative structures—especially at many faculty members go well beyond that mini-
the undergraduate level. mum expectation and integrate a range of digital
The School of Education at this university technologies with the learning experiences they
houses six departments with a total of over 100 orchestrate for their students. The confluence of
faculty members. The graduate Educational reliable and knowledgeable support for technology
48
and a high level of faculty motivation to engage The expertise of the participants. It is not
in cutting-edge research related to teaching and unusual to find a large range of comfort with
learning constitutes the environment in which technology in an “adult” group of learners—even
this case plays out. in a group of highly capable academics. The pro-
fessor’s concern was that participants who were
challenged by particular instructional technologies
CASE DESCRIPTION would be disinclined to persevere with them long
enough to realize the benefits those technolo-
This case focuses on the initiative taken by a pro- gies promised. However, while this is clearly an
fessor in the Educational Leadership Department element to be taken into account, educational
in the School of Education at this university to technology is one area in which the adage “action
explore the concept of blended instruction in his precedes learning” is borne out. In the first class
own course delivery of a doctoral-level course meeting, participants were encouraged to seek
designed to engage participants in examining support from each other, from the university’s
the instructional leadership ramifications of the technical help desk, and from the professor. While
effective integration of digital technology and the unevenness of technological expertise was a
learning. The participants in this particular course factor, it did not detract from the overall blended
are typically seeking endorsement at the school learning experience—rather the opposite.
district superintendent-level, making the focus As an aside, the ease of interaction focused on
of this course particularly salient to instructional making things work that the participants developed
leadership in the 21st century. amongst themselves was strikingly evidenced
This course is focused on three key tasks of late in the course. On one scheduled face-to-face
instructional leadership: curriculum development, meeting evening, an unexpected clash at the school
group development, and professional development district level resulted in half the participants being
(Glickman, Gordon, & Ross-Gordon, 2007). In unable to attend. The remaining participants opted
particular, in this course participants engage with to meet with the professor in a classroom at the
issues arising from (a) the creation and imple- university. The previous meeting in the appointed
mentation of curriculum in the 21st century (b) room ran late, so the professor and the group sat in
in an academic environment which challenges an adjacent classroom to wait. The participants—
them to earnestly pursue their own professional who could all login to the university’s wireless
development vis-à-vis digital technologies (c) network—began to share in small groups while
immersed in a group-supportive environment they were waiting, with individuals moving freely
which encourages risk-taking. from one small group to another depending on the
software being used. The professor was reluctant
Technology Concerns to interrupt this spontaneous social constructivist
occurrence when the designated room became
The main technological concerns relating to this available.
blended learning endeavor concerned the twin Reliable broadband Internet access. Since the
problems of the expertise of the participants (the face-to-face meetings were scheduled to occur
“knowledge gap”) and reliable broadband Internet at a conveniently located middle school where
access. The blended learning concept envisages participants would be introduced to many of the
online learning experiences and face-to-face meet- online resources, Internet access at that site was
ings which complement each other. essential. The middle school in question was
known to be wireless-enabled, but it was not clear
49
whether the participants from other buildings in (http://www.wimba.com/products/ wimba_

that school district would be able to use their own classroom/) sessions. Wimba is the software en-
logins at this designated site. gine that drives the Live Classroom functionality
Even more problematic, the professor and four in Blackboard (http://www.blackboard.com/).
non-cohort course participants needed Internet Blackboard is a learning management tool used by
access as well. Starting three months before the many colleges, as it is at the college in this case.
course was scheduled to commence, repeated Three “official” class meetings were conducted
phone calls and emails to individuals and to the on Wimba, but, after the first whole class meet-
technology help desk of the relevant school district ing, participants were encouraged to use Wimba
asking for clarification regarding Internet access, to meet with their research partners at their own
and, if necessary, guest logins were unproductive. discretion to facilitate collaboration on the research
As the first meeting for the course approached project that each partnership devised.
with no clear response in sight, the computer room Participants were encouraged to buy an audio-
next door to the designated meeting room at the active headphone set that did not incorporate
host middle school was booked. The professor, a mute button. This advice was based on the
resigned to demonstrating the online experience by experience of a professor in the CET who had
simulation in the designated meeting room (with found that participants in some of his Wimba
participants trying the software out for themselves sessions accidentally bumped “mute” and became
in the computer lab next door), printed the screens frustrated when no-one could hear them. In this
of Web sites relevant to the first class meeting to case, the only “can you hear me?” glitch arose
Microsoft Windows Journal on his Tablet PC. when the professor did not emphasize sufficiently
Fortunately, the professor decided on the spur strongly that participants should “click and hold”
of the moment to take a 50-foot roll of CAT-5 on the “talk” button when they wanted to speak
cable that had been used in an earlier project to (The script of the first Wimba session is included
the designated meeting room to try to “jury-rig” in the Appendix A).
a solution that would enable him to demonstrate In addition to Blackboard, a wide range of
the online software live. The cable easily reached well-known downloaded software (e.g., Camta-
a spare “drop” in the student computer lab next sia [http://www.techsmith.com/camtasia.asp],
door. The professor was preparing to use the ge- Microsoft Word, Microsoft PowerPoint, Audac-
neric student login and ID (provided by a helpful ity [http://audacity.sourceforge.net/]), online
secretary) when the Internet connection simply software (e.g., ToonDoo [http://www.toondoo.
went live. So, the first major learning for the com/], Animoto [http://animoto.com/], Wordle
professor was that all the login protection in this [http://wordle.com/], Twitter [http://twitter.com/],
school resided in the computers themselves. The Google Docs [accessible from http://www.google.
course participants coped adequately with sharing com/], Zoho [http://www.zoho.com/]), virtual re-
the one “presentation” computer during the class ality sites such as Second Life [http://secondlife.
meetings, and the computer lab went unused in the com/whatis/], other sites such as Flickr [http://
time that was optionally available for access. www.flickr.com/] and Delicious [http://delicious.
com/], special purpose Web sites such as Statistics
Technology Components Online Computational Resource [http://www.socr.
ucla.edu/], and MathScience Innovation Center
The main “hardware” component that participants [http://msinnovation.info/index.html], and the
needed to procure was a set of audio-active head- professor’s own course Web sites were utilized
phones to facilitate their participation in Wimba to varying degrees by participants.
50
Pedagogical philosophy. It is important to pants to take both an active and passive role in
note that the philosophy of this course envisages exploring blended learning as an intermediate step
participants sampling from a “smorgasbord” of between business-as-usual and the cutting-edge
options. Participants were not expected to delve vision of Christensen et al.
in equal depth into every learning opportunity The legacy course structure envisaged eleven
that was orchestrated. Participants’ were continu- face-to-face, four-hour class meetings. The blend-
ally directed to the course assessment items as ed learning experience envisaged seven face-to-
the criteria of learning. These assessment items face, four-hour class meetings, and two three-hour
encouraged participants to construct their own face-to-face class meetings (see below for details
meaning around the concept of blended instruction, concerning the three-hour meetings). The two
and create blended curriculum units that accorded three-hour face-to-face class meetings were held
with their emergent concept, even while they were subsequent to the introductory Wimba sessions
experiencing the professor’s approach to blended (held on the preceding afternoon), providing for
instruction. The philosophy in this course sits quick debriefing and problem-solving.
well with Dewey’s (2004) concept of the active For the remaining two scheduled meetings,
sense of learning through experience. According one (the legacy sixth meeting) coincided with an
to Dewey, “when we experience something we act unanticipated school district requirement (men-
upon it, we do something with it; then we suffer tioned above) that about half of the participants
or undergo the consequences” (p. 133). had to be available at their respective schools that
evening. This meeting was cast as an optional
on-campus meeting in which Camtasia would
THE PROJECT be used to generate podcasts of the participants’
discussions, with the added option of students who
The project involved utilizing digital technology remained off-campus participating real-time via
to re-cast into a blended learning experience an Wimba. The podcasts were uploaded to the course
existing doctoral-level course on the creation Web site for later access by all participants.
and evaluation of K-12 (elementary through high For the legacy eighth meeting, participants
school) curriculum for the 21st century. This proj- were expected to collaborate with their research
ect challenged the fifteen participants to produce partners. They were urged to collaborate on-
their own interpretation of a blended learning unit line, since by then they were very familiar with
of instruction. Wimba.
In the first class meeting, participants were Although participants were encouraged to be-
encouraged to share their thoughts about the major come stakeholders in guiding their own learning
issues currently facing K-12 education. The issues throughout the course by selecting from a wide
emerging from this discussion grouped naturally range of online learning components, there were
under the “fundable research” headings of two some compulsory components with which all were
major national grants agency, lending credibility expected to engage. The three compulsory online
to the participants’ suggestions. Further discussion components of this project were: (a) participation
led to the cogency of the generic position adopted in two, one-hour Wimba “training” meetings
by Christensen et al. (2008): learner-centered in- online, (b) accessing the analysis of the course
struction that leverages the power of the Internet text (Christensen, Horn, & Johnson, 2008) from
and emerging Web 2.0 tools has the potential for the course Web site, and (c) engaging in online
“disrupting” business-as-usual in education. This dialog concerning the course text in the course
course was situated as an opportunity for partici- blog, establishing and using their own personal
51
reflective blogs, and contributing to specified on the issues that this group experienced. Differ-
colleagues’ blogs. ing levels of comfort with the virtual classroom
concept may also have accounted for some of
Participation in Wimba Meetings the difference between the trial group and this
group—at least one of the earlier trial groups was
In the initial class meeting, participants were a “power user” of an alternative virtual classroom
instructed to procure a set of audio-active head- tool, and forthrightly endorsed the technology to
phones to enable them to participate in a Wimba her colleagues.
session scheduled for the afternoon prior to the
third class meeting. Scheduling this first Wimba Increasing Engagement
session for the afternoon prior to a class meeting with the Course Text
ensured as quick a face-to-face debriefing as pos-
sible, thereby preventing too much accumulation One of the points made strongly by Christensen et
of frustration in the event of “glitches.” This first al. (2008) concerned the over-reliance of business-
Wimba session was scripted (see Appendix A) as-usual education on text-based materials, and
to walk participants through some of the Wimba how this reliance mitigates against learners with
functionality in a non-threatening way. In the learning styles less amenable to text-based mate-
one-hour session which followed two weeks later, rial. In response to this critique, this author decided
participants were invited to view a pertinent online to create a Web site on which each chapter of
video from within the Wimba environment, which Christensen et al. would be précised and integrated
proved to be an interesting exercise that exposed with visually compelling graphics.
the deficiencies of the participants’ mental models Further, instead of conducting more conven-
of how Wimba worked. tional discussions in the face-to-face meetings,
Following the initial one-hour Wimba meet- participants were encouraged to respond to the
ing, the participants’ research collaborative pair- many questions incorporated into the text précis
ings were given their own meeting rooms (with on a course blog, and/or on their own personal
“presenter rights” for all), and encouraged to use reflective blog. A deep level of engagement with
this medium for collaboration. This two-pronged the course text outside of the face-to-face meetings
approach (combining compulsory short sessions was evidenced in the way that many participants
for all with optional access to facilitate collab- referred to ideas in the text as touchstones of good
orative discussions) contributed to making the practice or counter-examples of points they were
Wimba experience an educational one for about making, rather than as ideas they were encounter-
half the participants. The remaining participants ing for the first time.
battled with Internet bandwidth issues and/or their
unease with the concept of a virtual classroom, Online Dialog
and found Wimba frustrating to use.
Overall, the Wimba experience in the context Throughout this course, participants were encour-
of this project was disappointing, since a trial aged to perceive of themselves as growing into the
project in the previous semester had resulted in role of public intellectuals. In this regard, blogs
all except two of a similarly sized group of par- are integral to this course in that they empower a
ticipants operating with confidence in the Wimba market-place of ideas. Participants’ initial expe-
environment and expressing enthusiasm for the riences with blogs were very diverse—ranging
concept. An intervening update to the Wimba from the majority who had not established a blog,
engine within Blackboard may have impacted through those who had established one but had
52
not really used it, through to some participants an added bonus, the actual television advertise-
who were very much at ease with this medium ment was airing on some local channels during
(including one participant who maintained a well- this course.)
patronized, professional blog). The professor’s intention was that participants
In addition to participating on the course blog, would produce their storyboard using the table
participants were encouraged not only to establish functionality of Microsoft Word, but one of the
and use their own blog, but also to contribute to the participants (a “technology integrator” in a local
dialog on specified colleagues’ blogs. To facilitate school district) suggested the use of ToonDoo to
this, each participant sought the collaboration of produce the storyboard. This free, online software
at least two others to respond to their blogs. In was used by all except two of the participants
this way, every participant was assured of at least to produce storyboards that conveyed the scope
two different perspectives on the five blog entries and sequence of their units in a visual-intensive
they were required to write throughout the course. format.
Participants were free to choose their own topics Figure 1, developed by the author of this
for their blogs, or, alternatively, write in response chapter, shows the first page of a ToonBook (made
to any of the questions and issues raised concern- up of three ToonDoo cartoons linked together by
ing the course text on the course Web site. that software into a three-panel page). This page
sets out the beginning of a scope and sequence
description of a unit that envisages a set of stu-
“UNIT” DEVELOPMENT dents (the “dreamers”) reading the book Barkbelly
(Weatherill, 2005) with a mentor, and then writing
The unreservedly active part of this course required their reflections on a blog.
participants to develop a blended “unit” of instruc- Another participant discussed the potential
tion of their own in their field of expertise, based for using the free online software available from
on their experience as learners in this blended Animoto for this same task. Animoto produces
course. The extent of the “unit” was deliberately short videos (the free versions are 30 seconds long)
left open. Two “deliverables” were required: (a) a which can also incorporate small amounts of text.
scope and sequence storyboard, and (b) a unit of (See the online resources in Appendix A.)
instruction incorporating the participant’s concept ToonDoo and Animoto are examples of online
of blended learning. software that teachers could well integrate into
their teaching repertoire. In this instance, this
Scope and Sequence Storyboard software enabled course participants to produce
scope and sequence documents that were relatively
Again in deference to the Christensen et al. (2008) free of text, but their potential use by K-12 students
critique of text-intensive documents, participants in responding to higher-order prompts is clear.
were required to convey the scope and sequence For example, one of the participants introduced
of their blended unit of instruction in a storyboard. ToonDoo to her Grade 5 class and was thrilled
Participants were introduced to the concept of a when one of her students spontaneously used it
storyboard using the actual storyboard developed overnight to document the opening chapters of
by the New York-based advertising agency in the what she knew of the story of her adoption. As a
process of creating a television advertisement for further example, many of the participants found
well-known firm that produces condiments. (This themselves initially “talking” to the students who
author wishes to express thanks to the advertising would be potentially involved in learning from
agency executive for providing this resource. As their unit in their scope and sequence products,
53
Figure 1. The Opening Page of a ‘ToonBook’ Scope and Sequence Description
not the instructors (the latter being the traditional higher-order performances. For example, there
audience for scope and sequence documents). An were few occasions on which specific respond-
unintended consequence of using a “text-light” ing was required, but much problem solving. One
scope and sequence product was a discussion of participant commented “I initially wanted to use
the subtleties of “voice.” only a CD (for presenting the unit), but, during
our class discussions I realized I missed the point.
Unit of Instruction Incorporating This realization led me into a new direction with
Blended Learning the integration of the Internet Web sites for a
wonderful unit to teach general and exceptional
Many participants produced exemplary units education students.” This response attests to the
which effectively integrated digital technology type of conceptual re-alignment which the profes-
and learning. Table 1, produced by Wendi Moss sor hoped to engender through this project.
who was a participant in the course, shows one A couple of participants commented spontane-
such unit, designed for “exceptional education” ously on their encounter with the knowledge gap
Grade 9 English students. The unit aims to engage in practice. One referred to successful implementa-
students in a 21st century technology environment tion in a classroom where students are more tech-
by utilizing Wordle, Twitter, and Animoto. nologically adept as requiring a “cultural shift…on
the part of the teacher—overcoming fear.” Another
Outcomes and Feedback participant also spoke of the role that fear plays
in hindering the “embrace” of technology. This
Throughout this project, participants engaged in participant went on to extend the reach of fear
educationally profitable ways with 21st century beyond the knowledge gap by referring to fear as a
digital technology, and transferred their learning significant element that constrains “turning control
to the units that they, in turn, constructed in their (of their learning) over to the students.” Another
individual fields of expertise. In this process, there participant referred to the parents’ knowledge gap
were numerous instances of participants’ learning, in pointing out that “this learning experience will
as indicated by Gagné’s (1965) six performances also be very new for parents…because of their
associated with learning, with the emphasis on the previous school days.”
54
Table 1. A sample blended unit of instruction (Used with permission from W. Moss)
Objectives: The student will…

• Make planned oral presentations by using relevant detail to support main ideas.
• Explain the relationships between and among elements of literature: characters, plot, setting, tone, point of view, and theme.
• Describe the use of images and sounds to elicit the reader’s emotions.
• Explain the influence of historical context on the form, style, and point of view of a written work.
• Identify a position/argument to be confirmed, disproved, or modified.
Activities:
• Each student will write a short opinion of the book, The Watsons Go to Birmingham-1963 (Curtis, C. P. [2004], Thorndike Press). Stu-
dents will include a list of at least 30 words that stand out to them in the novel. These words can be taken from the novel or can be words
the student feels is appropriate in describing the novel.
• Students will type their chosen words and opinions into <www.wordle.net> and create a graphic depiction of their words.
• Students will, with a partner, pick a favorite scene from the novel and a character in that scene. They will log on to <www.twitter.com>
and write a tweet from their chosen character’s point of view. Once they are finished with their tweet, they will read two other tweets and
try to guess the scene about which others tweeted.
• Students will search the internet for various images of segregation, Civil Rights movement, Flint, MI, Birmingham, AL, Sixteenth
Street Baptist Church, etc. Once students have compiled their images, they will use them to create a music video on <www.animoto.
com>.
• Students will present their Wordle creations as well as their music videos to the class. Students must be prepared to defend their cre-
ations.
Students found the Wimba experience both One participant was really enthused about
exciting and frustrating—sometimes for the the potential of podcasting, and appreciated the
same participant. For example, one participant power of Camtasia. This participant commented:
commented that “I found the Wimba sessions to “I would love to use (Camtasia) in my classroom
be the most valuable (of the course).” However, as a way to (record) PowerPoints and presentations
the same participant went on to describe as “frus- (for) absent students.”
trating” the participant’s research partnership’s A range of insightful comments were submit-
attempts to collaborate online, commenting that ted in response to the prompt regarding blended
“after an hour of trying and emailing back and learning as an instructional medium. Using the
forth, we had to give up.” Another participant concept of disruption in the sense employed by
commented that “I like the concept of Wimba. Christensen et al. (2008), one participant high-
I didn’t like the technical difficulties.” Another lighted the existence of the knowledge gap directly
participant provided an assessment that “I can see as an issue to be addressed: “This (experience)
how (Wimba) could be extremely effective when has been disruptive, in (the) sense of moving from
functioning at peak and (this is) certainly an area a monolithic, structured perspective to a flexible
worth investigation for future use.” ‘let’s try it’ perspective. The disruption came in
Participants found blogs to be of mixed value. the form of being overwhelmed and concerned
One participant offered a theoretical perspec- that the technological advances have not been
tive that “teacher blogging is a very valuable distributed equally throughout the school (dis-
endeavor because (blogs) provide a medium for tricts).” While local preferences with regard to
reflection and community building with stake- the prominence given to technological advances
holders in all areas of education, including the would be expected, the above comment clearly
media and policymakers.” At the practical level, focuses in on the crux of the knowledge gap.
the response was that “I was excited during the This resource availability issue was also evi-
creation of my personal blog, but disappointed denced in a number of other comments including
about the usage.” this: “I think part of the issue is the availability
55
within my school (district)” of Wimba (the virtual so engrossed with video games and online chat
classroom tool) and other online resources—a rooms, that it makes sense to incorporate this into
number of which were “blocked” by particular their curriculum. We talked tonight about cultural
school district Internet use policies. The avail- relevance. If these students think that computers
ability issue was also evident in a comment that and technology are the norm, why not use them
reflects the blog entry quoted in the introduction to as teaching tools.
this paper: “Sometimes I feel like in my job I am
not given the time to explore the new technologies A more nuanced “bottom line” comment also
so that we can use them in our current settings.” emerged from the specifically human concerns
This comment raises a negative outcome of this in education, suggesting that “the main power
particular session in that there was a sense among of blended learning (is) in its power to connect
the participants: “I have learned many useful and people across divides and in its social capacities,
innovative tools that I am excited to work with not in its ability to create learning....(because)
in my classroom.” While this is a welcome com- programs will never be as nimble as real people
ment, it focuses on the practical application of the trying to communicate in person.”
technology rather that exhibiting the enthusiasm Finally, two enthusiastically supportive com-
for developing a research agenda that would be ments will serve to nicely round out this feedback
more appropriate to participants in a doctoral section. The first again picks up on the role played
level course. However, given the makeup of the by effective instructional leadership in provid-
group, this tendency to focus on the practical is ing an environment in which the integration of
not unexpected, but it is something that needs to technology and education can flourish—from
be taken into account by the professor. equitable access, through provision of adequate
Overall, while a couple of participants referred pre-service education, to the provision of time
to themselves as initially “overwhelmed,” there and resources.
was a strong consensus that blended learning is
destined to play a role in the future of educa- Blended learning will continue to evolve as new
tion. One participant nicely captured this line of technology is invented, existing technology is
thought in commenting, that “the methods used improved upon and perfected, and technology is
for instruction will need to find ways to compete made accessible for everyone. Because of this, it
with current technological innovations that vie for is imperative that colleges and universities evolve
attention through bold advances in graphics and their teacher preparation programs to keep up
audio.” The lone, self-described pessimist among with the emerging technology. The technology is
the participants commented that “although I see often not used because teachers do not have time
the value, the constraints of time, money, and or do not have the resources to learn on the job.
utilization have been a barrier for many quality
ideas, theories and practices.” The second enthusiastic comment is more
In response to the “big picture” question about in the visionary realm, but foresees the tension
the future of blended learning as a concept, one inevitable as parents who expect schools to look
participant chose the “path of inevitability” ap- like it did when they attended wrestle with the
proach. implications of blended learning for the way
schools are organized.
I think that many educators have no choice but
to turn to blended learning in order to reach this The future blended unit will be completely student
new generation of learners. Many of them are directed. The classroom teacher will serve as
56
a facilitator for students. Initially, the younger level, there appears to be some shifting of ground
students will require more support, but eventu- from the original intention of those who advocated
ally they will become very independent. This a performance-based approach (but who have since
learning experience will also be very new for moved out of the roles they once held). There is
parents to understand because of their previous clearly more political security in stipulating a set
school days. number of hours in a set number of courses than in
supporting a truly performance-based approach. In
Even though this project on blended learning this sense, adopting a performance-based approach
was not devised as a test case, it bears strongly would truly disrupt business as usual.
on the current challenge which the Educational A procedural challenge arises from the conun-
Leadership Department (of which the professor drum that, according to Christensen et al. (2008),
is a member) has given itself. to be successful, a disruptive innovation should not
attempt to usurp the established order. According
to Christensen et al., the niche most conducive to
CURRENT CHALLENGES the endurance of a disruptive innovation involves
providing something for those who otherwise
The Department of Education for the state in have nothing. The niche for such an online
which the professor’s university is situated has blended leadership endorsement program would
recently released a set of performance standards involve potential leaders in school districts that
for educational leaders. The impetus behind the are geographically remote from the Department’s
development of these standards was a desire to established centers. The advantage of this niche
make it clear that the successful completion of a from the disruptive innovation perspective is a
certain number of hours of coursework was not disadvantage for those developing the program in
necessarily a strong indicator of the potential of that the very remoteness of the participants exac-
an aspiring educational leader. The Educational erbates the ill-effects of the missteps that are not
Leadership Department of which the professor is a unexpected in the development of a new program.
member has recently set itself the task of endorsing Thus, for more effective program development,
the spirit of the state’s new performance standards the participants should be in the local area—within
by essentially setting out to “disrupt” (Christensen the range of the established centers.
et al., 2008) its own traditional post-masters-level The professor’s department is certainly not
leadership endorsement program that is based on the first university department to develop online
a set number of courses, each with a set number course offerings. The pool of instructional leader-
of hours. The new program the Department is ship offerings based on performance rather than
envisaging will be learner-centered. This implies course-work completion is more restricted. As
that, at the outset, the level of proficiency of each the professor’s department develops its online
future participant on each of the standards will be presence in this direction, the experience gained
assessed, with the participant then being directed from the project on blended learning described
to tailored instructional units. Further, the intention here provides valuable insights. As one of the
is to deliver this tailored instruction in a blended project participants commented, the blended learn-
learning modality that fully leverages online, 21st ing project was an approach to “understanding
century learning tools. leadership from a learning perspective.”
In addition to the technological complexity of
creating such a program, there are other challenges.
For example, at the state Department of Education
57
CONCLUSION Centre for Educational Research and Innovation

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Twitter.http://twitter.com/
Alfred A. Knopf.
Wordle. http://www.wordle.com/
Zoho. http://www.zoho.com/
59
APPENDIX A
Script of Initial Wimba Session
Welcome to Wimba
Type the above welcome message on the eBoard, along with:
If all else fails, close Blackboard and try again.
Click and hold the “Talk” button to talk.
In this session I will walk you through some of the capabilities of Wimba by asking you to interact
with me as we use them. I’m not going to try to tell you everything about Wimba —just enough to give
you a working knowledge of what gives.
Look at the whiteboard (called the eBoard in Wimba) where I wrote the welcome message. The
presenter can write here with the mouse
(Write “HI”)
But, as you can see, it is ugly.
So it’s best to type.
(Type “HI”)
You can’t see how I did that, because you aren’t presenters in this room. I will share this tool with
you a little later in this session. At present, you know it exists.
The next thing to look at is the window down the bottom headed “People” with my name in red at
the top. You should also be able to see your name on this list, though you might have to scroll down to
see it.
At the bottom of this window, there are a number of icons. Click on the check mark, and see what
happens.
A check mark appears against your name under the column headed with the check mark and cross.
This gives you a way of saying “I agree” or “Correct” or, by clicking on the “x” you can say “I disagree”
or “Wrong.”
The next icon is a little hand. Click on it and see what happens.
A little hand appears against your name under the column with a little hand on top of it. This gives
you a way to tell me that you have a question, and automatically puts you in order to get an answer.
YOU HAVE TO CLICK ON THIS AGAIN when we have dealt with your question TO LOWER YOUR
HAND.
Even if you have a question right now, please click to lower your hand. I’ll take questions in a min-
ute.
Directly above this class list box is a horizontal bar. At the left hand end is the button with TALK on
it. Don’t talk right now. As in any classroom, if everybody tries to talk at once, bedlam ensues.
Raise your hand, and I’ll invite you to comment in order. Don’t forget to lower your hand after you
have commented.
Somebody please raise your hand and make a comment or ask a question when I call on you.
Look again at the list of icons under the class list.
The fourth button from the left gives you a dropdown menu with what are called “emoticons” on
them. This gives you a way of telling me how you are feeling. Click on the “thumbs up” or “thumbs
down” emoticon and observe that your choice shows against your name in the column with the smiley
face above it.
60
Next click on the “Options” button and see what your options are. Notice the one to lock your talk
button.
At present, that won’t work for you because I didn’t give you that option in this room. I have my
microphone locked on—which is why I can talk over the top of whoever is talking—like in a phone
conversation. When you get your own room I will enable that option because there will only be two of
you (or three) and you can dispense with the hand raising procedure.
In the bottom left hand corner there is an area which probably reads “Connected to server…you have
connected successfully…” This is the text message area.
Underneath this text message area is a very small box to the right of where you see a dropdown box
which reads “Main Roon.” Click in the box, type a short message like “Hi” and hit the “return” key on
your keyboard.
This gives you a way to interact with each other and me on a stream of consciousness plane. The
secret is to type very few words before you key “return,” and then develop a tolerance for getting a full
message which is split up by lots of other part messages. If you wait to type a full sentence, often the
“conversation” will have moved on by the time you chime in. This is definitely an acquired skill—and
not one that I claim to have acquired fully yet. I still find it quite demanding.
The presenter can disable this text message area.
Let’s try to use the functionality we have discussed so far.
Look at the eBoard area again. Supposing I have a graphic that I have come across that I want to
share with you. I will import it so you can see it.
Please give me a check sign when you can see the graphic.
Send me a smiley face if you are following.
Now take your smiley face off.
Please raise your hand if you have a question or comment.
Don’t forget to lower your hand when your question or comment has been addressed.
This graphic represents the learning gains of students of different socio-economic status over a number
of years of primary school. What do you conclude?
For the following, I will use the tool bar which, at present, you don’t have. I will turn it on for you
shortly.
Supposing I wanted to highlight some part of this graphic. I could use the ellipse tool. If I make a
mistake, I just click on erase and whatever I added goes away.
Or I could click on the arrow, and then click on the graphic to draw your attention to what I’m talking
about. Again, just click the eraser to make the arrows go away.
I could also click on the upper-case T and type in the box. I can see what I type as I go in grey. What
I type turns black and you can see it after I key “return.”
Now I’m going to enable the tool bar for you to see. I will describe the functions for you and then
call on each of you to use a tool. Please don’t all use a tool at once, or no-one will be able to tell which
mark is theirs.
61
“Enable” everybody.
Describe the tools.
Call down the list for Watch while he/she uses the tool bar.
Now I’m going to disable everybody. When you are in your own rooms, everybody will be presenters,
which also means you can lock your talk buttons on. This isn’t a problem with just two or three people,
so you can do away with the hand raising process too.
The next two functions you also need presenter rights to be able to see, so I am just going to demon-
strate them so you know this functionality exists, and I will show you more in class.
If I wanted to preserve what this slide looks like before we move on, I would click on the “Save” button
in the tool bar, and the slide with all the annotations would be saved in a “Snapshots” folder, which you
will be able to see to the right in a drop-down menu when you have presenter rights. Let’s do that.
Now, to clean the whiteboard, I click “Clear slide” and everything goes away.
Let’s get the whole screen back.
Look at the right hand side where there is a dropdown button beside a box that reads “Default Con-
tent Folder.” Click the dropdown button and select “Snapshots.” Then click on “Go” to make it happen.
Select the slide you want to get back and presto—it is on the whiteboard.
The last thing I want to do today is to show you that you can use a PowerPoint presentation in Wimba.
In fact, this is one of the best ways to share and discuss information in Wimba. Again, you need presenter
rights to do this.
Let’s load last week’s Session PP. I browse to it, and choose the option to display it in the eBoard.
Click on “Import.” If all goes well, you will see a set of little squares being filled up as the upload pro-
ceeds. If it doesn’t work, just try it again.
In the right hand window, you will now see the PP with each slide in the PP listed separately. Click
on the one you want to appear on the eBoard and use the tool bar tools to help you discuss whatever
you want on it.
Send me a hand clap if you are following.
Feel free to sign off now and thank you for making it to our session today. If you want to ask some
more, or practice what we did above, then stay online.
62
63
Chapter 4
Blended Learning in a
Creative Writing Program:
Lessons Learned from a Two-
Year Pilot Study
Chris Morgan
Southern Cross University, Australia
Janie Conway-Herron
Southern Cross University, Australia
ABSTRACT
This case study reports on the results of a two-year pilot study in blended learning in an undergraduate
creative writing program at Southern Cross University in Australia. It documents the development and
implementation of a blended delivery model that dispenses with outdated divisions between face-to-face
and distance modes of delivery, creating a converged, blended learning experience for all students.
Findings from the pilot provided important data in relation to student satisfaction, pedagogical consid-
erations, institutional constraints, teaching technologies, faculty workload issues, and costs associated
with blended learning. These findings will contribute to a University-wide move to converged, blended
learning in 2009.
INTRODUCTION in detail upon both the successes and problems

encountered in the transition to blended learning,
This chapter documents the results of a two-year along with lessons learned along the way. It will
pilot study in blended learning in an undergradu- also report on ways forward for this program in the
ate creative writing program at Southern Cross light of pilot evaluation results.
University (SCU) in Australia. The pilot study was
conducted over three semesters, between 2006 and
2008, with formative and summative evaluation BACKGROUND
points, and was completed in July 2008. Drawing
from the evaluation data, this chapter will report SCU is located along the east coast of Australia
with three campuses spread over a distance of 600
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-60566-880-2.ch004
Blended Learning in a Creative Writing Program
kilometers. It is a relatively small university with a locations at key times in semester, supported by
current enrolment of around 12,000 students. The print-based study materials, Web conferencing,
student population is predominately mature aged and a variety of asynchronous online activities and
and is generally drawn from a comparatively low interactions. Students were encouraged to make
socio-economic grouping. Approximately one half their own decisions about how they would interact
of the students study via distance education, while with the program, given their own preferences,
the other half attends one of the three campuses for learning styles, and other life commitments. The
face-to-face education. There is a strong expressed weekly traditional on-campus lectures and tutorial
need for flexible learning in a variety of formats classes were significantly reduced.
to meet the needs of mature students often with The pilot project was funded by SCU to explore
heavy competing family and work commitments, new models of blended learning and report to
and a wide geographic spread. SCU community on its methodologies, strengths,
The subject of this pilot study was the under- weaknesses, obstacles, and potential ways forward
graduate creative writing program. The program for other programs wishing to proceed down this
was established in the mid-1990s and has been of- pathway.
fered in traditional ‘dual mode’ delivery – students
either enroll as internal students and attend tradi- A New Blended Delivery Model
tional weekly lectures and tutorials on campus, or
as distance education students, and undertake a Blended learning is often conceptualized as the ad-
combination of print-based home study supported dition of a variety of computer-mediated learning
by online activities and interactions. options to face-to-face teaching (Graham, 2004).
However, the division between on-campus and In this instance, the ‘blending’ also ensured that
distance students has not always been entirely there were no longer any separate internal and
clear-cut. On-campus students have always been distance categories of students, each with their own
encouraged to access the distance study materials entitlements. Rather, a new single flexible mode
and online discussion to assist their study, and of delivery, with a variety of study choices, was
conversely, distance students have been encour- available to all students irrespective of location.
aged to attend classes wherever possible. With the Converged modes of delivery have long been the
addition of newer technologies, such as videocon- ‘holy grail’ of distance education providers (Tait
ferencing, Web conferencing, and lecture podcast- & Mills, 1999); yet it has only been in relatively
ing, the boundaries have further blurred, and the recent years that technologies have become suf-
duplication of teaching in the separate modes has ficiently pervasive to be accessed by the vast
proliferated (Oliver, Omari, & Herrington, 1998; majority of students, regardless of socio-economic
Samarawickrema & O’Reilly, 2003). status and location (Challis, 2005).
The blended delivery model was designed with
the following ideas and principles in mind:
SETTING THE STAGE
• to eliminate any unnecessary or duplicated
It was decided, therefore, in 2006 to blend the teaching activities that were not considered
on-campus and distance students into one, flex- to be particularly productive (e.g., the lec-
ible mode of delivery, offered in the same man- ture/tutorial format);
ner to all students irrespective of location. The • to develop and strengthen the key peda-
learning encounter comprised intensive one day gogical tools in the program (e.g., the writ-
face-to-face traveling workshops held in multiple ers’ workshop);
64
• to ensure that all students, irrespective of • Consultation with stakeholders – Key

location, have equitable access to program stakeholders were initially consulted, in-
teaching and resources; cluding teaching staff in the writing pro-
• to provide as much choice as possible to gram, the Head of School andAdministrative
the many mature students who are strug- Officer, Student Services, the Library, and
gling to balance work, family and study the Information Technology Committee.
commitments; and Discussions focused on practical issues in
• to develop expertise in and evaluate the ef- designing and conducting the pilot studies,
ficacy of new teaching technologies in the including enrolment categories, use of new
context of this program. teaching technologies, and a consideration
of the range of blended options that could
Planning be offered to students, along with associ-
ated costs and workload issues.
Key issues to be addressed in the planning phase • Investigation of other convergence or
included: blended learning activities within the
higher education sector – A survey of all
• pedagogy – how to reconfigure delivery writing courses in Australia was conducted
strategies in the program to engender the by telephone and email. While twelve oth-
best possible learning outcomes for all er universities were delivering writing pro-
students. What to keep? What to discard? grams in distance or dual mode, no univer-
What to blend? What to re-develop? sities had plans for converged or blended
• sustainability – how to cost new arrange- delivery. It alerted us to a competitive ad-
ments and ensure that teaching budgets and vantage for SCU in attracting students who
workloads are appropriate and sustainable wish to study creative writing in a flexible
• student satisfaction – how to create and mode, but with many more options and at-
fulfill appropriate and realistic expecta- tractions than just traditional print-based
tions in students who are experiencing al- distance education.
tered delivery arrangements • Investigation of literature and reported
• technological capacity – what interest and studies of convergence – While there is a
capacity exists with the student body to significant international body of literature
move towards more technologically medi- on blended learning, which focuses on the
ated forms of learning use of information and communication
• institutional culture – how to inspire staff technologies to enhance or replace face-to-
who are resistant to change and reticent to face instruction, there is only a very mod-
let go of traditional ‘tried-and-true’ deliv- est literature in relation to convergence of
ery patterns distance and on-campus modes in higher
• administration – how to navigate through education There are very few studies that
administrative structures and systems exemplify the kinds of complex conver-
which are not currently geared for this kind gence required here with large external en-
of delivery rolments blended with face-to-face teach-
ing commitments on multiple campuses.
Major activities in this planning phase in- • Student needs analysis – There was no
cluded: formal student needs analysis conducted
before commencement of the pilot studies.
65
However, the issues of student needs and • Clarifying pedagogical principles and de-
preferences in relation to study modes, as veloping a new delivery model– For the
well as interest in and capacity for greater purpose of this exercise, we considered
use of technology in learning (e.g., Web pedagogical issues under three key head-
conferencing, podcasted lectures, and ings as follows:
asynchronous online workshops) were cen-
tral to the pilots, the feedback provided by Content Provision
students, and the cyclical development of
the blended learning model over the three A primary pedagogical principle in the design of
semesters of piloting. the blended units for this pilot was to use each
• Course demographics analysis- Course de- medium for its particular strengths in meeting
mographics were analyzed along with other students’ learning needs. It was considered that
sources of data such as student feedback, the existing high quality print-based materials
enrolment, growth and lecture attendance very effectively provided the content of the unit.
patterns. A principal concern in this analy- Previously, internal students experienced a mixture
sis was the existing inequity in resources of weekly lectures and tutorials; however, weekly
between on-campus and distance delivery: lectures were mostly repeating what was already
Although on-campus students consisted contained in the printed distance materials and
of about one-third of the total enrolment, could therefore be dispensed with. The printed
it was calculated that they consumed ap- material was therefore made available to all stu-
proximately 80% of the course resources, dents free of charge, and the additional costs of
when costs of lecturing by full-time staff this were factored into the delivery mix.
are included. And yet, in recent years, the
on-campus enrolments have been margin- Interaction and Dialogue
ally in decline, while distance enrolments
represent the program’s best growth poten- Workshopping is the primary pedagogical strat-
tial. This prompted a consideration of ways egy in creative writing. Students come together,
in which we could make a more considered either online or face-to-face, to present drafts of
investment in the learning experience of creative work for discussion and feedback from
the cohort as a whole. peers and the teacher. Face-to-face workshops
had previously been available to internal students
The needs and patterns of existing on-campus only – those studying at a distance workshopped
students were also considered. Although weekly online using asynchronous discussion threads.
face-to-face delivery is still clearly regarded as Distance students had commonly expressed some
a first option by many students, the reality of at- dissatisfaction with online workshops, concerned
tendance patterns tells another story. Attendance that it entailed a lot of reading on screen at night,
at weekly lectures in writing often falls away that it was passive, and not nearly as engaging as
dramatically as semester progresses, as students its face-to-face counterpart.
struggle with balancing work, family and study It was therefore decided to expand and
commitments, and the often significant costs as- strengthen this face-to-face component by the use
sociated with driving to a campus from outlying of traveling writers’ workshops. An analysis of
regions. It suggested to us that internal students student demographics revealed that approximately
are also, to varying degrees, seeking more flexible 75% of students lived along the eastern seaboard
delivery options. from Brisbane to Sydney and were within com-
66
muting distance of at least one of the three SCU ing workshops, and extensive individual phone
campuses, or a Sydney destination. In addition, interviews with those unable to attend. Teaching
the Sydney destination provided an inexpensive staff involved in the delivery of the relevant units
opportunity for those located in other parts of were also interviewed at the end of each teaching
Australia to fly in for a one-day intensive. Utilizing period providing detailed feedback on perceived
cost savings from the deletion of weekly lectures, successes, problems, issues to be addressed, and
the traveling writers’ workshops were introduced overall impressions of the new delivery mix.
as a key component of the new delivery mix. Quantitative data (such as distribution of
For those students unable or unwilling to attend grades, student satisfaction data, and attrition
a writers’ workshop, the online version was still statistics) was analyzed at the end of each teach-
available. Weekly on-campus workshops were ing period to provide further insight into student
also discontinued, in favor of the same one-day performance and satisfaction with the altered
traveling workshops. In effect, this created a single, delivery mix.
flexible, equitable mode of study for all students, Evaluative data was gathered and analyzed to
with significantly increased opportunities for allow cyclical improvements during the course
students formerly categorized as ‘distance.’ of the pilots, and to enable lessons learned to be
incorporated into the design and planning for the
Assessment and Student Support next iteration of the pilot.
Although there was no necessity to significantly

alter assessment tasks, it was necessary to consider CASE DESCRIPTION
how effectively students would be supported to
fulfill assessment requirements given the changes Pilots of the new converged mode of delivery
in the delivery mix. We expected that the print- were conducted in four units over three semes-
based study guide, which includes activities and ters, from Semester 1, 2007 to Semester 1, 2008
prompts, combined with workshops and online inclusive. These included two upper level units
interactions, would provide an adequate basis for and two introductory first year units. Pilot details
student preparation and support for assessment. are as follows:
However, we were aware that on-campus students,
who had previously experienced weekly lectures Pilot 1 (Semester 1, 2007)
and workshops, would feel the loss of that structure
and weekly interaction. It was decided to schedule The advanced unit Writing from the Edge was
a weekly un-facilitated drop-in time, in a desig- selected for the first pilot. In previous years it
nated room, where on-campus students could meet, had been offered as a conventional dual-mode
discuss issues and assessment work-in-progress. unit; internal students offered weekly lectures and
This time also coincided with the faculty student workshops, and externals receiving a print-based
consultation time, in which students could consult study guide, set of readings and online interac-
in person about any issues or difficulties. tions. In the new converged mode, students were
encouraged to make their own decisions from the
Evaluation Design following flexible mix of resources and events:
• free supply of print-based study materials;
A mixture of qualitative methods were employed • a one-day workshop at choice of four
in gathering data from the pilots, including focus locations (attendance at one strongly
groups of students during and after the travel- encouraged);
67
• online workshops for those unable to Written Texts and Introduction to Creative Writing.
attend; These two units work with a complimentary focus
• online discussion and support for all stu- that provides foundation reading and writing skills
dents; and for beginning creative writing students. The units
• a weekly un-facilitated drop-in space on- are pre-requisites for all other writing units and
campus for students to enable social inter- the cohort in each is generally large (100+ stu-
action and group work. dents). Special care was taken when introducing
the converged learning mode to these first year
Students undertaking this unit were a mix of students: (1) to ensure introductory units had
second and third year students with consider- enough face-to-face contact to provide optimum
able existing academic skills and were therefore learning conditions for novice students; and (2)
judged capable of a reasonable level of autonomy to ensure that commitments were met for those
without the need to be ‘driven’ by weekly lectures who had enrolled as face-to-face students.
and tutorials. The following delivery design was arrived
at:
Pilot 2 (Semester 2, 2007)
• all students received a full set of print-
A further unit Writing Project was piloted in con- based study materials;
verged mode in the second semester of 2007 with • all students had access to online work-
similar delivery arrangements to Pilot 1. Writing shops, staffed by casual(short-term con-
Project is an upper level unit designed to be the tract teaching/ lecturing staff) and/or per-
last unit in the writing major. It is significantly manent staff;
self-directed and has only ever been offered in • there were no lectures, but 3 hour seminars
distance mode. As a variation to the traveling were delivered in each unit that included
workshop, we designed a one-day intensive work- both writers’ workshops and tutorial-style
shop held at a key location to which all students discussion. These workshops were held in
were invited. The workshop was scheduled in the four locations and were run four times dur-
period between the submission of the first draft ing the semester for both units;
and the final draft of a significant creative piece. • Web conferencing (Elluminate) sessions
The piloted unit consisted of: were also provided for those students who
were are unable to travel to the centers
• free supply of print-based materials to all where the workshops were held; and
students; • the Study Guide exercises and assessment
• a one-day workshop available to all stu- were shaped to support the four seminars
dents (but not compulsory); with a modular approach to the material
• online workshops for those unable to at- that fitted with the workshop schedule.
tend the workshop; and
• online discussion and support for all Findings from the Pilots
students.
Theme 1: Student Satisfaction
Pilot 3 (Semester 1, 2008) with Blended Delivery
In the first semester of 2008, we piloted two intro- Although there were minor thematic variations in
ductory units in the writing major Introduction to the evaluative data between the three pilots, there
68
were clear and consistent patterns of student feed- asked about non-attendance, a variety of reasons
back on the blended learning experience. Students were given including other commitments such
who would have normally experienced weekly as work or holidays, lack of transport, and some
classes on campus felt somewhat cheated by this students simply forgot.
experience. There was a spectrum of responses It seems there is a distinction to be drawn
from these students but the majority felt that they between students’ ‘in-principle’ demands and
were being ‘turned into distance students,’ and the reality of their lives. However, we also ac-
that the motivation declined without the weekly knowledge that the writing program contains
stimulus of lectures and workshops. On the other a highly diverse student body with seemingly
hand, students who would normally be classed endless varieties and combinations of motivation,
as distance students, and who now had access to needs and preferences in relation to their study.
face-to-face workshops found the experience to This student body included a certain percentage
be quite transformational, and greatly appreciated of students who needed and wanted a rich on-
the opportunity for attendance. campus experience, at least in their first year of
Clearly students are alert to a shift in resources, study, with all the structure, direction and social
and the politics of ‘who gets what.’ While on- interaction that this entails.
campus students in the unit understood and even
supported the principle of equitable delivery and Theme 2: Pedagogical Considerations
improved services for distance students, they were
actively opposed in principle to any diminishment The Traveling Workshop
in their own ‘entitlements.’ Distance students, in Almost all students who attended the writers’
contrast, found the opportunity to attend travel- workshops, irrespective of location, found it to
ing workshops as a significant improvement to be a highly rewarding experience and well worth
their prior status as ‘second class citizens’ of the the effort of attendance (which in some cases was
program. considerable). This reaffirmed our belief that, in
The polarity of these results is not surpris- Creative Writing, the intensive workshop is the
ing. The pilots have significantly interrupted an best way in which to provide a face-to-face ex-
established delivery pattern and learning culture perience that is immersive, interactive and highly
for students whose expectations are already firmly developmental for students, not only in relation to
set. Current enrolment categories do not provide their writing skills, but other graduate attributes
for a ‘converged’ or ‘blended’ mode of study, such as peer- and self-review, and interpersonal
and so the students were enrolled in the piloted communications.
units, at random, as ‘internal’ or ‘external,’ only Attendance at workshops, however, was signif-
to discover their particular delivery arrangements icantly below expectations at all sites. During the
in Week 1. This resulted in some initial confusion pilots we experimented with different scheduling
among on-campus students and a lingering dis- options to allow part-time distance students (the
satisfaction that was very difficult to ameliorate majority of students in the program) maximum
during term. choice in relation to attendance. Student feedback
However, student preference for regular face- revealed a plethora of issues in relation to timing,
to-face contact is a perplexing one. Despite their competing commitments, travel expenses, and an
vocal demands for maintenance of a traditional unexpected theme: a fear of attendance and expo-
face-to-face experience, the on-campus students’ sure of one’s creative work in a public space.
attendance at the four scheduled half-day work- Efforts were made to accommodate these is-
shops during Pilot 3 was unexpectedly poor. When sues, and to create a ‘buzz’ around the workshops
69
that would encourage distance students to partici- another tool for student interaction and workshop,
pate in greater numbers. Yet it seems that in the particularly for those who were unable to attend
same way that some students will need and demand live workshop events. Initial trials proved to be
a highly directed on-campus experience, so too problematic for both faculty (who required more
will some demand a ‘purely distant’ experience staff development to be able to run a sophisticated
and will choose not to attend scheduled events Web conferencing session) and students who
unless they are made compulsory. experienced a range of technical difficulties in
getting started.
The Printed Study Packages While we are optimistic that Elluminate will
Students were almost universally very happy with prove to be a useful addition to the flexible delivery
the quality and role of the print-based study guides. mix, it requires more time and investment than
On-campus students were very happy to be access- we were able to give it in these pilots.
ing them free of charge. Students generally found
the study materials to be engaging, stimulating and Summary
relevant and provided good direction and support Despite the variety of issues that arose in relation
in relation to the assessment tasks. to each of the components of the delivery mix, we
felt that the range of options provided students with
Online Participation and Online Workshops a sound pedagogical structure to their study, and a
There were typically three functions within the reasonable series of choices associated with how
online component of the units: (1) threaded they engaged in the learning. Despite the evident
discussion of key unit issues and themes; (2) a discontent of the on-campus students, there was
help forum in which questions could be posed no greater than normal attrition rate from any of
for a tutor’s response; and (3) online workshops the units offered as part of these pilots (attrition
of creative writing drafts for those who did not hovered typically around 20%, which came largely
attend a writers’ workshop. from part-time distance students who tend ‘drop-in
Students’ responses to the online components and drop out’ of study). Significantly, there was
were typically mixed – those distance students who no noticeable difference in relation to quality of
were familiar with the format and protocols of on- work produced for assessment during the pilots,
line interactions were essentially satisfied, whereas when compared with previous years.
on-campus students who were experiencing it for
the first time found it of limited value, particularly Theme 3: Institutional Constraints
when considered as a substitute for face-to-face
interactions. Common concerns included: too Institutional Timetabling
much reading on screen; a lack of spontaneity Reform to current timetabling approaches is es-
that comes from face-to-face interactions; and too sential to the delivery of units that adopt a blended
much irrelevant ‘chat’ between students. For many, and converged learning mode and current moves
the online components function as an integral part towards a more user-friendly timetabling system is
of their teacher and peer communications and required, particularly with a whole-of-university
workshops, while for others it is a minor, almost approach towards more flexible modes of course
irrelevant aspect of their study. delivery.
Web Conferencing • Room allocation and event attendance:

It was proposed that the synchronous Web confer- With the move away from standardized
encing software (thus Elluminate) be employed as weekly scheduling of lectures and tutorials,
70
to a more event-based schedule of intensive back, podcasting, Webcasting, and videoconfer-

workshops, event attendance and room al- encing. Although most of these technologies were
location proved inordinately difficult. employed at some point during the pilots, in at least
• Timetabling: Classes offered outside of an exploratory way, there is still much to be learned
the standardized weekly patterns of deliv- from both a teaching and learning perspective.
ery pose particular problems with booking Student feedback from these pilots indicates
rooms that are utilized on an irregular basis. that interest in and uptake of new learning tech-
Moves to student-centered online booking nologies is highly variable and generally conserva-
and more flexible systems of timetabling tive. We need to know much more about students’
will improve this situation, but the chal- current technological capacity and learning prefer-
lenge is still there to move away from the ences before we can confidently make a serious
mindset that still privileges lecture/tutorial investment in particular technologies. It should
format. be recognized that teaching in a converged mode
makes complex demands on teachers, and requires
Enrolment Categories confident mastery of a range of technologies.
It has been very difficult to conduct these pilots Although staff development opportunities at SCU
in the absence of a formal enrolment category are growing in relation to new technologies in
that gives legitimacy and effectively describes to teaching, a more systematic approach is required
students this mode of delivery. By default, students if these are to move into the mainstream. The is-
must enroll in either on-campus or distance mode, sue of staff development for casual and sessional
even though there is no practical distinction be- staff is particularly critical, given the volume of
tween the two. We considered offering the piloted teaching that they conduct and the minimal cur-
units in ‘distance only’ mode, however this was rent allocations for staff development.
not an accurate descriptor given the rich face-to-
face options on offer, and we feared a significant Theme 5: Workload Issues
exodus from the program if students perceived
they could only study in this mode. A key motivation for this pilot project was the
The expectations of students upon enrolment elimination of unnecessarily duplicated teaching
in programs and units are directly linked to their practices that is now inherent in dual-mode de-
ongoing satisfaction with the program. The on- livery. While historically on-campus and distance
campus/distance divide immediately sets up false have been separate, parallel modes, technology
expectations in students’ minds, particularly for has enabled us to significantly bridge the divide.
those who enroll on-campus, which then must be In this program, there is no longer any point in
quickly dispelled when term commences. This delivering lectures when the content is fully ex-
creates considerable risk for faculty, who will need plicated in study guides available to all. Similarly,
to contend with student confusion, complaints, there is no point in limiting the writers’ workshops
and highly variable student feedback. to on-campus students, when it could be readily
made more widely accessible. There is no longer
Theme 4: Teaching Technologies any logic in restricting online forums to distance
students only, when all students are seeking greater
The move towards blended learning is intricately flexibility. A considerable amount of duplication
connected to new teaching technologies such as in teaching can eliminated, while strengthening
Web conferencing, Web-based discussion, online and giving new vigor to the pedagogical strengths
submission of tasks, online assessment and feed- of the program.
71
Yet there is a range of stumbling blocks ap- Theme 6: Comparative Costing

parent in current workload models that create
significant disincentives for staff to become more An important principle in the move to blended
flexible in their teaching: delivery is to work within existing budgets. Clearly
blended learning will not deliver any wholesale
• Workload models: Current workload cost savings to SCU, but we need to ensure that
models represent very traditional notions any new arrangements are no more expensive than
of teaching. Lecturing is still accorded a the existing modes and will not create additional
privileged status over a cluster of activi- cost burdens.
ties referred to as ‘facilitation of learn- All new delivery arrangements in these pi-
ing’ – workshops, online teaching, Web lots, including travel, accommodation, hire of
conferencing sessions, one-on-one phone facilities, and staffing were costed in advance
support, and so on. Yet in flexible learning and were approved by the Head of School prior
these activities are primary, higher order to implementation. However it is very difficult to
and comprise the substance of the learn- quantify how these altered arrangements, in total,
ing encounter. They need to be undertaken compared with standard costs of running a unit
with considerable professionalism and ex- in traditional dual mode. While it is recognized
pertise to engender student engagement that money was saved by withdrawing the weekly
and satisfaction. While these activities re- delivery of lectures and workshops on-campus,
tain their lower order status in the hierar- and at least some of those savings were passed
chy of teaching, academics will have little on to blended delivery arrangements, the final
incentive to re-conceptualize their teach- balance of cost is still very unclear.
ing. Lectures will remain the cornerstone This situation highlights the difficulties faced
of teaching, irrespective of its pedagogical by faculty when altering their delivery mix in the
appropriateness. absence of clear guidelines in relation to the cost
• Sessional staffing and payment: In dual- of various existing and new elements. We see par-
mode programs, casual and sessional staff ticular advantage in being able to make a strategic
are often corralled into distance teaching, investment in certain units in the program, such
as these activities (e.g., online facilitation, as core and first year units, with less intensive
Web conferencing sessions, and phone and therefore less expensive delivery patterns in
contact) can be outsourced most cheaply. upper level units, where students may be expected
It reinforces the now quite artificial divide to be a little more self-directed.
and the inequities between on-campus and
distance provision. Ironically, sessional
staff may find that under flexible learning CURRENT CHALLENGES
arrangements their pay drops, yet expecta-
tions of them in terms of time and expertise It is clear from these pilots that blended learn-
is greater than ever. If moves towards flex- ing provides a vehicle for universities to make a
ible learning represent a diminished return generational leap in relation to flexible delivery
for sessional staff, as was sometimes the of courses. It is apparent that older forms of de-
case in this pilot, it will be difficult to re- livery such as traditional face-to-face and distance
tain their goodwill, energy and expertise. education no longer suit our students well and
are becoming increasingly unsustainable from a
teaching perspective.
72
The following implications are discussed in and learning that requires a whole-of-institutional
relation to a more widespread institutional move effort to reform.
to blended learning:
Sustainability of Blended Learning
An Institutional Vision of
Blended Learning Blended learning can potentially burden the teach-
er with an ever-increasing array of new teaching
It was apparent in this study that student percep- commitments to add to an already over-burdened
tions of what constitutes a ‘university experience’ teaching role. This pilot was enacted with the
are very closely linked with their responsiveness principle that there was no extra money or staff
to and satisfaction with blended learning. Student time available to do more teaching. If something
perceptions and expectations, we have found, are is added into the delivery mix, something else has
relatively traditional in nature, and are culturally to go. This principle provoked some productive
formed long before entry into higher education. ongoing discussions amongst both teachers and
Any erosion of traditional forms of teaching, such learners regarding the components of the delivery
as lectures and tutorials, in favor of technological- mix that offered the best value, best aided learn-
ly-mediated delivery, will be met with skepticism ing, was sustainable, and ultimately produced the
and dissatisfaction unless the new arrangements most effective learning outcomes.
are demonstrably and readily meeting their needs, These are complex issues and are not easily
both academically and socially. resolved. It was considered in this study that
Universities need move away from ‘ivy league’ iterative experimentation and evaluation was
images and actively promote these new kinds of the only way to really shed light on these issues,
learning and engagement patterns as part of the accepting that both students and teachers need
university experience of the 21st Century. Students time and experience to familiarize themselves
need to understand, upon entry, that old forms of with new technologies employed and to be able
didactic teaching and delivery have given way to form a considered view on their efficacy. Hav-
to a new set of standards in relation to student ing experimented for three semesters, we feel
engagement and the ways learning is mediated. that there are still further adjustments to make
They need to understand that learning is now a in achieving a sustainable balance in relation
lifelong responsibility requiring a skill-set that to affordability, quality learning outcomes and
includes the ability to use a variety of contemporary student satisfaction.
technologies to advance their self-management During this pilot, some faculty members ex-
of learning. pressed suspicions that blended learning is a cost
Universities, for their own part, must be able cutting exercise by stealth: a way of cutting back
to remove institutional impediments to blended on teaching and delivery costs and associated
learning. In this study, institutional impediments to infrastructure. In this pilot, the costs associated
the widespread adoption of blended learning were with the new blended delivery model proved to be
considerable and included a range of issues such significantly more than normal arrangements, both
as academic workload models, staffing patterns, in terms of staff time and expenditure. However, in
recognition for innovation, and administrative the longer term, the aim is to finesse the delivery
issues such as timetabling systems, enrolment model to the degree that blended learning is es-
categories, and classroom allocations. Much sentially revenue neutral. Certainly, there are few,
of the SCU’s infrastructure, it was realized, is if any, opportunities in a quality blended learning
predicated on very outdated notions of teaching model such as this to actually reduce costs when
73
compared with normal arrangements, nor was there teaching, particularly when it is appropriate for
any pressure from any quarters to do so. the subject matter and aligned with our teaching
and learning objectives. Yet much routine lec-
Quality Pedagogy turing – those grinding monologues of content
delivery – could be re-conceptualized with the use
It is clear that there is no ‘one-size-fits-all’ pattern of blended learning to more engaging, interactive
of blended learning that can be generalized across events, enabling students to become a little less
a particular university, or discipline, or sector. We spoon-fed and a little more self-directed in their
realized that decisions made about the particular acquisition of knowledge.
components of the delivery mix are very context
dependent, and related to variables such as: the Staff Development
student context and demographics; the demands
of the discipline; the socio-economic context; the We learned that ongoing and systematic staff
technological literacy of teachers and learners; development is critical to the success of an in-
the learning preferences of students; the teach- stitutional move to blended learning. This pilot
ing preferences and strengths of staff; to name revealed the need for two layers of staff develop-
but a few. To achieve quality pedagogy, blended ment as follows:
learning models should grow from the ground To enable planning for a move to blended learn-
up, having regard to the needs of and interactions ing, a first phase of staff development is required
between teachers, students, the curriculum, and to develop an understanding of:
the discipline.
Some faculty expressed concerns during the • contemporary student needs and prefer-
pilots that the move to blended learning repre- ences in relation to study;
sented an attack or an erosion of face-to-face • changing student demographics and the
teaching, at the expense students who become mix within programs;
more isolated in their study. From the results • current student technological preferences
of this pilot, we firmly believe that face-to-face and capacity; and
teaching remains centrally in the mix of delivery • pedagogical strengths and weaknesses of
methods, recognizing the important motivational elements available in the blended learning
and inspirational qualities of fine lecturing, along mix.
with the spontaneous interactions that may arise.
Yet much of one’s lecturing is perhaps a little more This phase of staff development is relatively
routine than this, and certainly students report a generic and can be conducted on a university-
range of experiences in their lectures from the wide basis.
sublime to the ridiculous. A second phase of staff development relates
Blended learning, we argue, provides faculty to actual hands-on skills development in selected
with the opportunity to step back from the rou- technologies and new delivery elements, and
tines of teaching, and to examine methods such requires iterative, just-in-time support. This staff
as lecturing from a fresh perspective. What are development should be situated at the ‘coal-face,’
their strengths as a teacher? What is the value with maximum use of techniques such as staff
of the lecturing they are undertaking? What do learning circles and peer support, where best prac-
students think of it? We argue that it is important tice is identified, and expertise is incrementally
to retain the richness of quality face-to-face developed and shared among staff over time.
74
CONCLUSION a whole-of-university approach, underpinned by

a vision for the university as a ‘next generation’
Blended learning initiatives are by no means flexible delivery provider, and actively promoted
new to the higher education sector in Australia to students, to bring this to fruition.
or internationally. However, the form of blending
undertaken in this study, which removes outdated
divisions between on-campus and distance stu- REFERENCES
dents, and draws together disparate and far-flung
cohorts of students into a single, equitable mode Bonk, J., & Graham, C. R. (Eds.), Handbook
of study, is still relatively uncharted territory. of blended learning: Global perspectives, local
We have concerns that, among the student designs. San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer.
cohort, there are winners and losers. Clearly, the Challis, D. (2005). Eroding distinctiveness: Blur-
winners are students who would formerly have ring the boundaries between on- and off-campus
been disadvantaged by the isolation of distance students by the adoption of learning management
education, and who now have access to a signifi- systems. Open and Distance Learning Association
cantly expanded set of study options, including of Australia Forum Conference Proceedings 2005.
attendance at specialized face-to-face events and a Retrieved February 10, 2009, from http://www.
new array of computer mediated events and com- odlaa.org/events/2005conf/referred-papers.htm
munications. The losers are students who expect
and need a traditional on-campus education with Graham, C. R. (2004). Blended learning systems:
scheduled weekly face-to-face tuition. While there Definition, trends, and future directions. In C.
is a reduction of weekly teaching on campus in this
Oliver, R., Omari, O., & Herrington, J. (1998).
model, and a developing reliance on independent
Developing converged learning environments for
learning for all students, it is vitally important that
on and off-campus students using the WWW. Con-
we don’t erode the ongoing vitality of a campus
ference proceedings of the Australasian Society
experience, and we must retain a viable core of
for Computers in Learning in Tertiary Education
on-campus teaching that provides structure, en-
(ASCILITE) 1998. Retrieved February 10, 2009,
gagement and motivation for those who need it,
from http://www.ascilite.org.au/conferences/wol-
particularly in their first year of study.
longong98/asc98-pdf/ ascpapers98. html
In the light of these pilot results, it is intended
that SCU move gradually to a fully blended Samarawickrema, G., & O’Reilly, J. (2003). A
and converged model of delivery across all its converged learning environment to support all
programs. Above all, it is considered that the learners. 16th Conference Proceedings of the
entrenched inequities between distance and Open and Distance Learning Association of
on-campus students are no longer necessary or Australia Forum Conference – Sustaining Qual-
conscionable. However, there is much reform at ity Learning Environments, 2003. Retrieved
the institutional level to successfully make this February 10, 2009, from http://www.odlaa.org/
move, and we have learned that universities can- publications/2003Proceedings/abstract.html
not ‘dabble’ in converged or blended learning. At
Tait, A., & Mills, R. (Eds.). (1999). The conver-
SCU, the current institutional constraints, such
gence of distance and conventional education:
as enrolment systems, workload models, staffing
Patterns of flexibility for the individual learner.
arrangements, and inadequate staff development
London: Routledge.
will cause enthusiastic faculty to revert, chastened,
to conventional delivery arrangements. It requires
75
76
Chapter 5
Blended Learning for
Adaptation to Needs
Joan E. Aitken
Park University, USA
ABSTRACT
Blended learning is an instructional method that opens the channels of communication in the learning
process so that there are increased communication strategies. This chapter discusses two different ap-
proaches to using blended learning as a way of adapting to program needs. In one example, pharmacy
instruction is provided by top faculty to distance sites. In another example, blended learning is used to
reduce instructional costs and increase student enrollment in a graduate program in the humanities.
The differences in approaches are because of the different purposes for the use of blended learning.
Blended learning can be useful in this time of dwindling resources and budget constraints as a method
for improving instruction designed to reach more students and distance locations.
INTRODUCTION be a way to optimize effective instruction (e.g.,

Balram & Dragicevic, 2008; Ho, Lu, & Thurmaier,
Blended Learning may be the traditional learning 2006; Mason, 2005). Blended learning—sometimes
method of the future. Blended learning has been called hybrid or web-assisted learning—is as di-
called a “total mix of pedagogical methods, em- verse as the faculty and institutions that support
ploying a combination of diverse learning strate- the combination approach (e.g., Lee, Yeh, Kung,
gies, both with and without the use of technology” & Hsu, 2007; Schober, Wagner, Reimann, &
(Verkroost, Meijerink, Lintsen, & Veen, 2008, p. Spiel, 2008). Typically, one or more technological
499). In essence, blended learning combines tradi- elements—individualized e-instruction, self-paced
tional learning methods with technological support. e-instruction, asynchronous e-instruction, synchro-
Some educators believe that blended learning can nous e-instruction—are combined with face-to-
face instruction. For the discussion in this chapter,
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-60566-880-2.ch005 blended instruction is defined as teaching that uses
Blended Learning for Adaptation to Needs
a combination of traditional face-to-face and 2008). Given the global economic crisis, more
computer-mediated communication. institutions may turn to blended learning. Some-
The purpose of this chapter is to present ideas times blended learning is considered little more
about how to employ blended learning to adapt to than a way of updating education, while in other
the particular instructional context. By consider- cases, it is considered a way to provide financial
ing examples, implementation possibilities for support to an institution (Boyle, 2005). Clearly,
blended learning are discussed. In one example blended learning is more than the old distributed
context, a professional program in pharmacy learning modes of correspondence courses or
uses blended learning so that faculty and staff televised courses and more than the one-way
can offer the program on another campus. In teacher lecture course.
another example context, a graduate program in Optimally, blended learning should improve
the humanities uses blended learning to adapt to both face-to-face and online instruction. The model
student needs and increase student enrollment in of blended learning--which uses technological
a new and growing program. In both examples, support rather than replacement of traditional
the use of blended instruction has offered a valid instruction—holds promise for student learning
approach in a time of fewer resources to hire full- (Condie & Livingston, 2007). Enrollment in dis-
time faculty. The chapter includes an explanation tance education courses is exploding (DeNeui &
of the type of technology used, the way blended Dodge, 2006), sometimes to the point of seeming
learning has been configured, and questions out of control with limited faculty training or su-
about the future applications of blended learn- pervision, faculty beyond of their comfort zone,
ing. The chapter offers answers to this question: and other concerns. So in a time when the quality
How can students, faculty, and administrators of e-courses is sometimes questioned, blended
adapt blended learning to achieve goals for their learning has become an increasing popular way
particular contexts? of improving the quality of online instruction
(e.g., Boyle, Bradley, Chalk, Jones, & Pickard,
2003; Oravec, 2003; Schweizer, Paechter, &
BACKGROUND Weidenmann, 2003). Concurrently, resources
for education are dwindling during the economic
This section will consider historical information hard times, so blended learning may be a stimulus
that has led to blended learning. In the profes- that takes advantage of the resources available,
sional pharmacy example, technology use has encourages faculty creativity, and adapts to stu-
evolved over many years through the leadership dents with special needs (Marschark, Sapere, &
of Information Technology (IT) and Academic Pelz, 2008).
Affairs. In the graduate humanities example, the From the perspective of the communication
university developed two administrative branches scholar, technology channels are intertwined with
of instruction—onground and online—which potential for new ways for faculty and students
operate separately. Blended learning has become to interact. Scholars in other fields conceptualize
a challenge that requires collaboration between the concept of communication differently from
two different administrative units. scholars of communication (Fraser & Schalley,
Across higher education contexts around 2009), but for people who study communication,
the world, the lack of institutional support and everything about mediated learning includes op-
financial restraints have prompted universities portunities to improve communication. E-learning
to seek ways to improve and transform education has changed communication in education, for
(Vega-Jurado, Fernandez-de-Lucio, & Huanca, example, particularly from the standpoint of so-
77
cial interaction (Slevin, 2008). Blended learning In addition, blended communication may use
uses more channels of communication than does the Internet to communicate information, values,
face-to-face instruction. When one considers and ideas through technology. In some ways, this
the communication devices involved in blended communication through a blended learning ap-
learning, the approach seems to be about blended proach may make the acquisition of knowledge
communication. In blended communication, the easier. If one considers learning preferences, for
professor and students can use multiple interac- instance, blended communication allows the in-
tions, which include the following: structor to provide adaptive instruction that can
reach all students (Wall & Ahmed, 2008). Thus,
1. Blog we can conclude that blended communication
2. Chat and instant messaging involves communication process of expressing,
3. Course management system sharing, gathering, disseminating, and collaborat-
4. Electronic course environment ing online.
5. Electronic files Some students like computer learning. In
6. Email fact, they may consider the conventional one-
7. Listserv way communication of traditional classes to be
8. Podcasting old fashioned or boring. Although faculty have
9. Social networking software complained about the television and video game
10. Teleconferencing generation’s shortened attention span of students
11. Video for years, the Internet may take the problem to a
12. Web page whole new level (Jackson, 2008). Students may
13. Wiki be very adept at using technology and distracted
during online learning by “50 million Web sites”
The variety of communication options may and “75 million blogs” (p. 13).
help students to feel engaged in the learning Other students may be reluctant to use new
process through a sense of connectedness. This technologies. Understandably, student attitude can
connectedness comes through the immediacy affect the success of using technology in learning
and interpersonal nature of online communica- (Lee, Yeh, Kung, & Hsu, 2007). In the traditional
tion. Face-to-face instruction in a traditional one-way face-to-face course, some students may
classroom is often public communication, but have difficulty engaging actively in the learning
online interaction is more similar to interpersonal process. Of course, most faculty use an array of
communication than other types of communica- face-to-face learning approaches, but one potential
tion (Wang, Walther, & Hancock, 2009; Walther, way for increasing active classroom involvement
1992). This interpersonal nature is what gives the is to use laptop computers for e-discussion dur-
potential for informal and personal communica- ing oral discussion. This kind of approach can
tion in these learning situations. In some cases, encourage students to engage in communication
the communication is similar to intrapersonal channels that make them feel comfortable in the
communication or self-talk (Smith & Kurthen, learning process. Consistent with research on
2007), as when the computer acts as a second self the topic, technology provides diverse channels
(Turkle, 1984). Sometimes online journaling, for of communication for educators (Verhoeven &
example, engages a student intrapersonally. The Graesser, 2008). By way of illustration, a student
journals of bloggers seem to share the feeling may feel embarrassed if the professor thinks an
that their communication allows them to develop oral answer is wrong, but feel reassured after
self-identity and expression (McCullagh, 2008). checking with a classmate through instant mes-
78
saging. This observation is consistent with a study students, programs for graduate students may be
by Shen, Wang, and Pan (2008), which found that more popular if they use an approach that provides
blended learning in classrooms may increases online collaboration and less classroom time (Cox
student engagement and interactivity. In their & Cox, 2008).
analysis of real-time blended learning, they found Using blending learning to adapt to the con-
mobile support increased student questions and text is consistent with research about e-learning,
suggestions. which has demonstrated creative approaches in
Effective communication seems difficult in the virtually every field of academics (e.g., Black,
best of circumstances, so adding to the commu- Beck, & Dawson, 2007; Knobel & Lankshear,
nication channels during the educational process 2008; Michinov & Michinov, 2008; Rush, 2008). A
of blended classes seems like a potentially useful fundamental element in creating blended learning
idea. In addition to the difficulty of asynchronous may be the course environment software, such as
conversation, the online format for communica- Blackboard, WebTycho, First Class, and eCollege.
tion may affect the depth of conversation. People The course environment provides content, testing,
expect emails to be short and quick to read, which group, chat, and other e-options. As DeNeui and
also may transfer into online instructional assign- Dodge (2006) explained:
ments. A 750 essay assigned to be posted for peer
response may seem long in the online format, One of the main benefits to students is the unfet-
when students skim and speed read posts. This tered access to virtually anything an instructor
expectation for brevity may affect the depth of presents in the classroom. For example, access to
thought and conversation in mediated environ- syllabi, course notes, interactive demonstrations,
ments. Motteram (2006) discussed the importance handouts, audio or videotaped lectures are all
of engaging students for depth of discussion online, possible via this interface. (p. 256)
however, and how success is more a function of
the nature of the conversation and less with the Even if course environment software is not
method of conversation. available, there are other options for blended
learning. Faculty can create tutorials, which they
put on external Web services. In addition, teachers
SETTING THE STAGE can use many free Internet services in their classes.
Faculty can use Facebook.com, for example, and
In this section, the adaptive use of technology for set up a Facebook group to add another dimen-
the two example programs is discussed. Technol- sion to the course. With the graduate program
ogy may be seen as a way of supporting students example, faculty and students used the following
and faculty, and the investment in equipment free online Internet services: Twitter, Facebook,
and software may grow out of concern for good MySpace, SurveyMonkey.com, Glogster.com,
instruction and effective adaptation to students. Dandelife.com, Secondlife, Squidoo.com, Blog-
To illustrate how blended learning can improve ger.com, Squidoo.com, YouTube.com, PBwiki.
learning, the method can motivate teachers to com, Code.Google.com/p/YouTeach, and Video.
change and improve their instructional practices YouTeach.de.
(Owston, Sinclair, & Wideman, 2008). Blended These kinds of communication strategies
learning also can improve collaboration, which can enhance instruction and are consistent with
may be one of the most effective learning strategies research on the topic. In a study by Vaughan
for the widest number of students (Lim & Yoon, (2007), students indicated that they found more
2008). Because of the demands on nontraditional time flexibility through blended learning. Fur-
79
ther, students believed their learning improved making sure certain types of content is present,
in the blended context. That finding supports the (1) supervising faculty, (2) seeing that course
idea that the blended approach may enhance a content is uploaded into master courses, and (4)
variety of instructional approaches so that they coping the appropriate classes. An online learning
better adapt to student needs. The faculty in the instructional designer is knowledgeable about put-
Vaughan study thought that a blended learning ting the materials into the course shell. The idea
approach improved chances for faculty to interact is that the designer will work with the individual
with students. In the graduate program example, faculty member, who supplies the course content.
some students used a combination of learning There are online learning supervisory staff mem-
approaches, including face-to-face, blended, and bers who are responsible for administrative tasks
totally online instruction. These students could related to working with the online courses. The
fit the instruction to their needs and improve program director is responsible for the program
flexibility in ways similar to the students of the in the department. The director selects faculty to
Vaughan study. Similarly, although the blended provide course content. At the end of the process,
approaches required considerable work, faculty the director can review the course and approve
were willing to provide the instruction to meet content before the instruction begins. There are
student needs and increase class size in a grow- academic administrators involved in encouraging
ing department. online courses and overseeing the process. Faculty
involved in the process may be full or part-time.
Responsible Parties Involved The faculty are hired by the program director, who
then turns the process over to the online learning
At both example universities discussed in this department. As Boyle (2005) explained about
chapter, they are considering changes in their using a course development team:
use of courseware as a cost saving measure. One
university is considering using an open source The design/development team needs to have an
courseware such as https://open.umich.edu/ or appropriate mixture of roles, and in academic
http://ocw.mit.edu/ Faculty are upset at the pros- settings, clarity about the commitment of people
pect of the changes this approach will require. The working part-time on the project. There should be
other university is considering passing the course a clear plan for tackling the design and develop-
environment costs directly to the student. In both ment tasks. The plan involves breaking the overall
universities, these cost saving measures are being problems into sub-tasks and allocating these to
made at the upper administrative level. groups and individuals within the group. There
Regarding the way blended courses are taught, needs to be regular group meetings to discuss the
developed, and support within the School of progress against targets. Good design requires a
Pharmacy at the one university, the process is creative and motivated group. (p. 228)
controlled by the faculty. At the other example
university, the way blended courses are taught,
developed, and supported takes place primarily CASE DESCRIPTION
within an administrative unit separate from the
academic departments and separate from the IT In this section, the blended learning adaptations
department. In this second case, both adminis- of the two example programs are described. The
trative units are responsible. First, the academic programs are (1) a professional program in phar-
department is responsible for content. Second, the macy and (2) a graduate program in the humani-
online learning department is responsible for (3) ties. Both programs are about three years old. The
80
professional program has used a blended approach 2. Course environment management system
from the beginning. The graduate program still software is available for all course delivery,
has not decided if or how blended instruction will staff training, and organizational collabora-
be used long-term in the program. tion. This system contains a request function
so that instructors can make special copying
Example One: Launching a New requests or create a new organization site.
Professional Program in Pharmacy 3. Some classrooms with special technology
have technology for large lecture class-
A state university with a well-established school room interactivity through quiz formats,
of pharmacy decided to launch a professional pro- attendance-taking, learning games, and
gram at other state universities. Blended learning student answers to synchronous questions.
research suggests the approach is appropriate in 4. Instant messaging is available inside the
health care education (Duque, Roberts, Hui, Posel, course environment software.
Fleiszer, & Chiu, 2006; Espey, Ogburn, Kalish- 5. Learning Object Creation enables various
man, Zsemlye, & Cosgrove, 2007). This program media resources, such as document scanning
required substantial investment in new facilities and video streaming.
which contained large lecture halls with built-in 6. Listserv electronic mailing list use L-Soft’s
projection screens and recording facilities. LISTSERV software to provide communica-
A few faculty members are located at the dis- tion lists to any interested people, including
tance campuses, but nearly all of the faculty are faculty and students.
located at the main campus site. The faculty pro- 7. Podcasting is available for recording in
vide lectures and academic guidance to students, many classrooms. In addition to videore-
but staff are hired for advising functions. cording faculty lectures and PowerPoints,
In addition to using a course environment with students can use a search function based
extensive peripheral supports, the faculty teach on PowerPoint content. The system allows
synchronous courses to students. A large lecture multi-way audio, video, application sharing,
hall contains multiple screens, a microphone for polling, and content display.
every two students, and an onsite video-operator. 8. Test-making software allows transfer from
The lecture is Internet-broadcast to the distance commonly used software to the course
campuses, where students can see the projected environment. The software also allows test
images and interact with the faculty member. The security so that students cannot print tests
video-operator at the main campus location records or go to another URL during the exam.
the professor and any students who interact in that This process is particularly valuable during
space. The video-recorded lectures are then made proctored exams.
available to students as podcasts. The information 9. The courseware provides collaboration soft-
technology services provide an open-instructional ware available to the university community.
lab for faculty once a month. Faculty can receive In addition, VideoPresence life-size, high-
individualized, face-to-face instruction on any definition meeting abilities are available.
software or hardware they desire. The online 10. Turnitin is a plagiarism detection and pre-
supports show the kinds of add-ons available for vention system available to the university
course environments. community.
11. A voice board is available for learning oral
1. Blogs and wikis software is added to the language, vocal instruction, collaboration,
course environment. and coaching Voice Board allows students
81
to post and listen to voice messages within In the second trial, the professor used syn-
discussion boards. Voice Email-send allows chronous Skype.com voice-over freeware. In
audible email. There are also voice recorder, their instructional study using Skype, Pan and
podcasting, and presentation services Sullivan (2005) found that student reaction toward
available. the system was positive. The study suggested
that students were better able to better work with
Example 2: Launching a New abstract topics. Skype worked well to augment
Graduate Program in the Humanities group interaction. Typing is not needed, so students
can focus their mental energy on the topic, which
Based on program goals, courses were developed helped them stay motivated and on task. Skype
for both online and onground formats. Typically, a seemed particularly effective with virtual teams,
faculty member would teach the course onground, including immediate input and feedback (27-30).
create materials, and then develop the course in They provide the following recommendations for
an online course environment shell. The courses using Skype:
were developed so that the content can be used by
other faculty. Both part-time and full-time faculty 1. Divide students into groups of four for con-
develop the courses. ference calling.
For this program, experimentation with the 2. Encourage headsets and other useful tools.
blended approach enabled more flexibility for 3. Encourage tools such as Blackboard Chat,
onground students and allowed for both distance which record conversations.
and local students to attend a class together. In a 4. Organize a pro-class training session for a
new program--where not every course would have subset of the entire class.
enough students to make, the idea was to see if 5. Provide protocols for disconnects.
distance (online) and local (onground) students 6. Schedule the students’ Skype subscription
could work together in a blended class format. In in the class orientation.
this example, the professor tried three blended ap-
proaches. A multiple course trial of this approach This study was consistent with case here,
was implemented as a way to adapt to program adding support to the idea that Skype can be a
needs and student needs. useful learning tool (Jaya, 2008). Thus, Skype
First, the professor used synchronous blue and the course environment system were used to
tooth telephony with an online course shell. In provide a video connection between the onground
some courses, the faculty member arranged to and online course. The University supplied a
use a telephone call-in service. While meeting motion-activated camera for the classroom. This
with some students face-to-face, other students approach allowed freedom lecture and discussion
telephoned in through a conferencing system. as usual. Although the approach worked, it seemed
Probably the main disadvantage of this approach a temporary and haphazard solution.
was the inability of all students to hear the students In the third trial, the professor used asynchro-
on the phone. The communication was primar- nous online instruction combined with face-to-face
ily one-way from the professor to the students. instruction. In other words, shortened face-to-face
When students tried to interact in discussion, class meetings were supplemented by course envi-
the professor was the only one who could hear ronment software use between class meetings.
distance students. The administration ended this One configuration of this approach includes
approach because of the high cost of the telephone coordination between two universities. In fact, a
conferencing system. blended approach can work well when developing
82
an international instructional program (Mathur & using available communication technology to en-
Oliver, 2007). The two universities have decided to hance instruction and learning, blended learning
work together in a program where students in one may be successful. A key challenge, however, is
country will receive a graduate degree from both finding ways to use these complicated communi-
their own and a US university. A key advantage of cation channels so they enhance the educational
using international students or multinational loca- process.
tions in e-learning is that students learn effective One challenge in using blended learning is
international public discourse. Students from the that it requires careful planning and practices
other country will be taking online courses and (McAndrew, 2006). When perceived as a way to
faculty from the other country will be teaching bring better resources to students—as in the phar-
students from the e-courses developed by US macy school example—all parties seem onboard.
faculty. Further, by having students from both When perceived as a power grab by a technical
countries in the classes, faculty hope to use online or academic unit—as in the humanities program
technology in collaborative learning as it has been example—a transition to blended learning may
done successfully elsewhere (Cho & Lee, 2008). develop slowly, if at all.
The courses will be conducted in English, and Another challenge in using technology in edu-
the faculty believe that the questions of training cation may be the focus on technical details that
faculty, recruiting students, creating community, take away from an academic focus on theoretical
and cultural differences may necessitate some issues (Slevin, 2008). Academics may have to
kind of blended approach. E-learning has taken become experts on communication technology
shape according to cultural and national expecta- in addition to course content. Nearly any faculty
tions (e.g., Thomas, 2008; Van Bauwel, 2008), so member can give examples of students asking
requires adaptation to the opportunities and styles them technical questions about the communica-
in both countries. The cost of flying faculty and tion technology instead of asking Instructional
students back and forth has become prohibitive, so Technology staff. Some students may expect their
the need for adaptation to international faculty and faculty to know it all.
students is a major consideration in this case. Although a way of saving money in some
cases, blending learning may be quite expensive
too. The professional pharmacy program in this
CURRENT CHALLENGES case had extensive planning, cost, and technology
FACING THE ORGANIZATION requirements. These costs are less than setting
up a second program at another campus, how-
In this section, the needed problem-solving for the ever. With a financial crisis requiring cost cuts,
example programs in this case are synthesized. both example programs in this case are trying
To make the examples relevant to other contexts, to find new ways to pay for the communication
they are discussed in a general way, so they are technology they want to use in instruction. Thus,
consistent with research findings on the topic. similarly related to the financial restraints of
After a general overview of challenges, relevant challenging economic times is whether or not
questions will be considered. communication technologies are affordable. De-
Clearly, e-learning is a complicated process termining whether technology investments will
with paradoxical ups and downs, pros and cons, pay off may be a challenge. Blended teaching
strengths and needs regarding e-communication can be a way of repurposing resources (Davis &
during course instruction (Shedletsky & Aitken, Fill, 2007), which may be needed when resources
2001). If students, faculty, and administrators are are limited.
83
Another challenge of using blended learning CONCLUSION

is faculty resistance to change (Vaughan, 2007).
A study conducted in Australia and Canada sug- The pharmacy program example in this case
gested that there are many similarities between clearly sees blended learning as a viable learning
teaching philosophies of online and onground approach. The humanities program example seems
faculty, which may mean blended learning is a to lack clear direction for using blended learning
valuable trend (Stacey & Wiesenberg, 2007). because the online and onground approaches
Yet in the humanities example, there is a sense remain distinctly different. The different results
of competition, where the online faculty pay the suggest that the complexities of organizations,
bills and the onground faculty are the content faculty, staff, students, and contexts determine if
experts. Perhaps in a time of dwindling resources, and how blended learning will be used. Appropri-
faculty will need new ways of working together ate adaptations need to be made to fit program
and adapting to change. purposes. So how might the example programs in
Universities may need to find ways to help this case provide ideas for other contexts?
students adapt to the communication technolo- A key advantage to using communication
gies they will use in their course work. Some technology in instruction is that it allows learning
students may have troubling keeping motivated to be personalized for students. Virtual resources
and up-to-date with their work in a blended ap- can enhance usability and task completion by
proach. The advantage for students of flexibility enhancing other instructional methods (Mackey
and increased learning has the challenge of time & Ho, 2008). Although the original expectation
management and learning complicated technolo- was that computer learning would become more
gies (Vaughan, 2007). impersonalized, online instructional support can
Many full-time faculty see their work expec- facilitate multimedia adaptation to student needs
tations and responsibilities expanding. Enticing and learning styles through individualized in-
faculty to do the work of adopting new technolo- struction. For the blended course, this means that
gies and teaching methods for blended instruction additional communication channels are opened to
can be difficult (Davis & Fill, 2007). Thus, full the instructional process. Abrahmov and Ronen
faculty participation in blended learning may (2008) contended: “The Web-based component
be a challenge. It tends to be administrators and enabled us to engage the students in individual
students—more than faculty—who believe in the activity, where each student, in his own time, can
ability of blended learning to improve instruc- develop” (p. 13).
tion and student access to education (Condie & Some of the cited research in this case suggests
Livingston, 2007). Faculty may have concern that blended learning may work better than online
over some of the work-intensive elements—time, learning in international or global contexts. This
resources, and course redesign--of providing finding is relevant for the international component
instruction through both the online and face-to- under development in the humanities example in
face formats. The examples in this chapter are this chapter. In a study of courses in Denmark, for
consistent with research that suggests that faculty instance, Heilesen and Josephsen (2008) found
and administrators have many issues to solve that challenges of holistic and individual user
regarding using technology, including how to use perceptions have led to a growing disillusion-
social networking, games, and mobile services ment about learning through technology. They
(Milliron, Plinske, Noonan-Terry, 2008). Staying believe that a potential result may be the use of
up-to-date with continually changing technology technology as augmentation, which is consistent
can increase work and stress. with some types of blended instruction. Ryan and
84
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B: Courses
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Chapter 6
Virtual Reality or Virtually Real:
Blended Teaching and Learning in a
Master’s Level Research Methods Class
John Lidstone
Queensland University of Technology, Australia
Paul Shield
Queensland University of Technology, Australia
ABSTRACT
This paper examines the enabling effect of using blended learning and synchronous internet mediated
communication technologies to improve learning and develop a Sense of Community (SOC) in a group
of post graduate students consisting of a mix of on-campus and off campus students. Both quantitative
and qualitative data collected over a number of years supports the assertion that the blended learning
environment enhanced both teaching and learning. The development of a SOC was pivotal to the success
of the blended approach when working with geographically isolated groups within a single learning
environment.
INTRODUCTION that henceforth, educational reform will ensure that

any particular country will become “a smart state”
In recent decades, educational reform has become a or a “clever country.”
catchword in the Anglo-American world, including Across the world, the educational reform mea-
the United States, Canada, Australia, and England sures being implemented are surprisingly similar.
and Wales, as well as in the Confucian Heritage Areas On the implementation side, educators are placed
such as Mainland China, Singapore, Hong Kong, in a pivotal position and are required to take up the
and Taiwan. Of particular interest is the remarkable work of designing high-quality teaching and learning
consistency of political statements to the effect for students to meet standards set by governments
that in order for a nation to remain internationally including demands for increased use of technology.
competitive, its education systems must focus on Lankshear and Snyder (2000) point out, teachers
producing skilled graduates for the workforce and [at all levels] are pushed to adopt Information
and Communication Technologies (ICT) in their
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-60566-880-2.ch006 teaching. National leaders frequently pronounce
Virtual Reality or Virtually Real
that since societies are changing, so also should BACKGROUND: THE ECONOMIC
education (Hargreaves, 2003; Kelly, 2004). The AND POLITICAL CLIMATE IN
rhetoric usually includes statements to the effect WHICH THE UNIT WAS INITIATED
that in the “Information Age,” the skills of the
populace needed for national (economic) survival The economic and political climate that formed the
must adjust accordingly. There is almost always backdrop and in some measures the catalyst for the
reference (at least until the full ramifications of development of the blended learning environment
the U.S. sub-prime mortgage crisis were felt) to has been summarized by Singh, Atweh and Shield
international competition in “global markets.” (2005). These authors identified the Australian
Perhaps because of the perceived economic Government policy document Our Universities.
benefits of technologically mediated pedagogies, Backing Australia’s Future (Nelson, 2003) as of
educators themselves have often adopted new particular interest in terms of teaching and learn-
technologies with sometimes breathless enthusi- ing. This document listed a number of significant
asm. Hartman, Dziuban and Moskal (2007), for problems facing Australian universities at the time
example, assert the impact of the World Wide Web that are still current, particularly:
attributes of ubiquity, interactivity, multimedia
capability, multilingual capacity, multiplatform • considerable increases in course provision
capability, multi-protocol capability and synchro- costs;
nous and asynchronous communication on learn- • access to increased resources in the longer
ing. However, despite the undoubted benefits and term, including those from additional in-
future potential of the virtual world to enhance come streams;
education, there are signs that some equilibrium • significant duplication in some university
in expectations may be returning with Jasinski activities and course offerings and far too
(2007) suggesting that there may be a shift from many units across universities and facul-
the “e” and back to the “learning” with e-learning ties with very small enrolments;
seen as just one of a suite of useful models to • under-representation of students from dis-
explore in enhancing professional educational advantaged backgrounds;
practice leading to what has become known as • large numbers of students not completing
“blended learning.” university studies (approx. 30%); and
This chapter presents a case study of the • over-enrolments of students leading to
development and impact of a Master’s level overcrowding and adverse impacts on
research methodology unit (officially coded as quality. (Nelson, 2003, p.10)
EDN611: Professional Applications of Research)
in the Faculty of Education at the Queensland The document then moved on to present a
University of Technology (QUT) in Brisbane, vision statement of reform underpinned by four
Australia. Professional Applications of Research key principles. These were as follows:
is a core unit in a number of the Faculty’s suite of
Master’s courses and is intended to help students • Sustainability: Maximum opportunity
to become critical professional consumers of given to institutions, consistent with pub-
research reports. The development of this unit in lic accountability and social responsibility,
recent years illustrates many of the stages in the to develop innovative responses to rapidly
emergence and development of blended learning changing environments in teaching and
implied above. learning.
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• Quality: A renewed emphasis on teaching perience and to increase accessibility while at

and learning outcomes … to ensure that the same time improving efficiencies in terms of
students develop knowledge and skills that cost-benefits. It is probably unsurprising that many
are relevant to their own needs and to those embraced the idea of the open learning concept
of employers, professional associations, in an effort to increase market share and improve
labour markets and society. efficiencies. What was probably little understood
• Equity: Targeted intervention measures or even considered at the time was the shift in the
and new approaches to student financing pedagogical space that would be required to gener-
to encourage participation and retention of ate a quality learning experience for students and
under-represented groups, particularly in- a satisfying teaching space for academics.
digenous students. The immediate consequence of this for that
• Diversity: Institutions encouraged forging designing university curricula/pedagogy was
distinct missions within the overall system that academic workers had to manage the ten-
and through greater collaboration between sions between two positions – the outwardly
individual universities and other education oriented, prospective identities constructed by
providers, industry, business, regions and market forces and state regulatory frameworks;
communities (Nelson, 2003, pp. 10-11). and the inwardly oriented, introspective identi-
ties of disciplinary knowledge. This pedagogic
Finally, the policy document signaled the position is Janus-faced – with one face always
formation of a central institution and regulatory looking outwards to market and state regulatory
framework aimed at measuring teaching and forces, and the other face looking inwards to the
learning performance outcomes: the National introspective demands of disciplinary knowledge
Institute for Learning and Teaching in Higher (Bernstein, 1999).
Education. Some of the responsibilities of this At the turn of the century, a number of higher
Institute included: education researchers talked about changes to
academic work brought about by three significant
• liaison with the sector about options for factors, namely: (1) growth in higher education
articulating and monitoring academic participation rates; (2) accelerated growth in
standards; knowledge production; and (3) the transformation
• improvement of assessment practices of teaching by information communications tech-
throughout the sector, including investiga- nology (Coaldrake & Stedman, 1999; Stromquist,
tion of the feasibility of a national portfolio 2002; Tyler, 2001). Changes to academic work, in
assessment scheme; particular, changes to teaching and learning were
• facilitation of benchmarking of effective also the subject of numerous policy discussion
teaching and learning processes at national papers. The Nelson (2003) reforms of Australian
and international levels; and higher education emphasized the importance
• development of mechanisms for the dis- of teaching and learning in developing generic
semination of good practice and profes- graduate skills and the need for higher education
sional development in learning and teach- workers to accommodate to the needs of a large,
ing. (Nelson, 2003, pp. 29-30) diverse clientele of learners.
In particular, the revolution in ICTs was viewed
As a direct result of these regulatory and policy by some as the panacea for dealing with the growth
changes Australian universities were compelled in student numbers, including the diversity of the
both to improve the quality of the learning ex- student clientele (in terms of academic preparation,
93
language, socio-economic background, and other puter technologies across the curriculum. The
factors), and the move to ‘student-centred’ learn- course was very successful and there was pressure
ing. As Coaldrake and Stedman (1999) argued, the to offer the course in external mode.
growth in student numbers was not accompanied Delivery of units in external mode at that time
by relative increases in state funding. Rather, was invariably print based and it soon became
students were and are expected to contribute to obvious that there was a mismatch between the
the costs of higher education which resulted in technical, hands on, content being presented in
the concerns of students becoming increasingly the on-campus course and this form of remote
important in this user-pays model of education. pedagogy. At about this time Australian Telecom
‘Now students are more concerned about flexibil- (now Telstra) released its electronic e-mail system,
ity and convenience, quality of teaching, ensuring KEYLINK. A memorandum of understanding was
the status and quality of their awards, obtaining reached with Telecom to make this system avail-
more attention and feedback from staff, and hav- able to both students and lecturing staff in order to
ing access to high quality facilities’ (Coaldrake provide more immediate and personalized help to
& Stedman, 1999, p. 3). students studying at a distance. This approach was
This ‘student-centred’ learning, with its teach- only partially successful due to system instability,
ing focus on ‘flexibility’, ‘convenience’, and rudimentary telephone networks in country areas
‘quality’, was thus the higher education context and Subscriber trunk dialing costs (long distance
in which EDN611: Professional Applications phone calls costed on a time basis) associated
of Research was initially designed. It sought to with dialing into a city based mail server. This
develop a student/learner focus mediated through was a clear case of pedagogical design leading
a ‘community of learning’ populated by both on- the ability of the technology to deliver.
campus and off-campus students. The rapid growth of the Internet during the
early 1990s prompted a second attempt to develop
a pedagogy more suited to students studying at a
SETTING THE STAGE: THE HISTORy distance. A Web-based On-Line Teaching system
OF THE UNIT DEVELOPMENT (usually called by its acronym OLT) was developed
by QUT in-house. This system was database driven
Daniel Chandler (1995) invites us to question and had similar functionality to systems in popular
whether socially driven change in pedagogy use at present. It allowed for synchronous (chat
leads the application of technology or whether room) and asynchronous (Web board, e-mail lists)
advances in technology drive change in pedagogy. communications. It also allowed the structuring
The possible mismatch between “conventional” and delivery of learning materials albeit mostly
pedagogy and “technology mediated” pedagogy print based. The advent of this system heralded the
is also worthy of examination. We now consider “blurring” of the distinction between on-campus
the history of events that laid the foundation for and off-campus students, as both had access to
the pedagogical approaches adopted in this unit the system. In this instance the technology led
of work and then discuss some of the questions the pedagogy which had been primed by previous
posed by Chandler (1995). exposure to the KEYLINK system.
In the mid 1980s, a Graduate Diploma in By this time PowerPoint presentations started
Computer Education, primarily directed at teach- to appear as a core component of on-campus teach-
ers, was developed with the objectives to retrain ing, replacing the ubiquitous overhead transparen-
general or subject teachers as computer studies cies. It seemed a natural extension to make these
teachers and to introduce the application of com- available to off-campus students. Closer exami-
94
nation of the way in which PowerPoint presenta- shift in that philosophy. The imperative started to
tions were used in teaching revealed deficiencies become: What type of pedagogy mediated by the
in this strategy. Most lecturers used PowerPoint technology best suits both on-campus and off-
presentations as prompts for monologue and campus students given the conceptual difficulty
sometimes dialogue with their students; at best of the material we were trying to teach and the
they were used to summarize key points. Remove threshold understandings of our students?
the verbal backdrop and the presentations were Deliberation on this question first manifested
devalued as a component of a pedagogy tailored itself in the decision not simply to video the on-
to off-campus students. Lack of effective audio campus lectures and stream these to the off-campus
compression, small bandwidth and lack of audio students. It was judged this would be detrimental
streaming technologies precluded packaging audio to the formation of a learning community (Palloff
with the presentations for use across the internet. & Pratt, 1999) across the unit as the off-campus
In this instance, pedagogical specifications led the students would experience a measure of discon-
ability of the technology to deliver. nectedness. This decision proved a catalyst for us
Over a period of several years a variety of strate- to examine whether face-to-face lectures really
gies were tried to overcome this hurdle, including added anything to the learning mix. The outcome
the development of new presentations that were was that traditional face-to-face lectures were
coded in Flash or developed as Java applets. Both replaced with a combination of on-line scaffolded
formats proved suitable and enabled students with asynchronous resources and a bounded mixed-
relatively slow dial-up connections to access the mode (on-campus, off-campus) synchronous
material in an acceptable way. The problem with experience. This approach is described elsewhere
this approach was that a high level of technical in the chapter and anecdotal evidence suggests it
expertise was required to produce the presenta- has been successful.
tions. Furthermore, the strategy did not tap into the
existing resource of already prepared PowerPoint
presentations available for most on-campus units. CASE DESCRIPTION: THE
This limitation was finally overcome through the CURRENT MANIFESTATION
release of some commercial products that convert OF EDN611- PROFESSIONAL
PowerPoint presentations with embedded or linked APPLICATIONS OF RESEARCH
audio directly into flash movies or java applets.
This process was trialed extensively in the unit The on line blended offering of the unit EDN
and with some reservations was found satisfactory. 611, Professional Applications of Research was
Once again the technology lagged the pedagogical designed and first implemented in Semester 1,
specification for some time. 2005. It is the initial postgraduate research training
This journey also encouraged us to examine unit offered in the Master of Learning Innovation
the nexus between conventional on-campus face- course in the Faculty of Education at QUT. The
to-face pedagogy and the technology-mediated unit outline states that:
off-campus pedagogy we were attempting to
implement in the unit. Initially the consensus This Unit focuses on the needs of professionals
was perhaps that the on-campus experience was for reading, understanding and evaluating profes-
the optimum and the challenge was to graft as sional research both within and across different
much of that type of experience as we could on paradigms. It assists students to develop skills in
to the off-campus experience. As the development understanding and appreciating the process and
of the unit progressed there was a fundamental techniques used in research in order to critically
95
read and interpret a wide range of research studies. substantially. This change in enrolment pattern
… This Unit focuses on the needs of professionals was a consequence of declining numbers of local
to seek research knowledge that addresses specific clients plus a demand by students for a flexible
problems or issues in their practice and to develop mode of delivery more in line with their busy life
a positive attitude towards research in general. styles. This latter concern was particularly evident
It assists students to search databases and other with female students (representing the majority
sources to locate published research reports in of enrolments) who were trying to balance the
their field and evaluate them critically. commitments of work (full-time or part-time),
family and child-care as well as study.
Further skills in planning and conducting re- In 2005, the three modes (internal, external,
search projects are developed in a follow up unit block) were combined in a single mode where all
within the Faculty. As a compulsory unit at the students shared the same pedagogical experiences
postgraduate level, it also aims to ensure that stu- based on the same access to a unit Web site host-
dents develop sufficient information literacy and ing the lecture notes, resources, and activities that
academic writing skills to complete the remaining were necessary to complete the unit. Further, it
postgraduate units in the Master of Learning In- provided off-campus students with the opportunity
novation course successfully. to participate in synchronous bi-weekly tutorials
Open to master’s and doctoral students, the together with on-campus students. Off-campus
Unit or its predecessors have been offered to students utilizing a chat room can view the on
students for about fifteen years in three different campus “physical” classroom, other students and
modes: (1) internal, (2) external, and (3) block lecturers via live video feed as well as receive
mode conducted during school vacations. How- audio of proceedings in the tutorial. Further, they
ever, the pedagogical experiences provided in the can participate in the discussion by typing their
three modes were often quite distinct. In addition, comments and questions which appear in the chat
the instructional content (knowledge and skills) message window projected on a large screen at
varied depending on the specific focus of the the front of the classroom. The video feed is in
different lecturers responsible for teaching the the form of a “postage stamp” size image of the
different modes. In particular, internal modes of room and is meant only as a “cueing” device to
offering of this unit have employed pedagogies give off campus students a sense of “connected-
that allowed the development of collaboration ness.” It is not intended to act as a transmission
between students and were successful in de- medium for content or interaction. Restricting
veloping a sense of community (SOC) between the size of the image has the added advantage of
them and the teaching staff – pedagogies not consuming minimal bandwidth – an important
easily achieved in the other mode of teaching. consideration given that some students still have
Moreover, when offered in external mode, the only dial-up access.
unit relied on printed materials and assessment While this situation could be seen as restrictive
submission with minimal use of a Web site. In for off-campus interactions it does have several
addition, the external notes were based on one advantages. Firstly the moderation of the discourse
specific textbook which meant that updating or is greatly simplified allowing a single lecturer to
changing the textbook could prove difficult and manage all aspects of the interaction. This is of
expensive as the print materials had to be rewrit- particular importance given that there may be 30
ten. Furthermore, the numbers of students enrolled on-campus and 40 off-campus participants. It also
in internal and block mode continued to decline, eliminates the technical hurdles associated with
while the numbers in external mode increased catering for limited bandwidth and audio feedback
96
problems. Far from curtailing the interaction monitored regularly by the lecturers who respond
between on-campus and off-campus participants to students’ questions and comments in an open
this arrangement actually seems to enhance it manner for the benefit of the whole class. On the
perhaps due to the filtering effect of having to type other hand, the communication mechanisms in
queries which seems to result in highly directed the Small Study Group areas are not regularly
and relevant questions that often prompt heated monitored and students are free to discuss their
debate amongst all participants. It also results in concerns amongst themselves.
an enduring list of questions and comments that Thirdly, a great deal of attention was focused
can be referred to at any time during the tuto- on improving students’ direct and flexible access to
rial. Lastly, just as in a face-to-face classroom, help. Several lecturers have always been assigned
off-campus students can be allocated to small to the unit not only to access expertise in specific
discussion groups and enter virtual “breakout discipline areas but to strengthen the likelihood
rooms” to engage in an activity in-depth and then of responding to student queries in a more than
return to the main chat room “lobby” for report- timely manner. The bi-weekly tutorials were also
ing their deliberations to other groups including designed primarily to provide a forum to address
on-campus groups. difficult aspects of the Unit in depth and to allow
Four pedagogical principles underpinned the students to discuss their queries directly with
development of the unit: increased autonomy of teaching staff and their peer group rather than to
the learner; the creation of a community of learn- present new material.
ers; providing a supportive teaching and learning Fourth, during the on-going development
environment; and maintaining rigor in discipline process, the depth and spread of the discipline
knowledge. First, we sought pedagogical practices knowledge required in the unit is fore-grounded.
that were removed from the traditional transmis- The content of the unit covers a range of theoretical
sion model where lecturers and texts are the sole and methodological topics necessary for critical
sources of knowledge. By providing students engagement with published research. The content
with a range of lecture presentations in the form and the supporting material reflect historical as
of Flash-encoded movies, references and relevant well as current debates in educational research.
Web sites, and reflective activities on the Web Care is taken not to allow innovation in presenta-
site, students have the opportunity to utilize as tion to occur at the expense of academic content
many or as few of the resources as required to and rigour. Further materials to develop informa-
develop their knowledge and confidence in the tion literacy and academic writing are integrated
content. Although the material is structured on a within the week-by-week activities and addressed
week-by-week basis, all material is presented in in assessment items.
total at the start of semester allowing students to A by-product of the above design features is
control the pace appropriate to their individual increased flexibility in the way students engage
learning styles and circumstances. with the learning materials and environment. This
Second, through the formation of small groups has been evidenced by the following sample of
and the use of synchronous and asynchronous comments from students:
communication tools, we provided students with
the means to share their questions and concerns • really enjoyed the blend of on line and
with each other. These communication tools could classroom facilitation in the one session. It
be accessed at two levels – the Class Group level created equality for those who were unable
and the Small Study Group level. The commu- to attend in person due to family commit-
nication facilities in the Class Group Area were ments or geographic location.
97
• I had to be in London to arrange my fa- in communication with other adopters” (cited in

ther’s funeral and was still able to ‘attend’ Gilbert, 1995, p. 43). This relationship can be
the tutorial. On the day of the funeral, I expressed as a function: A=f(R, PV, C)
missed the tutorial but was able to down- This function describes a 3-dimensional space
load the audio later. Great use of the infor- within which an environment for developing e-
mation technology. learning initiatives can be placed. It is a useful
• I really like the mode of delivery. Very construct as it allows the examination of socio-
flexible catering for a wide range of family contextual parameters as well as technological
situations. and other infrastructure resources. Each of the
variables can be discussed in terms of positive and
negative contributors. However, it is important to
CURRENT CHALLENGES: keep in mind that acceptance overall is a function
BARRIERS AND BOOSTERS of the interplay between the three variables not
TO IMPLEMENTATION OF just one variable in isolation.
THE CASE STUDy
Perceived Value (PV)
Publications by workers from Gilbert (1995)
and Leggett and Persichitte (1998) to Mishra Marcus (cited in Gilbert, 1995) defined PV as
and Koehler (2006) suggest that barriers to us- a “subjective cost/benefit analysis” where the
ing technology to support teaching and learning pros and cons of adopting new technology are
have remained virtually unchanged for several weighed.
decades. Mishra and Koehler suggest that we The positive indicators to PV in this unit in-
should think in terms of appropriate levels of clude: strong commitment by the unit coordina-
content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge tor, a desire by the teaching team to improve the
and technological knowledge, with all three learning experiences of off-campus and on-campus
forms required for success both in designing and students in what is perceived as a conceptually
learning from technologically mediated learning difficult unit, the strategic decision of the Fac-
experiences. Jasinski (2007) also emphasizes the ulty to place all off-campus units on-line and the
importance of targeted support in implementing placement of the unit within a re-conceptualised
innovative practice. post-graduate course.
These contentions are supported by our experi- The negative indicators include: lack of
ences in implementing the technology mediated recognition for the effort required for effective
learning and teaching environment of EDN611. implementation, lack of an environment that
Frayer (1999) identified some strategies to in- encouraged “risk taking” by academic staff and
crease the uptake of e-learning in faculties with uncertainty as to whether the return would justify
an aim to improving teaching and learning. Frayer the effort.
used a model developed by Jane Marcus (cited
in Gilbert, 1995) to help conceptualize factors Communication (C)
which impact on the development, implementation
and uptake of on-line learning environments. In Marcus (cited in Gilbert, 1995) defines C as
Marcus’s model, the decision to adopt a particular the measure of the ability to communicate with
innovation “is a function of available resources, “earlier” adopters. In this context we expand the
the perceived value the individual ascribes to the definition to include communication between the
innovation, and whether the individual engages
98
developers, support personnel, clients and the non-intuitive techniques needed to format some
wider university community. Web pages as required; file size upload limita-
Positive indicators to C include: good rapport tions that were restrictive; static file management
with high levels of trust between teaching staff; procedures that were complex and non-intuitive
formal communication channels established with and some aspects of the chat room operation that
university Audio-Visual services; Library and were dysfunctional. There were six members of
Teaching and Learning Support Services; formal the teaching and developmental team all with
dissemination of outcomes to the wider University considerable expertise and experience spread
community and in-built extensive evaluation of across the areas of content, pedagogy, e-learning
the final teaching-learning experience. environments, audio-visual, computer technology
Negative indicators include: no single concep- and computer programming. Other people were
tual model of the final product held by all stake involved by invitation when specific problems
holders prior to implementation; no common needed to be addressed. Having this level and
universe of discourse between academic/ develop- breadth of expertise available was essential to
ers, support personnel/developers and technical the success of the project. The negatives were the
support; no easily accessed directory of where to overheads associated with coordination and the
obtain assistance in a timely fashion and lack of aspects of communication discussed earlier.
opportunity to consult students/clients as part of The blended on-line/face-to-face presentations
the design process. have always taken place in a computer enabled
classroom (CEC) containing a computer, internet
Resources connection, projection facilities and serviced by
a wireless network. While the space is adequate
Marcus (cited in Gilbert, 1995) describes the and the equipment is usually reliable, this level of
availability of resources as the “controlling vari- infrastructure could be considered the minimum
able.” While this may be the case, it needs to be level required. One major negative aspect initially
emphasized that it is the interplay between the was that the computer image was not customized
three variables that ultimately controls the success to support the activities. This required a time
or otherwise of the enterprise. The resource vari- consuming manual configuration of the operat-
able embodies aspects of technology, expertise, ing environment and loading of hardware drivers
infrastructure and funding. The e-learning environ- and adapters before each teaching-learning event.
ment for the unit was initially constructed within This was a recurrent process as the machines are
the OLT system developed in-house by QUT. The re-imaged with the university standard operating
positives associated with this included: a sense of environment on shut down. A typical configura-
ownership by the technical support staff which tion sequence would include: disable the agent
tended to simplify problem resolution and a feeling that automatically switches audio input to line in,
that any feedback on performance of the system install drivers for Web cam, disable USB audio
would be taken seriously and feed into the design adapter for Web cam, switch audio recording to
cycle. On the negative side the system tended to microphone, adjust audio levels, adjust mixer for
be constraining and in some ways actually inhibit multiple microphone feed and finally load Web
innovation. Some examples included; the inability site. This level of intervention is obviously unde-
to upload multiple interdependent media files sirable and acts as a barrier to implementation in
to the streaming server without first packaging a wider context. More recently, this process has
them as a single application; the inability to re- been simplified. However the software drivers still
size Flash presentations easily within OLT pages; have to be loaded manually and are lost when the
99
machine is re-imaged as happens several times (Cole & Engestrom cited in Bourne, 2003, p. 505).
each semester. From this perspective, communities of learning,
The project was initially funded by the Faculty whether they take the form of a class of students
of Education as part of the redesign of the Master working face-to-face with one teacher or a virtual
program. While the positive was that this commit- classroom, are crucial sites for the development
ment was made, the negative was that the money of conceptual thinking. The class of students as
was withdrawn at a later date. There were no funds a cohort moves together in their learning by lis-
made available centrally to purchase software tening and engaging with each other, as well as
or hardware to support the project. Software to the teacher/instructor. The discourse of learning
convert power point presentations with audio to is thus generated by all members of the class or
flash movies and a Web cam were sourced by group, rather than just one individual learning
“alternative means” (purchased by one of the alone. The principles of communication in a
teaching team). In conclusion it is worth reiterating learning community are specifically oriented to
that it is the interplay between the three variables ‘induction into a system of knowledge’ (Bourne,
in the model proposed by Marcus that determines 2003, p. 509). SOC and Learning Traditional
the success or otherwise of these forms of project, pedagogies associate with supporting learning at
not any one element alone. The lack of any one a distance in tertiary based units were constrained
element will jeopardize the whole. Evaluation of by circumstances to, at best, a constructivist ap-
the Unit – Quantitative Evaluation All such in- proach (Brook & Oliver, 2003) and at worst, a
novations are undertaken for a variety of reasons, transmission model. Learning experiences were
ranging from the personal technology challenge packaged in a text environment and scaffolded
of teachers via desires to meet emerging needs in an attempt to assist students to internalize the
of students to responses to institutional policy concepts and processes which formed the basis
decisions. In this context, we will focus primar- of the unit. Little attempt was made to address
ily on the pedagogical intentions underlying the the social component of the learning process.
initiative and their evaluation. An important component of a learning network
is an underlying SOC (Dueber & Misanchuk,
Outcome 1: Development of 2001). The use of the term community in an
SOC in the Blended Space educational context is common but the meaning
of the concept is not well articulated. However,
As indicated earlier, one of the underlying most commentators agree that the construct of
pedagogical principles in the development of SOC is multi-dimensional and the dimensions
the blended environment was to encourage the will map feelings of connectedness, communica-
establishment of a community of learners within tion, belonging and common purpose (Dueber &
the unit. In particular we wanted to break down Misanchuk, 2001; Long & Perkins, 2003; Rovai,
the feelings of isolation that had been expressed 2002). How the dimensions are operationalised
in the past by the off-campus students. One of the depends on the context and environment in which
mechanisms chosen to do this was the instiga- the community is formed. Operationalising the
tion of the on/off-campus synchronous tutorials dimensions of a SOC for a learning network built
described previously. in a “face-to-face” environment differs from one
The term ‘community of learning’ is taken from supported by synchronous and/or asynchronous
the work of social psychologist Lev Vygotsky and technologies. This happens for a variety reasons
refers to the social institutions in which ‘think- including differences in the way text and speech
ing occurs as much among as within individuals’ are processed, absence or otherwise of visual
100
cueing and query-response time expectation. disagree), 2 (disagree), 3 (undecided), 4 (agree),

Learning communities also differ in the way 5 (strongly agree). An index was calculated for
in which their boundaries are mapped (Wilson, SOC overall and for each dimension. This was
Ludwig-Hardman, Thornam, & Dunlap, 2004). In done by summing the score on each question
an unbounded system, acceptance into the com- and calculating the mean. While it is recognized
munity is based on some common interest or goal. that a Likert scale is technically an ordinal scale
A community of natural vegetation regenerators which precludes the calculation of means, in this
might be indicative of such a system. As long as context it is treated as being of interval level of
a member is interested in learning or teaching measurement which is in line with common prac-
about vegetation regeneration they will remain a tice in educational research (Lehman, 1991). Face
member of the community. Once this is no longer validity was established through review by peers
their goal, they will leave the community; the who were either experienced in on-line teaching
life span of the community is indeterminate and and learning or were knowledgeable about learn-
member participation dependent. In a bounded ing communities or both. Construct validity is
system community membership is activated by argued on the grounds that since the SOC space
some external body and the life span of the com- is mapped in an on-line and face-to-face hybrid
munity is likely to be predetermined. A community context that the constructs should be able to be
of learners within a tertiary unit of study is an identified in a synthesis of the existing literature
excellent example of this latter community. The that describes SOC in an on-line learning context
dynamics of a community are therefore likely to or in a face to face context. This was found to be
depend not only on the method of communication the case (Dueber & Misanchuk, 2001; Long &
but also on the bounded or unbounded state of the Perkins, 2003; Rovai, 2002). Internal reliability
system. The challenge for this evaluation project was measured by calculating a cronbach alpha
was to construct an instrument which would give across questions for each dimension. The values
a measure of SOC for a bounded, blended learn- for community identity, learning (through dis-
ing community. course) and emotional support were 0.82, 0.80
and 0.85 respectively. This compares well with
The Instrument the commonly accepted minimum level of 0.70
for cronbach alpha for short scales with five items
The design considerations in the construction of the or less (SPSS Inc., 1998).
instrument included: • defining SOC space specific
to the bounded, hybrid context described earlier; Method
minimising the number of dimensions mapping
the space; maximising orthogonality between The instrument was administered to 71 postgradu-
the dimensions; and • minimising the number of ate students undertaking the unit previously de-
questions underpinning the dimensions without scribed. The response rate was 51%. This consisted
compromising construct or content validity. An of 13 students who attended all tutorials on line,
instrument was constructed (Shield, Atweh & 10 students who attended all tutorials face to face,
Singh, 2005) in the form of a survey of 12 ques- 4 students who attend in mixed mode (sometimes
tions that map to three underlying dimensions on line sometimes face to face) and 9 students who
(4 questions per dimensions). The three dimen- did not attend any tutorials. For the purpose of
sions were labeled: community identity, learning this study the 4 students who attended in mixed
(through discourse) and emotional support. The mode were reallocated to either the face to face
questions were rated on a Likert scale 1 (strongly or on line groups based on which mode they
101
employed most. In all cases the distinction was Analysis of Results

quite clear. The final categorization then became
15 on line, 12 face to face and 9 non attendees. A An analysis of the means and standard deviations
quasi-experimental design was utilized with the of the SOC index and constituent dimensions
non-attendees acting as the control group. It was displayed in table 1 might seem to indicate a
expected the control group would still register small difference between the face to face and on
positively on the SOC index as all students: • line categories on these measures. There would
were required to participate in two group work appear to be a difference between no attendance
assignments collectively weighted 30% of the total and face to face and no attendance and on line on
assessment with most groups being a mix of on and the same measures.
off campus students; had access to asynchronous This impression is reinforced when the box
communications (e-mail lists, discussion boards) plots (figures 1, 2, 3, 4) are examined.
at the small study group, class and unit level; and The observed differences were tested for
• had access to synchronous communications (chat significance (p <0.05) by applying a MANOVA
room) at the small study group level. with category as the independent variable and the
The broad question therefore became: “Did dimensions of the SOC as dependent variables.
the synchronous form of the tutorials contribute Levene’s test for equality of error variances was
in an incremental way to the SOC experienced satisfied for the dimensions of community identity
by those students who participated?” and learning discourse but not for the emotional
In particular the following null hypotheses dimension. Given the test was satisfied for the first
were tested across the three categories of partici- two dimensions and that MANOVA is reasonably
pation in tutorials i.e. none, on and off campus robust with respect to small divergences from ho-
attendance: mogeneity of variance across a dependent factor
(SPSS Inc., 1998) it was considered appropriate
• there was no difference in the mean SOC to proceed with the analysis.
index among the three categories; and The multivariate analysis of variance showed
• there was no difference in the mean score that the effect of category on the SOC index was
on each dimension of the SOC among the significant, Hotelling’s trace F(6, 60) = 4.94,
three categories. p = 0.000. Post hoc analyses using the Least
Significant Difference (LSD) criterion for sig-
Descriptives and box plots were initially used nificance indicated that the mean community
to explore these relationships. The hypotheses ID, learning discourse and emotional dimension
were then tested using a multi-variate analysis of was significantly lower in the non-attendee cat-
variance (MANOVA) with level of significance egory (M=2.64, SD=0.84; M=2.97, SD=0.61;
predetermined at 0.05. If there was no statisti- M=2.92, SD=0.86) as compared with the face-
cally significant difference indicated between to-face (M=4.04, SD=0.75, p=0.000; M=4.00,
the on and off campus students it was intended SD=0.61, p=0.000; M=4.27, SD=0.52, p=0.000)
to increase the power of the test by relaxing the and on-line categories(M=3.6, SD=0.57, p=0.003;
level of significance to help support the argument M=3.73, SD=0.52, p=0.003; M=3.85, SD=0.41,
of no actual real difference in SOC experienced p=0.000).
by these two categories. There was no significant difference between
the on-line and face-to-face group on any of the
dimensions. This could be considered an important
observation and one might be tempted to conclude
102
Table 1. Descriptives for SOC index and dimensions
Category
none face to face Online
Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
community ID 2.64 .84 4.04 .75 3.60 .57
learning discourse 2.97 .61 4.00 .61 3.73 .52
emotional dimension 2.92 .86 4.27 .52 3.85 .35
community index 2.84 .71 4.10 .54 3.73 .41
Figure 1. Community identity across category Figure 2. Learning discourse across category
Figure 3. Emotional dimension across category Figure 4. Community index across category
103
Table 2. Homogenous subsets SOC index

that the SOC experienced by the on-line group was
the same or similar to the face-to-face group. The Tukey HSD Subset for alpha = .1
logic of hypothesis testing precludes interpreting category 1 2
a non-significant difference as no real difference. none 2.8426
However, if sufficient statistical power can be
on-line 3.7278
demonstrated then the likelihood of committing
face to face 4.1042
a type II error is minimized i.e. retaining the null
Sig. 1.000 .230
hypothesis when it should be rejected.
To support the case for no real difference in
SOC between the on-line group and the face-to-
Summarizing the Quantitative
face group a one way ANOVA was conducted
Evaluation of the Unit
between the groups using the SOC index as the
dependent variable. The power of this test was
The instrument developed to measure SOC in a
increased by relaxing the level of significance
bounded, blended learning community would ap-
from 0.05 to 0.10 delivering a power coefficient
pear to be valid and reliable in this limited context.
of 0.99 i.e. there would be a 99% chance of de-
It would also appear to be sensitive enough to dif-
tecting a difference if a real difference existed.
ferentiate between the level of SOC experienced
The analysis of variance showed that the effect of
by a control group who did not participate in the
category on the SOC index was significant, F(2,
learning community bounded by the tutorials and
3) = 5.94, p = 0.000. Post hoc analyses using the
those who did.
Tukey HSD criterion for significance indicated
The mean community ID, learning discourse,
that the mean SOC index was significantly lower
emotional dimension and SOC index were
in the non-attendee category (M = 2.84, SD = 0.71)
meaningfully lower in the non-attendee category
than in the on-line (M=3.73, SD=0.41, p=0.001)
as compared with the face-to-face and on-line
or the face-to-face (M=4.10. SD=0.54, p=0.000)
categories. It could be argued that the learning
categories.
experience of students was enhanced by partici-
No significant difference was detected on the
pation in the combined off/on campus tutorials.
SOC index between the face to face and on line
Further there would appear to be no difference
groups despite the high level of power associated
between the on-line and face-to-face group on
with the test. This non difference was further
the same dimensions. This could be considered
illustrated by generating Tukey homogenous
an important observation and one could conclude
sub-sets (Table 2) which attempts to combine
that the SOC experienced by the on-line group
non significant groups together. Non attendees
was the same as or similar to the face-to-face
were shown to form a single subset while on line
group as a direct result of participation in the on/
and face to face categories were combined into
off-campus tutorials.
a second single sub-set. Given the results of this
On this basis it would appear that one of the
analysis it is reasonable to argue that there is little
main pedagogical goals in the redevelopment of
difference between the on line group and the face
the unit in a blended mode has been achieved.
to face group with respect to SOC.
Specifically the SOC experienced by on-campus
and off-campus students is similar, positive and
meaningful.
104
Outcome 2 – Overall Unit Satisfaction Evaluation of the Unit –

Qualitative Evaluation
The University conducts on line evaluations of all
units. This evaluation termed the Learning Experi- Two sources of data are dealt with in this section
ence Survey (LEX) is administered at the central to illustrate the development of SOC in this unit:
level with information disseminated to the Faculty, the open-ended questions from the LEX evaluation
School, Course and unit level and measures unit questionnaire discussed above and the transcripts
performance across 5 dimensions. of the chat rooms in the small study groups.
The five dimensions are: The evaluation questionnaire asks students
to comment on their mode of participation in the
U01: The unit activities helped me develop use- tutorials during the semester. In the majority of
ful skills and knowledge. cases where students had a choice of attendance
U02: The relevance of the unit activities was they preferred face-to-face attendance. These
clear. choices, however, are limited by a number of
U03: The structure and organization of the unit factors. Naturally distance from the campus was a
assisted my learning. main factor identified by 7 students. One student
U04: I received helpful feedback on my summarizes the sentiments of many, including
learning. those who participate from overseas: Participat-
U05: I have been satisfied with the overall qual- ing in online tutorials was ideal as I still felt like
ity of this unit. I was a part of the class even though I couldn’t
be on campus.”
The dimensions are rated on a Likert scale Secondly, family commitments prevented four
from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). others from participating face-to-face. According
The ratings for the on-line blended unit have to one student “The online [tutorials] enabled me
consistently (since the introduction of the system to “supervise” [my children] and attend a tuto-
in 2005) been above both Faculty and University rial.” With an overall majority of students in the
means on all dimensions (Table 3). class being women, this option provided many
This is further quantitative evidence that the of them with a chance to combine home duties
blended learning environment used in the unit is with attendance of classes. However, even with
performing at a par or better than other learning this option, not all mothers could participate. One
environments used in other units, including strictly student said “I’m studying externally because I
face-to-face lectures. work and have two small children. Tuesday was a
workday and I had to leave lessons for my teach-
Table 3. LEX mean unit rating for EDN611
Unit/Response U01 U02 U03 U04 U05

EDN611 4.1 4.3 4.2 4 4.1
Faculty: 3.8 3.8 3.7 3.6 3.7
University 3.8 3.8 3.6 3.4 3.6
105
ing partner. Result was late [arrival at] home it this way: “Being physically present makes me
[between] 4.45 to 5.15 on a Tuesday with two feel more involved and committed”. Lastly, a
tired, hungry kids. I decided not to attempt the few students raised difficulties with technology
impossible and did not go online for the tutorials.” as a reason to prefer face-to-face meetings. The
Finally, work commitment was also a factor with initial two tutorials experienced considerable
4 students regarding face-to-face attendance not difficulties in sound and image transmission. Oc-
a viable option, and in certain cases neither was casional problems persisted due to slow Internet
the on-line participation. For those who were able connection and firewalls at the students’ end of
to participate in the on-line tutorials the major- the interaction.
ity of the comments relate to the great benefit The second source of data for studying SOC
that resulted. One student summarizes it in these comes from the use of the Small Study Group chat
words: “I felt more a part of the group through rooms. In 2005 there were 15 different Small Study
the tutorials and small group work.” groups each between 3 and 5 students. While each
One student, however, indicated a preference group had access to a chat room, only 7 groups
for on-line tutorials. She describes it this way: had shown evidence in using it between 1 and 7
“I have always preferred face to face tutorials times. Other groups have utilized the messaging
but after not be able to attend one face to face system and email to communicate with each other
tutorial because of work commitments I tuned in while there has also been communication between
late to the online tutorial. I found it convenient the groups through face-to-face meetings and
and less distracting. I felt comfortable with the chats over the phone. The analysis here will only
anonymity and became hooked”. Perhaps, this consider the use of the chat rooms.
anonymity provided by the on-line participation For many of the participants the chat room
had a positive effect on other participants in the is an unfamiliar environment. Some at least ap-
on-line tutorials. The lecturer in the unit noted a proached it with a sense of wonder.
great imbalance in the number of questions about
the content and procedures in the unit asked by Sally: Hi Brenda and Bob! Never done this so
on-line students compared with the face-to-face hope it looks right!
attendees. Moreover, this pattern has reversed from
the first few tutorials, indicating the possibility that
after an initial period getting used to the technol- Brenda: hi Sally
ogy, on-line students have more confidence to ask
their questions than face-to-face students.
Similarly, students who were able to participate Sally: hi! How exciting I’ve never done this
in the face-to-face tutorials preferred to do so for
a variety of reasons. Face-to-face participation
provided more familiar means of interaction with Brenda: Yes it’s fun
students and lecturers. At least two students in-
dicated a preference for face-to-face interactions Very early students were giving help to each
in dealing with the more demanding concepts in other about technical aspects of the use of the
the unit. For one student at least, the unfamiliar chat room.
modes of communication caused “difficulties to
concentrate when I participate on-line tutorial, Jannet: Remember you can copy our chat and
because it feels like listening to the radio without paste it into Word to view later.
face-to-face contact.” While another student puts
106
Fred: if you press the history button at the top these forms of social chats were more common
of this window you can read about what we have among the online student than the on campus
said so far students.
Surprisingly, given the public environment Jim: sorry I missed that that other comment with
students spent considerable time exchanging per- all the numbers I’m carrying on a real time con-
sonal information about their courses and family versation and I’m onto number 3 glass, I think it
life. This obviously contributed to the sense of might my last! Well we’ll talk on Thursday night
connectedness and community. then, look forward to it. See ya!
Mary: Ok. How are you going with your assign-

ments? Jackie: See ya! Enjoy the wine!
Chat room discussions often centered on stu-

June: terribly...and you? dents supporting each other once again adding to
SOC. For example:
Mary: very slowly. It’s like learning a new lan- Jo: everything with this course seems very time
guage and then having to apply it before it has consuming, and the assignment load particularly
made any sense. for the next 8 weeks is just enormous
June: I find that I am concentrating more on this Erin: So just to clarify the plan is to do the
unit than I am on my other...I can’t get my head reading this week and then discuss the tasks next
around the other unit Wednesday at 8.00pm.
June: very true+- Sue: I find the terms and concepts tp grasp very
daunting too
Mary: What is your other unit?

Jo: I find that i am getting more out of the lecture
And after a short social chat: and the follow up readings than the tutes, there
is gaps in sound. Yep we will chat again next
Mary: Shall we discuss our group work proj- Wednesday.
ect?
Sue: Yes, Lisa. Thanks

Lisa: For sure... What topic are you and Lesley
looking at doing?
Jo: night night
Social chats were intermittent with talk about
the task at hand and were considered an important
form of discourse. It is worth commenting that
107
Erin: I’m really pleased that you guys are say- CONCLUSIONS: WHAT HAVE WE
ing this because at about 12.00 today I was just LEARNED ABOUT THE BLENDED-
considering how much better I could have spent LEARNING EXPERIENCES
my $1000.00 donation to XXX! I’m afraid most OF OUR STUDENTS?
of what they are talking about makes me feel as
dumb as a box of hammers. Good to talk to you While the evaluations of the blended delivery of
both. Bye Profession al Applications of Research presented
thus far in this chapter have focused primarily on
technological aspects, the overall picture of the
Jo: i had the thought today that i just can’t do it unit presented in student responses to the manda-
but you have cheered me no end tory LEX is somewhat different. Teaching staff
initially expressed concern that the technological
As to be expected the large majority of dis- mediation might impact negatively on the peda-
cussions in the chat room revolved around unit gogical experiences this however proved not to
process and content. Students indicated they be the case. Perceptions of the unit as a whole are
considered this an important form of discourse. reflected by such anonymous comments as:
For example:
The whole set up of the unit has been fabulous.
Pam: Phenomenology and phenomenography There is support throughout, from the beginning
give me night mares - sorry I was typing this as to the end, in terms of helping you understand the
you did requirements of the course, down to assistance
with the handing in of the assessment items. This
has been something totally different for me and I
Sue: I don’t really mind feel I have learned much. From now when I read
research papers I have a better understanding
of the graph and number sections and won’t feel
Sue: I think that maybe ethnography, case study totally lost, glossing over these, as I have in the
or action research would be pretty equal? past.
Pam: from what I understand, ethnography is Very clearly organized. Lectures were really
basically a description of what happened, although well presented, tied in well with textbook. Great
I’m unclear of the difference between that and textbook- will be a great reference in the future.
case studies Assignments were a logical assessment of what
we were learning. Excellent subject!
Sue: Exactly my concern!!!

The very prompt feedback from teaching staff about
assessment was great. Being able to develop my
skills in research in a different discipline from
my primary degree and apply it to professional
practice was also great.
108
Clear outline of content; assignments were appro- While there is obviously room for further
priate; text book was good; lecturers all provided improvements in the delivery of the unit in all its
helpful timely support. formats, the foremost task in the future, as perhaps
has always been the case, would appear to be as-
Similarly, many of the comments of those sisting all students, regardless of their physical
students who chose to avail themselves of the location, technological ability or preferred learning
invitation to offer suggestions for the unit focused style, to come to terms with complex concepts
on aspects that were not primarily technological and practical applications of research: in short,
issues. Sample comments included: to enhance teaching and learning.
There were a lot of things to do each week and

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112
Chapter 7
Teaching Online:
What Does Blended Learning Require?
P. Toyoko Kang
ABSTRACT
This chapter provides an argument endorsing blended learning and teaching for foreign language
(FL)/second language (L2) courses, in lieu of total online learning and teaching or total face-to-face
learning and teaching (FFLT). Two main arguments are posed, citing concrete examples. First, that in
total online learning and teaching, one of the greatest challenges is to reduce the psychological and
social distance between teacher and student that leads to a dysfunctional parser (a mental language
processor) for FL/L2. And secondly, online learning and teaching encourage more input, hence clarify
communication---by making not only currently incomprehensible input comprehensible but also hard-to-
be-comprehended output easy-to-comprehend---- through “self-negotiation of form and meaning,” and
the parser’s strategy of being “first (prosodic phrase) come, first interpreted/processed.” This chapter
proceeds to strongly recommend that FL/L2 teachers make simple audio files to provide their students
with spoken input to prevent students from employing the L1 strategy of “first come, last interpreted/
processed.” Furthermore, this chapter shows what kind of spoken input is to be recorded in audio files
for students in Elementary Japanese II and Intermediate Japanese I.
INTRODUCTION (2006) and Colpaert (2006) raise an intriguing ques-

tion: What does it take to teach online? Due to the
Researchers in the field of computer assisted fact that our main concern is not total online learning
language learning (CALL) like Hauck and Sticler but blended learning (BL), this chapter modifies
their question as follows: What does it take to teach
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-60566-880-2.ch007
Teaching Online: What Does Blended Learning Require?
online for BL? Omaggio (1984) opens her chapter BACKGROUND

with the following provocative question:
The question addressed in this chapter is as old Comprehensive Input and
as the language-teaching profession itself: How Output in L2 Acquisition
do we help students learning a second language
classroom setting become proficient in that lan- Krashen (1985) proposes an Input Hypothesis
guage? Historically, the responses to this question claiming as follows: “humans acquire language
have been as varied as… those who have tried to in only one way---by understanding messages
answer it. (p. 43, the italic I mine) or by receiving comprehensible input” (p. 2). In
It is not the purpose of the present chapter to other words, speaking has nothing to do with L2
tackle this question, but to make the question more acquisition. This is an extreme way to look at
specifically focus on the issues of input and output: the L2 acquisition process. Swain (1985, 2005)
How can we help students in a second language claims as an Output Hypothesis that an “incom-
classroom setting make incomprehensible input prehensible output” that is “pushed” to generate
comprehensible, and hard-to-be-comprehended comprehensible output for the listeners also
output easy-to-comprehend, such that they eventu- facilitates L2 acquisition.
ally become proficient in that language? As this In this section, two pitfalls of input compre-
modified question indicates, this chapter’s answer hension are described; the third pitfall will be
to the question in the title “what does BL require shown in the section for Case Description. Input
(to make it work)?” is “to design an online FL/L2 comprehension is achieved not only through in-
learning & teaching in order to make not only teractive or task-related conversation, but also in
currently incomprehensible input comprehensible, the context of one-way communication such as
but also currently hard-to-be-comprehended out- radio, TV broadcasting, and reading newspapers or
put easy-to-be-comprehended.” magazines. Research has been conducted regard-
This chapter has two purposes. One is to ing the specific ways that interaction helps learners
argue that for FL/L2 classes, blended learning make incomprehensible input comprehensible
and teaching (BLT) are more effective than total (e.g., Gass 1997; Pica et al., 1987; VanPatten,
online or totally face-to-face learning and teach- 1996). However, when it comes to processing
ing (FFLT). The other is to demonstrate simple written input, the Japanese language learner whose
ways of scaffolding students in the second and L1 (first language) is English may understand a
third semester of Japanese language courses, by sentence by processing it as “first come, last in-
making currently incomprehensible input more terpreted.” This development may occur in a case
comprehensible, and hard-to-be-comprehended like the following, where the learner, in order to
output easy to comprehend under a memory comprehend a sentence using their L1 syntactic
efficient approach (MEA) issuing from human knowledge, does not process the sentence in the
parser learning theory (HPLT). Kang (2007a) order of “first come, first interpreted”:
has demonstrated how to blend technologies in
an advanced Japanese class. The present chapter, (1) kono kuruma-o ka-oo to omou
however, shows how to blend online learning in this car-Acc. buy-will that think (Acc. =
Elementary Japanese II (JA102) and Intermediate accusative)
Japanese I (JA201). ‘I think that I will buy this car ’
113
The challenge taken up by the present study (2) ‘a cheap book’ in Japanese
is to avoid the above type of (written) input a. *Yasui no hon (* means that a sentence
comprehension and thereby not repeat the failure with it is ungrammatical)
common to traditional grammar translation. This cheap one/of book
chapter will endorse the solution of providing b. Yasui hon
audio files for reading comprehension material. cheap book
This technique can enable learners to process ac-
cording to “first come, first interpreted” (Kang, A Japanese learner who uttered this kind of
2008). In the reading comprehension questions sentence over-generalizes the genetive case no;
of VanPatten (1996), there are many complex the genetive case marker is only attached to a
sentences in the reading materials. His Input pre-nominal noun/noun phrase, but not to a pre-
Processing and Grammar Instruction fails, as the nominal adjective. This kind of utterance indicates
traditional grammar-translation approach did, that the learner seems to have comprehended
for those students whose L1 is a language like Japanese input like yasui hon, only paying atten-
Korean or Japanese. This is because Spanish is a tion to content words, which is the tendency of
head-initial language like English, while Korean beginners. (It is noteworthy that VanPatten also
or Japanese are head-final languages. A Japanese observed the problem of input comprehension in
native speaker translates an English sentence like terms of content words, but was not concerned with
(I) think I will buy this car backward; “First come, output.) As output, an utterance like this causes
last interpreted.” This means that the parser of “garden path” for a native speaker of Japanese.
a Korean or Japanese student learning Spanish It is well known that a “garden path” sentence
understands by processing the written Spanish like the English sentence, A horse raced past the
with an L1 processing algorithm. This process oc- barn fell, fails an adult native speaker’s first parse,
curs without any opportunities for parsers to start and requires reprocessing or reanalysis. In other
processing input on a “first come, first interpreted” words, to process a garden path sentence is dif-
basis, as a Spanish native speaker does. ficult. The same goes for the following Japanese
Let us now turn to the other pitfall of input utterance:
comprehension with which this chapter is con-
cerned. The following interlanguage case provides • 1st parse:
a good example: First input: yasui no→cheap one
Figure 1. Linguistic Processors in Human Parser Model (Source: Kang 1993, p. 225; GB stands for
“Government & Binding” model by Chomsky, 1982)
114
Second input: hon →crash! (because the short, that online self-learning is more desirable,
noun ‘book’ is not expected, but a verb or a more effective than FFLT (although the online
particle) learning is an extension of FFLT) for the follow-
• 2nd parse: yasui hone →cheap book (elim- ing reasons: online self-learning provides students
inating no ‘of’) with more spoken input relevant to what they are
learning in the FF classroom; it makes currently
This chapter’s L2 learning theory does not incomprehensible input comprehensible; and it
exclude output hypotheses; as shown in Figure makes hard-to-be-comprehended output easy-to-
1 below, HPLT has a generator, another mental be-comprehended. The aforesaid is accomplished
language processor, for production. However, by means of self-aware behaviors that indepen-
output like this can be comprehended only with dently conduct acts of repetition, correction, and
difficulty, severely burdening short-term memory. so on. Such independent learning behaviors have
Therefore, we have to help our students make lasting value; in this regard, FL/L2 learning is
difficult-to-comprehend output easy-to-compre- lifelong learning (Kang 2007a). The independence
hend, to reduce the listener’s (short-term) memory instilled by online learning is obviously desirable;
burden. moreover, blended learning enables our students
to easily transfer their refined learning skills to a
Why BLT for FL/L2 Classes? fully online learning environment.
The need for FFLT must be clarified. As the schol- Technological Developments
arly literature shows, in a FF meeting/ classroom
it is best to establish human connection, thereby Foreign language courses at the University of
eliminating psychological distance (Conger & Guam (UOG) had been blended before I arrived
Lawley, 2005; Wagmann & McCauley, 2007) at this institution in 1993. To be exact, 20% of
regardless of subject of a class, or training. When a class is allocated for “self-study” by listening
it comes to FL/L2 learning, psychological distance to the tapes in the library. I started using digital
must be kept to a minimum, (Higgs, 1984; Pica technologies in my instruction about ten years
et. al., 1987), enabling trust to develop in teacher- ago, when the digital language lab was built at
student relationship in FFLT. This development UOG. In the digital language lab, at that time, our
facilitates not only input comprehension, but students had access the Internet, and listened to
also helps the student to produce output easily the CDs in target languages (TL). The Internet
comprehended by interlocutors. One may still provided plenty of authentic reading materials,
ask why online learning is needed instead of but not authentic listening materials or video
FFLT. It must be emphasized that FFLT in FL/L2 clips. It follows that digital instructional materials
classrooms is solely for the purpose of input com- could only improve reading or writing skills at
prehension and easy-to-be-comprehended output that time (Kang, 2000). Since then, technological
production. We must expect more. Our learning development has stunningly advanced, and more
theory, HPLT, promotes a learning situation that instructional materials became available on the
exposes students to spoken input as often as pos- Internet for Japanese language learners. It became
sible to force their parsers to start operating, so possible to watch news video clips that assist the
as to expedite process input. In so far as students students in improving their listening comprehen-
are attentive and motivated to understand input, sion skills; to use pop-up multilingual dictionaries;
input forces to their parser will start to work and and to see the stroke orders of kanji in movies.
move understanding forward. We are arguing, in Like many of my academic peers, I soon took
115
advantage of these technological developments, for self-study.

and made instructional use of authentic reading
materials available on the Internet. I subsequently Synopsis of BL Content for JA201
designed the 4th year Japanese class as described
in Kang (2007a). At that point, UOG adopted JA102 requires the students to read short stories
Moodle as a course management program, but or journals, which have complex sentences. In
for a while it was not possible to use Japanese JA201, the length of stories or journals becomes
characters in the English mode setting. It was longer, and more complex sentences are in the
only possible to use audio files, and I learned reading materials. In addition, more kanji are
how to use Audacity to create audio files. Then, used. To make their reading easier, and to let them
around 2005, it became possible to use Japanese “first come, first interpreted,” I decided to make
characters in English mode; however, since Spring audio files of those reading materials in JA201
2007, no Japanese character input was readable. as well as for JA102.
This time I switched to another affordable course
management program, Quia, which costs only $40
per year with technical supports. SETTING THE STAGE
Synopsis of First Experience As mentioned above, Moodle became available

with Fully Online Teaching at UOG in 2005. Workshops on Moodle were
initiated by a colleague, Brian Millhoff, and I
The present author’s first time to teach Japanese attended them during the Fall semester of 2005.
online without FF classroom meetings, but with FF Through these workshops I became comfortable
individual meetings, was the fall semester of 2006. using Moodle and came to recognize its functional
This was a course in which the regular instructor relevance. My own research discovered the helpful
unexpectedly took medical leave mid-way through Web site, Moodle for Language Teaching (http://
the semester. The course was JA201. For a number moodle.org/login/index.php). I also learned how
of reasons having to do with tight staffing, to teach to make audio files, and discovered Audacity,
this intermediate Japanese course as FFLT or BLT audio recording software available online for free.
was physically impossible; total online learning Employing Japanese characters was not a problem
and teaching was the only solution. at that time; therefore, I was able to offer total
online teaching to JA201 in the fall of 2006. It is
Synopsis of BL for JA102 noteworthy to point out that before committing to
Quia, I tried a 30 days free trial. I found that it is
The present author conducted outcomes assess- easy and simple to use to create quizzes, especially
ment of student learning for JA102 in both spring to upload audio files in a quiz; this is accomplished
and fall semesters of 2007, in order to assess in a couple of clicks. So, I subscribed it to start
student learning of reading kanji, writing kanji, making audio file with Audacity.
verbal grammar, adjective grammar, reading
comprehension, and directional task completion.
One noteworthy finding is that verbal grammar
learning is one of the worst. To improve student
learning of verbal grammar, it was decided to cre-
ate some simple online but effective exercises or
quizzes to help my students learn verbal grammar
116
CASE DESCRIPTION assumed to be later than that of the parser. The

development of the ability of the parser is more
Concepts likely higher than that of generator, as shown in
Figure 2. In terms of learning grammar (regardless
Relation between Parser explicit or implicit) and vocabulary, the parser
and Generator in HPLT and generator help each other’s development.
On the other hand, grammar and vocabulary in
The present chapter employs the same language progress will facilitate the parser and generator
learning theory as in Kang (1993), namely HPLT. to successfully operate. This is a mechanism of
According to HPLT, human beings have two lan- interaction whereby “negotiation of meaning/
guage processors, parser and generator (as shown form” by the learner can facilitate comprehension
in Figure 1), in addition to a mental dictionary, of currently incomprehensible input, as well as
or lexicon. make hard-to-be-comprehended output, easy-to-
Krashen’s claim, as mentioned briefly above, be-comprehended.
that “humans acquire language in only one way- It is generally understood among FL/L2 teach-
--by understanding messages, or by receiving ers and researchers that without input no language
‘comprehensible input,’” is translated under HPLT learning occurs. To my knowledge, however, it
in the following way: humans acquire language has never been explained how and why input,
only through successful parsing (“successful pars- especially spoken input, plays a crucial role in
ing” means that input is correctly comprehended), L2 acquisition, except for “only when input is
but not through generation at all. It is difficult comprehended; it will be in-taken, and be incor-
to agree with this claim. In our model, in terms porated in inner grammar or acquired. As shown
of learning of grammar and vocabulary, parser in Figure 1, the model has the parser situated be-
and generator help each other’s development at tween input and implicit mental grammar, whose
the developmental stage, as shown by arrows in operation is done subconsciously. In HPLT, an
Figure 2. On the other hand, well-developed and input sentence is correctly comprehended, which
mastered grammar and vocabulary will facilitate means “an input sentence is successfully parsed.”
smooth operation of both parser and generator. What needs to be learned in HPLT is parsing
The degree of development at a particular algorithms/mechanisms for TL (Kang, 1993).
developmental stage between the parser and the However, parsing algorithms--how to process
generator, however, may not be the same. The incoming sentences (input)--are not something to
commencement of the generator’s operation is be learned by teaching, but only spoken input can
Figure 2. At a developmental stage (The dotted lines show “being not-yet-developed”)
117
force the parser to operate, or to figure out/learn (4) Three mathematicians in ten derive a
how to process the input. Although it is unclear lemma.
how much input is required to attain the adult na- a.* [Three mathematicians] [in ten derive
tive speakers’ level, learners should be exposed a lemma]
to a tremendous amount of input. Besides, the b. [Three mathematicians in ten] [derive
learner’s parser needs to start to operate in real a lemma]
time speed, or in NS’s speed to understand NS’s
utterances, when he/she has reached an advanced In Japanese as is the case of (5a), the intended
level, although this chapter will not touch on this meaning is I will listen to the radio, whose prosodic
aspect of input comprehension. phrasing is either (5b-i) or (5b-ii). However, if a
prosodic boundary is placed between rajio and
Input Comprehension, Prosodic o, the meaning will be Please make the (volume
Phrases & Syntactic Acquisition of) radio louder.
Spoken input carries amazingly various, useful (5) a. Rajio o kiku ‘I will listen to the radio.’
linguistic information for processing. More rel- b. i) [Rajio o] [kiku] or ii) [Rajio o kiku]
evant to this chapter’s discussion are the follow- radio-Acc listen-will ‘I will listen to the ra-
ing two phenomena: (1) Comprehension units, dio.’ (Acc = accusative)
and (2) Branching directions. HPLT assumes c. *[Rajio] [o kiku] ‘Please make the (vol-
that parser will decide branching direction, one ume of) radio louder.’
comprehension unit after another, in the manner radio bigger/louder
of “first come, first interpreted/ parsed.”
These cases show that a comprehension/pro-
Comprehension Units cessing unit is indicated by a prosodic phrase.
Branching direction and “first (prosodic
What indicates or marks a comprehension/pro- phrase) come, first interpreted”
cessing unit? Simply put, it is a prosodic phrase In HPLT, what need to be learned is how to
(Kang, 2003), because prosodic phrasing consists parse oral/spoken input in TL.
of “a sense unit” (Selkirk, 1984). Input is parsed in the manner of “first (pro-
The following English examples are from Pier- sodic phrase) come, first served.” The parsed tree
rehumbert (1980, p. 8). The English sentence in branching direction will be taken care of by the
(3) means Three mathematicians in ten derive a following Branching Principle.
lemma as (4b). However, when a prosodic phrase
is placed between mathematician and in, as in (3a), (6) Branching Principle
the sentence is not interpreted as Three mathemati- a. Right Association (RA): Terminal sym-
cians in ten derive a lemma, but as (3b). bols optimally associate to the lowest
nonterminal node. (Kimball 1974)
(3) Three mathematicians in ten derive a b. Left Association (LA): Terminal sym-
lemma. bols optimally associate to the highest
a. [Three mathematicians] [in ten derive nonterminal node. (Kang 2007b)
a lemma].
b. Three mathematicians intend to rival RA is for a head-initial (syntactic) phrase,
Emma. while LA works for a head-final phrase.
118
As seen in the following case, head-final and (1) kono kuruma-o ka-oo to omou
head-initial is determined in terms of whether the this car-Acc. buy-will that think
head precedes or follow its complement; the SPEC ‘I think that I will buy this car ’
(ifier) is not involved in the heading parameter. (8) i) [kono kuruma-o ] [ka-oo to omou]
(See Figure 3) this car-Acc. buy-will that think
Once the parser determines the branching di- ii) [I think] [that I will buy this car]
rection according to head direction, it is assumed
to follow either RA or LA depending on the head However, under the traditional grammar-
direction in a prosodic phrase. translation approach, a Japanese learner whose
A prosodic phrase carries the information L1 is English will translate according to “first
regarding the branching, too. According to Kubo- comes, last interpreted/comprehended.”
zono (1993), a prosodic phrase can include only
terminal symbols of which branching directions (9) Parsing incoming prosodic phrase
are the same. In other words, spoken input seems a. First input/prosodic phrase (See Figure
to be organized for highly efficient processing. 4)
However, it is not clear how much input is b. Second input/prosodic phrase (See
needed for the parser to operate automatically RA Figure 5)
or LA depending on the heading parameter.
In the case of a previous example (1), cited here This means that, as demonstrated in the fol-
again, Japanese input with two prosodic phrases lowing case, the learner uses their L1 processing/
in (8i) will be parsed in (9ii), but the English cor- branching algorithm, RA, but not LA. This is
respondent will be processed in (9i). because under the traditional grammar-translation
Figure 3.
Figure 4.
119
Figure 5.
approach the learner is never exposed to the native Figure 6.

speakers’ spoken input.
(10)
i) 1st input: omou (I think) (See Figure 6)
ii) 2nd Input: to (that) (See Figure 7)
Figure 7.
iii) 3rd Input: kaoo (I will buy) (See Figure 8)
iv) 4th Input: kono kuruma-o (this car) (See
Figure 9)
Output Comprehension, Lexicon

and Memory Efficiency
The phenomenon of the lexicon/mental dictionary

is not the main concern of Generative Grammar, Figure 8.
but remains a concern of our HPLTs. Relevant to
this chapter are the following issues associated
with the lexicon: (1) learning of vocabulary; (2)
subcategorization; and (3) morphology (e.g.,
conjugation/inflection). In HPLT, vocabulary
learning is important, because unknown words
cannot be associated to the parsed tree and hence
cause extra burden to the short-term memory where
the syntactic parser operates to try to figure out
how to process incoming input. Ambiguity causes
extra burden, too. Therefore, it is desirable to
120
Figure 9.
(shizuka= adjective-na)
b i) Yen became expensive. ii) en-ga
taka-ku natta (takai = adjective-i)
yen-Nom. expensive became
Because noun and adjective-na both take

ending ni, the students assume it is applicable to
an adjective-i. The following fossilized case of
interlanguage due to overgeneralization (Selinker
1972) is common in beginners, but sometimes oc-
curs even among intermediate students. Compare
the following with (12b-ii). Takai ‘expensive’ is an
adjective-i, but it is treated as an adjective-na.
(13) en-ga takai-ni natta.
This exhibits the same pitfall of “input compre-

hension” method or approach as (2) above. Let us
provide our students memory keys to introduced
proceed to discuss this example in terms of output
vocabulary (Kang, 1993).
comprehension. Native speakers of Japanese can
Subcategorization of a verb or an adjective in
comprehend this utterance, as en-ga takaku natta,
L2 is not always the same as L1’s. In Japanese,
‘Yen became expensive,’ correcting the mistakes
adjectives have two classes (adjective-na and -i),
of the adjective’s lexical categorization and inflec-
and verbs have three major classes including the
tion; this development causes tremendous extra
irregulars. For example, English subcategorization
burden on the addressee’s short-term memory,
of the verb become is different from the Japanese
forcing the addressee to reanalyze/reprocess
counterparts. The verb become in English is
the ungrammatical utterance. The output can be
subcategorized as become [ __ NP/ADJ], but in
comprehended, but with more difficulty than in
Japanese naru [ __ NP-ni/ADV(erb)].
the case of (2) above.
To derive the adverb from from an adjective the
The teaching methodology or approach issuing
following morphological rules need to be learn.
from HPLT is MEA (Kang 1993), as mentioned
above, which recommends FL/L2 teachers “eclec-
(11)
tic” methods in the sense of Higgs (1984).
i) adjective-na: na ---> ni
Kang (1993) did not consider the addressee’s
ii) adjective-i: i ---> ku
short-term memory burden. However, the present
chapter does address this problem because the
The following are the examples of Japanese
learner’s generator and parser mutually influence
become-construction; compare them with English
each other--unless, that is, the learner strongly
counterparts:
refuses to speak TL for some kind of sociolin-
guistic reasons. One way to know whether the
(12) i) English ii) Japanese
parser is functioning well with its lexicon is to
a. i) He became quiet. ii) sono hito-wa
check whether the learner understands input in TL.
shizuka-ni natta.
Moreover, a method for determining whether the
That person-topic quiet became
generator is functioning well with a lexicon is to
121
observe if the learner’s utterance is comprehended (14)

without causing the addressee extra short-term a. Waitless: what would like to order?
memory burden. b. NS: I’ll take a hot dog with [sku:bə]
chili.
How Can Currently c. NNS: SCUBA (diving/diver’s) chili?
Incomprehensible Input be (being surprised)
Comprehended, and Hard-to- d. NS: Well, no, but a scoopof chili.
Comprehend Output Become More e. NNS: Oh.
Easily Comprehended by BLT?
The above case seems self-evident. However,
This section raises the following issues: (1) repeti- we need to look at this process of comprehension
tion; (2) recasting; (3) negotiation of meaning and more carefully. The NNS has a problem in compre-
linguistic form. With regard to the negotiation, hending the input by the NS. Then, by virtue of the
we refer to Gass (1997): “Negotiation refers to NS’s adjusted pronunciation, the NS realizes that
communication in which participants’ attention is what is perceived originally was wrong. Parsed
focused on resolving a communication problem” in (i) of the following (treating the problematic
(p.107). In the literature (e.g., Pica et. al., 1987; prosodic phrase like a compound noun), it should
Swain, 1985), as mentioned above, interaction be parsed as (ii) of the following, because of is
is one of the ways to make incomprehensible cliticized to scoop; [sku:bəv]. Here it is behaving
input/output comprehensible. According to Gass like an affix of scoop (see also Shelkirk, 1984,
(p.150), “interaction is a priming device, allowing about the cliticization of English function words).
learners to focus attention on area that they are When the NS re-pronounced the noun phrase into
working on.” In other words, through interaction three prosodic phrases--[a scoop] [of] [chili]--the
learners have opportunities to negotiate their NNS’s parser processed it after negotiating the
problems of form or/and meaning with their inter- form, as in (iii) of the following. But this is not
locutors, which encourages the students to make a the case as in (ii), which poses another problem
transition from the developmental stage n to n + involving the input comprehension approach. The
1. In our terms, interaction is one of the ways to NNS’s parser probably will not be able to process
make not only currently incomprehensible input the cliticized of as in (ii) unless the NNS perceives
comprehended, but also hard-to-be-comprehended a cliticized of. The present chapter suggests that
output easy-to-be-comprehended, as in typically English learners (like this NNS) be provided with
understood “interaction,” conversational or task- plenty of input with cliticized function words (I
oriented. like’ em, how’d you do it? etc.) including of (a
The following interesting conversation was cup of [ək/\bəv] tea, a group of [əgru:bəv] people,
observed at a restaurant. The NNS was not sure etc.), with explicit grammar instruction about the
about her interpretation regarding chili (incompre- cliticization. (See Figure 10)
hensible input for the NNS), and the NS repeated According to Duff (2000), the term “repetition”
the phrase, pronouncing of more clearly, putting is not interpreted as behaviorist “habits,” but rather,
stress on it (which shows in bold in d of the fol- “…repetition is viewed as a way of providing
lowing), to enable the NNS to understand what he learners greater access to language forms” (p.
ordered (the NS made the incomprehensible input 109). In other words, this is a way of providing
comprehended as the result of negotiation). learners with more relevant input. Recast is a
mode of repetition for corrective feedback. The
122
Figure 10.
importance of having learners reproduce forms 2. Ss: Chiisakatta desu ne. = portion of
they have heard to help them notice gaps between special note to the current
their own and other’s production is understood in It was small, isn’t it analysis is
several current accounts of language acquisition underlined
(Duff, p.109). L2 researchers have not evaluated 3. T: Oishikatta desu ne. Demo
recast highly because their findings indicate that It was delicious, right. But
it is not so effective for the students learning TL 4. Ss: Chiisakatta [desu] = overlap with
as teachers expects. According to Ohta (2000), in similarly bracketed
learner-centered classroom settings, recast/cor- It was small ((correct from)) portion
rective feedback functions effectively because in in neighboring turn
learner-centered settings, private speech occurs; = transcriber’s comments
in such private speech, learners effectively realize →5. C: [Chiisai deshita] → =indicated
their own errors. line of excerpt
The following excerpts of classroom conversa- It was small ((wrong form))
tions evince adjective inflection: 6. T: [Chiisakatta desu. Ne? Chiisakatta
desu
(16) Excerpt 4, Candance, January 24 (Ohta p. It was small. Right? It was small ((right
61-62) form))→
1. T: Hai soshite (..) suteeki suteeki wa? 7. C: “ah” reduced volume—soft voice
(..)= longer pause 8. T: Ne. Chiisakatta desu ne? Ookiku ari-
Yes and (..) the staek staek was? masen deshita. Ne? Hai, ja rokubann
123
Right. It was small, Right? I was not learning, combined with FFLT. Moving forward,
big. Right? Ok, number six the following subsection demonstrates collabora-
tive learning and self-study activities the present
Candance kept producing the wrong form author has designed and implemented for online
chiisai deshita for ‘it was small,’ even if she learning in the second and the third semester of
heard several students correctly say chiisakatta. Japanese classes--JA102 and JA201, respectively-
But, finally due to the teacher’s repeated recast -to make not only incomprehensible input com-
of the correct form, she realized the discrepancy prehensible, but also hard-to-comprehend output
“as evidenced by her utterance of the change-of- easy-to-comprehend.
state token…‘ah’ in Line 7” (Ohta, p. 62). This is
a case of recast, or teacher’s negotiation of forms. Practice
In our terms, the teacher tried to help the student
make hard-to-be-comprehend output easy-to- Collaborative Learning for
comprehend by negotiating the form. Fully Online JA201 Class
There is another interesting case of recast re-
peated by a non-native speaker (NNS) to another In BLT, I designed collaborative learning for FFLT,
NNS in Gass and Varonis (1994, p. 288): but self-learning for online learning.
However, in this context of total online learning
(17) and teaching, I switched to both for online learning.
a. Ana: Can you tell me where is the train I implemented two collaborative works: (1) nazo
station? nazo (riddles) relay by email (asynchronous), and
b. Keiko: Can you tell me where the train (2) the task of describing the story of the pictures,
station is? using 4-koma manga ‘Japanese 4 panel cartoons’
c. Ana: Can you tell me where is the train (synchronous).
station?
d. Keiko: Can you tell me where the train Conducting Nazo nazo
station is? (riddles) Relay by Email
e. Ana: Can you tell me where is the train
station? Nazo nazo (nazo means ’mystery, puzzle, enigma,
f. Keiko: Can you tell me where the train etc,’ and is a Japanese language game) for this class
station is? consists of two, or more than two, sentences, or
g. Ana: Can you tell me where the train one sentence with a simple relative clause, or a
station is? subordinate/coordinate clause and come up with
h. Keiko: Can you tell me where the train the correct answer. Some of the examples are in
station is? the following:
i. Ana: Can you tell me where the train
station is? (18) Examples of nazo nazo for the relay.
日本に行ったら、見られます。日本で一番(
Here, Keiko helped Ana make hard-to- ばん)高いです。きれいです。 いつも一番(
comprehend output easy-to-comprehend due to a ばん)上に雪があります。夏になったら、登
syntactic over-generalization problem, by repeat- (のぼ)れます。 何ですか。
edly providing her with the correct input. To put
it more simply, we can make this kind of recast ‘If you go to Japan, you can see it. It is the
leading to self-correction, self-repair as online highest in Japan. It is beautiful. It always has
124
snow on the top. When it becomes summer, we hey, () your 5th riddle was kind of hard to un-
can climb it. What is it?’ (Answer: Mt. Fuji) derstand. i dont think your second sentance is
Why nazo nazo or puzzles? To come up with the correct. can you clarify it for me, so i can change
right answer, one must correctly comprehend the my answer if you made a mistake on your number
sentences describing things, people, or places. This 5? thanks! have fun, everyone!
is one of the ways to check whether the students’
parsers are capable of processing the sentences Actually, the second runner’s 5th nazo nazo
in one question, by observing whether they come (riddle) is not so bad, but this student had a hard
up with the right answer or not. In the case above, time comprehending it. Here we can see “nego-
when a student answered correctly, he/she has tiation of form and meaning” of input sentences,
successfully comprehended the input sentences although the question was presented in English.
of a nazo nazo, which indicates that his/her parser This student gave me another surprise; she made
has processed input correctly, i.e., successfully. 10 questions of nazo nazo, and emailed us soon
However difficult, this is the way to measure input after her email message above. My surprise did not
comprehension or parser’s successful process- end with that. The following day, Monday, when
ing. If a nazo nazo question is given with spoken I stopped by the class between my two classes,
input, the students have to use “first come, first another student was upset because she had not
interpreted/parsed’ in real time processing speed. received my email message with 10 questions of
That is what I have been doing with students in nazo nazo. I sensed her competitiveness. Indeed,
JA102, although the sentence structures are less soon after that, the class received this student’s
complicated than those in this class. answer to the 10 riddles by the previous student
with five her own riddles.
Narrative of Nazo Nazo (riddles) Relay After that episode, four students participated
in the relay without any surprises. However, what
I sent ten questions of nazo nazo to the class bothered the present author was that five students
(twelve students) to find out how good they are did not participate in this activity. Those five stu-
or not. I made the nazo nazo by using vocabulary, dents did not submit homework on time, nor come
Chinese characters (kanji), and sentence structures to see me in my office for oral interaction or oral
they were supposed to know. Even so, they could recitation of dialogues in the textbook, although all
look up dictionaries whenever they required them. of them took paper exams or quizzes administrated
First come, first served, so to speak, but the first by a part-time teacher or staff. I was sure that the
student had to answer my ten nazo nazo, and make production of TL is harder than the reception of
at least five his/her own nazo nazo to email to the TL, but no questions I was asked from those five
class. The rest of the runners should answer the silent students. Every class day, I visited the class
previous student’s nazo nazo and make at least about 5 minutes between my two regular classes
five his/her own nazo nazo and then email to all to try to connect them, and nicely remind them
of us. They had to answer in Japanese. the participation in the relay, and homework, but
I sent them on Saturday of the first week of nothing happened for a while until the last week
my instruction, but surprisingly on the following of my instruction. In that week, finally two of the
day I found that one of the students had already five students participate in this relay.
emailed us her answers with her five nazo nazo. On the third week of my instruction of the
And soon after that (on the same day), another class, I gave the class another collaborative work,
student emailed us the following message (the “Tell us a story of your 4 panel cartoon” adopting
student name is kept in blank). “Establishing the sequence of a picture story in
125
four acts,” in Brandl (2005, p. 21). This activity following, the story of a 4-panel cartoon---being
revealed that two of the five students were well adopted from a textbook Genki II; this class
motivated to learn Japanese, but their Japanese employed another textbook called Yookoso---is
language knowledge was just not as high as the depicted as follows:
seven students who participated in the relay much
earlier. One of these two students was able to An 8-10 year-old boy walking along the street
participate in the relay on the last week (the 4th to go to the bakery to buy bread. He has a shop-
week) of my instruction. In FFLT, I could have ping bag in one hand and some bills in the other
found out much earlier about these five silent hand. At the bakery, he bought bread, but forgot
students’ problems or difficulties. to pay, and he still holding money in his hand.
The baker realized that he did not get paid from
Tell Us a Story of 4-koma the boy. Then, he ran to the boy’s house. Then,
Manga (4-panel cartoon) Mother and the boy came out, and the boy’s mother
standing at the entrance of the house paid to the
Since the class has twelve students, this activity baker. (p. 297)
worked well in terms of grouping; each group
has four students for four-panel cartoon. Each (19) Incomprehensible kanji usage (because
student received an URL to see his/her panel of wrong one was used)
cartoons by email. I used the Moodle’s “Forum” J: パン家でこの男の子はパンを買い
with the technical assistance of my colleague, ました。The boy bought bread at the
Brian Millhoff. I scanned each panel of three bakery
4-panel cartoons for three groups, and emailed パンやのてん印はとてもうれし
them to Brian, who in turn emailed each one of いです。The bakery worker is very
the 12 students an URL where each student could happy.
find a panel of cartoon. Each student individually L: Can you use kanji that we know please?
described his/her cartoon, and posted it in his/her Sorry, I just don’t understand some
group’s forum. When everyone posted his/her parts. Thanks! (The kanji she was talk-
description, the team started to find the correct ing about is underlined in the sentence
sequence of four pictures. above.)
In this collaborative work, more interaction J: パン家でこの男の子はパンを買い
is observed than in the nazo nazo relay. There ました。The boy bought bread at the
are four types of problems which caused more bakery
interaction, generating more input and output for パンやの店員はとてもうれしいで
the participants: (1) unknown kanji; (2) unknown す。The bakery worker is very happy
vocabulary; (3) a incomprehensible sentence; and (The corrected kanji is marked with
(4) insufficient information for the completion of underline.)
the task. To collect enough information (due to “note”
insufficient information for determining the order 前の漢字は違いました。 I used a
of each cartoon) the students interacted with each wrong Chinese character.
other most frequently. でも、いま漢字がいいです。but now
The following is a case of unknown kanji, my Chinese characters are correct.
while (15) involves negotiating the description (20) negotiation of description of a picture
of the picture to determine the order of 4 panels/ N: 男の子は何かを持っていますか?
pictures. To understand the interaction in the Does the boy have something?
126
J: 男の子の右の手に紙をも持ってい It is important to set the number of trials to

ません。The boy does not have paper “unlimited,” to let our students try until they can
in his でも店員はかばんを持ってい find out the correct answer. In other words, let
ます。 right hand, but the bakery worker them try and try again until incomprehensible sen-
has a bag. tences are comprehended. I employed the grading
scale for these quizzes lower than the activities
In addition, it is worth noting, this kind of involved other three skills (speaking, reading
activity promotes understanding of Japanese and writing) to reduce my students’ anxiety, but
culture because of the usage of Japanese 4-panel also to motivate them to challenge their listening
cartoon. In the bakery cartoon, for example, the comprehension skills.
bakery worker/owner wears Japanese traditional As for recording my own reading of the read-
wooden sandals called geta. ing material of the textbook, for JA102 students,
I recorded one batch of reading material in two
Online Self-Study Blended for ways: one, by reading slower, and the other by
JA201 & JA102 Classes reading at my normal speed. In slower reading, I
do not change any prosodic boundaries, but try to
“First (prosodic phrases) Come, First Inter- insert more prosodic phrase boundaries.
preted” As for the questions for the reading comprehen-
In both of the classes, JA102 and JA201, the sion materials, although textbooks have printed
textbooks used are titled Genki; Genki I is for questions, it is desirable the questions in audio
JA102, and Genki II for JA201. The textbooks files are given, and that the questions are not the
have good reading comprehension materials; same as those written ones in the textbooks.
however, no audio files for the reading materials The questions about the dialogs of each lesson
are included. Be this as it may, as I argued above, are created for the following two reasons: (1) I
if one teaches a language in which the phrasal want to check whether they have studied and
head-position is different from the learner’s L1, understand what they are talking about in each
one does so to prevent them from processing in the dialog, although the dialogs have English transla-
way “first come, last interpreted/comprehended.” tion; and (2) I want to provide my students with
Remember that only spoken input tacitly force the more authentic spoken input.
students to follow “first come, first interpreted/
comprehended.” The following contents have Self-Negotiation of Form and Meaning
been recorded in the audio files for “first come,
first interpreted/parsed”: I made more audio files for JA102 than for JA201.
(21) Contents of audio files as spoken input This is mainly due to the following: (1) JA102’s
for JA102 and JA201 the students in JA102 there are not so many lis-
tening comprehension materials, except for “real
i) each reading material in the textbooks, by world” Japanese http://www.ajalt.org/rwj/, and
reading it aloud. (2) In the outcomes assessments, as mentioned
ii) my own questions about the content of each above, the students’ learning of both adjective
reading material. and verb inflections is as difficult as learning
iii) my own questions about the content of the of writing the correct kanji corresponding to a
dialogs in each lesson. given reading.
In (a- I-1) of the following “fill-in questions,”
I speak “before I was healthy, but,” and a student
127
type in their answer in Japanese. In order to come In the case of the following “translation of
up with the correct answer, what I am speaking in verbal expression” in only one prosodic phrase,
the audio file needs to be comprehended through the students have to type in an English corre-
self-negotiating of meaning and forms. spondent, listening to my pronunciation of each
verbal expression; again, by self-negotiation of
(22) Fill-in questions form and meaning.
a. For JA102
i) To learn adjective inflection: (23) Translation of complex verbal expressions
To fill an adjective in the blank, switch- for JA102
ing the tense and positive/negative of 1) つかれなかった (was not tired)
the pre-noun adjective 2) ならいたくない (do not want to
1) 元気だったお母さん learn)
が______!(answer: 元気じゃな 3) のぼった (climbed)
い) 4) あかかった (was red)
Mother who was healthy is not 5) やめたかった (wanted to quit)
healthy (Surprise)!
2) 難しくないテスト The following is an example of teaching gram-
が______!(answer: 難しかっ mar with songs. The following is not a quiz, but
た) encourages my students to listen and sing the
The test that is usually not diffi- songs whose lyrics I made, inspired by one of my
cult was/has turned out difficult colleagues, Yoko Morimoto. The idea here is to
(Surprise)! use a melody of a song learned by our students in
ii) To learn “want-construction” L1, and put Japanese words in it. The following
1) 帰りたくなかった。でも、 ______ one in (24) was made accordingly.
。(answer: 帰った) The decision was made that for learning a
I do not want to go back, but “had-better” construction, it would be effective to
went back. adopt a Christmas song, “Rudolf the Red-Nosed
2) 心配する。でも、______。 (an- Reindeer.” I made not only an audio file of my
swer: 心配したくない) singing, but a slide show to show the sentences
I worry, but I do not want to and English translation, and then put them in
worry. Moodle. This song has three parts, so I made three
b. For JA201 slides for it. Each slide was displayed during my
To learn “give/receive-construction” singing of each part; this is the third part (#3) of
1) お金がなかったから、父にお金 the song. Songs are also good for latent learning
を貸して______。 of “first come, first interpreted/parsed.” Japanese
Because I do not have money, I characters in the songs persist in Moodle because
loaned money from Dad. the lyrics are inserted as slides.
2) 漢字が分からなかった。でも、 (24) Songs for learning the relevant structures
友達が教えて______。 for JA102 (See Figure 11)
I did not understand the kanji,
but my friend kindly teaches it
to me.
128
Figure 11.
CURRENT CHALLENGES FACING first interpreted”. I also found that it is quite a

TECHNICAL IMPLEMENTATION challenge for the instructor to let the majority of
the students log into Moodle only for the song’s
There are two challenges regarding Moodle. As slide shows.
mentioned above, one is that Japanese characters
are no longer readable, unless I use pdf format, or
picture (JPEG) format. Secondly, even if this prob- CONCLUSION
lem is solved, instructors take note that Moodle
availability is subject to the financial conditions In conclusion, the present chapter repeats its
of one’s home institution. Quia, unfortunately, endorsement of BLT because it significantly re-
lacks two functions. First, it cannot replace “Fo- duces psychological and social distance in FFLT.
rum” in Moodle. Second, it cannot present slide Furthermore, instructors need to produce audio
shows like the song’s slide shows in (24) above. files to provide students with spoken input so they
Even if I use Moodle, Japanese characters typed can self-negotiate form and meaning, and so that
in are, as mentioned above, no longer readable. students’ parsers process in the manner of first
Therefore, my students are no longer able to en- (prosodic phrase) come, first served. The outcome
gage in some meaningful collaborative tasks like is important: incomprehensible input becomes
“Tell Us a Story with 4-panel cartoon”. Even if comprehensible, and hard-to-be-comprehended
I give up using Moodle for collaborative tasks, I output becomes easy-to-comprehend output. The
need to use both Quia and Moodle. That is, Quia question in the title of this chapter, “Does More
is used for quizzes and Moodle for the songs to Input Improve Comprehension?” can be answered
learn grammar and the strategy of “first come, as follows: if input is relevant or effective for the
129
students’ developmental stage to move up to one Gass, S., & Varonis, E. M. (1994). Input, interac-
step higher, the answer is “Yes.” “More input” tion, and second language production. Studies in
and its comprehension takes place as the result Second Language Acquisition, 16(3), 283–302.
of the students’ parsers invoking processing prin- doi:10.1017/S0272263100013097
ciples like RA or LA, depending on TL’s phrasal
Hauck, M., & Sticler, U. (2006). What does it take
heading parameter. However, this chapter claims
to teach online? Computer Assisted Language
that input comprehension is not good enough,
Instruction COnsortium (CALICO) . Journal,
but output development also contributes L2 ac-
23(3), 463–476.
quisition. It needs to be said in all modesty that
this chapter has not conducted assessment of the Higgs, T. V. (1984). Introduction: Language teach-
self-negotiation of form and meaning, and leaves ing and the quest for the holy grail. In T. V. Higgs
it for future work. (Ed.), Teaching for Proficiency, the Organizing
Principle (pp. 1-9). Lincolnwood, Chicago: NTC
Publishing Group.
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Brandl, K. (2005). Are you ready to “Moodle”?
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131
132
Chapter 8
The Perfect Blend?:
Online Blended Learning from
a Linguistic Perspective
Roberto Di Scala
University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Italy
ABSTRACT
This chapter tackles the implementation of the way online courses of English language are structured
within the on-line degree courses of the University of Modena and Reggio Emilia in Italy. Moving from
a double theoretical framework grounded on the links between e-learning and communication and be-
tween e-learning and multimedia learning, The author will outline the basic features of the course the
author is currently teaching. Besides the standard tools provided by the university platform (the course
portal and forum and the course content slides), he has added some ‘external’ tools to offer students
further possibilities to interact and take an active role in the learning environment which thus becomes
actually ‘blended.’ By making practice of the language through posting comments on a dedicated blog
and by exchanging impressions and making queries at a number of Skype-mediated meetings, instructor
and students can further interact and create a stronger ‘studying community.’
INTRODUCTION A few years ago, the notion of “online universi-

ties” (in Italian, università telematiche) began to
This case deals with the online degree courses take shape and today there exist a number of such
of the Faculty of Communication Sciences and institutions. Their main characteristic is the fact that
Economics of the University of Modena and Reg- the courses are exclusively taught on line, while
gio Emilia where I am currently working as a exams are taken in the venue of the university.
contracted professor in charge of two courses in These universities are extremely new and lack the
English Language. history of more ancient, traditional universities.
Nevertheless, they are official institutions providing
higher education.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-60566-880-2.ch008
The Perfect Blend?
The same could be said for the so-called “tradi- The standard structure of online courses at
tional” universities which, due to a reformation of the University of Modena and Reggio Emilia
the Italian university system of about a dozen years consist of (1) opening meeting where teachers
ago, are now in the need of attracting students as explain details of the programmes to the students
though they were private institutions rather than (before the academic year officially begins); (2)
state-owned places of culture. first meeting between the teachers of each course
Leaving aside any political and educational and their students (namely, the first lesson); (3)
comment on this aspect, it is now a fact that a set of ten video-lessons (once a week, usually
most universities in Italy (not to say all of them) from 7pm to 8pm); (4) closing meeting between
are offering their students some form of online teacher and students; and (5) examinations.
learning. In most cases, it is not a whole substi- Events (1), (2), (4), and (5) take place in the
tution of traditional, in praesentia courses for rooms of the faculty in Reggio Emilia. All the
e-learning programmes, as traditional teaching is meetings, though, are broadcast live via the Web
still practiced (and so far it is the dominant method and the corresponding files are published to the
of teaching at universities). The novelty is that portals so that students may download them for
many information and parts of the programmes their convenience.
are published on the university’s platforms for e- In order to fully understand and appreciate the
learning. The downside of this aspect is, though, importance attached to its e-learning programme
that often it is just a sort of “cut-and-paste” pro- by the University of Modena and Reggio Emilia,
cedure which leads to the sharing of very simple readers should be made aware of the existence
files to the community of students who can access of a department dedicated to online teaching
online material. which was set up thanks to the joint efforts of the
This technological, advanced form of “note existing structures (i.e. the departments and the
taking” cannot be considered as “real” e-learning. faculties involved in the project). Their common
Nonetheless, a growing number of faculties are goal was to create a structure which could be
offering their students actual online courses made responsible for everything concerning and
whose contents are devised for distance teach- related to e-learning with a reference person (in this
ing/learning. case, the head of the department) and a dedicated
team of technicians and staff of secretary to cope
with the more and more demanding tasks of the
BACKGROUND whole e-learning system of this university. The
department is called Centro e-Learning di Ateneo
The University of Modena and Reggio Emilia was (CEA) (the University’s e-learning centre) whose
one of the first to opt for this kind of distance learn- Web site can be reached at the following address:
ing courses which it has been offering his students www.cea.unimore.it .
through dedicated, Moodle-based platform and The aim of the work done every day by the
portals (see http://www.laureaonline.unimore.it) people involved in this and in similar projects at
since 2002. Since then, it has been the policy of universities scattered throughout Italy (and not
the University to offer blended e-learning courses only Italy, of course) is to make clear that the lack
for its distance learning programmes. The reason of classroom interaction in online education is basi-
behind this choice is the belief in the need to pro- cally a way of enriching and enhancing learning,
vide actual, physical links between teachers and rather than being considered a limit to that.
students so as to prevent the creation of learning Technology must be matched by the quality
environments lacking the ‘human touch.’ of the information provided, the skill of teachers
133
The Perfect Blend?
and/or tutors in involving their students in the structure of on-line programs has undergone some
teaching process, as well as by the creation of the minor restructuring due to some changes at na-
awareness of belonging to a reference structure tional level in the offering of Italian universities,
among the students. and as I will focus on my present-day courses
Universities providing online education must (which are somehow new in their structure and
never cease being communities which are able to names), I feel necessary to offer the reader a brief
offer their members (in particular, students) both but exhaustive overview of the contents and of the
solutions to problems and the instruments through structure of the courses of the previous years.
which students can form their critical conscience When I first started teaching on-line courses,
by learning how to learn in an autonomous, active, I chose to focus on grammar. The whole structure
and proactive way, where by ‘autonomous’ it is of the course was centred on the rules of English
meant learning through one’s personal initiative, grammar, providing a traditional syllabus rang-
and through co-operation and confrontation with ing from present simple to the passive in order to
the other students. offer students the chance to reach a B2 level of
In such context, teachers must be able to: (1) knowledge of the language. The course material
do team work along with tutors and the technical comprised descriptions of the main tenses and
staff; (2) offer their teaching in a non-traditional, grammar functions, and it was in no way different
transmissive way; (3) manage multimedia con- from a traditional course which might be taught at
tents; and (4) manage the times and modes of the traditional university courses. The only difference
teaching process (course planning, class teaching). was the medium employed the channel through
Therefore, teachers and researchers who wish which the information was conveyed: namely,
to contribute to the development of this kind of the blended learning environment, which was in
teaching as well as to give added value to their its second year of existence at the University of
university’s educational offer in e-learning should Modena and Reggio Emilia. For the following year,
possess a fairly wide knowledge of state-of-the- I chose not to change anything in the course content
art technologies and theoretical references in the and material, but I started to feel that something
field. Also, if they are used to more traditional should be done in order to implement the course
ways of teaching, they must be willing to ques- itself and to meet the students’ real needs in learn-
tion such methods and to adapt their teaching ing a foreign language in a semester.
framework to the evolving teaching and learning Even though it is extremely hard to find out
environments. what the ‘real needs’ of the students may be, I tried
to restrict myself to dealing with a limited set of
Blended Learning in issues. So, for my third year, I taught a course on
English Courses how to write a resume in English together with the
corresponding covering letter. The grammar rules
From a more particular point of view, I will now (i.e., the content of the previous years’ courses)
touch upon the course which serves as the practical were turned into a rather huge file of information
case for the following analysis, namely the course which students could find on the course portal. To
of English which I teach. such material I added a number of files containing
I started working as a contracted professor of the basic information on how to write a standard
English at the University of Modena and Reggio business letter in English as well as some useful
Emilia in 2003, and have been in charge of two terms and expressions of business English.
of the three on-line English courses of the Faculty For the following year’s course I decided I
of Communication Sciences and Economics. The would change the contents once again, and I ap-
134
The Perfect Blend?
proached the world of e-mail English. In doing so, can download and use to speak with other Skype
I tackled for the first time the issue of non-native users through a computer and a Web cam.
speakers and their role within the communicative The blog, which can be reached at unimoreng-
exchange in English. Again, the tools I relied upon lish.splinder.com, is called UnimorEnglish (from
were the traditional instruments available for on- the acronym Unimore, which stands for University
line teachers: the portal of the course (comprising of Modena and Reggio Emilia, plus English). It
a forum between the teacher and the students), the is a place where students can practice the use of
platform for virtual classes, and the occasional written English in dealing with issues related to
exchange of e-mail messages with the students. the course. Generally, I post a brief text on the cur-
In 2007, I eventually proposed a course which rent week’s topic of the virtual class, and I invite
had nothing to do with learning a particular aspect students to post comments on the issue. I encour-
of the language. I decided it was time I offered age them to take an active part in the discussion
something different, both in terms of course con- without worrying too much about the mistakes
tents and in the way I delivered them. they can possibly make (especially if they are
The course for the 2007-2008 academic year beginners). I wish them to practice the language
was therefore centred upon the use of English as and to be part of the studying community without
a ‘social language,’ something which draws upon feeling compelled to pay too much attention to
the concept of English as a lingua franca and which the grammar. On a second moment, I will correct
tries to provide a set of practical suggestions for their mistakes so that they may learn from them
non-native speakers who are absolute or false and try not to make them a second time.
beginners in dealing with English. From last year’s experience, it emerged that not
all the students enrolled on the course were active
users of the blog, but those who were produced
SETTING THE STAGE very interesting discussions and also proposed
issues and produced relevant documents for the
The main feature of the ‘new’ course was the use course. Even though there are no official figures
of two different sets of interactive tools which I about the evaluation on this part of the course by
will term ‘internal’ and ‘external.’ the students yet, I feel the students appreciated this
‘Internal’ tools are the course portal and the implementation. Some of them, after taking their
slides, which are the standard tools provided by exam, wrote me to say they found the possibility
the university. Though slides are not a proper of practicing the language very useful.
interactive tool in themselves, it is their use and Though the blog does not provide an answer
the context in which they are used which make to those students requesting oral interaction and
them interactive. The portal, on the other hand, practice, I believe it is a first step towards offering
offers a place for interaction between teacher and a more complete approach to language teaching
students and among students, i.e. the forum. There, and transmission so much that for the current year
teachers can post information about the course I have decided not to change the general structure
and reply to their students’ queries and students of the course and to re-open the blog to the stu-
can make enquiries, make suggestions and post dents who will be able to exchange opinions with
comments on course material/topics. a mother-tongue supporting teacher as well.
The ‘external’ tools I decided to add are a dedi- The other ‘external’ tool was (and will be also
cated blog and a further meeting with the students for this year) a weekly meeting with the students
via Skype. Skype is a free program that everyone made via my Skype account. Every week at a given
time, I opened my Skype account to the students
135
The Perfect Blend?
for about one hour during which time they could Course contents
pose me questions, made suggestions, ask for
further explanations on the course contents and/ The course is part of the educational offer con-
or structure, or simply chat or talk in English to cerning the university degrees in ‘Marketing and
practice the language. Business Organization’ and in ‘Communication
Compared to the blog, the weekly Skype Sciences’. As I have already made clear, I chose
meetings were less popular among the students. to focus the attention on the practical uses of the
Sometimes no-one called, or maybe I had one or language rather than let’s say on grammar or
two persons on line. This was probably due to syntax exclusively. The course, therefore, may be
the time I chose to hold the meeting, which were said to be somehow more pragmatics-oriented. It
sometimes from 6.30pm to 7.30pm and sometimes aims at providing the students with basic elements
from 7pm to 8pm. At that time, students were on the use of the language in order to have them
probably engaged with other virtual classes, or communicate by using English as a lingua franca
were busy with family life (8pm is or is nearly (or ‘social language’, see Di Scala, 2008).
dinner time in Italy). But, as many students are
workers, I envisaged that time might be the best Reference Target
time for them to devote some extra time to the
subject. This is the major downside of the Skype The course is designed for beginner students who
side of the course, but nonetheless I will keep the are non-native English speakers. Online students
meetings going on for this current year. are basically working adults who study in their
Due to their being ‘external’ tools, both the spare time in order to obtain either a better position/
blog and the Skype meetings need no technical job or to complete their studies, and are therefore
assistance from the staff working on the on-line motivated and eager to learn.
programs of the university, and therefore they
do not constitute a ‘burden’ for the organization. Course Main Features
They are something shared by the teacher and the
students alike, the occasion on which both the Characteristics
instructor and the learners can actually ‘blend’ and
interact, thus adding further meaning to blended Interactivity. Classes are given through interac-
e-learning. tive channels, and are devised so that students
can interact with the teacher and with other stu-
dents. Besides the ‘traditional’ video-classes, the
CASE DESCRIPTION course features in fact a blog where students can
practice English writing and exchange ideas and
Online Degree Courses impressions on course topics. Skype is also used
as a further means of communication between the
Before moving to the detailed description of the teacher and the students (besides more ‘traditional’
case, I need to point out some major characteris- email exchanges).
tics of the course as they arise out of the above- Dynamism. Class material can be easily up-
mentioned operational indications. graded by the teacher (and made available to the
students), and added to by the students in the form
of further files/documents on course topics.
136
The Perfect Blend?
Modularity. Class material is divided up in A Means of Social Cohesion

learning modules which, in their turn, comprise
different learning units (which somehow may be Even though online classes are actual moments of
regarded as Learning Objects). The content of social sharing, blended learning allows for further
each ‘object’ is designed to meet the needs of the social sharing when the students and the teacher
typical student the course was devised for. physically meet at the beginning and at the end of
the course, as well as during examinations.
Learning Methods All this can be better understood in the light
of the theoretical issues I have drawn upon in
Self-learning. Students download each lesson structuring the course.
and revise the teaching materials wherever and
whenever they feel like to. The Theoretical Framework:
Synchronous learning. Students participate in E-Learning and Communication
live, real-time classes.
Collaborative learning. Students may co- In a previous paper (Di Scala, 2007), I wondered
operate through the Web even though they live whether it was possible to think of a non-traditional
in distant places. way to devise e-learning programmes which could
Multimedia learning. The whole idea of e- then be used for teaching different subjects. Start-
learning is based on multimedia learning, and the ing from linguistic considerations, I tried to give
English course is no difference. a first, tentative answer to the question.
In particular, I focused my attention on text
Aspects Comprised linguistics which, in my opinion, might serve as
the starting point from which to build a theoretical
Learning how to use technologies and technology layout in such direction. In so doing, I investigated
mediated learning. Technology is obviously the the way the theories of text linguistics could be
core feature of e-learning, and students should applied to e-learning programme structuring,
be computer literate at least the very basic level and I ended up with providing a sketchy frame
before starting the course (and most of them are of reference for analysing e-learning from the
indeed computer skilled). linguist’s perspective.
On the grounds of those assumptions (and
Net-Based especially from a semiotic perspective), I regarded
e-learning as a “text” within the broader sign code
The Internet. The Internet is the means e-learning of educational systems and outlined its follow-
mostly lives on. The Net is the physical channel ing characteristics pertaining to communication:
through which e-learning is provided. Course e-learning as a “text” (1) is a communicative
material can be derived from Net searching. Also, occurrence, (2) has a communicative function,
blogs and Skype-mediated contacts between the (3) has a communicative goal, and (4) is a com-
teacher and the class are made possible only municative exchange between the producer and the
through the Net. receiver of the “text” (broadly speaking, between
Exchange of information. The students attend- the teacher and the student).
ing the course end up by creating a networked It is important to underline how many critics
community based on the exchange of information point out that e-learning must be thought of as
as well as of experiences. closely linked to the communicative context and
that is can hardly be separated from the commu-
137
The Perfect Blend?
nicative exchange (e.g., Ardizzone & Rivoltella, template (.ppt format) for the slides, which can
2003; Baracco, 2002; Calvani, 2001; Eletti, 2004; be any number for each subject taught. Slides
Fata, 2004; Felix, 2004; La Noce, 2002; Mam- are projected during online classes as well as in
marella, Comoldi & Pazzaglia, 2005; Porcelli & praesentia lessons to support the explanation by
Dolci, 1999). the teacher. In devising the slides and their con-
As Thompson (1995) has it, communicating tent, the so-called ‘dual coding theory’ (Paivio,
is a social activity comprising the production, 1991) should be taken as the basis for constructing
transmission, and reception of symbolic forms. materials. According to said theory, there exist
Therefore, communication possesses two dimen- two different coding systems used to process
sions, one which is symbolic (i.e. the production information. The human verbal system processes
of material bearing some meaning), and another verbal and linguistic information, whereas our non-
which is social (i.e. the production and circulation verbal system processes both visual information
of said material by human beings). and verbal images. In the process, verbal and/or
The Internet can be viewed as an immense linguistic inputs are compared to logogens, i.e.
symbolic arena where meanings are produced, basic representation units making up the repre-
circulated, and negotiated by the subjects involved sentation of a word in a man’s long-term memory.
(Rivoltella, 2003). The basic feature characterising As for non-verbal inputs, the representation units
these phenomena is interaction. On the Internet, for images are called imagens.
interaction is ‘strong’ as there exists a relation- This leads to a first, well-established truth
ship between active entities. This means that the about multimedia presentations of course material,
symbolic and the social dimensions overlap. This namely that they are more easily remembered than
makes sociality the message itself. unimodal presentations (e.g., verbal presentations)
In this view, Slevin (2000) proposes a model (see also Mammarella et al., 2005).
of interaction where people are involved as both On the grounds of all this, Mayer (2000) for-
producers and receivers of the message, and are mulated his theory of multimedia learning which
part of a rather complex production activity as is based on three basic principles:
the Internet is and where anybody can publish
contributions or create Web sites. 1. Dual coding (Paivio, 1991): visual and
The Internet, therefore, must be considered auditory information is processed through
from a pragmatic point of view, i.e. as a system two different channels;
of actions where the transmission of meanings is 2. Cognitive load (Chandler & Sweller, 1991):
devised more as an activity rather than as just a the quantity of information which can be
transfer. As a consequence, the Net is more than processed through each channel is limited
just a physical place, and it emerges as a social (therefore, excessive loads result in defective
place where people can interact (Meyerowitz, processing);
1985). 3. ‘Active’ processing: the students take active
part in the learning process.
The Theoretical Framework:
Multimedia Learning Afterwards, Mayer’s further investigations in
the field led to his cognitive model for multimedia
Within the distance education programmes of learning (Mayer, 2001), as seen in Figure 1.
the University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Note: (1) words and images are kept as faithful
online material is prepared by each teacher to fit visual and auditory images in the correspond-
the structure of their course. There is a standard ing sensory systems for about one second; (2)
138
The Perfect Blend?
Figure 1. Diagram for Multimedia Learning (Source: Adapted from Mayer, 2001)
it actively regulates the temporary storage of is likely to meet the learners’ needs and
short-term information and its processing; and expectations.
(3) it organises and integrates previously obtained
information. Lucchini (2005) offers further insights into
Mayer’s model entails six standards of mul- the way online course material should be written.
timedia learning: First and foremost, he thinks the contents and the
format of any online programmes must be of high
1. Multimedia: learning is enhanced when the quality. He then moves on to recommend the use
presentation of material associates words and of short, to-the-point, simple texts written using
images thus favouring an integrated mental a language which is both active and interactive,
model; and designed bearing in mind the actual receivers
2. Spatial and temporal closeness: learning is of the text. He also claims particular attention for
favoured when words and the corresponding beginners: the person(s) preparing the material
images are disposed orderly and close to one for a course should never take for granted that
another on the screen; anything they are assembling/writing is clear for
3. Relevance and cohesion of material: learn- everybody.
ing is best performed when no irrelevant and
not cohesive words/chunks of information Presentation of Course Material
are present;
4. Different modes: learning is at its best when On the basis of the theoretical implications de-
images are accompanied by oral explana- scribed so far, I have tried to present the content of
tions as this contributes to engaging both each slide accordingly. Figure 2 shows the number
the auditory and the visual channels; of slides from the course of English Language for
5. Redundancy: learning is affected when the the academic year 2007-2008.
information is presented in too many formats A brief commentary on the slides presented
at the same time (e.g. figures, written text here is necessary.
and oral explanations); The first slide has been created on the basis of
6. Customization: learning is favoured by a the standard template provided by the e-learning
non-formal style of the presentation which staff of the University of Modena and Reggio
139
The Perfect Blend?
Figure 2. Slide 2
140
The Perfect Blend?
Figure 3.
Emilia. Students will see more than just this por- While slide 1 is consistent with the standard,
tion of the presentation. As can be seen in Figure basic template common to all on-line courses at
3, there is further information available in the the Faculty of Communication Sciences and Eco-
form of notes. nomics of the University of Modena and Reggio
The standard template, in fact, comprises also Emilia, the last two have been devised without
additional text which serves as explanation to the taking into account such layout.
information contained in the slide. This adds to the As a matter of fact, they reflect more directly the
oral explanation by the teacher, and is a reminder informal spirit which permeates the way the con-
to the students of what has been said during the tents of the course are offered to the students.
virtual class. (Also, it serves as a kind of textbook Slides 2 and 3 do not have notes. Therefore,
for those students who cannot listen to/view the the only additional explanation provided is the
recording of on-line meetings.) oral presentation by the teacher. Furthermore, the
(For clarity’s sake, I will provide non-Italian very aspect of the slides, the way the information
readers with the translation of the sole content provided is presented and distributed on the screen
of slide 1): is aimed at making the students feel at ease and
ENGLISH AS A GLOBAL LANGUAGE somewhat relaxed. The (hopefully) balanced mix
between text and images, the short and strictly-
• English as the global language of the 21st to-the-point quantity of information contained
century by each slide, and the use of unusual images (at
• English as a global language: creation of least, unusual for an academic, standard course
communities in English) add to the meaning conveyed and will
• Social networking) (hopefully, again) linger in the students’ minds
141
The Perfect Blend?
longer than more greyish, ‘standard’ information Concluding Remarks on the Case
which can be found in traditional textbooks.
The lack of notes and detailed explanation, There is a final point which needs to be taken
though making the slides ‘slimmer’ and ‘easier into consideration as well, and which plays an
to use,’ has a downside as well. In fact, students important role in deciding whether the structur-
cannot print them out in the hope of finding more ing of the course has been successful, namely, the
details than the bare text in the slide. Therefore, students’ feedback.
if they do not have the possibility of listening to As far as my course is concerned, students’
the recordings of the video lessons, their study outcomes at exams have been more than satis-
might be affected. This fault, though, ceases be- factory, with a fairly large percentage of people
ing a problem if one considers that, in this way, getting from high to very high marks. (Readers are
students are ‘obliged’ to strengthen up the rela- informed that, in Italy’s universities, a student has
tions with the other participants in the course, thus passed her or his exam if she or he has obtained a
reinforcing the very idea of networked community mark from 18 to 30, the top mark being 30 e lode
and adding to the social aspects and functions of [i.e. 30 cum laude]. Marks lower than 18 mean
on-line courses. that a student has failed her or his exam and can
Again, for clarity’s sake, I feel now obliged take the same exam again at a later time.) From
to provide the English translation of slides 2 and this point of view, then, the feedback can be said
3 as well. Slide 2 reads as follows: to be extremely positive.
ENGLISH 2.0 From the point of view of the students’ satis-
faction with the course, it must be noted that not
The Web as a ‘social place’ every student is willing to provide a comment on
English as the language of the Web the subjects taught and the way the course has
English as a ‘social language’? been devised. Those who do, though, express
their appreciation and/or discontent both during
While slide 3 reads as follows: English = the period classes are being given and after they
Latin? The bitten slipper makes reference to the have taken their exam. In most cases, they provide
practical uses and misuses of English by people the teacher with their opinion on the experience
across the world: the language, in this way, ends as well as with suggestions on how the course
up by being chewed up as an old slipper in the might be improved in the future.
mouth of a playing beagle. They are likely to underline both the things they
The non-formal character of the slides is have liked more and the things they would have
matched by a non-formal approach to both the liked to find in the course. Also, they express their
subject and course contents. The adoption of opinion on how they would have liked the course
‘colloquial style’ in presenting the topics as well to be taught, and many times this has proven to
as problem-solving methodologies are intended be an extremely helpful piece of advice on the
to favour empathy in distance education (Holm- students’ part. In fact, each year I try to implement
berg, 2003) along with multimedia interaction my course contents and teaching methodologies
(e.g., forums, blogs) characterized by informal, by taking into account suggestions and indications
non-bureaucratic exchanges between teacher and by students of the previous year.
students and among the students.
142
The Perfect Blend?
Unfortunately, figures and facts on the course universities, is about to face in the near future.
evaluation on the part of the students for the Thanks to the know-how and state-of-the-art
academic year 2007-2008 are not available yet; technologies of the University of Modena and
therefore, any comment on the effectiveness of my Reggio Emilia (which is in part funded by the
course is grounded on purely empiric estimates higher fees students pay for this kind of educa-
based on the students’ unofficial feedbacks. It is tion), besides getting value for money, students
true that the changes in the basic organization of can profit from an extremely advanced, hi-tech
the English language course seem to have been environment. Nonetheless, problems may be posed
appreciated. While, according to the figure for the by outer factors such as obsolete phone-line con-
academic year 2002-2003, the English language nections the students may have at home which
course scored 46% in terms of students’ overall sometimes affect the quality of data transmission
positive evaluation, as of the academic year 2003- during live broadcasting.
2004 (when I started working at the university) Also, the entire educational system in Italy
the same course ranked among the most popular is about to undergo further reformation, and this
with overall positive evaluation of 85% and holds true for universities in particular. Therefore,
81% in 2003-2004 and 2004-2005 respectively at the time of writing, it is not possible to predict
(figures and data for the following years are not what the future will hold for the whole university
available yet). system in Italy. A reduction in the number of degree
Lastly, it must be stressed that informal and non courses seems most likely, which in part is meant
conventional presentation of course material and to avoid spending public money on courses where
contents is made possible mainly by virtue of the only a few students are enrolled. This should not
familiar atmosphere which the persons working be the case for online courses at the University of
at the CEA have been able to create. In this way, Modena and Reggio Emilia, which are constantly
teaching expertise, research, and innovation are attracting people from all the country. Again,
matched by a warm, welcoming atmosphere so though, at present no one can predict what the
that the university can offer effective and rigorous figures will be for the next academic year.
teaching to distant-learning students without lack-
ing the ‘human factor’. And, according to figures,
students seem to enjoy and appreciate it all, as their CONCLUSION
perception of the usefulness and effectiveness of
virtual classes of the entire on-line courses is very Nonetheless, even though the problem just hinted
high: 50% of the students say that virtual classes at is actual and dramatically important, the ten-
are an ‘extremely effective’ teaching tool (while dency at the CEA – and therefore at the whole of
46% say it is ‘rather effective’, 3% say it is ‘little the University of Modena and Reggio Emilia – is
effective’ and 1% say it is ‘ineffective’). not to give in to pessimistic views and to continue
to promote e-learning as one of the innovative
teaching solutions which are likely to get over any
CURRENT CHALLENGES present difficulties. The case I have just described
FACING THE ORGANIZATION is not an isolated experiment which can be con-
sidered as concluded and completed. It is part of a
In closing this chapter, I feel like mentioning some larger system of online, blended learning in higher
of the challenges that the University of Modena education which needs to continue and to live on
and Reggio Emilia, along with the rest of Italian dedicated research and experimentation.
143
The Perfect Blend?
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Rivoltella, P. C. (2003). Costruttivismo e prag-
Eletti, V. (Ed.). (2004). Che cos’è l’e-learning. matica della comunicazione on line: Socialità
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145
Chapter 9
Reflections:
Two Years after Implementing a
Blended Educational Research Course
Yukiko Inoue
ABSTRACT
This chapter discusses the case of a pilot course implementing blended learning at an American Pacific
island university. This case provides a detailed overview of how the instructor applied blending learning
design to an introductory educational research course. The author compares her goals for the course
with the concept of blended learning, and discusses reasons why the two complemented one another.
Analysis of student self-ratings (quantitative data on achievement) and student self-reflection narratives
(qualitative data on satisfaction) revealed that, overall, student blended learning experiences were posi-
tive. Students liked the course and indicated that they had achieved their learning objectives, although
they clearly indicated dissatisfaction with some aspects of blended learning. The case further confirmed
the prediction drawn from the literature that pedagogical and technological difficulties present major
challenges to providing quality blended courses. Surmounting these challenges enhances both the ef-
fectiveness and efficiency of learning experiences in blended courses.
INTRODUCTION have infiltrated our lives so thoroughly in such a

short time. (Beekman, 2005, p. 33)
In Such a Short Time
Computers are everywhere, and our lives are af- In 1993, there was no World Wide Web; but now it
fected in all kinds of ways by their operation—and seems as if it is everywhere (Ko & Rossen, 2004).
non-operation. It is truly amazing that computers “There was a time, not many years ago, when word
processing was the most popular computer activity
among students….Today, a PC can be a window
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-60566-880-2.ch009 into the global system of interconnected networks
Reflections
known as the Internet” (Beekman, 2005, p. 16). guments against the technological imperative
Indeed, the change came with the development of as valid but insufficient to deny it);
the Internet and Web-based communication. (5) reducing the costs of education (using tech-
University faculty increasingly rely on the nology, however, is more likely to lead to
Internet to support the activities of teaching and increased rather than reduced costs, at least,
to supplement face-to-face class time: for ex- in the short term); and
ample, by disseminating course information and (6) improving the cost-effectiveness of education
resources, providing space for students to upload (technology is unlikely to reduce absolute
assignments, and providing students with an online costs but can improve the cost-effectiveness
discussion forum. of operations in higher education by freeing
Certainly the future looks increasingly digital, faculty members for more productive use of
wireless, and networked (Koohang, Briz, & Sey- their time). (pp. 16-20)
mour, 2006). Rudestam and Schoenholtz-Read
(2002) note: “From stepchild to wunderkind, Educational technologies definitely play in-
technology that spawned the Internet has moved creased roles, “partly driven by students’ expecta-
online distance learning to the forefront of edu- tions, but also because they demonstrably improve
cational innovation…. Sensing an opportunity the quality of teaching and learning and represent
to reach more students and supplement flagging an efficient use of resources” (Ryan, Scott, Free-
tuition revenues, major educational institutions man, & Patel, 2001, p. 169). Furthermore, “stu-
have expanded their mission to include activities dents are now not only more diverse following the
in online education” (p. 3). A. W. (Tony) Bates massification of higher education but also more
(2000), project leader for a study on cost-benefit consumer-minded….Students increasingly seek
analysis of online teaching for the Canadian Na- choice—in the subjects to be studied, in delivery
tional Center of Excellence in Tele-learning, has modes, in assessment, and in the time spent on
identified six rationales for the use of technology campus” (James & Beckett, n. d., p. 2).
in higher education: Kim and Bonk (2006) conducted a survey in
both higher education and corporate training to
(1) improving the quality of teaching (using explore the future trends of online learning. Most
technology is seen as one way of alleviating of the respondents (N = 562) expected huge growth
problems such as increased student-to-teach- in online programs and predicted that ‘monetary
er ratios and increased teaching loads); support’ and ‘pedagogical competency’ of online
(2) providing students with information technol- instructors would most significantly affect the
ogy (IT) skills they will need in their work success of the online programs. The respondents
and life (integrating technology into the further predicted that emphasis would be placed
learning environment is a way to develop less on fully online learning, and more on blended
such skills); learning: a balanced mix of traditional face-to-
(3) widening access to education and training face instruction with adequately designed online
(the trend toward lifelong learning and the activities. Why blended learning? According to
need for reeducation and retraining are lead- Lorenzo (2004):
ing to a changing student population);
(4) responding to the technological imperative Because blended learning is an important topic
(those who believe that technology can play a related to where educational technology, in
valuable role in teaching and learning see ar- general, is heading. It aims to please all higher
education stakeholders—students, faculty, and
146
Reflections
institutional administrations—by offering the best much optimism about blended learning due to
of online and face-to-face teaching and learning multiple definitions of and approaches to blended
environment. Institutions that learn how to provide learning (Bonk & Shi, 2005): “Some instructors
blended learning courses and programs sensibly might blend in order to address different learning
and effectively will save dollars, use their physi- styles. Others might blend to take advantage of
cal space intelligently, generate better student face-to-face and virtual learning opportunities.
learning outcomes, and satisfy more faculty and Still others might blend to combine synchronous
students. (p. 1) and asynchronous technologies to best meet stu-
dent needs” (p. 1). And yet, it is true that some
disciplines are more difficult to convert to online
From ‘Instruction’ to ‘Production’ formats than others; for example, chemistry, biol-
ogy, and statistics are all inherently difficult to
Institutions of higher education now must ad- teach online (Lorenzo, 2004).
dress “changing expectations associated with
the quality of the learning experience and the
wave of technological innovation. Those who BACKGROUND
have grown up with interactive technology are
not always comfortable with large lectures as As the largest of some 2,000 islands that make
an approach to transmitting information. Stu- up Micronesia, the island of Guam is about three
dents expect a relevant and engaging learning hours flying time from Tokyo, Manila, Taipei,
experience” (Garrison & Vaughan, 2008, p. ix). Hong Kong, and Seoul and occupies a major
Technological innovations have provided a new strategic location for the United States, which
option of learning to a class of learners and it is operates large Navy and Air Force bases. The
imperative to strike a balance between student University of Guam (UOG), the major institution
expectations and instructor perceptions of higher of higher education in the western Pacific, is a U.S.
learning (Bedi, 2006). To maintain the quality of land grant institution accredited by the Western
online programs, as Badi argues, the instructor Association of Schools and Colleges. UOG has
has to perform a multi-faceted role, providing students from the U.S. mainland, the various Mi-
the ‘human’ touch to the whole process of on- cronesian islands, the Philippines, India, Korea,
line learning. To the extent that intimate process Japan, China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Malaysia,
produces quality instruction, many academics though approximately one-half of UOG’s students
believe that online learning places the instructor are from Guam and are of indigenous Chamorro
at an inherent disadvantage. Basically, Bedi’s ar- or Filipino descent.
gument is that in partially or fully online courses,
‘instruction’ becomes a ‘production’ in which the The Faculty Survey of 2006
instructor plays the roles of producer, director,
and leading actor. Historically, UOG has lagged in its implementa-
Blended learning technologies and environ- tion of online and distance education. However,
ments, realistically speaking, are still in their its recently revised IT policy emphasizes the use
early stages. Few published cases provide insights of new and emerging technologies to enhance
into exactly how blended learning should be teaching and learning. A 2006 survey of UOG
implemented to optimize learning in higher edu- faculty, for instance, identified nine cases illus-
cation courses—both undergraduate and graduate trating frequent uses of IT in teaching (Inoue &
courses. There is also extensive confusion and Bell, 2006):
147
Reflections
(1) PowerPoint slides for images in psychology: In follow-up interviews, many UOG faculty
striking images illustrating the concepts keep admitted that a lack of familiarity with IT made
students engaged in the classroom lecture, them unsure of what new technologies might
and help them to remember the concepts. benefit their teaching: illustrating the necessity
(2) Digital classroom for Japanese language of faculty training in and technical supports for
courses: language instructors with basic the use of instructional technology. Such faculty
knowledge of computer literacy can establish training related to teaching with technology, how-
a digital classroom with minimal funding. ever, should emphasize good pedagogy rather than
(3) Multimedia instruction and course design: good technology (The Center for Teaching and
the best ways for students to learn is to create Technology, 2006).
presentations that can be shared, evaluated,
and integrated into their own learning. Online Edition of English Course
(4) Course Web site in biology: Web pages for
chatting are excellent because they chal- A report by Jackson and Lubuag (2008) describes
lenge foreign students, requiring students an online English course (EN110) that was first
to develop both spontaneous writing skills offered at UOG in 2008. Students enrolled in the
in a target language, and the skills required course are complete assignments at their own pace
to read and quickly comprehend what the but, before each deadline, are required to post their
other participants have written. work to an online blog called LiVEJOURNAL.
(5) Library bibliographic instruction: this The online EN110 course provides the same
orientation covers online catalog, OCEAN knowledge and skills as the regular EN110 course,
(Online Catalog Easy Access Network), as except that students in the former never sit in a
well as articles in online full text subscrip- classroom. As the report highlights, (1) online
tion databases and Internet search engines courses allow students to develop their Internet
through a physical tour of the library and computer skills, providing individualized
building. attention from instructors through personalized
(6) CD-ROMs for distributing information in electronic communication, and (2) the asynchro-
courses: a typical CD contains the course nous communication can eliminate the barriers
syllabus, meeting calendar, assignments, that inhibit students from expressing themselves
reading requirements, term projects, and in the face-to-face classroom settings.
exam information. According to the report, the instructor believes
(7) Original online newsletters in economics: that online learning is not an easier way to get
posting interactive study guides is important through a course, but instead, requires that stu-
for the study of economics, which requires dents have or develop organizational skills. The
students to interpret graphs and data. instructor makes it clear that this course provides
(8) Computers and music education: maintain- an additional option for students. The instruc-
ing computers for students to use for ear tor’s online course readiness questionnaire (see
training and for listening to examples of Appendix A for 15 questions) helps students to
performance material. determine whether the online EN110 online course
(9) E-mail communication: student teachers is the right option for.
have found the e-mail daily conversation a In a personal communication with the author
very positive and effective means of com- of the present chapter, the instructor summarized
munication with their master teachers. (pp. the online course readiness questionnaire as fol-
99-118) lows:
148
Reflections
“My EN110 online setup Web site (where those higher education based on its advantages, its chal-
interested could follow the proposal/approval pro- lenges, and its designs, and its future directions”
cess) is http://www.geocities.com/merissa_brown/ (Koohang et al., 2006, p. 156). According to the
en110online. The original online course readiness MU News Bureau (2008):
questionnaire was the 48 question survey and I
gave to 10% of UOG students prior to developing In today’s online era, the concept of a classroom
the online version of EN110 course to determine extends beyond a walled room with desks and
whether online course options were really some- chairs and into the realm of cyber space. Computer
thing that UOG students wanted and were capable screens are replacing the blackboard and keypads
of taking (i.e. Was the needed technology available are replacing chalk. To provide learners with the
to them?). The registration questionnaire was a best experience, many educators are opting for a
mini 15-question version I developed from the blended approach: a traditional classroom with
larger survey to help students when registering face-to-face interaction supplemented by online
to determine whether online learning was really resources. One University of Missouri researcher
a classroom environment where they could expect has found that while this approach is currently
success” (M. Brown, personal communication, not necessarily more effective, there is hope for
December 23, 2008). developing an effective hybrid approach to learn-
ing. (¶ 1)
Hope for Developing an In the above research conducted at the Univer-

Effective ‘Blended’ Course sity of Missouri, two respiratory therapies courses
—one using a traditional approach, the other,
The School of Education (SOE) at UOG is accred- a blended approach—were taught by the same
ited by the National Council for the Accreditation professor. Students who completed the course in
of Teacher Education (NCATE). Its mission is a traditional classroom with face-face instruction
the provision of teacher education to meet the were more pleased with the course outcomes than
multicultural and educational demands of the the students who completed the blended course.
island’s school system as well as providing for Yet the final examination and course grades for
education systems in the region as a whole. Higher both approaches were almost identical, indicat-
education instructors today must describe how the ing that there is hope for developing an effective
virtual and real worlds intersect in the process as ‘blended’ approach to learning.
teaching online (Ko & Rossen, 2004): “Is it any Can blended learning continue the trend com-
wonder that so many instructors are both anxious menced by online learning? According to Vignare
and apprehensive as they try to make sense of this (2006), “the answer is a guarded yes but certain
new phenomenon?” (p. xv). SOE is committed to conditions need to be fostered, mainly because
encouraging faculty to model positive technology reviewing current blended learning course ac-
usage by seamlessly infusing these tools into their tivities as written by faculty researchers indicates
curriculum and instruction. they chose online learning because they felt it
After discussions among faculty and adminis- will improve student communication” (p. 6) and,
tration, SOE decided to experiment with blended indeed, online learning environments:
learning. Blended learning “is not a novel nicety
but, as blended learning becomes more popular • offer new pedagogical approaches for
among higher education settings, it is imperative learning content;
to draw attention to cases of online learning in
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Reflections
• offer students with different learning styles selected for this course, primarily because of its
more approaches to meet their needs, be flexibility, efficiency, and cost-effectiveness.
more flexible for students; Briefly, Moodle was developed by Martin
• offer students more practice through online Dougiamas of Curtin University as an education-
assessments; and ally sound alternative to Blackboard, so that it can
• offer more active student participation than be used to implement, modify, and experiment
a lecture and provide a better “real” world with an interactive Internet-based course as eas-
experience for students. (pp. 6-7) ily and as flexibly as possible (Corich, 2005).
Moodle, an open source Course Management
Pointing out that none of the above is particu- System (CMS), is a server-based software pack-
larly groundbreaking, Vignare continues: age designed to allow the instructor to provide
collaborative activities, critical reflection, and
…but they are recognized as learner centered learning resources to online students as well as
and good instructional practices…. The learning supplementing face-to-face instruction. The rising
innovations are allowing higher education to get cost of education is demanding a change from the
better at teaching and thus more productive. It traditional, space-and-time bound institutions to
remains to be seen whether blended learning is ones that offer increasingly cost-effective, tech-
better but clearly it is spurring innovation that nologically enhanced programs; as institutions
is sustainable. Bringing online learning into the of higher education turn to the Internet-based
classroom through blended learning gives higher technology to address these challenges, the use
education a very easy way to adapt, innovate and of open source CMS is increasing (Minielli &
become more productive. (¶ 7-8) Ferris, 2005).
Case Description
THE BLENDED LEARNING COURSE Using a Moodle-based blended format, a graduate

course entitled “Introduction to research methods”
UOG’s School of Education has been an early has been offered since Spring 2007, incorporating
adopter of the Modular Object-Oriented Dynamic classroom instruction (35%) and online instruction
Learning Environment (Moodle) for blended (65%), and thus, reducing face-to-face classroom
learning. Moodle training has been offered with lectures and tutorial time. The three main tasks
small-groups assistance to provide faculty, includ- of online instruction are: (1) to provide students
ing the author of this chapter, the skills needed to with guidance for their weekly online exercises,
prepare course materials for online activities. The reading, discussion, and assignment submission;
case reported in this chapter was SOE’s first blend (2) to provide feedback on student online assign-
of online activities with face-to-face classroom ments; and (3) to provide answers to students’
instruction in a graduate research course. Important daily online questions.
factors affecting blended learning are related to Moodle is introduced to students during the
technical constraints of the delivery platform, net- first stage of the course in each semester. The in-
work, and software; cultural factors in institutions troductory research course provides an overview
such as the acceptance of and routine familiarity of the concepts and applications of educational
with technology, and pragmatic constraints are research, with a focus on knowledge of research
related to budget, time, and management expec- methods necessary to obtain valid and reliable
tations (Clark & Mayer, 2008). Moodle has been
150
Reflections
outcomes as solutions to educational problems. rience as a foundation for new knowledge—the

The learning objectives are: instructor hopes to convey the material effectively,
so that students feel satisfied with their in-class
• understanding of the nature and character- and online activities.
istics of educational research; Three instructional methods are emphasized in
• summarizing and critiquing applied re- the course: (1) active demonstrations of skills; (2)
search or evaluation studies; student-centered teaching based on participatory
• gaining an in-depth knowledge of research classroom and online activities, active learning,
designs and methodologies; and cooperative interaction; and (3) encouraging
• understanding of research problems, re- students’ progressive mastery of skills by provid-
search questions, and research hypotheses; ing them with many opportunities to practice and
• understanding of basic statistical analy- to apply what they learn. The instructor provides
sis and interpretation with the Statistical timely feedback, especially in the hopes of increas-
Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) ing faculty-student interaction.
program; At the beginning of the course, students com-
• understanding of the American plete the student information form (see Appendix
Psychological Association (APA) writing B), which includes questions such as: Why do
style and rules for the preparation of manu- you think some teachers are better in teaching?
scripts; and Typical answers include the following: “because
• developing the quantitative or qualitative they are open to change and try to adapt through
research proposal based upon the APA their own professional development”; “because
style. they update themselves by utilizing all available
resources that might be of help”; “because they
The course syllabus provides details of the in- have organized systems to deliver the informa-
structor’s learning objectives and student practice, tion”; and “because they are great planners and
as well as how mastery is assessed. By incorporat- can hold the students’ attention.”
ing an active learner model and a constructivist Regarding the question, What are your expecta-
approach—demonstrating new knowledge to the tions for the course?, typical answers include: “to
learner and revisiting prior knowledge and expe- learn about the process of conducting a scientific
Table 1. Moodle Features and learning activities (Source: adapted from Ko & Rossen, 2004)
Categories Learning Activities Moodle ‘Building Blocks’

Instructor presenta- This includes lectures, simulations, charts, and graphs, as well News Forum-- Instructor’s welcome message
tion as computer assisted presentations using tools like PowerPoint Resources -- PowerPoint slides for each week’s
slides. lecture
Discussion Guided discussion is common format for discussion. In seminars, Forum -- Students participate in a weekly online
instructor presentation and discussion are often combined. discussion as well as a weekly online exercise
Group-oriented and Collaborative activities are included here, in addition to group Assignment: Students work on weekly assignments
individual projects and individual projects presented to the entire class. and submit online
Research Research may be conducted either by individuals or in groups Students develop and submit their individual
(e.g., practical applications, fieldwork, and interviews). research proposal online
Assessment This involves exams, essays, and projects; portfolios that combine Scoring guidelines and rubrics are used; all as-
different types of work; and evaluation for participation. signments are submitted online and are graded
via Moodle
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Reflections
investigation”; “to gain research skills and knowl- Appendix D). The mean differences between pre-
edge that will support a master’s thesis”; and “to assessment (N = 29) and post-assessment (N = 27,
become a better researcher.” because two students dropped) were statistically
Most activities in college courses can be significant in the following five areas:
divided into the following categories: instructor
presentation, discussion, group and individual • Q3: know primary and secondary resourc-
projects, research, and assessment (Ko & Ros- es (Mpre = 2.93; Mpost = 4.13)
sen, 2004). Moodle–supported components of • Q8: know the steps in conducting research
the course are based on these categories (see (Mpre = 3.00; Mpost = 3.87)
Table 1). • Q9: know a variety of research designs and
Smith (2003), for instance, observes that methods (Mpre = 2.87; Mpost = 3.93)
traditional methods of assessing student learn- • Q11: know the human subject application
ing outcomes have typically employed multiple procedure (Mpre = 2.33; Mpost = 3.67)
choice exams which measure recognition memory • Q12: know the APA style (Mpre = 2.60;
but do not measure the way students learn in the Mpost = 4.27)
course. Authentic assessment, which includes
both unstructured (e.g., student work samples, Similarly, data in Fall 2008 indicated signifi-
and journals) and structured informal assessments cant improvements (for the detailed results, see
(e.g., checklists, and observations), is considered Appendix E). Mean differences between pre-
a more valid approach to assessment. Although assessment (N = 29) and post-assessment (N =
unstructured methods are not as easy to evaluate, 29) were statistically significant in the following
they provide valuable information concerning nine categories:
the student’s skill level and learning process as
well. • Q2: have a sense of self-efficacy in writing
Writing a research proposal was one of the a proposal (Mpre = 2.66; Mpost = 4.00)
major assignments in the course. The assessment • Q3: know primary and secondary resourc-
rubric for this assignment was developed by the es (Mpre = 2.83; Mpost = 4.21)
instructor based on the NCATE standards (see Ap- • Q4: know qualitative and quantitative stud-
pendix C for the entire rubric). At the end of the ies (Mpre = 2.41; Mpost = 4.03)
course, students submitted their self-ratings (quan- • Q6: know the purpose and process of re-
titative data on achievement) and self-reflection viewing literatures (Mpre = 3.31; Mpost =
narratives (qualitative data on satisfaction). 4.59)
• Q7: know how to get research materials
Student Self-Ratings through the Internet (Mpre = 3.69; Mpost
= 4.72)
This assessment, addressing 12 areas derived from • Q9: know a variety of research designs and
the course learning objectives, was conducted both methods (Mpre = 3.49; Mpost = 4.21)
at the beginning of the course (pre-assessment) • Q10: identify intrinsic/extrinsic rewards
and at the end (post-assessment). Students anony- conducting research (Mpre = 2.76; Mpost
mously rated the degree to which they agreed = 4.07)
with each statement (5 = very much, 4 = much, • Q11: know the human subject application
3 = some, 2 = little, and 1 = very little). The data procedure (Mpre = 2.28; Mpost = 4.21)
from Fall 2007 indicated significant improvements • Q12: know the APA style (Mpre = 3.07;
during the semester (for the detailed results, see Mpost = 4.28)
152
Reflections
In fact, students felt that they had achieved in Therefore, even in a graduate course (and even
most of the areas in Fall 2008. Yet one explanation in a blended course), it may be that the instruc-
for the consistencies in improvements (especially tor’s approach, incorporating active teaching and
on Criteria Q3, Q11, and Q12) observed in Fall active learning enhances active listening (students
2007 and Fall 2008 might derive from the fact fully attend to a message) which, in turn, enhances
that students participated in three learning events students’ professional demeanor. In this course,
during each semester: (1) the UOG library infor- professional demeanor includes being prepared
mation literacy tour; (2) the Institutional Research for class meetings, engaging in discussions and
Board (IRB) seminar; and (3) the APA style writ- activities, listening attentively to other students
ing workshop. (and expecting that others will listen attentively to
Apparently the library tour helped students to the instructor and to one another), and demonstrat-
maximize their skills in using library resources, ing respect for differing points of view.
both print and electronic, including primary and
secondary resources. The IRB seminar conducted Student Self-Reflection Narratives
by the UOG’s IRB committee chair also helped stu-
dents, since a research plan (including objectives, Throughout the course, students submitted all as-
methodology, and data collection and analysis) signments to the Moodle Web site, creating files
involving human subjects has to be reviewed and and participating in weekly online discussions. At
approved by the IRB examiner prior to data collec- the end of the course, students submitted a one-
tion. Finally, the APA style workshop conducted page narrative evaluation of their experiences,
by the instructor of this course helped students, including their opinions of the future trends in
as one student precisely indicated: “This course online learning. Representative student reflections
has particularly strengthened my knowledge and are summarized below.
skills in the APA style writing to the extent that I
am much more confident in referencing various Learning Experiences in
citations for my research paper.” a Blended Course
The above results confirm Frank, Lavy, and
Elata’s (2003) observation: human beings are • I was reluctant to take this course, but
active learners who construct their knowledge blended learning gave me the opportunity
on experience and on their efforts to give mean- to experience online learning. The assign-
ing to that experience, and that doing (such as ments were communicated and adminis-
hands-on practice, and interactive workshops) is tered through the Internet using Moodle,
important to constructing learning. Therefore, the which helped creating effective online
results are reasonable as well as understandable, learning communities.
supporting the well known Chinese proverb: “I • Blended learning worked well for me. I
hear and I forget. I see and I remember. I do and I studied at my own pace and submitted
understand.” This proverb can be exactly applied online assignments. Feedback from the
to learning in the Internet age as follows: professor was always prompt for each
assignment.
What I hear, I forget; What I see, I remember; • The only thing that I had trouble with was
But what I do, I understand” (Learning Quotes, Internet connectivity and occasionally
2007) the submission files did not go through.
Sometimes the e-mail system was still not
reliable.
153
Reflections
• If I had questions, I could e-mail the pro- Based upon the reflection papers, satisfying
fessor. But I need the structure and strict aspects of blended learning include: (1) learning
demands that regular courses usually en- that can be done any time of the day; (2) oppor-
tail. It is difficult to find the motivation for tunities for students to interact with the professor
studying. and classmates in class and through online; (3)
• Blended learning provides an opportunity. a format that makes the learning process more
It gives us a chance to experience a class- helpful for individual students with different
room way of learning and online learning. learning styles; (4) submitting and storing as-
That is, it gives us the best of both worlds. signments electronically, using any computer
that can connect to the Internet; and (5) online
Future Trends of Online Learning communication with classmates that enriches the
process of learning by collaboration. (Note that
• I think universities will offer a more diverse one goal of this course is to develop of a climate
and wide-ranging scope of educational op- of cooperation and not competition.)
portunities to meet the growing need for Challenging aspects of blended learning
higher education. Its flexibility and acces- include: (1) accessing the Internet; (2) the fact
sibility help to make learning more effec- that students must be motivated and disciplined
tive, meaningful, and practical. to complete all the assignments; (3) reduced op-
• The world is driven by convenience be- portunities for in-person social interaction; (4) the
cause everything that surrounds us is cen- fact that students must be technologically literate
tered on getting what we need in the short- enough to use the computer and its applications;
est amount of time (thus we are living in a and (5) the fact that instructors must have tech-
fast paced society). It seems the next con- nological skills.
ceivable step is to apply that same mental- It should be emphasized that this course
ity in education. maintained faculty-student interactions through
• Through the experience of this blended timely feedback, as a student wrote: “I am grateful
course, I can say that blended learning that my professor demonstrated such efficiency
might be the solution for future higher ed- through timely grading and immediate construc-
ucation. I think there are many benefits in tive feedback.”
blended learning incorporating traditional
classroom environments with distance
learning strategies. CURRENT CHALLENGES
• Online learning is a fresh welcome to
many graduate students, even undergradu- Blended courses may represent the future of on-
ate students. It will continue to grow in line higher education. But the nature of blended
the future for one particular reason—its learning—an integration of formal (lecture-based
convenience. classroom) learning and informal (self-based
• Future online learning will be cost effec- online) learning—presents many difficulties and
tive and time efficient, and supplies an op- challenges. The pedagogical challenges are so
portunity for higher education for many closely intertwined with the technological chal-
low income people, especially in less de- lenges that it is almost impossible to discuss one
veloped countries. without discussing the other.
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Reflections
Pedagogical Challenges guest speakers, question and answer sessions,

and demonstrations. Moreover, during class
The term ‘pedagogy’ refers to strategies or styles meetings, the instructor worked to maximize her
of instruction: addressing the processes and skills direct interactions with students, and to support
used in teaching content knowledge. In terms of on-task interactions between students, with the
pedagogy, as Garrison and Kanuka (2004) main- goal of enhancing a sense of community in the
tain, blended learning should be consistent with the class. To support the reduced number of class-
values of traditional higher education institutions, room lectures, PowerPoint slides (summaries of
and has the proven potential to enhance both the the text chapters), along with chapter exercises
effectiveness and efficiency of meaningful learn- developed by the instructor, were posted on the
ing experiences. With this in mind, it is useful to Moodle site. The course tried to make best use
compare the instructional strategies used in this of the following Moodle components noted by
blended course with the course learning objectives, Baskerville and Robb (2005):
as summarized in Table 2.
In addition to mini-lectures on specific topics, • Submission and retrieval system: there is
as recommended by Regan (n. d.), the instructor a common area for students to submit files
used face-to-face meetings times for activities, (‘To Teacher’) in the administration block,
such as technology overview (including com- and to retrieve files from the teacher (‘From
puter lab work), collaborative small-group work, Teacher’).
advanced discussions, project presentations,
Table 2. Instructional strategies to help students accomplish learning objectives
Learning Objectives Learning Supports and Resources via Moodle

Understanding of the nature and characteristics of educational • PowerPoint slides (text chapter summary)
research • online activity (text chapter exercise)
• suggested readings (PDF and Web site)
• library services and resources
Summarizing and critiquing applied research or evaluation stud- • the detailed critique guidelines
ies • samples of research summary and critique
Gaining an in-depth knowledge of research designs and method- • PowerPoint slides (text chapter summary)
ologies • online activity (text chapter exercise)
• mini-lecture materials on the text topic
Understanding of research problems, research questions, and • PowerPoint slides (text chapter summary)
research hypotheses • online activity (text chapter exercise)
Understanding of basic statistical analysis and interpretation with • introduction to SPSS (student work at the computer lab with a
the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) program combination of lecture and hands-on activities using actual data)
Understanding of the American Psychological Association (APA) • the APA style writing workshop
writing style and rules for the preparation of manuscripts • PowerPoint slides (examples of in-text and reference citation)
• library services and resources (including the APA writing publica-
tion manual)
Developing quantitative or qualitative research proposals based • PowerPoint slides (detailed writing guidelines including the as-
upon the APA style sessment rubric)
• research proposal guidelines and examples
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Reflections
• Attendance: this feature logs the time of Technological Challenges

initial access to a course area. The instruc-
tor can view a student’s record of atten- A constructivist perspective views learners as
dance for the entire semester. actively engaged in making meaning, and teach-
• Class resources: this feature provides ing with that approach looks for what students
data that students need to complete an can analyze, investigate, collaborate, share, build,
assignment. and generate based upon what they already know,
• Class activities: activities are to reinforce rather than what facts, skills, and processes they
what students have been learning and to can parrot (Dougiamas, 1998). In this regard,
help them with current assignments. Moodle is grounded in situated cognitive theory:
• Calendar: notes can be posted to the calen- providing the opportunity for an instructor to create
dar to remind students of assignment due a constructivist and constructionist environment
dates. to enhance teaching and learning. Resources for
• Participants: students and teachers in the designing student-centered learning are embedded
course are shown on this page along with in Moodle and its modules (Antonenko, Toy, &
how much time has elapsed since they last Niederhauser, 2004).
accessed the site. ‘Student-centered’ learning associated with
• Forums: this area allows communication self-directed learning is a beautiful concept,
among students or between students and but this becomes a challenge or a dilemma for
teachers. students when the course makes extensive use
• Logs: the feature is flexible enough to re- of technology. Most of the students in the course
port the results of all activities for all stu- were full-time schoolteachers or administrators.
dents down to checking one particular ac- It is true that graduate students are responsible
tivity of an individual student. enough to study on their own; perhaps in part
for this reason, blended learning worked well for
Implementing blended learning in proactive the students in this course: they felt that Moodle
way creates real changes in the teaching-learning easy to use and appreciated the way that Moodle
process. A blended course “must constantly de- presented materials week by week, and how they
termine the balance between face-to-face and could upload their assignments to the server,
technological components in using blended learn- which were then date-stamped. Surprisingly, or
ing as a didactical method. The use of technol- not surprisingly, however, finishing assignments
ogy, however, does not automatically make any in a timely manner was a real challenge for these
teaching process pedagogically better, the teachers students and at no time during the semester did
have to take care that the process is pedagogically all the students submit their assignments on time,
sound” (Tiirmaa-Oras, Pilt, & Villems, n. d., p. even though SOE provided them with technical
2). The ultimate challenge is to make sure that the supports and extended its computer libratory hours
blended format-based learning is pedagogically to help students who had no computer at home or
sound, so that students can “benefit from the no Internet connectivity.
advantages of both traditional and modern ways Compromised infrastructure presents par-
of learning in higher education” (Tiirmaa-Oras ticular challenges to a blended course. Students
et al., n. d., p. 2). in Guam have to cope with frequent inabilities
156
Reflections
to access the Internet, the occasional power out- and nurturing learning communities; modify the
age, and network downtime. The power surges, learning environments until the pedagogical
brownouts, and blackouts people experience in outcomes are reached; and reflect on the process
this Pacific tropical island promote more than the to reveal design principles that can inform other
usual amount of wear and tear than equipment instructors and researchers, and future develop-
normally receives, even with proper protection. ment projects. (pp. 109-110)
In addition, lack of adequate air conditioning can
allow damage due to moisture, heat, mold, and It is clear that the above requirements are
even insects. Maintenance and replacement parts necessary to enhance teaching effectiveness and
can be difficult to come by and are expensive. learning quality in the use of the CMS for blended
Eventually this blended course will implement learning. The real challenge is to examine the core
various strategies to enhance content interaction: ‘values’ of blended higher education courses in
including animations, short video segments, and order to improve the design, the facilitation, and
interactive activities embedded in the lecture the direction of meaningful learning experiences.
material. In order to do that, the instructor has To enhance and maintain high quality blended in-
to be technologically trained in computer-based structional practices, it is essential for instructors to
multimedia programs for the development of pre- develop and implement assessments that evaluate
sentation, instructional design, media production, the effectiveness of the teaching-learning process.
and message design, for instance. This is another Future studies of this blended course should ex-
challenge. amine actual student performance with concrete
learning tasks—not perceptions or preferences—
Design Research for in order to see whether these are consistent with
Empirical Evidence teaching and learning effectiveness in the use of
course management tools such as Moodle.
One major concern in blended or online learning
is the lack of empirical evidence for learning
enhancement (Macdonald, 2008). To effectively CONCLUSION
utilize open-source CMSs (Moodle in this case),
design research is very important (Reeves, Heri- The notion that a traditional classroom with
ngton, & Oliver, 2005). Design really means the face-to-face instruction is no longer sufficient
shape and direction the instructor wants the course for higher education teaching and learning is one
to take, and the instructor has to keep in mind two that has considerable face validity. Online learn-
design principles: to make sure that course objec- ing is becoming an important long term strategy
tives are defined in terms of the desired learning for institutions of higher education, and blended
outcomes, and that all activities, assignments, and learning is considered to be a more significant
assessments must be aligned with those expected growth area than fully online learning. Blended
learning outcomes (Ko & Rossen, 2004). Accord- learning is “the organic integration of thoughtfully
ing to Reeves et al. (2005), selected and complementary face-to-face and
online approaches and technologies” (Garrison
Design research requires that instructors should & Vaughan, 2008, p. 148).
define pedagogical outcomes and create learning As discussed in the present chapter, now is a
environments that address them; emphasize con- time of unparalleled promise for higher education
tent and pedagogy rather than technology; give in general. It does appear that blended approaches
special attention to supporting human interactions to online learning can enrich classroom-based
157
Reflections
education, and that there is no longer any reason Bedi, K. (2006). Balancing learner expectations
to use lectures simply to transmit information. and educator perceptions in online MBA course
Students should engage in the critical and creative for exemplary learning. Retrieved November 8,
process of making sense of the information, and 2008, from http://www.u21global.edu.sg/Part-
then explore its implications and applications nerAdmin/ViewContent?module=DOCUMEN
(“The Future,” 2008). In today’s Internet age, TLIBRARY&oid=157354
“new ways of thinking about course design are
Beekman, G. (2005). Computer confluence explor-
required to reconcile traditional values and prac-
ing tomorrow’s technology. Upper-Saddle River,
tices with evolving expectations and technologi-
NJ: Prentice-Hall.
cal possibilities” (Garrison & Vaughan, 2008, p.
3). Garrison and Vaughan continue as follows: Bonk, C. J., & Shi, S. (2005, August). A galaxy of
“The primary measure of the impact of blended blended learning examples, models, and implica-
learning will be the qualitative shift in the process tions. Paper presented at the preconference work-
and outcomes of learning itself. The results will shop of the 21st Annual Conference on Distance
be most readily determined by the satisfaction of Teaching and Leaning, Madison, WI.
our students and the success of our graduates” (p.
Center for Teaching and Technology. The. (2006).
148). Thus, although student reflections cannot
Technology trends in higher education. Retrieved
be the only measure of success, they are among
November 20, 2008, from http://oms.educ.msu.
the most useful indices of success.
edu/ctt/index.php?title=Technology_Trends_in_
Higher_Education
NOTE Clark, R. C., & Mayer, R. E. (2008). E-learning
and the science of instruction. San Francisco, CA:
The author is grateful to Kyle Smith, professor of John Wiley & Sons.
psychology, and Mark Goniwiecha, professor of
Corich, S. (2005). Is it time to Moodle? Re-
library science (both of the University of Guam)
trieved January 8, 2009, from http://www.naccq.
for their thoughtful and critical suggestions on an
ac.nz/conference05/proceedings_05/concise/
earlier draft of this chapter.
corich_moodle.pdf
Dougiamas, M. (1998). A journey into construc-
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Pacific region. Hershey, PA: IGI Global. firstmonday.org/issues/issue10_9/minielli/index.
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ut.ee/blearn/orb.aw/class=file/action=preview/ =1218671208
id=358631/EPSS+workshop_+Stockholm.pdf
160
Reflections
APPENDIX A
Online Course Readiness Questionnaire
Are you ready for an online course? Honestly answer the questions below. If you cannot answer YES
to at least 12 of the 15 questions, taking EN110 online is not the right option for you.
I often get things done ahead of time. Yes No

When an instructor hands out the directions for an assignment, I prefer figuring out the instructions Yes No
on my own.
I am willing to commit 6-12 hours per week to a traditional full semester length course and 12-18 hours Yes No
per week to a summer or intersession course.
I am comfortable and competent sending e-mail and using the Internet. Yes No
I am self-motivated and self-disciplined. Yes No
I enjoy working independently. Yes No
I could benefit from direct, personal written instructor feedback. Yes No
I have touch typing skills to produce at least 25-30 words per minute. Yes No
I know how to create, send, forward, and attach documents to e-mails. Yes No
I can use a search engine to find information on the Internet. Yes No
I know how to instant message using the Internet. Yes No
I currently post to or have read an online weblog or online journal. Yes No
I can configure my browser to accept cookies. Yes No
I can download software upgrade and install them. Yes No
I have reliable access to the Internet and Microsoft Word software. Yes No
Source: Jackson & Lubuag, 2008, p. 2. Used with permission from Merissa Brown.
APPENDIX B
Student Information
Course Title: Introduction to Research Methods

1. Name:
2. Phone:
3. E-mail:
4. Native language:
5. Major:
6. Other courses you are currently taking:
7. Is this a required course for you? [ ] Yes [ ] No
8. Why do you think some teachers are better in teaching?
9. What does education mean to you?
10. Have you conducted research? If so, what methods were used in your research?
11. What are you expectations for this course?
12. What are your future goals (professionally or personally)?
Thank you… Enjoy the course!
161
Reflections
APPENDIX C
Assessment Rubric for the Research Proposal Writing
Component Target Acceptable Unacceptable

Introduction • title is clearly stated • title is clearly stated • title is missing or ambiguous
A. Problem • the rationale for the importance of • the rationale is presented but one • rationale is missing or one or
B. Review of the the research focus is clearly stated or more elements may be ambigu- more elements may be missing
Literature • research problems and questions ous • research problems and questions
C. Research Ques- are clearly defined • research problems and questions are unclear
tions • at least 8-10 readings from jour- are of marginal • fewer than 3-4 readings from
D. Significance of nals/Web are cited • at least 5-7 readings from jour- journals/Web are cited
the Study • review is well-organized with nals/Web are cited • review is disorganized, shows no
subheadings • review is organized, but has no logical order
• sources are correctly cited in text subtopic structure • citations are confusing
based on the APA style • all sources are cited, but style • some or all references are miss-
• reference list is in correct form and problems may exist ing: many format errors
complete • reference list is complete but • the significance of the study is
• the significance of the study is shows problems with format either not present or very poorly
clear and well written • the significance of the study is described
reasonably well written
Points Available 40 40-30 29-11 10-0
Method • participants and sampling are • participants and sampling are • participants are not clearly
A. Participants clearly described reasonably described described
B. Data Collection • data collection methods specifical- • data collection methods are • data collection methods are
C. Data Analysis ly described and related to research related to research questions, but unclear or unconnected to research
D. Limitation questions description needs more specificity questions
• methods are appropriate for • methods are appropriate for • methods are dubious for research
research questions research questions questions
• time line is reasonable • time line is reasonable • time line is not reasonable
• analysis procedures described and • analysis procedures are described, • analysis procedures are missing
clearly linked with the research but not fully linked to research or confusing
questions questions • little or no connection is made
• appropriateness of data analyses is • connection is made between data between data collection and data
discussed collection and data analysis but not analysis
• strong connection is made between fully developed • limitations are not described
data collection and data analysis • limitations for undertaking the
• limitations for undertaking the study are described but lack clarity
study are clearly described
Format and style • proposal is clearly written • proposal is clearly written • writing unclear
References • it is well-organized • well-organized but contains some • poor organization
• no distracting spelling or gram- clarity problems • distracting spelling or grammati-
matical errors • few distracting spelling or gram- cal errors
• all elements of research questions matical errors • some elements of research ques-
are addressed • most elements of research question are addressed
• paper contains only few errors in tions addressed • paper contains many errors in
using the APA style • paper contains several errors in using the APA style
using the APA style
TOTAL 100
162
Reflections
APPENDIX D
Pre-Assessment and Post-Assessment Comparison of

Student Self-Ratings for Achievement (Fall 2007)
Pre-Assessment Post-Assessment
Assessment categories M SD M SD
1 I understand what makes an effective researcher in educa- 3.3333 1.04654 3.7333 .70373
tion
2 I feel I have established a sense of self-efficacy in writing 2.9333 1.03280 3.6667 .89974
a research proposal
3 I know the differences between primary and secondary 2.9333** 1.22280 4.1333** .83381
resources
4 I know the characteristics of both qualitative and quantita- 3.4000 1.18322 4.2000 1.01419
tive studies
5 I know how to identify the research problem and to establish 3.1333 .99043 3.8667 .74322
research questions and/or hypotheses
6 I know the purpose and process of reviewing literatures 3.7333 1.16292 4.3333 .81650
7 I know how to get research materials and references through 4.0000 .84515 4.3333 .72375
the Internet.
8 I know all the necessary steps in conducting research 3.0000* 1.13389 3.8667* .91548
studies
9 I am prepared to use a variety of research designs and 2.8667** 1.18723 3.9333** .79881
methods
10 I have identified which intrinsic and extrinsic rewards have 3.0667 .96115 3.6667 .89974
attracted me to conduct research
11 I know how to get research instrument (involving human 2.3333** 1.29099 3.6667** .81650
subjects) approved
12 I know the APA style writing and how to cite in-text and 2.6000*** .91026 4.2667*** .59362
references
APPENDIX E
Pre-Assessment and Post-Assessment Comparison of

Student Self-Ratings for Achievement (Fall 2008)
Pre-Assessment Post-Assessment
N=29 N=29
Assessment categories M SD M SD
1 I understand what makes an effective researcher in educa- 3.2759 .75103 3.5862 .68229
tion
2 I feel I have established a sense of self-efficacy in writing 2.6552*** 1.00980 4.0000*** .59761
a research proposal
3 I know the differences between primary and secondary 2.8276*** 1.22675 4.2069*** .77364
resources
4 I know the characteristics of both qualitative and quantita- 2.4138*** 1.01831 4.0345*** .65841
tive studies
163
Reflections
5 I know how to identify the research problem and to establish 3.0345 1.01710 3.4828 .57450
research questions and/or hypotheses
6 I know the purpose and process of reviewing literatures 3.3103*** 1.10529 4.5862*** .68229
7 I know how to get research materials and references through 3.6897*** 1.00369 4.7241*** .45486
the Internet.
8 I know all the necessary steps in conducting research 3.0690 .70361 3.3448 .48373
studies
9 I am prepared to use a variety of research designs and 3.4828* 1.27113 4.2069* .77364
methods
10 I have identified which intrinsic and extrinsic rewards have 2.7586*** 1.15434 4.0690*** .75266
attracted me to conduct research
11 I know how to get research instrument (involving human 2.2759*** .92182 4.2069*** .81851
subjects) approved
12 I know the APA style writing and how to cite in-text and 3.0690*** 1.27982 4.2759*** .64899
references
164
Section 2
Integrating Online Learning
Technologies
167
Chapter 10
A Case of Using Wikis to Foster
Collaborative Learning:
Pedagogical Potential and
Recommendations
Hong Lin
Oklahoma State University, USA
Kathleen D. Kelsey
Oklahoma State University, USA
ABSTRACT
In recent years, Wikis, an open Web-based editing tool, have increasingly been used for collaborative
writing projects in classrooms. Hailed as a collaborative learning and writing tool that is more powerful
than blogs and e-mail, the pedagogical impact of using Wikis in the classroom is underrepresented in the
literature. This case reviews the design and implementation of a Wikibook project for graduate students
at a major land-grant university in the mid-South United States. Our findings challenge idealistic hy-
potheses that work using Wikis, without careful design and implementation, is naturally beneficial. The
case also provides design recommendations for educators who are interested in using Wikis to enhance
collaborative writing.
BACKGROUND perspectives of collaborative learning in a Wiki

environment. It also shares recommendations for
Wiki, as one of the Web 2.0 tools, provides Web- educators who are interested in adopting Wikis in
based features to co-write and edit. As such, Wi- their classrooms.
kis have increasingly been used in classrooms to This case was conducted at a major public land-
foster collaborative writing and learning in recent grant university in the mid-South United States. The
years. Emerging literature also documents studies university is a research extensive institution that
on pedagogical effectiveness of using Wikis for offers degrees through the Doctor of Philosophy.
collaborative learning. This case summarizes the The university is considered a traditional university,
design and development, students’ adjustment, and offering the majority of coursework face-to-face at
five campuses. Distance education technologies and
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-60566-880-2.ch010
A Case of Using Wikis to Foster Collaborative Learning
innovative technological teaching methods are a SETTING THE STAGE

recent addition to traditional course offerings and
constitute less than five percent of courses taught. Collaborative Learning
By November 2008, the university offered over
650 online courses via its course management Collaborative learning is defined as “an instruc-
system Desire2Learn®. In addition to online tional method in which students at various perfor-
courses, many distance education courses are mance levels work together in small groups toward
enhanced by videoconference. CDs and DVDs are a common goal” (Coutinho & Bottentuit, 2007,
available to distant students as well. The university p. 1787). Collaborative learning asks students
highly values teaching as a central mission of the not only to be responsible for their own learning,
land-grant university. University administration but also to be responsible for working with other
encourages faculty to adopt technology integra- students to co-create knowledge. In collaborative
tion across the curricula and provides continuing learning, knowledge transfer and creating is not
support for pedagogical training and technological a one-way transmission in which the instructor is
assistance as a result of the demand of online and the only source of knowledge. Instead, instruction
blended instruction in recent years. is student-centered and knowledge is viewed as
At the course level, more faculty members are a social construct which is enhanced by both the
using emerging technologies such as Podcasts, instructor and peers (Harasim, 2000).
Wikis, Camtasia, Google Apps, and Voicethread As such, the concept of learning shifts from
in their teaching and learning. Among these tools, instructor-oriented instruction to student-oriented
Wikis have received increasing attention for col- collaboration. Collaborative learning emphasizes
laborative writing, which often poses particular that students and teachers are not simply engaged
challenges for instructors and students alike in in developing their own information but actively
traditional writing classes or courses that aspire involved in creating knowledge that will benefit
to improve collaborative learning. Prior to the others, hence, constructing knowledge for the
initiation of this case study, Wikis were lauded community, not just the self, a concept presented
in the literature as an emerging instructional by Holmes et al. (2001) and referred to as com-
technology tool that could be used to enhance munal constructivism.
collaborative writing in the classroom. This case There is a growing body of literature that
study concludes with implications for design and discusses using new technologies, for example,
implementation of technological tools to facilitate blogs, Wikis, social networks, tagging, mash
writing and collaborative learning. ups, and cloud computing, to foster collaborative
Overall, university administration and fac- learning. Some researchers note the advantages
ulty see the need to reach both traditional and of using these technologies to create social and
non-traditional students by providing quality educational experiences beyond the classroom.
educational experiences using a variety of media. Reigeluth (1994) and Romiszowski and Ravitz
To this end, instructional technology is used as (1997) indicated that computer technology had
a tool for increasing the reach of the university changed the traditional instructional model to an
and improving instructional design and delivery. information-age conversational model of learning
This case is a snapshot of how a faculty member where the learner is actively engaged in co-creating
used innovative technology to add value to the meaning and knowledge with peers. Jonassen,
curriculum by using Wikis for collaborative learn- Peck, and Willson (1999) stated that new technolo-
ing in a graduate level course. gies make individualized learning more powerful
168
and more important in that students participate in contexts. In particular, individuals and groups
conversation and collaboration, forming learning engage in an ongoing and dynamic process and
communities. Similarly, Fishman and Pea (1994) therefore, reproduce reality as their interpretations
noted that “the network’s true power comes from and knowledge of reality are redefined constantly
the synergy of many dispersed minds working (Berger & Luckmann, 1966).
together to solve problems and discuss issues” (p. Communal constructivism is also situated
26). Pea (2004) argued that computer technolo- within the theory base of knowledge building
gies can scaffold complex learning that enables and was well-documented from 1990 to 2000.
more advanced performances through interactive Scardamalia and Bereiter (2003) noted that
features that allow the learner to manipulate and knowledge building in collaborative learning
participate in knowledge construction Gone are is seen as creating or modifying individual and
the days of teacher directed instruction where public knowledge, thus inhibiting continual idea
only the instructor can lay claim to new knowl- improvement. Woodruff and Meyer (1997) indi-
edge and control its dissemination. In this remix cated that community dynamics help foster and
world, learners are now empowered to create, edit, encourage knowledge advancement. Similarly,
collaborate, and construct new knowledge inde- Bandura (1997) argued that people learn through
pendent of the traditional instructional boundaries observing others’ behavior, attitudes, and the
of the classroom. outcomes of those behaviors, known as vicarious
This case study elaborates on the theory of interaction. Vicarious interaction is a powerful
communal constructivism as the conceptual learning tool in social contexts such as university
framework and explains how students come to a courses, especially when Web 2.0 tools are in use
point of productive knowledge construction within as students can observe a variety of interactions
a Wiki environment. In line with Holms et al.’s between teacher and student and student-to-
discussion, Wikis can be used to move learners student, in a face-to-face setting, and by reading
toward a state of conversation and collaboration, discussion board, blogs, and Wikis.
where they are able to write, edit, version, and In particular, Holmes and Gardner (2006)
discuss next to the content in Wikis. The theo- stated that the role of learners and the process
retical underpinnings and pedagogical promise of learning in a communal learning environment
of using Wikis as collaborative writing tools was give people as follows:
the motive for asking students to create an online
textbook using a Wiki interface and how the case The opportunity to reinvest in learning environ-
was developed. ment as a form of communal construction, a
process in which learners put their learning back
Communal Constructivism into the community to benefit others, which will
promote an evolution of learning and teaching…
Communal constructivism is built upon the notion Everyone is constantly called upon to learn and
of social constructivism or social construction, create new knowledge, learn new ways of doing
which became prominent in the U.S. with Peter things and, at a deeper level, new ways of learn-
Berger and Thomas Luckmann’s book, The Social ing itself. (p. 17)
Construction of Reality: A Treatise in the Sociol-
ogy of Knowledge, in 1966. Social constructivism While Holmes and his colleagues (2001; 2006)
considers how individuals and groups construct did not specify postulates for their theory, they
and develop their social reality as the theory argues made several assertions that if teachers create a
that social phenomena developed within social communal constructivist learning environment,
169
then students will demonstrate enhanced learning Students learn that their work is more than
outcomes. They further suggested that the advent just another assignment, only read once by
of new educational technologies warrants a new the teacher for a grade. It is part of a larger
kind of educational theory, communal construc- creation that exists to teach others.
tivism, to guide technology enhanced learning 3. “The communal constructivist approach
environments. In the following section, we take a requires that the course be dynamic and
closer look at Holmes et al. assertions and briefly adaptive… the method of delivery must be
examine how Wikis have the potential to situate capable of adapting to new information and
themselves in the following assertions. In this case new techniques as they emerge from within
study, we tested whether these assertions situate the course itself and from the discipline at
in a Wiki environment. large” (p. 4). The course syllabus and struc-
ture in a Wiki environment must be open-
1. “If the student learning processes and their ended and flexible to allow for changing
work could be captured, then courses might conditions. Students must believe that they
instead build on knowledge rather than have the ability to impact the curriculum
simply repeat it” (Holmes, et al., 2001, p. through their intellectual contributions.
4). Student work in Wikis can be published By allowing students to create a rubric for
in an open Web environment where future grading the Wiki articles, students are able
students continue to build knowledge. By to determine quality expectations for peer’s
asking students to write articles in an online work, giving ownership to the process as
textbook, that knowledge is archived and re- well as the product.
usable. By asking students to edit each other’s 4. Students must be allowed to “see themselves
work from semester to semester, students are as producers and not just consumers of infor-
constructing new knowledge collaboratively mation” (p. 5) and to “become publishers…
regardless of time or place. of information through the use of information
2. “To create an environment where students and communication technology (ICT)” (p.
leave their imprint on the course, and the 4). Wikis provide an open environment for
field, as an integral part of their learning not co-creating content which is automatically
only benefits their own learning, the learning published to the Internet when saved and is
of their colleagues in their classes and those accessible (and editable) to future genera-
that will come after them but more impor- tions of learners, putting student produced
tantly … provides a teaching apprenticeship work front and center in the curriculum
for all those who come through the school 5. Students must be “involved in the process of
system” (p. 4). Apprenticeships can be cre- constructing knowledge and that construc-
ated by assigning groups to co-create articles tion is a communal affair” (p. 5). Group work
and chapters in a Wikibook, also leaving an in this case study required students to create
imprint of their work for future generations a project-based Wikibook, a process which
to use and edit for improvement, contributing necessitated class discussions, peer-tutoring,
to the discipline. Presenting students’ work mentoring, co-authoring and co-learning, all
on the Internet creates an expectation that contributing to a communal constructivist
their work is valued, reusable, and dynamic. course. Students were actively engaged in
Consistent with the apprenticeship model, an knowledge construction as authors.
article created one year should be improved 6. “Communal constructivism is about empow-
upon the following year by the next cohort. ering the learner to allow them to reclaim
170
a role in their own education. The advan- literature concerning computer-supported learning
tage to the learner is in taking part in deep environments in Wikis, pedagogical claims and
meaningful (activities) and allowing them applications of Wikis in classrooms.
to have a role in society throughout their
formative years and not just after graduation” Wikis for Collaborative Writing
(p. 6). The Wikibook project in this case
study constantly infused students with the Wiki is a collection of interlinked Web pages (or
responsibility to co-author and co-learn by articles) that allows users to create and present
creating original content for the Wikibook, content collaboratively in a hypertext system us-
resulting in civically engaged, lifelong ing open source software. EDUCAUSE Learning
learners. Learners challenged each other to Initiative (2005) notes as follows:
put their articles in Wikipedia and monitor
the number of hits received as a measure of Wikis permits asynchronous communication and
quality. group collaboration across the Internet. Variously
7. “Communal constructivism stresses that described as a composition system, a discussion
learners should be listened to and be im- medium, a repository, a mail system, and a tool
portant to others…They must be included for collaboration, Wikis provide users with both
and their work should be valued by others. author and editor privileges; the overall organi-
Their learning tasks should be useful and zation of contributions can be edited as well as
recognized as such. They have a right to be the content itself. Wikis are able to incorporate
needed” (p. 6). Using Wikis to create online sounds, movies, and pictures; they may prove to
books and other learning materials that be a simple tool to create multimedia presenta-
are accessible by anyone with an Internet tions and simple digital stories. (p. 1)
connection provides an opportunity for
students to be seen and recognized by oth- In particular, because of its browser-based
ers. Reflective journals echoed the theme of access in Wikis, passwords, permissions, special
realizing the importance of this assignment as client software, and Web masters are unnecessary.
student work was shared with the world, not For this reason, the learners can quickly create a
just the teacher. Students reporting working Web-based page in Wikis, start to write on it and
more diligently on the Wiki articles knowing publish it to the Internet. In the Wiki environment,
that they would become a part of the course shared responsibility for the quality and accuracy
knowledge base. of the content and building a reusable repository of
knowledge are the goals of Wikis (Godwin-Jones,
Overall, communal constructivism provides 2003). Since Wikis document page history, the
a framework for adopting Wikis in courses. learners can work collaboratively without worry-
Our educational goal was not only to provide a ing about losing documents and correspondence
medium in which to store and make available history. Lamb (2004) summarized the function-
the knowledge created by the learners, but also alities of Wikis that make collaborative writing
to promote one-to-one, one-to-many and many- and editing possible and easy:
to-many interactions within a Wiki environment
that would tremendously magnify learning op- • Anyone can change anything. Authoring
portunities for learners themselves and for others software, permissions, or passwords are
in the community (Holms & Gardner, 2006). As typically not required.
such, the following section takes a closer look at
171
• Wikis use simplified hypertext markup. Chong and Yamamote (2006) investigated a
New users need to learn a few formatting group of 20 people who had not met prior to the
tags, but only a few. Most Wiki tags signif- study, yet felt comfortable in exchanging ideas
icantly streamline and simplify their tasks. in a Wiki writing project. Their study suggested
• WikiPageTitlesAreMashedTogether. Wiki that anonymous writing gave students a private
page titles often eschew spaces to allow for space; therefore, collaboration between strangers
quick page creation and automatic, mark- could facilitate independent thinking, clear under-
up-free links between pages within (and standing of the team members and contributed to
sometimes across) Wiki systems. Linking high quality outputs. Similarly, Hewitt and Peters
to related pages is easy, which promotes (2006) asked their 15 students to construct Wiki
promiscuous interlinking among Wiki articles on an array of topics in a graduate-level
pages. distance education course. They found that the
• Content is ego-less, time-less, and never students considered building a knowledge base
finished. Anonymity is not required but is in a Wiki project was not only an authentic task
common. With open editing, a page can for themselves but also a value-added activity for
have multiple contributors, and notions of future classes.
page “authorship” and “ownership” can be These studies laid the groundwork for this case
radically altered. study. However, literature about how students
interact and collaborate in a Wiki is still under-
In practice, there are emerging studies in- represented. Instead, speculative discussions focus
vestigating the use of Wikis for supporting col- on the functionality of a Wiki and its pedagogi-
laborative and inquiry-based learning. Engstrom cal promises. This case study addressed the gap
and Jewett (2005) studied 400 students with 11 in the literature regarding whether students can
teachers who used Wikis for an inquiry-based co-write using Wikis and whether the potential
project in a professional development teacher- of Wikis – effective collaborative learning – can
preparation program. They found that students be realized.
posted and edited insufficiently in their small
research groups, which primarily reflected surface-
level learning in the inquiry process and that the CASE DESCRIPTION
teachers did not model or facilitate an exchange of
ideas, questions, or provide feedback to students Context of the Study
required to build Wiki articles. Wang et al. (2005)
investigated students’ editing behavior and their The case study represents two years of data collec-
performance in Wiki. They explored the effects tion from two student cohorts who were involved in
of students’ frequency of editing usage in Wikis creating an online textbook using a Wiki interface.
on their final exam performance and found that The course was Adult Education Planning and
students with low usage on the Wiki performed Evaluation and the Wiki project was All Things
better than those with high Wiki usage on the Adult Education Wikibook. Cohort one had five
final exam. Bold (2006) incorporated Wikis in a graduate students in the course face-to-face and
Masters online course to support collaboration. cohort two had 13 graduate students online. Both
The study reported that Wiki allowed students to cohorts were given the same directions and support
be in charge of joint posting, editing, reporting, for developing several Wiki articles in an online
and maintained work without burdening a single Wiki-based textbook called All Things Adult Edu-
individual to serve as the project coordinator. cation (http://adulteducation.Wikibook.us).
172
The case was situated in a graduate level course (an online course) were required to write three
about adult education, offered at a major land-grant articles using Wikis. Students were to create one
university in the mid-south. The instructor built original article solo, one with a partner, and to edit
the shell for a Wikibook using MediaWiki® soft- another student’s article. The instructor provided a
ware (www.mediaWiki.org) and posted it online, handout containing the directions and coached the
purposefully public and accessible. students via the discussion board on the assign-
Students from cohort one (a traditional, on- ment. In cohort two the students chose partners,
campus course) were required to write five articles they were not assigned as with cohort one. Table
using Wiki as the writing and presentation tool. 1 summarized details of two cohorts.
Students were to work individually to create two
original articles, collaboratively to create two Design and Implementation
original articles, and were asked to edit another of Wikibook
student’s article for the fifth assignment. In ad-
dition, students were given a detailed rubric for Since the deliverables in the two cohorts were the
completing the assignments along with face-to- same – Wiki articles, we will take cohort one as an
face instruction about the project. Students could example to demonstrate how students developed
create an article under the instructor-defined their Wiki articles.
headings or create a new topic. The teams were First, the instructor worked with the students
assigned by the instructor to increase heterogene- to design a content menu as indicated in Figure
ity in regard to culture, age, and discipline. The 1, which serves as the Wiki-based textbook front
instructor met with students weekly to provide page. On this page, the instructor provided 20
feedback on the article content and to monitor chapter topics to students. These topics were based
and support the cohesiveness of teams. on the goals of the course and the textbooks for
In addition to creating Wiki chapters, students the course.
were required to submit their weekly reflective After the class designed a content menu indi-
journals when working on the projects. The jour- cated in Figure 1, students were asked to choose
nals were graded by the instructor and provided four topics in the menu and develop four Wiki
immediate feedback for the improvement of the chapters (two collaboratively and two individu-
next Wiki article. ally) for the Wiki textbook consequently. Figure
After gathering feedback from the students in 2 is an example of an article co-created by two
cohort one, the Wiki assignment was adjusted to students.
better address the goal of collaborative writing After two collaborative Wiki chapters and two
for the second cohort. Students from cohort two individual Wiki chapters, students were asked
Table 1. Summarized the efforts of two cohorts
Participants Wiki Articles Required Wiki Weekly Students’ Students’

Practice Page Reflective Prior Wiki Prior Internet
Journals Experience Experience
Cohort 1 5 No Yes No Yes
(N=5, face-to-face) (2 collaborative; 2 individual;
1 edited)
Cohort 2 3 Yes Yes No Yes
(N= 13, online) (1 collaborative; 1 individual;
1 edited)
173
Figure 1. Image of the All Things Adult Education wikibook interface
to edit another student’s article. Wikis, as an lead to comfort with true collaborative writing.
open editing tool, not only keep an updated end This transition was not without challenges.
product online, but also document the history of
editing so that the student author of the article can Student Use of Wikis
reverse back to the original text. Figure 3 shows
the editing history from a student on another Phase One: In the first phase of the project where
student’s article. students were asked to co-write an article in Wiki,
As seen from the figures, Wikis, when com- the majority of the students decided to divide
pared with first generation Web tools such as the assignment into smaller parts, complete their
e-mail and discussion boards, are considered part, then cut and paste the article together after
superior to second generation Web-based social it was written individually. The Wiki was used as
tools because of the increased capacity for col- a presentation tool rather than as a writing tool
laborative work. and the results were awkward at best. Participant
Collaboration, however, did not automati- 1 said (Excerpt 1), “At first, I didn’t really want
cally occur in this project for either cohort. After to use the Wiki. It really intimidated me, and so I
analyzing the data from four sources: the content did everything outside of it and just cut and paste
of the Wiki articles, student interviews, students’ [my finished article into Wiki].” Participant 6
reflective journals, and meeting notes taken noted that (Excerpt 2), “You can feel the rough
by the researchers in the classroom, it is clear transition between each part because it was created
that students moved through three phases when as separate pieces and merged at the end. There’s
learning to write collaboratively. The phases are not a good flow in the chapter.”
described as series predicaments that eventually
174
Figure 2. Example of a team article in All Things Adult Education wikibook
Figure 3. Example of editing history for peer work in a wiki chapter
175
In this phase, the participants did not use the advantage of the Wiki to learn personally and
discussion feature in the Wiki (see Figure 3, notice collaboratively. Participant 3 said (Excerpt 5), “I
tab labeled discussion, which is a white space for think that it’s really better than in class because
writers to discuss their ideas before they are in- it actually forces you to choose a research topic. I
cluded in the article). Students indicated that they think I learned a lot better because you are actually
used e-mail and phone calls to communicate, and forced to go out there and search for materials and
they had difficulty communicating with each other then by letting your classmates know via Wikis.”
in a timely manner. In addition, the participants Participant 6 compared the unique collaborat-
felt territorial about their work and were not coming experience in Wiki with other tools such as
fortable rewriting others’ work when presenting encyclopedias. She said (Excerpt 6), “The idea
their content in the Wiki. In other words, Wiki was of cooperation in Wiki allows everybody else to
not used as a collaborative writing tool, rather a read it online, and they are welcome to edit it.
presentation tool. These findings do not support No other encyclopedias have this feature.” Two
the literature that Wiki naturally encourages team other participants pointed out that group collabo-
writing and editing. ration helped generate ideas and enhance creativ-
Phase Two: When working on the second ity. In addition, it was mentioned that different
article, participants continued to test and adjust viewpoints and backgrounds were beneficial for
their relationship with their peers. In this man- learning. Participant 1 said (Excerpt 7), “In the
ner, they became more familiar with using Wiki group you’re going to have more ideas because
as a software tool and the collaborative writing you have more people, different viewpoints, and
process. As a result, they reported an improved different backgrounds. I think I tend to be less
experience with communication, writing, and creative working on a project individually. I don’t
collaboration. Participant 1 said (Excerpt 3), spend as much time generating ideas. I just go with
“Not understanding the Wiki, we wanted to get what I know.” Participant 5 said (Excerpt 8), “I
everything situated before we posted it. I guess it’s thought it was great to see people from different
just the mentality that when you post it on there backgrounds. It added new ideas.”
and that’s the final product, you get it done. As Unlike the first and second phases, the par-
we’ve learned more about Wikis, we’re able to do ticipants used the discussion board feature in
everything in Wikis.” Participant 6 indicated that the Wiki to communicate in the third phase, as
(Excerpt 4), “I do feel that working with a partner indicated in Figure 4.
in Wiki allows for group collaboration on a more The findings suggest that using Wiki for col-
efficient level, and that I am able to brainstorm laborative learning became more productive and
ideas more efficiently this way.” These comments constructive for the participants over time as they
indicate that when communication channels were learned how to use Wiki and the elements of a high
open, writing was less stressful as collaboration quality article. The findings support discussions
was improved by knowing how to use Wiki more in the literature that networked learning fosters
effectively and understanding the shared value of conversation and collaborative learning (Fishman
co-editing, improving each other’s writing for the & Pea, 1994; Reigeluth, 1994; Romiszowski &
sake of the article. Ravitz, 1997).
Phase Three: After completing two articles, In this case, we certainly found that students
students were asked to edit another student’s moved toward a state of conversation and collabo-
article. In this phase, given the promise of Wikis ration gradually as students practiced and gained
for open editing and collaborative learning, the confidence using Wiki as an open editing tool as
participants were asked whether they took full well as a space for collaborative writing. If the
176
Figure 4. Example of discussions among students working in wikis
initial phases of using Wiki as a collaborative tool ◦ Positive Feedback: “There is a wealth
were underrepresented in the literature, the last of knowledge available in our Wiki
phase began to unearth the promise of writing in chapters and that will only continue
an open environment constructively. The promise to grow for future students when they
demonstrated in this case is in line with Holmes et take this course” (Excerpt 9).
al. (2001) communal learning environment, where ◦ Challenge: “I had a problem with sub-
students were not simply engaged in developing mitting anything to Wiki that I do not
their own information but actively involved in see as perfect, and when I work on an
creating knowledge that will benefit others. assignment over several sessions, I do
not want the world to see anything till
Students’ Perspectives of I am finished with it” (Excerpt 10).
Collaborative Writing in Wikis 2. To create an environment where students
leave their imprint on the course, and the
As indicated in the previous section, students field, as an integral part of their learning not
adjusted communications, writing, and collabora- only benefits their own learning, the learning
tion in the Wikibook project. Regardless of the of their colleagues in their classes and those
adjustment, of 18 students in two cohorts, the that will come after them but more impor-
majority of them had positive experience with tantly … provides a teaching apprenticeship
collaboration in the Wikibook project. The follow- for all those who come through the school
ing quotes, which were from students’ interviews system.
and reflective journals, provided evidence that ◦ Positive Feedback: “I found it very
students had not only positive feedback but also motivating mainly because other
challenges in collaborative learning in Wikis. people were going to have the oppor-
Students’ perspectives were framed under the tunity to see and edit my work. With
assertions of communal constructivism (Holmes traditional assignments you feel like
et al., 2001). you are just doing the work for the
teacher; however, Wiki projects let
1. If the student learning processes and their me do the work for my peers, which
work could be captured, then courses might in my case was very motivating”
instead build on knowledge rather than (Excerpt 11).
simply repeat it.
177
◦ Challenge: “I felt like I was one of read it and think that it does not make
those adult learners who were being sense” (Excerpt 16).
subjected to a process that wasn’t ap- 5. Students must be involved in the process of
plicable to what I am doing right now constructing knowledge and that construc-
in my career, so it made the project tion is a communal affair.
more frustrating” (Excerpt 12). ◦ Positive Feedback: “Doing a Wiki
3. The communal constructivist approach project is probably one of the best
requires that the course be dynamic and ways to help students to learn to-
adaptive, the method of delivery must be gether and add up that knowledge to
capable of adapting to new information and future students” (Excerpt 17).
new techniques as they emerge from within ◦ Challenge: “Collaboration was not
the course itself and from the discipline at easy. I think if I hadn’t had a reliable
large. partner what was interested in the
◦ Positive Feedback: “I like that this same subject or maybe assigned to
is a work in progress and that it can do the work together, I’d like to work
be added to as more information is alone” (Excerpt 18).
reported. New research is being com- 6. Communal constructivism is about empow-
pleted all the time. The flexibility ering the learner to allow them to reclaim a
with the Wikibook is really amazing” role in their own education. The advantage
(Excerpt 13). to the learner is in taking part in deep mean-
◦ Challenge: “Although I really en- ingful (activities) and allowing them to have
joyed working with a partner in Wikis, a role in society throughout their formative
my schedule is very random at some years and not just after graduation.
times, and it is easier for me to work ◦ Positive Feedback: “I hope that my
on my projects at my own pace be- Wiki chapters will help others. I think
cause there are some days when I can this is a great project and one that I
sit down and have my project done, would like to add to my online classes
while my partner may or may not be that I teach” (Except 19).
on the same page as me” (Excerpt ◦ Challenge: “I have some reservations
14). about Wikipedia and the use of it for
4. Students must be allowed to see themselves education. Although most is docu-
as producers and not just consumers of mented information, there is still the
information and become publishers… of chance that the information is just bo-
information through the use of ICT. gus” (Except 20).
◦ Positive Feedback: “I like working 7. Communal constructivism stresses that
on Wikis. It is a break from the tradi- learners should be listened to and be im-
tional term paper or project that most portant to others…They must be included
classes push. You can go in, change and their work should be valued by others.
and edit as you want” (Excerpt 15). Their learning tasks should be useful and
◦ Challenge: “I still find it amazing that recognized as such. They have a right to be
anyone can assess the information in needed.
our Wiki project. Maybe that is why ◦ Positive Feedback: “I think using the
I never feel the project is complete. Wiki chapters are above and beyond
And I am concerned someone will any conventional teaching methods
178
I have experienced. I enjoyed being Consistent with the literature on using Wikis
able to relay my own thoughts and (McKay & Headley, 2007; Qian, 2007), we sug-
knowledge on a subject while com- gest that instructors design a practice article at the
bining peer-reviewed information beginning of the course to teach students how to
into the document. I believe my peers use the software and to encourage re-writing oth-
thought the same about their projects” ers’ text in an ungraded assignment. Many Wikis
(Excerpt 21). contain a sandbox, but further coaching may be
◦ Challenge: “What complicated the necessary to resolve the student apprehension
process for me was the fact that is was regarding editing other’s work as they have been
going to be considered a ‘working long taught to not interfere with other’s words.
textbook.’ I put my name there and A practice article will allow students to become
my fear is that it is open to the public, familiar with Wiki functionality and will model
and they will be able to view it with the practice of interacting with peers within the
my name on it. It is intimidating to Wiki.
offer my work up for criticism (even Instructors are also encouraged to model
constructive criticism)” (Excerpt 22). collaborate writing to prompt students’ critical
thinking and decision-making skills (Engstrom
& Jewett, 2005). During the writing process the
instructor posted comments to the students in the
CURRENT CHALLENGES Wiki discussion page to demonstrate a pluralistic
presence in Wiki. The instructor occasionally ed-
Wikis are a new computer-mediated communica- ited the student’s work while in progress to role
tion tool that holds much promise for collaborative model the desired behavior and commented on the
writing projects in the educational setting. Even work in progress to encourage collaborative and
though students may have been exposed to other interdependent writing versus the cut and paste
tools such as email, blog, course management practice of many team projects.
system, and e-portfolio, we found that students ex- Repeated Wiki article assignments were also
perienced a steep learning curve and did not work necessary to obtain the benefits of collaborative
effectively on the first Wiki article assignment. writing in Wiki. Cohort one was required to write
The learning curve included technical operation five articles, four original (two solo, two in teams),
of the software as well as knowing how to truly and one edited. The benefits of using Wiki as a
write collaboratively (Brandon & Hollingshead, collaborative writing tool were not realized until
1999). The students were anxious and uncertain the third article assignment when the quality of
about editing others’ writing initially, and required the articles improved and students felt more secure
a paradigm shift in regard to working alone to about co-writing versus the traditional cut and
working collaboratively to overcome their reserva- paste style of working. Cohort two was asked
tions about changing another author’s work. to create three articles, and the benefits of Wiki
The instructor coached the students in Wiki work were noted in as few as three articles. It is
ways of working, including open editing behaviors recommended that instructors use several Wiki
and striving for a high quality product regardless assignments to reinforce the skills of collaborative
of individual authorship. Through coaching and writing infused with feedback on quality expecta-
rewarding open editing behaviors the students tions of the articles.
learned to trust that editing other’s work was While this case represents the first attempt
desirable for producing a high quality article. with creating an online textbook using Wiki as
179
the interface, future cohorts will be required to go sessment of their writing skills. Throughout the
back and edit previously created articles to teach semester students would comment on the number
the skill of re-writing and co-writing, and quality of hits their articles received as a source of pride.
control. The instructor has also adopted Turnitin. Several months after the course was over, a student
com® and requires students to submit the final told the instructor his article had received over
version of their Wiki article to check for correct 1,000 hits on Wikipedia.com and he continued
use and citation of other’s work. Students are re- to edit his article.
quired to edit another complete article and check
for plagiarism and correct any found errors as part
of teaching students about collaborative work and CONCLUSION
responsibility for a group project that is neither
time nor place bound. Students are taught that All The case study investigated students’ experience
Things Adult Education Wikibook is a community of collaborative learning, working, and writing in
construction that was created before they joined a Wiki environment. Using communal constructiv-
the class, will include their creations, and will ism as a framework, this case identified students’
continue to grow with future cohort creations and adjustment and adoption of Wikis for collaborative
will serve as a resource for the public. learning. The data, which were collected from
The instructor practiced a pluralistic approach two cohorts of 18 students in a graduate course,
to creating the Wiki and framed it as a student- indicated that Wiki work, without careful design
created project for other learners. Data are being and implementation, is not naturally beneficial
collected from cohort three to strengthen the find- for collaborative learning. In particular, before
ings from the first two cohorts. Our initial findings students adjust to a computer-mediated environ-
for cohort three indicate a continued theme of ment like Wikis, collaborative learning does not
pleasure in creating work that is shared publicly happen naturally even though Wikis provide
and reusable. The students reported being proud tools for it.
of their Wiki articles. The case also presents some recommendations
Cohort three has adopted new criteria for mea- for teacher educators who would like to explore
suring the quality of their articles. To enhance the or adopt Wikis. As more educators explore and
notion of co-creating the learning environment, adopt the use of Wikis, we hope that this case lays
students in cohort three created a rubric for grad- the groundwork for further study on team editing
ing the Wiki articles. The rubric was used by the behavior to advance the artifact evaluation of
instructor to grade completed articles, and was human interactions within a Wiki environment,
found to be more rigorous than the instructor- other than its technical interaction. As Fishman
created rubric. In this case, peers held each other and Pea (1994) noted: “Whatever the medium,
to greater account when evaluating their work learning must remain fundamentally personal,
than the instructor. genuinely interactive, and indelibly humane” (p.
In cohort three, one student suggested that after 21). We believe that the Wiki work presented in this
posting their article in All Things Adult Educa- case study has met Fishman and Pea’s statement
tion Wikibook, they are to post the same article for enhancing learner’s networked learning and
in Wikipedia.com and monitor the article to see has encouraged learners to become self-directed
how it fairs in that environment. The students re- lifelong learners through collaborative writing
port weekly on the status of their Wikipedia.com and public presentation of their work.
articles, if it was deleted or edited. This approach Future empirical studies are needed to inves-
allowed students to experience an authentic as- tigate whether the effectiveness of collaborative
180
learning in Wikis is dependent on course level Fishman, B., & Pea, R. D. (1994). The internet-
(introductory or advanced), nature of the learn- worked school: A policy for the future. Technos:
ing content (experimental or conceptual), nature Quarterly of Education and Technology, 3(1),
of disciplines (social science or life science), or 22-26. Retrieved November 15, 2008, from
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Godwin-Jones, B. (2003). Blogs and Wikis: En-
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182
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Chapter 11
Virtual Organizing Professional
Learning Communities through
a Servant-Leader Model of
Appreciative Coaching
Kam Hou Vat
University of Macau, Macau
ABSTRACT
This case investigates a set of empowerment concerns in the context of transforming classes of student
and teacher learners (considered as department-wide learning units in higher education) into profes-
sional learning communities (PLCs). In particular, we are interested in enhancing student learning
through designing a collaborative learning environment in support of problem-based learning, based
on the concept of virtual organizing the various PLCs distributed throughout a higher educational
institute. Of specific interest in our exploration is the generative potential of a servant-leader model of
student-centered education in support of the PLCs nurtured by the development practice of appreciative
coaching adapted from the established positive change paradigm of appreciative inquiry.
ORGANIZATION BACKGROUND about 20 graduate and 40 undergraduate courses.

There are currently five laboratories installed for the
The department of computer and information science information technology (IT) education of our stu-
(CIS), as a constituent unit of education under the dents: software engineering laboratory, e-commerce
Faculty of Science and Technology at the author’s technology laboratory, distributed systems labora-
affiliated university, is installed to offer degree tory, computer graphics and multimedia laboratory,
programs in both the undergraduate and graduate and the motion capture laboratory. Besides, there
levels in software engineering. The department has are over two hundred PC’s distributed on campus,
a current population of about 150 undergraduates to offer 24-hour computer service to our students,
and 30 graduate students (mostly part-time). It has including Internet access. To help manage course
to coordinate per academic year, the enactment of delivery, the university also provides course man-
agement systems, such as WebCT (since 1998) and
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-60566-880-2.ch011 MOODLE (since 2008) to teaching staff for their
Virtual Organizing Professional Learning Communities
course enactment. Currently, the means of educa- orative teams (as coaches by the side). If schools
tion delivery in our department has largely been are to support effective teamwork to enhance
didactic; yet, we are quite willing to blend the student learning, there must be some technology-
best of our old values of good teaching through enhanced environment to enable learning among
the instructivist approach with the modern-day teachers and students. And the concept of virtual
constructivist way of thinking such as problem- organizing fits right in to provide the mechanism
based learning (PBL) (Amador, Miles, & Peters, of a learner-centered appreciative knowledge
2006).We are also interested in the continuing environment (AKE) to stimulate and facilitate a
efforts to extend our curriculum and instructional learning-centered culture of knowledge sharing
practice over the Internet, through some con- to enhance student achievements. The impact of
tinually renewed electronic (mostly Web-based) a servant-leader model of education (Greenleaf,
course support, both for the teaching staff and 1977) should serve as a transformative path to
for the students. enable the learning cycle of appreciative coach-
ing (AC) (Orem, Binkert, & Clancy, 2007) on the
part of teachers to enable students to tap into or
SETTING THE STAGE rediscover their own sense of wonder about their
present and future possibilities.
The following case description recounts the
action research experience of some bottom-up The Context of PLC
course-support initiative sustained by individual
staff members from the Department of CIS over The premise in our discussion of PLC (Dufour,
the years in reshaping our undergraduate learn- Dufour, & Eaker, 2008) lies in the assumptions
ing landscape through the integration of some of the meaning behind the three words: profes-
ICT-enabled (information and communication sional, learning, and community. It is believed
technologies) environments to enhance student that a professional is someone with expertise in
learning. In particular, this report is based on the a specialized field, an individual who has not
experience acquired through the experimentation only pursued advanced training to enter the field,
of a Web-enabled course support environment but who is also expected to remain current in its
called REAL (Rich Environment for Active Learn- evolving knowledge base. The term learning
ing) initiated in 1999, and reactivated in 2008 suggests ongoing action and perpetual curiosity.
with a renewed title as REALSpace (Vat, 2009b) It is expected that if students are to learn, those
to nurture an emergent interest of professional who educate them must engage in the ongoing
learning community (PLC) (Dufour & Eaker, study and constant practice of their field. The term
1998) to be properly described as follows. It is community suggests a group linked by common
our lessons learned that if student learning is to interests that provide members with a sense of
improve, staff should be well informed of the PLC identity, belonging, and involvement that result
potential and develop the capacity to function as in a Web of meaningful relationships with moral
PLC. If students are to benefit from the PLC, they overtones (Sergiovanni, 2005, p55). Communities
must develop a collaborative culture. If students (or communities of practice) form around com-
are to develop a collaborative culture, we must mon characteristics, experiences, practices, or
overcome the tradition of teacher-centered educa- beliefs that are important enough to bind members
tion (teacher as sage on the stage). If schools are to one another in a kind of fellowship (Wenger,
to overcome their tradition of teacher-centered 1998). Successful communities should provide
education, teachers must learn to work in collab- members with broadly shared opportunities to
184
participate, promote collective responsibility, as follows: The great leader is first experienced
and foster a strong sense of belonging (Clinton, as a servant to others, and that this simple fact is
2007). In a PLC, all of the above characteristics central to his or her greatness. True leadership
are evident. Educators create an environment that emerges from those whose primary motivation is
fosters shared understanding, a sense of identity, a deep desire to help others. In all of his works,
high levels of involvement, mutual cooperation, Greenleaf discusses the need for a better kind of
collective responsibility, emotional support, and a leadership model, a model that puts serving others
strong sense of belonging as they work together to – including students, employees, customers, and
achieve what they cannot accomplish alone. The community – as the number one priority. Servant
essence of the PLC is a focus on and a commitment leadership emphasizes increased service to others,
to the learning of each student (Dufour & Eaker, a holistic approach to work, promoting a sense of
1998). To achieve this shared purpose, members community, and the sharing of power in decision
of a PLC are expected to create and are guided by making. In The Servant as Leader, Greenleaf wrote
a clear and compelling vision of what their school (Beazley, Beggs, & Spears, 2003):
(or teaching) must become to help all students
learn. This often requires of the PLC members It begins with the natural feelings that one wants
to make collective commitments that clarify what to serve, to serve first. Then conscious choice
each member will do to contribute to creating a brings one to aspire to lead. The difference
PLC, and to use results-oriented goals to mark their manifests itself in the care taken by the servant
progress. Still, one of the major challenges in the – first to make sure that other people’s highest
implementation of the PLC concept is convincing priority needs are being served. The best test is:
educators to move beyond the question, “Was it do those served grow as persons; do they, while
taught?” to the far more relevant question, “Was being served, become healthier, wiser, freer, more
it learned?” This case description advocates for autonomous, more likely themselves to become
a new culture of learning that addresses how servants? (p. 16)
educators will work to improve their teaching,
and subsequently student learning. Thereby, at its core, servant leadership is a
long-term, transformational approach to life and
The Servant-Leader work – in essence, a way of being – that has the
Model of Education potential for creating positive change throughout
our society. In the setting of education, the context
The term servant-leadership was first coined in a of servant leadership brings forth the concept
1970 essay by Robert K. Greenleaf entitled The of teacher as servant, carrying the connotation
Servant as Leader (Greenleaf, 1977; http://www. that student-centered education serves to shift
greenleaf. org). As a lifelong student of how things from a focus on teaching to a focus on student
get done in organizations, Greenleaf distilled his learning.
observations in a series of essays and books on
the theme of servant leadership – the objective The Potential of
of which was to stimulate thought and action Appreciative Coaching
for building a better, more caring society. The
idea of the servant as leader came partly out of The practice of AC attributed to (Orem, Binkert,
Greenleaf’s half century of experience in working & Clancy, 2007) is developed from the established
to shape large institutions. The central meaning of change management paradigm of appreciative
servant leadership was interpreted by Greenleaf inquiry (AI) whose philosophy is based on the
185
assumption that inquiry into and dialogue about as is possible or appropriate. Typically, clients
strengths, successes, hopes and dreams is itself a step into the destiny stage once they have begun
transformational process (Cooperrider & Whitney, to implement the concrete actions and practices
2005). AC describes an approach to coaching that they identified and designed in the design stage
shows individuals how to tap into or rediscover for realizing their desired future. The destiny stage
their own sense of wonder and excitement about is a time for clients to acknowledge and celebrate
their present life and future possibilities. Rather the accomplishments they are making in either
than focusing on individuals in limited or problem- moving toward or actually realizing their dream.
oriented ways, AC is meant to guide individuals At the conclusion of this stage, clients may choose
through different stages of appreciative develop- to move to a second cycle of AC by expanding
ment: discovery, dream, design and destiny – that on other elements of their dream or creating a
inspire them to an empowering view of themselves new dream. This is an excellent opportunity for
and their future. The core process of AC begins coaches to help client reflect on the work they
with the selection of a topic. In the context of our have done and appreciate the result they have
discussion, the topic chosen for student-centered achieved. This AC process of emphasizing the
education has been “enhancing student learning positive seems in most cases to generate positive
through implementing a PLC of problem-based feelings, increased energy, and a deeper connection
learning.” At the outset of the coaching relation- to oneself. It is nonetheless true that exploring
ship such as in the discovery stage, core questions one’s innermost desires should turn out to be a
serve to explore the client’s strengths, past suc- pleasurable experience.
cesses, work and personal values, and the one or
two things he or she longs to have more of or to The Flexibility of Virtual Organizing
have being different in life. From the answers to
these questions come the tools for learning and The idea of virtual organizing, attributed to Venka-
change. In practice, trust should begin to build in traman and Henderson (1998), can be considered
the coaching relationship when clients can experi- as a method of operationalizing a PLC, dynami-
ence some positive feelings about themselves and cally assembling and disassembling nodes on a
their situation. In the dream stage, client and coach network of people or groups of people, to meet
come together to make sense of the answers to the demands of a particular learning context.
the core questions so that they may apply these This term emerged in response to the concept of
answers to the topic. In this stage, we are using the virtual organization, which appeared in the lit-
client’s proudest accomplishments, core skills and erature around the late twentieth century (Byrne,
strengths, and deepest values to create something Brandt, & Port 1993; Davidow & Malone 1992;
with which we can explore and experiment. Once Hedberg, Dahlgren, Hansson, & Olve 1997). There
the client could bring his or her dream into clear are two main assertions associated with virtual
view, it is time to design a plan for the dream. The organizing. First, virtual organization should not
design stage relates to the ongoing dance between be considered as a distinct structure such as a net-
coach and client of defining, performing, and as- work organization in an extreme and far-reaching
sessing experiments. Design implies a plan or an form (Jagers, Jansen, & Steenbakkers 1998), but
impression or a mock-up of some future reality. virtuality is a strategic characteristic applicable
There is no assumption that an initial design is to every organization. Second, IT is a powerful
the final design. Experimentation is the order of enabler of the critical requirements for effective
the day. The ultimate design should incorporate virtual organizing. In practice, virtual organiz-
as many of the skills and strengths of the client ing helps emphasize the ongoing process nature
186
of the organization, and it presents a framework by the side, guiding, probing, and supporting
of achieving virtuality in terms of three distinct student-groups’ initiatives along the way, could
yet interdependent vectors: virtual encounter for help students develop a unified team-based ap-
organization-wide interactions, virtual sourcing proach to better manage the underlying software
for asset configuration, and virtual expertise for requirements. Methodically, we still need some
knowledge leverage. The challenge of virtual or- working scenarios to try out the iterative learn-
ganizing is to integrate the three hitherto separate ing process involving researchers (instructor)
vectors into an interoperable IT platform that sup- and practitioners (students) acting together on a
ports and shapes the new organizational initiative, particular cycle of activities, including problem
paying attention to the internal consistency across diagnosis, action intervention, and reflective learn-
the three vectors. ing. In particular, our action research approach
should involve evaluating how well the students
playing the role of practitioners, could function
CASE DESCRIPTION as self-directed work teams (SDWTs) of software
professionals, following the constructivist’s tenets
The teaching of SFTW 300 Software Psychology, of PBL, in performing group-based software de-
a junior core course more properly renamed as velopment for specific user scenarios. Against this
human-computer interactions (HCI) (Vat, 2001) backdrop, the use of AC has demonstrated quite
in the undergraduate curriculum of Software En- a promise in enhancing the student-practitioners’
gineering offered by the Department of Computer learning to deal with the design difficulties typi-
and Information Science, has always been a chal- fied in the complex domain of ill-defined problem
lenge as it is composed of such a mix of elements situations.
as human factors, user expectations, man-machine
interfaces construction, cognitive psychology, Recognizing the PBL Potential
computer science, and those latest developments of Student Collaboration
on contextual design in interactive systems (IS).
In the case of the author’s teaching experience, PBL, (Greening, 2000; Ryan, 1993; Barrows,
since 1998, the pedagogy adopted to deliver such 1986), as a pedagogy, is designed to actively
a course has been shifted from a conventional in- engage our students, divided in groups, in op-
structivist approach to the constructivist method of portunities for knowledge seeking, for problem
problem-based learning (PBL) (Greening, 2000). solving, and for the collaborating necessary for
Besides, with the increasingly accumulated course effective practice. At the heart of PBL are some
materials to cover in a single semester, the idea complex real-world problems used to motivate
of scenario-based design (Carroll, 2000) has also students to identify and research the issues and
been incorporated starting from 2000 with an at- principles they need to know to work through those
tempt to help undergraduate Software Engineering problems (Boud & Feletti, 1997). The design of a
students deepen the idea that HCI is concerned PBL-based curriculum addresses directly many of
with understanding, designing, evaluating and the recommended and desirable outcomes of an
implementing interactive computer systems to undergraduate education; specifically, the ability
match the needs of people. It is our experience to do the following (Boyer, 1998):
that the constructivist’s ideas of PBL (Barrows,
1986) revolving around a focal problem, group • think critically and be able to analyze and
work, feedback, skill development and iterative solve complex, real-world problems;
reporting, with the instructor playing the coach
187
• find, evaluate, and use appropriate learning An example is the scribe, who records the group’s
resources; problem solving, including listing the facts known
• work cooperatively in teams and small about the problem, students’ ideas, additional
groups; questions about the problem, and the learning
• demonstrate versatile and effective com- issues generated throughout ensuing discussion.
munication skills, both verbal and written; Such written record helps the students keep track
and of their problem solving and provides a focus
• use content knowledge and intellectual for negotiation and reflection. Throughout the
skills acquired at the university to become problem-solving process, students are encour-
continual learners. aged to pause to reflect on the data collected,
generating additional questions about that data,
Since PBL is often designed to enable group- and hypothesizing about the problem and about
based project work among small teams of students possible solutions. Early in the PBL process, the
around a set of teamwork activities, including facilitator may question students to help them
climate setting, starting a problem, following realize what they do not understand. As students
up the problem, and reflecting on the problem, a become more experienced with the PBL method
brief description of the PBL cycle of collaboration and take on more of the responsibility for iden-
is thereby helpful to understand its potential for tifying learning issues, the facilitator is able to
student collaboration: fade this type of support, or scaffolding. After
the group has developed its initial understanding
The Climate Setting Phase of the problem, the students divide up and inde-
pendently research the learning issues they have
At the outset, before the PBL group work begins, identified. The learning issues define the group’s
students must get to know one another, establish learning goals and help group-members work
ground rules, and help create a comfortable climate toward a set of shared objectives. These objec-
for collaborative learning. Meeting in a small tives can also help the facilitator to monitor the
group for the first time, students typically introduce group’s progress and to remind members when
themselves, stressing their academic backgrounds they are getting off course, or alternately, to ask
to allow the facilitator (instructor) and each other if they need to revise their goals.
to understand what expertise might potentially be
distributed in the group. The most important task The Problem Follow-up Phase
is to establish a non-judgmental climate in which
students recognize and articulate what they know In the problem follow-up phase, students re-
and what they do not know. convene to share what they have learned, to
re-consider their hypotheses, or to generate new
The Problem Initiation Phase hypotheses in light of their new learning. These
further analyses, and accompanying ideas about
The actual PBL episode begins by presenting solutions, allow students to apply their newly ac-
a group of students with minimal information quired knowledge to the problem. Students share
about a particular problem. Students then query what they have learned with the group as they in-
the given materials to determine what informa- terpret the problem through the lens of their newly
tion is available and what they still need to know accessed information. At this point, it is important
and to learn to solve the problem. During this for the students to evaluate their own information
phase, students typically take on specific roles. and that of the others in their group. In the PBL
188
group, information is not often accepted at face education. Simply stated, this style of learning
value. Students must discuss how they acquired and teaching from MOODLE, short for modular
their information and critique their resources. object-oriented dynamic learning environment, is
This process is an important means of helping the based on four main concepts (http://docs.moodle.
students become self-directed learners. org/en/Philosophy):
Constructivism: The constructivist believes
The Problem Reflection Phase that students actively construct new knowledge
as they interact with their environments, including
During post-problem reflection, students deliber- their course activities and other students.
ately reflect on the problem to abstract the lessons Constructionism: The constructionist asserts
learned. They consider the connections between that students learn more when they construct learn-
the current problem and previous problems, con- ing experiences for others. We might be familiar
sidering how this problem is similar to and different with the learning pyramid (http://homepages.
from other problems. This reflection allows them gold.ac.uk/polovina/learnpyramid/index.html)
to make generalizations and to understand when which states that students remember 10% of what
this knowledge can be applied. Finally, as the they read, 20% of what they hear, 30% of what is
students evaluate their own performance and that demonstrated to them, 50% of what they discuss,
of their peers, they reflect on the effectiveness of and 75% of what they practice. That same pyramid
their self-directed learning and their collaborative also states that students retain 90% of what they
problem solving. teach others.
Consequently, PBL acknowledges the possibil- Social Constructionism: This extends con-
ity of prior knowledge held by the learner. Further structionism into social settings where groups
knowledge is acquired on a need-to-know basis, construct knowledge for one another, collabora-
enabling the learner to diagnose his or her own tively creating a small culture of shared artifacts
learning needs. Knowledge gained is fed back with shared meanings. When students become
into the problem in an iterative loop (Margetson, part of a culture, they are constantly learning.
1994). PBL allows the synthesis of topics and For example, in the context of ballroom dancing,
subjects. According to Woods (1994), one specific there is a large difference between watching a
advantage of this approach is increased motivation; video showing people dancing, and practicing in
namely, learners learn because they are interested. a class with other students and possibly a variety
More importantly, Woods maintains that because of teachers. The latter would enrich and accelerate
of the way in which knowledge is acquired in PBL, our learning process.
links are provided with experience which help in Separate and connected behavior: The context
future recall. This is invaluable for students’ future of connected and separate behaviors come from
professional life (Barrows, 1986). the study of human motivations: separate behavior
occurs when people try to remain objective and
Supporting PBL Online factual, tending to defend their ideas by pinpoint-
ing holes in their opponents’ ideas. Connected
In the context of our PBL learning design elabo- behavior is the empathic approach that accepts
rated in the following course scenario, the basic subjectivity, trying to listen and ask questions in
online support comes mainly from the MOODLE an effort to understand others’ point of view. It
environment (www.moodle.org) which is an is convinced that a healthy amount of connected
ongoing open-source development project to behavior within a learning community is a very
support a social constructionist framework of powerful stimulant for learning, because it not
189
only brings people closer together but promotes based development. The general requirement is
deeper reflection and re-examination of their for each PBL team to create and maintain a review
existing beliefs. Web-site to keep all team members up-to-date on
all possible aspects of the project. It is also where
Defining the Course Scenario of the PBL team will work (report) collaboratively on
Student-Centered Education the project. Through the review Web-site, our PBL
teams can conduct reviews with their clients, who
At each semester when SFTW 300 Software can view their project in progress, give feedback
Psychology is offered, our course scenario begins on a design, get in touch with the developer PBL
when the instructor helps the class evolve into team, and check the project schedule. The review
its team-based organization. Typically, students Web-site contains numerous information such as:
embark on the PBL cycle of learning through the roles and responsibilities of the project team,
organized groups of 4-6 members (one being contact information for all team members, the
the team leader). Each PBL group will be given project mission, the vision document, the project
a dual role to explore as client and as developer schedule, and all design reviews. It is designed
within a specified period of time. Namely, each that the first thing our PBL teams have to learn
team, acting as the developer, is to complete an is a systematic approach to eliciting, organizing,
interactive systems (IS) design and prototype for and documenting the requirements of the system
another team acting as the client. Yet, the same to be built for the client team. Also important is a
team is the client of another group, responsible for process that establishes and maintains continuous
clarifying the project, and resolving ambiguities agreement between the client and the developer
as they arise, but in any pair of PBL teams (say, teams (Curtis, Krasner, & Iscoe, 1988) on the
A and B), they cannot be the client and the devel- changing requirements of the system. Individual
oper of each other at the same time. It should be PBL teams have to understand users’ problems
noted that an even number of teams is desirable in their culture and their language and to build
to facilitate pair-wise client-developer interaction. systems that meet their needs. Practically, the HCI
Meanwhile, the instructor, more appropriately context for the course is designed around four
called the facilitator, acts as project sponsor for core development processes to be experienced
each client team, and as project supervisor for by our PBL student-groups within the semester’s
each developer team. Each client team is handed duration constraint.
a design project by the sponsor. It is then given Analyzing the Problem. This involves a set
some inception time to elaborate on the specifics of skills to understand the problem to be solved
of the project. At the end of the inception period, before application development begins. It is the
each client team is assigned a developer team process of understanding real-world problems and
from among the remaining client teams. After a user needs and proposing solutions to meet those
developer team has been identified, the working needs. We consider a problem as the difference
and performance of the developer team is guided between things as perceived and things as derived
and monitored by the project supervisor played by (Gause & Weinberg, 1989). Accordingly, if the
the instructor. In a typical semester, there might user perceives something as a problem, it is a real
easily be six to ten PBL teams of students, with each problem, and it is worthy of addressing.
team composed of four to six members each. Understanding User Needs. Software teams are
Essentially, each design project invites our PBL rarely given effective requirements specifications
student-groups to embark on a journey to develop for the systems they are going to build. Often
some IS that meets customers’ real needs in Web- they have to go out and get the information they
190
need to be successful. Typical methods include answer session for the client team and the whole
interviewing and questionnaires, requirements class. The instructor, acting as the project sponsor
workshop, brainstorming and idea reduction, for each client team, and as the project supervisor
storyboarding, role playing, and prototyping. for each developer team, designs the necessary
Each represents a proactive means of pushing scenario details to guide, motivate and provide
knowledge of user needs forward and thereby feedback to the PBL groups. Also, the instructor
converting fuzzy requirements to those that are has to evaluate how well students perform in the
better recognized. PBL groups and how well such groups behave
Defining the System. This describes the process as SDWTs in managing software requirements
by which the team converts an understanding of (Conklin & Burgess-Yakemovic, 1991), and pro-
the problem and the users’ needs to the initial vide the necessary adjustments for the scenarios.
definition of a system or application that will Typically, there are a number of milestones set for
address those needs. Our PBL teams should learn project teams throughout the semester. In particu-
that complex systems require adaptive strategies lar, there will be a milestone for all client teams to
to organize information for requirements. This present their systems of interest, followed by the
information could be expressed in terms of a milestones for all developer teams to fulfill the
hierarchy, starting with user needs, transitioning system design, prototyping, and final delivery. At
through feature sets, then into the more detailed the completion of each milestone, each PBL team
software requirements. will be assessed according to their performance,
Managing the Project Scope. Project scope is in terms of the necessary deliverables produced,
presented as a combination of the functionality to and the presentation made by the whole team.
be delivered to meet users’ needs, the resources Records of the team’s work should also be avail-
available for the project, and the time allowed in able from the team’s review Web site for evalua-
which to achieve the implementation. The purpose tion purpose. There will be a group grade and an
of scope management is to establish a high-level individual grade for each member of the team.
requirements baseline for the project. The team The group grade is the same for all members,
has to establish the rough level of effort required but the individual grade is different. The group
for each feature of the baseline, including risk grade is given by the instructor and by the whole
estimation on whether implementing it will cause class, except for the group being evaluated. The
an adverse impact on the schedule. individual grade is given through peer evaluation
Throughout the course delivery, each PBL team among members of the PBL team. Specifically,
is required to present their work in progress, and a peer evaluation form is created by the group,
lead class forums to elicit students’ discussions. which is used by each member of the team to
The team leader, equivalent to project manager, rate every other member in the same team. The
has to coordinate the team activities, and ensure rating is often divided into three aspects: qualita-
effective team communications. And team mem- tive comments of the member’s work throughout
bers have to help set the project goals, accomplish the milestone, the ranking of the member in the
tasks assigned, meet deadlines, attend team meet- group including the evaluator-member, using
ings and participate in editing project documents the scale of 1-to-5 (5: highest performance; 1:
and integrating work-products to be combined as lowest performance), and the bonus distribution
the final project report. At the end of each project among all the members, of a specific amount,
milestones, each member of the respective PBL say, how much each member gets allocated out of
teams is required to make a presentation of his 1000 dollars of bonus. In the specific instance of
or her project involvement, with a question and client-developer pair, each developer-team should
191
also be evaluated by the client-team using a more and no one is happy with the result, nor does it
detailed format because of the direct relationship mean that everyone is in complete agreement.
between the two PBL teams. What convergence means is that everyone has
participated and will support the final decision.
Tackling the Issues of Team- Kaner calls this period between divergence and
Based Collaboration convergence the groan zone because it is the time
during which team members groan and complain.
Students engaged in the attempt to build Web-based In the divergent zone, most group members voice
support for specific user situation, are reminded of their opinions to make sure their ideas being heard
the delicate business of creating a conglomeration by the group. In the groan zone, however, an in-
of various human activity systems. This endeavor dividual digs behind other people’s ideas to try
requires the effort and commitment on the part of to uncover their reasons, assumptions and mental
everyone (client and developer) involved, as well models. Difficult problems and wrenching deci-
as a good imagination in the mind of those charged sions cause teams to spend time in the groan zone
with directing its implementation (Fisher, 2000; because of the required interchange, sharing, and
Ginac, 2000). In the instance of a project team resolution of ideas, and viewpoints. Likewise, the
charged with the mission of creating IS support groan zone is also used to describe the transition
for group-based project work, what makes the zone in which innovative, emergent (or unexpect-
team work is people’s mutual understanding of edly desirable) results are generated. Indeed, col-
their own and others’ interests and purposes, and laborative groups, especially those in fast-paced
the recognition that their interests are somehow environments, groan a lot. They struggle to create
bound up in doing something to which they all the services that converge on the mission profile.
contribute. In a strict sense, it is in the course of They struggle to integrate their own, and others’
interaction that people’s sense of purpose and diverse perspectives. Rather than focusing on
even their contributions, come to be defined. individuals in limited or problem-oriented ways,
As collaborators in an IS team, PBL teams face it is here that AC should guide students through
the tremendous challenge of how team members different stages of development, including dis-
move from being individual spokespeople to a covery, dream, design, and destiny – that inspire
unified, collaborative body. In his book on group them to an appreciative and empowering view
decision-making, Kaner (1996) calls the transition of themselves and the team’s future. By an AC
from the divergent zone of the individual to the model of student (or team) empowerment, the
convergent zone of the team member the “groan underlying belief is the experiencing of the situ-
zone.” In a team, even though every member ation by beginning with a grounded observation
wants to contribute to success and to get the of the best of what is, articulating what might be,
project going, each has a different perspective, ensuring the consent of those in the system to
a different experience, or a different context to what should be, and collectively experimenting
bring to the project. Each person’s thinking is with what can be. This formulation, in terms of
divergent, bringing diversity to the process, but enhancing student learning in group-based project
not much agreement. Convergence occurs as the work, could be considered as the open source phi-
group’s individual ideas are integrated into a losophy behind a school’s collaborative core with
whole solution. This process of integration does her constituents – teachers and students; namely,
not entail compromise (Fisher, Ury, & Patton, the PLC seconded by the teacher-as-servant state
1991), in which every one gives up something of mentality and practice.
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Soothing the Growing Team Dynamics: Students embarking on

Pains of Team Buildup SFTW300 have had one semester’s PBL style of
collaboration in SFTW241 Programming Lan-
It certainly takes time and discipline to transform guages Architecture (I). However, the grouping
a PBL team of student members into a SDWT of arrangements of SFTW300 invite each newly
professional software practitioners. In the short formed PBL group to discover whom they can
span of each SFTW300 Software Psychology rely on, capitalizing on individual skill sets, and
semester of about three and a half months, there finding a way to work together. Students often
are many soft skills a PBL team needs to acquire. tend to be mistrusting at first (still very comfort-
The following represents a useful set of selected able with individual efforts) and become leery of
concerns worthy of attention in the team buildup having to rely on others. The beginning lectures
process: then become essential occasions to conduct what
Process Focus: The average student has little will be the first of many activities that should
background in actually accomplishing process promote positive group interactions. Examples of
steps within a project schedule and more often no such activities include: writing a group portfolio
background in doing so in a team with the added expressing the profiles of individual team members
requirements of several milestones of prototyping in terms of their individual technical expertise;
and an inflexible delivery date, as well as being engaging in mental games that require the skill-
a client expected to be process-aware. During ful use of teamwork to complete or that make a
the early stages of the class, each PBL team is point about the distinction between individual and
given upfront lectures on typical software devel- group-centered learning (or working) styles. This
opment processes, such as the dynamic systems understanding acquired becomes instrumental
development method process, the open unified when different roles are being taken by members
process, and the extreme programming process. of the group: one role taken up by one member,
The students are invited to try out a process of or one role shared by two or three members, or
their own for their development scenario and the roles being taken by members through rotating
team coordinator is encouraged to keep the team turns. The idea is to achieve coordination to get
focused on the selected process during subsequent the project work done through a suitable mix of
project milestones. Students’ feedbacks often individual work, cooperating work (different tasks
indicate that their experience with the pressure done by different members so as to integrate the
of the delivery schedule, client involvement, and pieces), and collaborating work (same portions of
prototypes development, has taught them that the work done jointly by different members).
chosen process must be flexible enough to accept Planning Concerns: Throughout the semester’s
change but the balance between consistent applica- work, there are several essential milestones (es-
tion of a process and responsiveness to the client sential due dates) that have to be met by each PBL
is not easy to maintain and this know-how is not group. Yet, the only hard and fast date that must be
likely to be acquired through mere lectures alone. rigorously met is the final delivery. Deliverables
The client experience during the semester also required of each PBL team include a concept of
demonstrates to each team the expected learning operations document, a design document, a test
a new college graduate in the field of software plan, and the final prototype comprising site ar-
development should encounter after graduation, chitecture, schematics, and navigation guide in the
and the lessons learned through the project should specific context of a collaborative Web project. In
remain with them far longer than their conventional the client-developer relationship established by the
individual examinations. instructor, each team coordinator is permitted to
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make arguments for extension of any deliverable or PSDeveloper) is essential to facilitate individual
due date (except for final delivery) knowing that work. The linkages from the project space, to the
each extension granted added additional difficul- respective collaborative spaces, to the individual
ties later in the course for an on time delivery of personal spaces, must be closely coordinated to
other documents. This procedure forced each support the Web-based auxiliary processes of
team to evaluate their scheduling philosophy and collaboration in project development. The chal-
to perform an informal risk assessment for the lenge is to ensure that the sites should comple-
entire project. The policy of assigning the same ment the project work by enabling both client
project (group) grade to each member of the team and developer teams to interact asynchronously
is seen as a strong motivator for each student to or synchronously through the different customi-
take seriously the project activities. Following zable services offered. An expression for this
the industrial model of shared responsibility (the project-based electronic support (Vat, 2004a)
team fails or the team succeeds) seems to provide could be written as follows: <IS-Support>Project::=
a far more memorable learning experience in the OSProject + { CSGroup } + { PSParticipant }, where the
context of planning a process and maintaining a braces {} represents the repetition of the element
schedule. Rigorous discussions have often been embedded. It is intended that the provision of the
observed over issues of planning milestones and project spaces, the collaborative spaces, and the
still leaving enough time to produce the remain- personal spaces in the Web portal for collabora-
ing deliverables with reasonable quality and tive project work could facilitate the formation
timeliness. of specific sets of IS support for different human
activity systems originated from different project
Establishing the Collaborative scenarios (Vat, 2006a). To elaborate on the design
Context of Project Support of collaborative IS support we hereby consider
the respective project scenarios of planned and
It has been our experience in conducting SFTW unplanned communication events.
300 Software Psychology that some electronic
project-based support such as a Web portal is The Scenarios of Planned
needed to manage collaborative project devel- Communication
opment. This portal should lead to a Web-based
organizational space for each project, OSProject, Planned communication events in project develop-
which renders a number of peculiar services to ment are scheduled points in time during which
client and developers, in the form of distributed participants exchange information on a specific
applications customizable to their project-related topic or review a work product. Such events are
activities. In a specific project context, there must often formalized and structured to maximize the
also be a number of Web-based collaborative amount of information communicated and to
spaces, CSGroup, to enable group-based project minimize the time participants spend on com-
work to be performed. For example, there is munication. Typical planned communication
respectively a CSGroup for each of the client PBL events (Bruegge & Dutoit, 2004) include problem
team and of the developer PBL team. Besides, to presentation, client reviews, project reviews, peer
support the interactions among project members reviews, and status reviews.
and between the project manager (mostly played Problem Presentation: The focus here is the
by PBL team leader) and specific team members, presentation of the problem statement which de-
the provision of a personal electronic space for scribes the problem, the application domain, and
each of the project members, PSParticipant (PSClient, the desired functionality of the system. It should
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also include some non-functional requirements of two steps: the walkthrough and the inspection.
such as usability and platform specification. The During the walkthrough, a member of the devel-
problem statement in general does not include a oper team presents to the other members of the
complete specification of the system. It is meant same team, his or her artifact, say, the line-by-line
to be a preliminary requirements activity that code, or a sequence of user-interface mock-ups.
establishes common ground between the client During inspection, the other members challenge
and the developer team. any suspicious area and attempt to discover as
Client Review: The goal of client reviews is for many issues as possible based on a predefined list
the client to assess the progress of the development of criteria. Communication among participants
and for the developer to confirm or change the is artifact-based. The peer review is similar in
requirements of the system. The client review is nature to the project review (typically involving
used to manage expectations on both client and more than one teams), except that they differ in
developer sides and to increase the shared under- their formality, their limited audience, and their
standing among participants. A client review is extended duration within a single team of project
conducted as a formal presentation during which members.
developers focus on specific functionality with the Status Review: The focus of status review is
client. The review is preceded by the release of a the tasks distributed among team members. Status
work product, such as a specification document, reviews are primarily conducted within a team
an interface mock-up, or an evaluation prototype. (say, weekly) and aimed to detect deviations from
At the outcome of the review, the client provides the task plan and to correct them. Status reviews
feedback to the developers. This feedback may encourage developers to complete pending tasks.
consist of a general approval or a request for The review of task status encourages the discussion
detailed changes in definition, functionality or of open issues and unanticipated problems, and
schedule. thus encourages informal communication among
Project Review: The goals of a project review team members. Often, solutions to common issues
are for the project manager (PBL team leader) can be shared and operational knowledge dissemi-
to assess status and for team members to review nated more effectively when discussed within the
subsystem interfaces. Project reviews can also scope of a team. Increasing the effectiveness of
encourage the exchange of operational knowl- status reviews normally has a global impact on
edge across teams, such as common problems the team performance.
encountered with tools or the system. A project
review is typically conducted as a formal presenta- The Scenarios of Unplanned
tion of individual developer teams during which Communication
each team presents its subsystem to the manage-
ment (project sponsor and supervisor) or to other In an ideal project, all communication takes
teams that depend on the subsystem. The review place during planned communication events. In
is usually preceded by the release of a document practice, it is difficult to anticipate all information
describing the aspects of the system under review. needs and plan all communications. In general,
At the close of the review, the specific developer issues resulting from a combination of seemingly
team may negotiate changes in the interfaces and isolated facts from different areas of the project
changes in schedule. are difficult to anticipate because no participants
Peer Review: The goal of peer review is to could have a global overview of all the facts.
increase the quality of a work product produced Consequently, a project should be prepared to deal
by any designated team member. It is composed with unexpected situations, often under pressure.
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We call the communication resulting from such sion is the resolution of an issue representing the
crises unplanned communication events, including selected alternative according to the criteria that
requests for clarification, requests for changes, were used for evaluation and the justification
and issue resolution. of the selection. Typically, it is only after much
Request for Clarification: This request rep- discussion (or argumentation) that a consensus is
resents the bulk of the communication among reached or a decision imposed, covering all aspects
developers, clients, and users. Such requests are of the decision process, which includes criteria,
largely unplanned. A participant may request for justification, explored alternatives, and trade-
clarification about any aspect of the system that offs. Using these issue-modeling concepts in the
seems ambiguous. These requests may occur dur- context of capturing project rationales in review
ing informal meetings, e-mails, or any other com- meetings, we often write an agenda in terms of
munication mechanism available to the project. It issues that we need to discuss and resolve. We state
is worthy to note that if most information needs the objective of the meeting (formal or informal)
are handled through requests for clarification, to be a resolution on these issues and any related
such situations represent symptoms of a defec- sub-issues that are raised in the discussion. We
tive communication infrastructure. And the result structure the meeting minutes in terms of proposals
could lead to serious failures downstream owing that we explore during the meeting, criteria that
to misunderstandings and missing and misplaced we agree on, and arguments we use to support or
information. oppose proposals. We capture decisions as resolu-
Request for Change: This request represents a tions and action items that implement resolutions.
channel to report any problems with the system it- During subsequent meetings, we review status in
self, including its documentation, the development terms of the action items that we produced in the
process, or the project organization. Typically, a previous meetings.
change request contains such details as the clas-
sification (say, severe, moderate, or annoying), a
description of the problem (say, rationale, or com- CURRENT CHALLENGES
munication), a description of the desired change FACING OUR WORK
(say, a proposed solution). Requests for change are
often formalized when the number of participants From the discussion built up so far, it is not diffi-
and the system size is substantial. cult to foresee that PBL is the kind of group-based
Issue Resolution: An issue represents a con- project work which has many educational and
crete problem, such as a requirement, a design, social benefits, in particular providing students
or a management problem. To each decision in with opportunities for active learning. However,
project work represents an issue to be solved so teaching, directing and managing such project
that development can proceed. Alternatives are work is not an easy process. This is because proj-
possible solutions that could address the issue ects are often: expensive demanding considerable
under consideration. Criteria are desirable qualities supervision and technical resources; and complex
that the selected solution should satisfy. During re- combining design, human communication, HCI,
quirements analysis, criteria include nonfunctional and technology to satisfy objectives ranging from
requirements and constraints such as usability. consolidation of technical skills through provok-
During system design, criteria include design goals ing insight into organizational practice, teamwork
such as reliability. During project management, and professional issues, to inculcating academic
criteria include management goals and tradeoffs discipline and presentation skills. In preparing our
such as timely delivery versus quality. A deci- students to get started, familiar and comfortable
196
with group-based project work, we need some sort 1) support the actual practices and daily tasks of
of course support which goes beyond what typical the participants (teachers and students); 2) collect
course management systems such as WebCT or experiences and represent them in an accessible
MOODLE could accommodate currently. Indeed, and equitable manner; and 3) provide a framework
the specific characteristics required of such a to guide the knowledge process.
blended learning environment must be carefully
delineated and thoughtfully designed with a practi- Support the Actual Practices and
cal continual learning scenario in order to stimulate Daily Tasks of the Participants
any learner-centered involvements. This section
discusses the challenges behind providing such The AKE environment should support the actual
course support, through describing an effort in practices and daily tasks of teachers by helping
virtual organizing an AKE in support of the PLC them guide students’ learning process through
comprising our PBL students. the creation of a visible history of student work.
For students, the AKE should support learning
Devising the Appreciative practices and tasks by making the thinking of
Knowledge Environment (AKE) their peers more visible and by illustrating the
process of collaborative problem solving through
Our major focus of student-centered AC lies in both individual and group inquiry activities (say,
the installation of an appreciative knowledge through the installation of various Wiki-based
environment (AKE) in which electronic support applications). Moreover, from a knowledge in-
for AC to enable collaborative knowledge work tegration perspective, the practice of teaching
among students and between teachers and students and learning involves developing a repertoire of
is made available, especially in their respective models for explaining situations (say, in the form
work and study settings. In particular, we can con- of various podcasts). What type of knowledge
sider the AKE as the creative units for knowledge integration framework can best help students and
sharing for people on a number of scales. The teachers in their daily practice?
smallest is perhaps the environment surrounding
one individual trying to solve a problem in his or Collect Experiences and
her course assignments, or a small team or work Represent them in an Accessible
group, collaborating to find creative solutions in and Equitable Manner
its search for innovations, such as a PBL team
seeking innovative ways to satisfy client require- The AKE environment should collect experiences
ments. Nonetheless, if the motivation behind our and represent them in an accessible and equitable
AKE were to encourage student responsibility, to manner to promote the process of connecting
make learning meaningful, and to encourage active ideas so that participants (students and teachers)
knowledge construction in the specific curricula of can use them in subsequent tasks such as during
students’ study, the naturalistic creation of virtual follow-up clarification and illustration. Com-
communities of student-learners in the process of munities, if viewed as a network of relationships
using the underlying AKE services, must be well and resources, can be structured to elicit ideas,
supported. As a knowledge-support environment, develop shared understanding, and promote the
there are many possibilities for services identifica- integration of a diverse set of perspectives. It is
tion. Currently, the challenges of how to enhance important to investigate the potential of structuring
the value of course-specific knowledge work have discussions in different ways based on the type of
rendered, at least, three main design reflections: discussion and the associated pedagogical goals.
197
Linking different types of pedagogical goals to created, shared, organized, revised, and passed on
design strategies is a challenging task because within and among these communities. In a deep
most of the students are yet to get accustomed to sense, it is by these communities that knowledge is
reflecting on the nature of their contributions. owned in practice. In anticipation of our students’
knowledge challenge in a real-world organization,
Provide a Framework to Guide it is useful to conceive of an AKE based on the
the Knowledge Process context of virtual organizing described earlier, and
experiment with how the ideas of its three vectors
The AKE environment should encourage partici- can be applied to nurture online the growth of dif-
pants to make sense of their learning by creating a ferent COPs (Wenger, 1998) (or, in our case, more
culture where people ask each other for justifica- properly called communities of learning (COL)
tion and clarification. It is essential to investigate scattered throughout an organization.
how participants adjust their learning behavior
as their peers prompt them to support their ideas Virtual Encountering the AKE
with evidence. One strategy is to create some
commonly agreed upon criteria and to examine From a nurturing perspective, it is important to
how these criteria are adopted and transformed identify what COLs are desirable in the organiza-
by community members (mostly students) as they tion, and how, if they already exist, but are not
interact with one another. For communities to already online, to enable them to be online in order
maintain coherence and develop a sense of what to provide more chances of virtual encounter of
is desirable behavior, it is important that a strong such communities, to the organizational members.
community culture be established with a common For those communities already online, it is also
set of values and criteria for making contributions. important to design opportunities of interaction
Student communities need a general framework among different online communities, to activate
to help define the mission and vision for their their knowledge sharing. Since it is an important
knowledge process. COP practice not to reduce knowledge to an ob-
ject, what counts as knowledge is often produced
Meeting the Virtual Organizing through a process of communal involvement,
Challenge for AKE which includes all the controversies, debate and
accommodations. This collective character of
In order for knowledge sharing within an organi- knowledge construction is best supported online
zation (SFTW300 PBL teams of students) to be with individuals given suitable IS support to
successful, it is convinced that the people involved participate and contribute their own ideas. An IS
must be excited about the process of sharing subsystem, operated through virtual encounter,
knowledge. Thereby, an appreciative sharing of must help achieve many of the primary tasks of
knowledge must be viewed as the non-threatening a community of learning, such as encouraging
and accepting approach that makes people real- student participation, establishing a common
ize what they do can make a difference. One baseline of knowledge and standardizing what is
common example is the communities of practice well understood so that people in the community
(COP) (Wenger, 1998) (be it physical or online) can exercise their creative energies on the learning
mentioned earlier in the context of PLC. Many issues of interest to the community’s collective
organizations today are comprised of networks of growth.
interconnected COPs through which knowledge is
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Virtual Sourcing the AKE Preparing Students’ Blended

Learning in PBL Online
From the discussion built up in the first vector, it is
not difficult to visualize the importance of identi- Today, many educational institutions across the
fying the specific expertise of each potential COL world have implemented electronic learning (e-
in the organization (in our case, the Department learning) environments, implying that learners and
of Computer & Information Science), and if not teachers increasingly are integrating both physical
yet available, planning for its acquisition through and electronic resources, tools and environments
a purposeful nurture of expertise in various COLs within mainstream educational settings. Still, these
related to different curricula of studies. This vec- new environments are yet to have a major impact
tor focuses on creating and deploying intellectual on learning. This is partly because the blending of
and intangible assets for the organization in the real and virtual domains in teaching and learning is
form of a continuous reconfiguration of critical challenging for most teachers; yet, it is becoming
capabilities assembled through different relation- an essential skill for effective teaching. On the one
ships in the network of COLs distributed within hand, this new way of teaching and learning has
and across the department(s). The mission is to set the potential to extend learning methodologies, to
up a resource network, in which the COL is part open up opportunities for flexible online learning
of a vibrant, dynamic network of complementary as well as to challenge more traditional methods
capabilities. The strategic leadership challenge of course delivery (Vat, 2009a). At the same time,
is to orchestrate an organization’s position in a it adds a degree of complexity to educational
dynamic network where the organization can development and curriculum design. It is experi-
carefully analyze her relative dependence on other enced that the key to success is to concentrate on
players in the resource coalition and ensure her not merely thinking of how to integrate different
unique capabilities. sorts of content resources, but also on develop-
ing educational processes that blend online with
Virtual Expertising the AKE face-to-face interactions. In this regard, the idea
to support PBL online is to empower students
It is important to understand that not everything to learn through various Web-based materials
we know can be codified as documents and tools. including text, simulations, video demonstra-
Sharing tacit knowledge requires interaction and tions, and such resources as chat rooms, message
informal learning processes such as storytell- boards, wikis, podcasts, and RSS feeds that have
ing, conversation, coaching, and apprenticeship. been purposely built for problem-based learning.
The tacit aspects of knowledge often consist of Indeed, the increasing adoption of PBL and the
embodied expertise – a deep understanding of growth in online support has reflected the current
complex, interdependent elements that enable shift away from teaching as a means of transmit-
dynamic responses to context-specific problems. ting information towards enabling learning as a
This type of knowledge is very difficult to repli- student-generated activity. PBL online is a timely
cate. In order to leverage such knowledge, an IS example of a blended e-learning experience for
subsystem, operated through virtual expertise, both teachers and students. In fact, the context of
must help hooking people with related expertise blended e-learning (Eklund, Kay, & Lynch, 2003)
into various networks of COLs, in order to fa- offers the possibility of changing our attitudes not
cilitate stewarding such knowledge to the rest of only as to where and when learning takes place,
the organization. but in terms of what resources and tools can sup-
199
port learning and the ways in which these might by the teacher-as-servant in order to apply AC to
be used. In particular, blended e-learning fosters facilitate the PBL style of student collaboration.
integration of different spaces, allowing students Meanwhile, the use of electronic portfolio (e-
to learn from university, or from home or on the portfolio) (Vat, 2009a) as an ongoing formative
move. It can offer flexibility in the time when assessment tool to keep track of student learning
learners can participate in courses, reducing or is also found to be very promising.
removing restrictions arising from the balancing
of school or home commitments with study. It The Three Practices of
opens up the range of media resources that can Student Empowerment
be used for learning. The blend of space, time
and media offers new possibilities as to the sorts Enable Students to Determine
of activities students can carry out and the ways what they need to Learn through
they can collaborate, using available electronic Questioning and Goal Setting
tools. Literally, the integration of physical and
online spaces means that communities can form It is convinced that students should work to identify
and interact in ways that were previously unimag- their knowledge and skill deficits, and to develop
ined. It introduces the possibility of interacting strategies in the form of personal learning goals
in real time (synchronously) in conjunction with for meeting those deficits. Also, they should
opportunities to collaborate over a period of time learn to relate what they know to what they do
(asynchronously). This in turn allows exploration not know and ask questions to guide their quest
of different forms of dialogue and new types of for new knowledge. The emphasis is to foster
learning. New media resources and tools open a sense of students’ ownership in the learning
up possibilities for students to create their own process. If teachers, through the AKE, can guide
resource banks, integrating self-generated intel- the students in the identification of what they
lectual assets with more formal materials sourced already know and what they need to learn, then
from libraries around the world. This brings into knowledge gaps and mistakes can be viewed in a
question some of the traditional values of edu- positive way such as another opportunity to learn.
cation, such as who owns, creates and controls And students can assume more responsibility in
resources and knowledge. New types of learning addressing their own learning needs during any
activities thereby challenge our thinking as to instructional unit.
how learning might be facilitated, creating new
etiquettes of learning and teaching, and shifting the Enable Students to Manage
locus of control from the teacher to the learner. their own Learning Activities
Lessons Learned for a It is convinced that students should be enabled

Teacher-as-Servant to develop their learning plans, which should
describe priorities, instructional tactics, resources,
On integrating the essential context of servant- deadlines, roles in collaborative learning situa-
leadership in support of implementing a PLC tions, and proposed learning outcomes, including
through virtual organizing the vehicle of AKE for presentation and dissemination of new knowledge
classes of SFTW300 Software Psychology students and skills, if applicable. Traditionally, these in-
over the past years, it is the author’s experience structional events are arranged by teachers to be
that there are three basic empowerment practices followed by students throughout a semester or
(Vat, 2004b) which should preferably be performed school year, in order to accomplish a specified set
200
of pre-determined learning or assessment objec- endorsement is often required to authenticate

tives. Yet, in that case, it is not advantageous for the course portfolios. Program portfolios are de-
students to learn to take the initiative. To manage veloped by students to document the work they
their own learning activities, students must be have completed, the skills they have learned,
guided and supported by the teacher in the AKE, and the outcomes they have met in an academic
slowly taking on more and more responsibility of department or program. The mentor or appraiser
their own learning. could add comments. It could be a requirement
for graduation. Oftentimes, students might use a
Enable Students to Contribute selection from their program portfolio to show
to each other’s Learning through to prospective employers. Whatever the primary
Collaborative Activities focus of engagement with students, the use of e-
portfolios inevitably adds a strong online element
It is convinced that students should be motivated to the teaching and learning. Institutions need to
and supported in discussing and sharing informa- provide electronic support and services; teachers
tion. Particularly, we should enable students to need access and skills to integrate the e-portfolio
become co-builders of the course- or subject- application into their overall course design, and
related resources through evaluating and refining students need a wide range of electronic abilities
the entries their peers put into the AKE. Collab- in order to develop their e-portfolios. The underly-
orative learning is quite appealing to achieve that ing pedagogy of e-portfolio use is considered the
purpose; however, it involves not just creating a most significant link with student learning. Our
group and then dividing up the work. Students experience has indicated that constructivism (Vat,
must be educated to recognize what they are trying 2009a) does seem to be the approach worthy of re-
to learn in teamwork, value it, and wish to share peated experimentation. The aim of constructivist
that value with others. Teachers must provide principles as applied to e-portfolio is to engender
this sense of accountability by structuring the independent, self-reliant learners who have the
group work to include both individual and group confidence and skill to use a range of strategies
assessments. to construct their own knowledge (Stacey, 1998;
Slavin, 1994). Where students are required to
The Educational Potential develop and maintain an e-portfolio, they are usu-
of Student e-Portfolios ally expected to reflect on their learning, consider
how to give evidence of their learning and pos-
In order to support the frequent formative assess- sibly even develop a plan (or a learning contract)
ments of students’ work in the PLC culture of of what they would like to learn. In other words,
learning, it is important not to ignore the educa- an e-portfolio implementation of constructivism
tional potential of student e-portfolios as a tool for usually implies a considerable level of learner
learning in the PLC. In fact, different portfolios autonomy and initiative, of learner responsibility
(Stefani, Mason, & Pegler, 2007; Bangert, 2004) for their learning and of opportunities to refine
have been used by students at traditional universi- their learning based on feedback from the teacher
ties and colleges where face-to-face teaching is and their peers. More importantly, e-portfolio
the dominant mode of instructions. For example, use can be the basis for several student-centered
course portfolios are those assembled by students initiatives (Batson, 2005), including: creating a
for individual courses. They document and reflect system of tracking student work over time, in a
upon the ways in which the student has met the single course, with students and faculty reflecting
outcomes for that particular course. Instructor’s on it; having a more fully informed and constantly
201
updated view of student progress in a program, It is suggested that there is a need to revive the
which is very helpful in formative assessment; concept of learning design rather than to do a
aggregating other students’ work in a particular simplistic repackaging of the course content into
course to see how the students as a whole are blended learning formats (Mason, 1998). The idea
progressing toward learning goals; and assessing of blending different sorts of media and learning
other courses in similar ways that are all part of tasks is not a new concept; however, blending
one major and thus assessing the entire program e-learning has an added degree of complexity
of study. because e-learning allows the blending of differ-
ent spaces. For example, we can use electronic
Remarks for Continuing Challenge learning environments within physical teaching
spaces; we can work across time zones in real time
The software engineering workplace of this cen- or asynchronously. For effective blending, we need
tury requires professionals who not only have to have a clear idea of what we want to blend and
an extensive store of knowledge, but also know what we might blend. To understand how to design
how to keep that knowledge up-to-date, apply it engaging tasks within blended e-learning, we have
to solve problems, and function as part of a team. to have some knowledge of why we might design
This view of the software industry compels edu- specific learning activities in particular ways. Why
cators to rethink and reinvent the ways in which is one sort of activity appropriate for one learning
software practitioners are prepared. In particular, situation, but not so effective in another? What
schooling must extend beyond the traditional pre- sort of student activity are we expecting to see
paratory goal of establishing a knowledge base. online and how might this differ from what we
Schooling must actively engage our students in are accustomed to? Once teachers have decided
opportunities for knowledge seeking, for problem what sort of learning activities they require, they
solving, and for the collaborating necessary for face a further problem.This is the question of
effective practice. To realize such experiences, how to plan so that there is integration of these
educators have looked to the potential of PLC to activities with appropriate resources, electronic
shift the focus on teaching to a focus on learning, tools and environments, using a range of teaching
seconded by the constructivist pedagogical designs methodologies. Thinking through all the pos-
that are based on the assumption that learning is a sible combinations and solutions is complex and
product of both cognitive and social interactions demanding. It is experienced that students are
in problem-centered environments (Greeno, Col- motivated by solving authentic problems based
lins, & Resnick, 1996; Savery & Duffy, 1994). on real-world activities that may be carried out
The adoption of PBL in SFTW300 is an example non-sequentially and iteratively. Such problems
of such a design (Vat, 2006b), and the support of contrast with the sequential orchestration of tasks
PBL online is always a challenge of innovation frequently planned in teacher-centered educa-
in learning design because the interrelationship tion. Planning non-sequential activities is more
of technology and pedagogy always renders such complex and may involve integrating a variety of
question as what it means to be a problem-based media and electronic tools across real and virtual
learner in an online setting. In fact, there has been spaces. More importantly, blended e-learning
much criticism in recent years about blended brings with it a new order. With effective learn-
learning environments that fail to create effective ing design, the locus of control should shift from
settings for learning (Oliver & Herrington, 2003). the teacher to the learner. This shift, combined
One plausible reason is due to the peculiar focus with the free flow of information, requires the
on technological rather than pedagogical design. development of new sorts of relationships and
202
trust. Ethical issues are of primary importance, do this by the PBL cycle of collaboration, which
and institutions may need to develop or revise develop in them their social and mega-cognitive
strategies to reflect this fact. skills. Consequently, students’ critical thinking
and problem-solving abilities are sharpened.
These are crucial to effective project (software)
CONCLUSION development, especially at the higher levels of
analysis and design.
To conclude this case description, I hereby render In the specific case of SFTW300, students have
some of my perspectives behind adopting PBL to go through the process of understanding, de-
in the teaching of SFTW300. The educational signing, implementing and evaluating interactive
literature warns against compartmentalized units computer systems to match the needs of client.
of study that produce students who cannot integrate This is a teamwork development exercise requir-
the different parts of their knowledge. Although a ing students to work in groups. This is important
fully integrated degree was beyond the scope of to prepare their future careers; nonetheless, fresh
discussion, many of our conventional (teacher- graduates today are expected to have the ability
centered) courses had compartments that bore and experience to perform effectively in group-
out the literature’s predictions. In effect, any new based project work. SFTW300 supports groups
course designed in the Software Engineering by identifying specific roles for group members,
program must be as integrated as possible, if we providing class time and guidelines on group
want our students to bring all their knowledge to management, monitoring group planning and
bear on solving real-world problems in software progress, and conducting formative assessments
development. In this regard, the nurture of inde- for group management and reflection on group
pendence and collaboration becomes important. processes. Students working in a group naturally
Indeed, our conventional courses have been learn to communicate with one another, which
widely criticized for stifling students’ initiative is another goal highly valued by the software
in learning. Yet, through PBL, we offer an ap- industry. In particular, at the end of each problem,
proach to learning where curricula are designed PBL students need to turn in a report and to give
with problem scenarios central to student learning a presentation, during which each student must
in each curricular component. Students working demonstrate his or her work with justification,
in small teams examine a problem situation and, followed by a session on question and answer. All
through this exploration, are expected to locate the these require the students to have good command
gaps in their own knowledge and skills in order to of communications skills. Overall, PBL fosters
decide what information they need to acquire in in our PLC of SFTW300 students such generic
order to resolve or manage the situation. Lectures, skills as group work, planning, problem-solving,
seminars, workshops or laboratories support the independent learning, research skills, writing, and
inquiry process rather than transmit subject-based oral presentation. These are university goals and
knowledge. The starting point should be a set of also highly valued by employers in the computing
problem scenarios regardless of whether a mod- industry. What is needed to support the continual
ule or a whole program is being designed. The nurture of such PLCs is to realize the generative
scenarios enable students to become indepen- potential of the engine of servant-leadership in
dent inquirers and help them to see learning and sustaining the concomitant application of ap-
knowledge as flexible entities. Students should preciative coaching (AC) to help our students to
discover they can learn by themselves, using a tap into or rediscover their own sense of wonder
range of resources. They are aided in learning to about their future possibilities.
203
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B: Courses
208
Chapter 12
Bothering with Technology:
Building Community in an Honors Seminar
John J. Doherty
Northern Arizona University, USA
ABSTRACT
This chapter discusses the role that technology can play in a first-year Honors seminar. For the purposes
of the chapter, blended learning is defined as re-tasking face-to-face time or out of class time to build
community and meet course objectives more effectively. The challenge in an Honors seminar, however,
is to apply this when technology is not considered a viable solution to potential course challenges. The
chapter presents four strategies to build community through interaction and engagement: (1) icebreakers
can be moved online to build more student interaction; (2) online journals can facilitate better engage-
ment with the course and the texts; (3) documents can be delivered online to model good practice and
promote sustainability; and (4) quizzes can be used to develop metacognitive skills outside of class.
Technology, it is concluded, allows instructors to explore effective and engaging mediated instruction
in multiple formats.
INTRODUCTION provide the Honors instructor and student. However,

it is also an emphasis ingrained in Honors, which
The inherent emphasis of any Honors program in reflects a bias in education generally that assumes
the United States is a face-to-face interaction be- online education is somehow less rigorous than
tween faculty and students (NCHC, n. d.). Many face-to-face traditional instruction.
Honors programs or colleges across the nation see Technology in higher education has become more
this as essential to any Honors experience for their of a given than an exception—especially as instruc-
students. It is an emphasis in need of re-examination tors try to leverage student interest in technology
when one considers the benefits that technology can to engage them in learning. There has also been a
concomitant rise in research discussing the ways in
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-60566-880-2.ch012 which instructors can leverage these technologies
Bothering with Technology
to better engage their users in learning. Moore et to deliver support and perhaps activities without
al. (2008), for example, refer to what they term replacing face-to-face time. Blended instruction
as “new learning” which is student-centered and takes on a slightly less more accepted definition of
technologically enriched. using online resources and experiences to actually
In saying this, it does need to be emphasized re-task (rather than formally replace) face-to-face
that students are not homogeneous. Thus, while I time. Indeed, I would argue that such a definition
will argue in this chapter that engaging students and also allows us to consider blended learning where
Honors students in particular, with technology is a homework or out of class activities can also be
must in contemporary higher education, it should re-tasked to accomplish course objectives that
be remembered that there needs to be support built might traditionally be placed in class.
into the learning of and use of technology. In this chapter, the strategies to be discussed
This chapter will review the author’s uses of fall into these latter two categories. I have replaced
technology to enrich the learning experiences of instruction time in class with online activities to
students in a first year Honors course in critical build community. Below I discuss the use of the
reading and writing. I will show through an ex- Blackboard Vista discussion tool to replace in
amination of this case that Honors instructors can class icebreakers. I also use the discussion tool’s
use technology in order to engage their learners in journal feature to create more engagement with
the work of a busy course. As the 2003 National the texts and the teacher. In many instances these
Learning Initiative Annual Review notes: also replace some preliminary discussions in class.
I was also able to replace activities such as the
Technologies ... enable learners and teachers to “syllabus dump” that can overwhelm students on
enhance their learning and to learn different things day one of the class. Rather, I use Vista to quiz
in different ways. Technologies make it possible for students on the syllabus, asking them to read it
us to envisage different strategies that help learn- outside of class. The quiz tool can also be used
ers learn and to organize learning experiences that to build metacognitive skills, and I describe an
address areas likely to be difficult to master. This example of that in writing instruction. Finally, for
is why we bother with technologies: they have the Web enhanced, I share how a course management
potential to expand choices about how we teach system can be used to not only deliver documents,
and learn. (Educause, 2003, p.10) but to build on that ideal to make a course more
student centric through enhancing turnaround
As an aside, I would like to distinguish between times on graded assignments.
face-to-face, Web-enhanced, blended, and fully
online instruction. The first and last of these terms
are generally obvious: the first is a class where BACKGROUND
instruction occurs in the classroom and through
activities such as reading and homework outside Hays (2004) suggests that case study and eth-
of class; the last is a course that is delivered com- nographic research methods are similar, except
pletely online, where the students never formally that the latter asks broader questions, is more
meet face-to-face. The other two terms are not so culturally focused, and can involve more time
obviously dissimilar. Both refer to instruction that in the field. Yin (2003) shows that the former
falls somewhere in between the first and last terms. gets at the rich data of ethnography through
However, for the purposes of this chapter I define multiple methods, including the examination of
Web-enhanced as instruction that makes use of documents and reports, interviews, observations,
Web resources or a course management system and quantitative methods such as surveys. This
209
chapter is an amalgam of both, in part predicated humanist focus; he provides a list of ten qualities
by the fact that what is here described is based of a liberally education person that can lead to this
on my own practice. I have argued elsewhere that goal, such as the ability to read and understand,
case studies can represent the researcher more listen and hear, write clearly and movingly, and
than the case (Doherty, 2008, p. 33). Thus, it is be able to talk to anyone (Cronon, 1998). By us-
important to reiterate here that what is described ing this document as a guiding philosophy for the
below is part of my own practice. Where quoted, program, it suggests that an overall goal is one of
information from the students has been edited creating intentional learners, as well as lifelong
only to maintain confidentiality; I have obtained learners that have a deep understanding of the
release to use all such quotes or I am drawing on human condition.
anonymous surveys or end of semester evalua- Honors at my institution are part of a program,
tions. All references to the institution where the not a college. As of writing, it was staffed by a
program is taught are also deliberately vague in faculty Director, Associate Director, two Instruc-
order to maintain confidentiality.1 tors, two staff specialists, and a varying number of
The framework for my argument is student part time instructors and student peer mentors and
centered learning, which should be at the core of staff. 2 The program has about 550 students in total,
any learning experience, and certainly that of an a fraction of the overall university population of
Honors experience. There have been many buzz 22,000 undergraduate and graduate students. The
terms doing the rounds of higher education forums, university, with a Carnegie ranking as a Doctoral I
such as learner or learning centered, that seek to institution, has about 6,000 of the total population
reinforce the constructivist belief that the student in distributed learning programs.
belongs at the center of any learning experience. The Honors program, however, is campus
All further refine these terms to focus on life-long based. In my years of teaching all students have
learning skills, emphasizing both the student and been traditional college age first years, mostly
learning together at the core of the higher education graduates of high school advanced placement or
mission—which is why I prefer the term student- Honors programs, and in the throes of dealing
centered as it is rhetorically putting the student with typical first year experience and college
first by placing the instructor in a facilitation role transition issues. For the first time, this last
that acknowledges the diverse learning needs semester (Fall 2008) I had one sophomore. The
and skills of students (for a technology-based program works as a liberal studies replacement,
examination of this term, see Motschnig-Pitrik with students expected to take up to 21 Honors
& Holzinger, 2002). hours minimum. The remainder of their liberal
The Honors program in which I have taught studies hours can be elected at Honors or regular
since 2004 draws upon William Cronon’s “Only undergraduate levels. The university thus pro-
Connect” as a core document in its introductory vides many cross-listed courses or courses with
seminars to explain just this idea to the students. a designated Honors component that can meet a
Cronon seeks to redefine the term liberal educa- student’s Honors requirement.
tion by fronting the program-based definition that
many students experience—for example, at this
institution liberal education is in part seen as a CASE DESCRIPTION
35-credit hour requirement of all undergraduate
students, and these credits are met from a cafeteria As one of the part-time instructors, I teach one of
of courses, required and elective. For Cronon, two required courses in the program—first year
however, a liberal education has a much more courses that are considered replacement for the uni-
210
versity writing requirement. This course, always I used “Seven principles for good practice in un-
offered in the fall semester, has worked for years dergraduate education” (Chickering & Gamson,
from a relatively standard syllabus (see Appendix 1987) as a guiding document in implementing this
A), across 8-10 sections of about 15 students per philosophy. Chickering and Gamson share guide-
section. In my four years I have taught sections lines that could significantly impact how students
with 12, 15, 18, and 17 students. The syllabus learn and how faculty communicates with their
has opened up more recently to allow instructors students and each other in support of learning. This
a greater variety in choosing texts, but we are interaction has been a part of educational literature
essentially asked to choose texts and films that and theory for a very long time (see, for example,
cover a broad chronological range. The intent of Moore, 1989; Schwab et al., 1978) has applied
the range is to give students an historical context these specifically to online learning, where he
of the reading materials, to make connections focuses on the interactions between learners and
between past and present, and to understand the learners, learners and instructors, and learners and
thematic, conceptual, literary, historical, cultural, content. Gunawardena and McIsaac (2003) later
and philosophical roots of their reading materials. added the milieu of Schwab et al. (1978) to this
Students are expected to read an average of 30-60 model as learner to technology interactions.
pages per class period. More details are available It is, therefore, through a focus on interaction
in Appendix A. that technology can be used as a tool to support
The majority of the grade assigned in the and, I would argue, help us re-think our pedagogy
class is based on student writing, so there is also when it comes to face-to-face learning. Garrison
a requirement to include a writing text and to and Anderson (2003) note that technology can
devote a significant amount of course time (I support and even somewhat enhance traditional
use this phrase deliberately here as opposed to practices such as the lecture; however, they sug-
“class” time) to writing and writing instruction. gest technology also can take us back to the future,
These assignments include three formal papers, to a learning theory framed on communities on
each of 5-7 pages in length; 13 informal writing inquiry, or, as they note, a “community where
assignments (i.e. non-graded writing practices) individual experiences and ideas are recognized
that can be up to 2 pages in length; an annotated and discussed in light of societal knowledge,
bibliography; and a self-assessment piece that norms, and values” (p. 4).
introduces a portfolio of student writing at the
conclusion of the course.
From a requirement perspective, this is a very CURRENT CHALLENGES
intense course, and many students over the years
have expressed their outright fear after perusing Such a community is very difficult to create. One
the syllabus. For example, one student wrote: of my own goals in teaching first year classes
is to introduce the complexity and variety of a
“When I first entered the room for this rigorous university experience. Through that I can also
Honors course, I was scared. I was not sure of open up the opportunities presented by a liberal
what was expected of me.” education, especially in the light of Cronon’s
humanistic definition of liberal education as a
Therefore, an emerging challenge in this course place to begin making connections. Such a goal,
was to make it more student-centered and less however, requires a group of students to make
assignment focused—a major challenge consider- those connections amongst themselves and with
ing the grade-driven approach of these students. their texts. And it places the onus on the instructor
211
to sometimes make situations strange or uncom- Strategy One: Icebreakers

fortable. But doing this necessitates a classroom
of trusting students. Icebreakers are important to the establishment of
I have tried a variety of ways to build such the learning community and climate (Knowles,
communities. As a university, we had made the 1980). I have used in class icebreakers during
decision to deliver all electronic readings through my first few sessions, but I have had resistance
our course management system (initially WebCT to that when it becomes the umpteenth icebreaker
Vista, then Blackboard Vista) a few years ago students have experienced. It is interesting to note
(from the Honors Program Self Study, Appendix that when I initially began my teaching in Honors
E, Library Support). This necessitated the need I had the first class of the program at 9 AM on a
for all courses to have a Vista shell each time they Monday morning. For a majority of my students,
are delivered. In other words, even though my this was also their first university course. But for
class was a face-to-face class, I still had access all students (over the course of three semesters) it
to Vista—and, indeed, needed my students to was their third or fourth icebreaker of the weekend.
access Vista in order to get some of my supple- They had gone through these activities in various
mental readings. That opened up opportunities orientations, and by that point had developed a
to do more with Vista, such as delivering paper cynical attitude towards them. Such an attitude
prompts, the syllabus, handouts, and other ac- was a barrier to the development of the community
tivities such as those documented above. But it necessary for success in this class and program.
also suggested ways in which I could rethink my Technology, however, can help here. The
pedagogy through enhancing my face-to-face purpose of an icebreaker is to begin to build a
time, and even, at times, re-tasking some face- community of learners. However, does it need to
to-face activities to Vista—thus freeing up my in happen in the first class, and if so, should it only
class time to focus on areas I felt more in need of happen in the first class? A community cannot
face-to-face time. form in one day, never mind one 50 or 75 minute
I describe here some strategies that I’ve used class. Conrad and Donaldson (2004) note four
in my Honors seminar that have at their core a phases of engagement in online learners that are
student-centered use of technology to blend or equally applicable to the traditional classroom:
enhance my face-to-face instruction. This study the newcomer, the cooperator, the collaborator,
is necessarily descriptive in focus. I have tried to and the initiator or partner (p. 11). Essential to
connect what I have been learning from imple- this is the newcomer, which they argue takes at
menting some of the strategies here presented with least two weeks to negotiate through, with the
what is being discussed in educational literature. instructor acting as the social negotiator.
What is evidenced here may not necessarily One activity that I adapted from Conrad and
be generalizable to another course or program, Donaldson involved moving the icebreaker to
even in an Honors program similar to the one Blackboard Vista, the course management system
here described. In saying this, however, the four that I was using to deliver documents and have
strategies I have outlined here are, I think, very students deliver documents to me. Following some
effective ways to interact with students through brief peer led introductions during our first meeting
the use of technology. I assigned students a Name That Movie activity in
a Vista based discussion (see Appendix B).
212
The discussion tool we used was in the Black- Subject: A Long Way Gone Date: September 3,
board Vista course management system, which 2008 1:57 PM
can allow for threaded discussions, blogs, and
journals. For this discussion I used the threaded
tool, in part to also introduce the tool to the stu- I guess the thing that surprised me the most in “a
dents. Also, this assignment was not graded, yet long way gone” was when they brought all those
still received such phenomenal interactions. It boys to the recovery center thing, they continued
generated 307 messages from a class that initially to fight each other. I would have thought that the
had 18 students (one later dropped out) over the war and the fighting was something they were
course of 5 days, between our Thursday meeting trying to escape but it seems that it was part of
and our next meeting on the Tuesday following. their life for so long that it became ingrained in
My only adaptation to this activity was to have their nature.
the students come to class to discuss their final
responses. Walking into the Tuesday class after
this activity was a different experience from the I guess I sort of lost a little hope for the human
week before—I had a very noisy room, students race when I read that because how are we sup-
visiting with their neighbors, discussing their posed to stop wars if the people in them just accept
movie titles and music tastes. it as a way of life.
Strategy Two: Journals This then led to the following interaction in the
journal between the same student and myself:
Almost immediately following, we entered into our
first major writing assignment, a critical reading Author: Doherty, John Joseph Date: September
of Ishmael Beah’s A Long Way Gone: Memoirs 4, 2008 9:05 AM
of a Boy Soldier—chosen as a part of our campus
summer reading program, and seen by many of
our faculty and staff as somewhat controversial Or, what if it becomes so ingrained that we cannot
due to its violence and general subject matter. I escape it without help. We hear a lot today about
decided to begin our class discussions online—but the PTSD our troops suffer from when they return
considering the controversial nature of the book I from the war zone -- we are better able to recognize
also wanted to make this interaction between me this today, but I’d argue all returning troops have
at each individual student. For this reason, I used that problem -- even our WWII grandparents and
the journal feature. great-grandparents.
Appendix C-1 is a copy of a section of my
syllabus introducing the online journal and ex-
plaining its purpose. As can be seen from this, As adults we perhaps have a little more ability to
the journal was an integral part of my strategy to control this -- though even then we still need a lot
engage students in the texts and in class activities. of help. What about children?
All were asked to post one question to the journal
about their text, and to try to write an answer
too. With A Long Way Gone, for example, one Author: STUDENT Date: September 4, 2008
student wrote: 1:50 PM
213
I don’t think anything can erase memories of what them—such as if they had been keeping a physical
happened to someone. Eventually they just become journal that they would have to submit.
a part of who they are. It’s a big problem and I Students were also required to do two reflective
can’t really thing of a solution other than stopping writings that drew on their journal content, one at
wars all together which is probably impossible. mid-semester and one at the end. Both were the
same assignment, except the end of semester one
This particular student chose to examine the was cumulative for the entire semester. The end of
idea of societies disintegrating in a paper he later semester prompt for this assignment is presented
wrote about this book—clearly influenced by in Appendix C-2. Students averaged a posting a
his reading of this text. He also shared in class week in their journals, which is confirmed by my
some interesting reactions to hearing Beah speak doing a similar assignment in the previous year
when he visited our campus a few weeks after and by an evaluation survey conducted by another
this interaction. instructor also using the Journal feature. In this
Technology here, I think, changes the peda- latter survey, students suggested they tended to
gogical use of a journal. Journals are relatively access their journal once a week (see Appendix
typical in humanities and education classes, and are D). In saying this, however, in my most recent
especially good at promoting self-reflection. Mills (Fall 2008) class, 7 students were averaging more
(2008), for example, documents that journaling than two entries per week. Indeed, for quite a few
as a pedagogical tool came from out of English in of these students the journal replaced email and
the 1980s. However, she also notes that students in class questions as the primary mode of contact
can tend to view journaling as busy work. Draw- between me and them.
ing on the Kiersey Temperament Model (cited in All initially resisted the journals—as suggested
Mills, 2008), she suggests a number of strategies to by Mills (2008) they saw the journals as busy
overcome this, including allowing for expediency/ work. However, by the end of the semester, and
cleverness and focusing on immediate needs and the aforementioned reflective writing prompt,
issues. For the former, I would also add that one the value of the journal was universally acknowl-
should allow for creativity—one of my students edged, even by students who had not completed as
recently complained about the restrictiveness of much of the work as others. These latter students
the college paper structure. I opened up the journal actually expressed regret in not using the journal
to allow him an outlet for his more creative ten- more, as they had heard anecdotally from their
dencies. This led to an increased effort in trying to peers that the journals became an effective place
use his perceived creative strengths work within to document their ongoing development as critical
the confines of the academic journal. readers and writers.
My online journal was a little more structured
than most (see Appendix C-1). Doing it online, Strategy Three: Documents
however, allowed me to browse it more frequently, Management
and to keep an eye on the students’ progress in
the course. Indeed, sometimes reading the journal Using these tools effectively requires the instructor
entries on a Monday evening would suggest ways to model the value of using the tools to the students.
I would have to change class on Tuesday to deal I would argue that this could also build in some
with emerging misunderstandings. Also, I was of the learner support mentioned briefly above. It
able to read and interact with the students’ jour- is important to introduce the tools noted here in a
nals without having to remove the journal from low stakes manner—for example, if students are
going to be required to make extensive use of the
214
discussion tool then the icebreaker activity could classes with more traditional paper submissions
be built to also introduce the discussion tool. and returns.
A major goal of our university is sustainability.
Also, this generation of students has a very strong Strategy Four: Quizzes
sense of the value of sustainable activities. It was
a comment on a previous end of term evaluation I also used the course management tool to deliver
that suggested to me ways in which I could use the syllabus. For much of the same reasons as I
the course management system and other tools to spoke of above when speaking of icebreakers, I
improve my own use of paper—and coincidentally do not cover the syllabus on the first day of class.
save the program some printing costs. Rather, students are expected to read it online and
I decided to make all my papers due in Vista, then complete an online quiz that addresses the
not in class. This meant fewer actual pieces of essential issues I would normally have addressed.
paper—though it did require me to become more Also, by introducing the quiz tool in a low stakes
comfortable grading writing assignments online, but essential assignment such as this, I had the
using the MS Word Track Changes feature. As added bonus of building student comfort with
an aside, I also had to learn how to create PDF the tool and was therefore able to use it more
documents in order to create versions of the paper frequently. This might on first blush seem a little
to return to the students in a way that required strange in an Honors writing course.
them to read my comments and edits rather than However, using the quiz tool allowed me to
just accepting the changes in Word. There are push some of my writing instruction from in class
also other ways to do this, such as using a Tablet to online. I was using a writing text that had a good
PC in order to write margin comments, but I fast test bank supporting it. The publisher allowed me
became comfortable in doing it the Word way. to download a Vista compatible set of questions
And, importantly for the students, even I have a covering some of the major issues the text itself
hard time deciphering my own handwriting (see explicates. In each of my major assignments I
Bridge & Appleyard, 2008, p. 648). had the students focus on particular components
This also allowed me to explore the option of the writing process. For example, in their first
of making papers due closer to the time when I formal assignment the most significant portion
would be actually grading them, thus closing the of the grade was in their thesis and introductions,
feedback loop by getting my graded versions back typically an area in need of work with first year
to students when the work was still relatively fresh students. Students were therefore required to do
in their minds. My class would run from 2.20 to these readings in complement to classroom activi-
3.35 PM on Tuesdays and Thursdays. However, ties, and then to take the online quiz. The quiz
I usually would get to my grading on Saturday was not worth any points in the final grade, but
mornings. Therefore, instead of the papers sitting success on the quiz did mean that students would
on my desk for two days or more, I made them then get access to the Assignment Drop Box for
due on Vista at 9 AM on Saturday, usually about the paper they were writing (see a sample of this
an hour before I was to grade them. I could then quiz in Appendix E).
return them before class on the following Tuesday, In other words, until the students completed
and students soon learned to look over my graded the quiz to 90% satisfaction they would not be
comments and to come prepared to discuss some able to submit their paper (worth a significant
of the writing issues I was noticing. Indeed, they amount of points). Students were allowed two
came to prefer the online feedback, especially as tries, and if on the second they were still having
they saw it happening much faster than in other issues, there would be an intervention by myself
215
or one of my upper-class peer mentors, where we technologically savvy. However, my students

could work on that writing issue and then manually were not prepared to use Blackboard Vista and
release the Assignment Drop Box. A metacogni- needed some scaffolding to build their comfort
tive component to this—adapted from the work level in it. That needs to be a part of my practice
of Lovett (2008)—was also added, where students in future iterations of this course. In saying that,
had to complete a journal entry with the paper that however, I saw a great deal of student engage-
discussed their process in completing the paper, ment. I have already noted that I did not register
what they learned from the text, handouts and one absence the entire Fall 2008 semester. I only
quiz, and how they applied those lessons to their really became aware of this record about 8 or 9
paper. A follow up entry would follow, where the weeks into the course—when students have usu-
students would review my grade and make a plan ally discovered the absence policy in the syllabus
for their next formal paper. (see Appendix A) and begin to take advantage of
it. I suspect that students saw their in class time
as being more effectively used, and that the out
CONCLUSION of class online activities, such as the Journal,
prepared them well for what we did in class. In
These strategies are examples of where technol- some ways, I feel that they started to become more
ogy can help with interaction and engagement in intentional learners.
a very busy seminar. The essential point here is The overwhelming response to the icebreaker
that they need to be predicated on the idea of a activity was certainly something that proved in-
community of inquiry. This class was so success- valuable to both the in class discussion of Cronon’s
ful in building community that their engagement Only Connect and Beah’s A Long Way Gone. By
became intrinsic to their motivation to attend the end of the semester this was a group fully
class. By the end of the semester one student had connected with and respectful of each other. Ac-
dropped out due to circumstances beyond her tivities that demanded trust, such as peer review,
control. Of the remaining 17, not one was absent became much more invaluable and engaging, in
for the entire semester. that the students saw their success as intertwined
So, why bother with technology? The four with that of their peers.
strategies outlined here were designed to refocus From a student perspective, therefore, there
the course on the students. Therefore, it is fair to was a sense that the technology helped with
hear from the students, via an end of semester interaction and engagement, but they were rela-
evaluation. Students were asked to rate how ef- tively undecided as a group to the uses in respect
fectively their class time was used. Of 15 respon- to documents management. For the former, one
dents (out of 17 in the class), 67% rated it at least student did think there should have been more
Mostly or Always. In regards to interaction, 80% interaction online, noting in the end of semester
rated participation from the class and instructor evaluation that:
at Mostly or Always encouraged. In saying this, “The [upper class peer mentors] kind of
some noted in open comments that the documents fostered a sense of community. … They made
management though the course management sys- announcements about fun things going on at
tem was a hindrance. An equal number reported NAU. I think they should’ve utilized VISTA
that using the system was effective. more and interacted with the students through
I have given relatively short shrift to the need that media.”
for student support in the use of technology. There For the latter, the ambivalence was mostly
is a basic assumption that first year students are due to the barriers that the course management
216
system put in the students’ way when they were Educause. (2003). The new academy: The NLII
submitting assignments: annual review 2003. Retrieved January 21, 2009,
from http://www.educause.edu/ir/library/html/
“Much of the assignments posted on Vista hin- nlii_ar_2003/index.asp
dered me, as well as the Wiki portfolios. Online
Garrison, D. R., & Anderson, T. (2003). E-learning
assignments are not my strong points.”
in the 21st century: A framework for research and
practice. New York: RoutledgeFalmer.
Technology can provide a way to not only
enhance the classroom experience. It can allow Gunawardena, L., & McIsaac, M. (2003). Theory
instructors to explore mediated instruction outside of distance education. In D. H. Jonassen (Ed.),
of the context of the classroom time by using a Handbook of research for educational communi-
course management system. Even a course as in- cations and technology (pp. 355-395). New York:
tensely classroom based as an Honors seminar can Simon and Schuster Macmillan.
utilize technology in pedagogically appropriate
Hays, P. A. (2004). Case study research. In K.
ways that will make it worth bothering with.
deMarrais & S. D. Lapan (Eds.), Foundations for
research: Methods of inquiry in education and
the social sciences (pp. 217-234). Mahwah, NJ:
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Bridge, P., & Appleyard, R. (2008). A comparison Knowles, M. S. (1980). The modern practice of
of electronic and paper-based assignment submis- adult education: Andragogy versus pedagogy.
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Technology, 39(4), 644–650. doi:10.1111/j.1467-
8535.2007.00753.x Lovett, M. C. (2008, May 5). Metacognition
and monitoring: Understanding and improving
Chickering, A., & Gamson, Z. (1987). Seven students’ skills for learning: Educause learning
principles of good practice in undergraduate initiative events. Retrieved January 21, 2009, from
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Conrad, R.-M., & Donaldson, J. A. (2004). Engag- Mills, R. (2008). It’s just a nuisance: Improving
ing the online learner: Activities and resources college student reflective journal writing. College
for creative instruction. San Francisco, CA: Student Journal, 42(2), 684–690.
Jossey-Bass.
Moore, A. H., Fowler, S. B., Jesiek, B. K., Moore,
Cronon, W. (1998). Only connect: The goals of a J. F., & Watson, C. E. (2008, April 17). Learners
liberal education. The American Scholar, 67(4), 2.0? IT and 21st century learners in higher educa-
73–80. tion. ECAR Research Bulletin, 2008(7). Retrieved
Doherty, J. J. (2008). Facilitating interaction: A January 21, 2009, from http://connect.educause.
case study on the role of the reference librarian edu/Library/ECAR/Learners20ITand21stCen-
in online learning environments. Saarbrucken: tur/46519.
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1–6.
217
Motschnig-Pitrik, R., & Holzinger, A. (2002). ENDNOTES

Student-centered teaching meets new media:
1.
Concept and case study. Educational Technology Thanks must go to the many students and staff
& Society, 5(4), 160–172. of this program, especially to the students
of my Fall 2007 and Fall 2008 courses. A
National Collegiate Honors Council (NCHC). special appreciation is due to Kevin Ketchner
(n. d.). What is honors? Retrieved December 19, for not only working through some of the
2008, from http://www.nchchonors.org/whatis- ideas in this chapter with me but for helping
honors.shtml. with the final version of this chapter.
2.
Schwab, J. J., Westbury, I., & Wilkof, N. J. Much of the data describing the program is
(1978). Science, curriculum, and liberal educa- from a Spring 2007 Self Study created in
tion: Selected essays. Chicago, IL: University of support of the program’s seven-year review
Chicago Press. by the National Collegiate Honors Council.
This 43-page document and accompanying
Yin, R. K. (2003). Applications of case study appendices (A through P) are not included
research (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. here in order to maintain confidentiality
of the institution and program herein de-
scribed.
218
APPENDIX A
Common Syllabus for First Semester Honors Course
Note: this has been edited to delete any identifying information

[ - - ] University
University Honors Program
Honors 1--: Seminar in Critical Reading and Writing, I
Instructor:
Office Hours:
Class Meeting Time:
Phone/Office:
Course Prerequisites:
Admission to the Honors Program
Course Description:
Honors 1-- is a reading- and writing-intensive course designed to introduce you to a liberal studies
education. An important part of this course is your acquisition of specific skills: close (i.e., critical)
reading, analytical writing, cogent speaking (i.e., effective oral communication), attentive and active
listening, and critical thinking. The readings for this class, as well as the tasks required of you, have
been carefully chosen and arranged in order to make possible your attainment as well as enhancement of
these skills within a learning environment that encourages your understanding and appreciation of key
issues at the heart of a liberal studies education. Your 1-- instructors come from a variety of disciplines
and professions. They will help you define and explore these key issues in a manner that reflects their
unique training, specialties, and perspectives.
Course Orientation and Goals:
In this course, your readings, writings, and class discussions will address, both broadly as well as spe-
cifically, the theme of the human condition and the ideas and issues arising from this theme: e.g.,
the nature and function of being human; societies, communities, and communication; morals, ethics,
and ethnicities; power; gender; or identity, to name a few. We will explore this theme through literature
spanning a number of centuries and across disciplines. Through your readings, written assignments, and
discussions this semester, you will work to clarify these issues, refine your thoughts and attitudes about
them, and consider these issues within the context of the world around you.
By the end of this course, you will:
• Demonstrate improved and refined capabilities in essential lifelong skills, including close (criti-
cal) reading, analytical writing, cogent speaking (effective oral communication), attentive and
active listening, and critical thinking.
• Recognize the complexities of the human condition from a variety of perspectives: literary, his-
torical, cultural, moral, social, and so on.
• Appreciate the role that you play as a member of the Honors, [University], and [local] communities,
219
and as a citizen of the 21st century.
Course Requirements:
The following requirements are common across all sections of HON 1--.
1. HON 1-- and HON 1-- may be taken in any order.

2. If, within the first two-three weeks of classes, your instructor deems that you need extra writing
instruction, you will be required to register for ENG 100, a 1-credit-hour, pass/fail course designed
to help you improve your writing skills. You must take and complete this course during this current
semester. We also encourage any students to take this course if they believe they need extra writing
instruction during the semester.
3. You will read the syllabus carefully and familiarize yourselves with the HON 1-- attendance
policy.
4. You will read materials – books, essays, articles, chapters, etc. – that cover a broad chronological
range and a number of important themes. Individual instructors will tailor the reading materials
according to these guidelines as well as to their specific needs in each section of HON 1--.
5. You will write a 3-page paper during the first 2 weeks of classes on the [University] Summer
Reading Program text, A Long Way Gone: Memoirs of a Boy Soldier, by Ishmael Beah. You will
submit 2 copies of this paper to your instructors.
6. You will write 3 formal, analytical essays (5-7pp. each) that explore topics and issues related to
your readings and discussions. The second and third papers may also introduce you to the rudi-
ments of research-paper writing. You will also revise each of these papers through a peer-review
process.
7. You will complete a minimum of 13 pieces of informal writing, each 1 ½-3 pp. long. 6 of these 13
informal exercises and writing assignments will address the categories of composition – introduc-
tion/thesis, paragraphing, style/voice, mechanics, analysis/logic, and supporting evidence – that
will be part of your formal writing assignments all semester long.
8. You will complete an annotated bibliography on a topic, book, or issue related to your class read-
ings or discussions, which contains a minimum of 5 secondary sources.
9. You will submit a collection or portfolio of writing at the end of the semester that consists of (a)
your first draft and revised copies of your Summer Reading text assignment, (b) all of your first
draft and revised informal writing assignments, (c) your first draft and revised copies of your formal
papers, (d) 1 copy of your best formal paper, and (e) a 1-2pp. “Self Statement.”
10. You will be expected to participate thoughtfully and intelligently in all class discussions.
Assessment and Grading:
The goals and objectives listed above will be assessed and/or graded in the following manner:
1. 15% of total grade: 1 5-7pp. formal essay on 1 text/reading.

2. 20% of total grade: 1 5-7pp. formal essay on 2 texts/readings.
3. 20% of total grade: 1 5-7pp. formal essay on 2 or more texts/readings.
220
4. 15% of total grade: 1 5-item (minimum) annotated bibliography on a topic related to class readings/
discussion.
5. 15% of total grade: participation. This portion of your grade will include some or all of the follow-
ing: class attendance; active and informed class discussions; active and informed participation in
study groups; write-ups of your study group meetings; on-time submission of formal and informal
writing assignments; diligent attention to peer reviews of essays; an awareness of and respect for
differing opinions; one 10-minute book report; submission of writing assignments for the Honors
Program Assessment procedure. Individual instructors will specify the requirements for this aspect
of your grade.
6. 15% of total grade: your portfolio (see number 9 above).
TOTAL: 100%
Note: each instructor will be responsible for providing a rubric or formula for grade justification. In
addition, each instructor will responsible for providing students with handouts on writing instruction,
prompts, and so forth.
Attendance, Academic Dishonesty Policies:
Seminars such as this are joint enterprises and it is crucial that we come to speak, to listen, and to con-
tribute. Students who learn the most do so, among other reasons, because they participate and involve
themselves consistently and earnestly in class discussions with their instructor and with other students.
Therefore, attendance is extremely important, and students who miss class will be penalized as follows:
If a student has 4 absences, his or her participation grade will be lowered; if a student has more
than 4 absences, his or her final grade will be lowered according to the requirements specified by
individual instructors.
Academic dishonesty in all forms violates the basic principles of integrity and thus impedes learning.
More specifically, academic dishonesty is a form of misconduct that is subject to disciplinary action
under the Student Code of Conduct and includes the following: cheating, fabrication, fraud, facilitating
academic dishonesty, and plagiarism. Academic dishonesty, as defined in the Student Handbook, will
not be tolerated in this class, and will be handled in the manner prescribed by this handbook.
Texts and Readings:
All students will purchase the books required for their specific section of HON 1--. They will also pur-
chase a writing manual as specified by their instructors. Please note that instructors may also provide
you with additional photocopied materials, materials available on [Course Management System], and
materials obtained on-line. Finally, all students will purchase the [University] Summer Reading Program
text, A Long Way Gone, if they haven’t already received a copy through Summer Orientation.
Course Schedule:
Week Reading Assignments Writing Assignments

Week 1: Summer Informal Writing #1
Reading Text; Selection of Education Readings
Week 2: (instructor choice) Informal Writing #2
221
Week 3: (instructor choice) Informal Writing #3; Rough Draft of

Formal Paper #1; Peer Review
Week 4: (instructor choice) Informal Writing #4; Final Draft of Formal
Paper #1
Week 7: (instructor choice)informal Writing #7
Week 8: (instructor choice) Informal Writing #8; Rough Draft of
Formal Paper #2; Peer Review
Week 9: (instructor choice) Informal Writing #9; Final Draft of Formal
Paper #2
Week 12: (instructor choice) Informal Writing #12; Bibliography Due.
Week 13: (instructor choice) Informal Writing #13; Rough Draft of Formal
Paper #3; Peer Review
Week 14: (instructor choice) (instructor choice for informal writing);
Final Draft of Formal Paper #3 Due
Week 15: (instructor choice) (instructor choice for informal writing)
Guidelines for choosing readings for your individual HON 1-- sections and for creating your syl-
labi:
1. Instructors should choose readings (and films, if desired) that cover a broad chronological range.
In other words, instructors should not create syllabi that look solely at contemporary literature
or events. This broad chronological range is intended to give students a historical context of the
reading materials, to make connections between past and present, and to understand the thematic,
conceptual, literary, historical, cultural, and philosophical roots of their reading materials.
2. Instructors should include a paragraph after the boiler-plate HON 1-- information about the content
of their specific sections of HON 1--. The paragraph should address what kinds of readings will be
assigned, why these readings have been assigned, how they relate to one another, and the themes,
issues, and (historical, literary, cultural, and philosophical) concerns that these readings might well
address.
3. Students can and should be expected to read 30-60 pages per class period of assigned materials.
4. The assigned readings should touch upon several themes related to the Human Condition, such as
Education, Politics, Gender, Community, Class, Ecology, and the Environment, Science, Psychology,
Ethics and Morals, Philosophy, Post-Colonial Thought, Ethnicity, Gender, among others. Ideally,
these themes will connect with one another in some meaningful way.
5. Choose readings that you know will stimulate good discussion and that will lead to interesting
prompts, paper assignments, and out-of-class conversations.
6. Reading materials can be, but need not be, typical “English Department” fare, i.e., novels, short
stories, poems, plays, and the like. Reading materials can include collections of essays on a cer-
tain topic, materials from journals, newspapers, and magazines, and readings specific to certain
departmental interests (history, sociology, psychology, ethnic studies, etc.) In other words, syllabi
can reflect an interdisciplinary perspective.
222
7. In addition, syllabi can reflect content that is cross-cultural.

8. Finally, all faculty agree to assign and teach reading materials on Education and to teach the Summer
Reading text at the beginning of the semester. (For new instructors: please ask the director for a
list of education readings often used by HON 1-- instructors.)
APPENDIX B
Name That Movie
Adapted from Conrad, R-M and Donaldson, J. A. (2004). Engaging the online learner: Activities and
resources for creative instruction. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass (p. 53).
By the end of Wednesday, August 26th:
1. Post a 2-3 sentence discussion response to the following:

If you were to write the score to the movie of your life, which two songs would you pick and why?
Please pick one song that represents your life as a whole and another that gives a more recent picture.
2. By the end of Sunday, September 1st:
Based on the answers to 1, above, suggest a movie title for each person, followed by a one sentence
explanation of why you chose that title. Do this by responding to their initial posts.
3. By the beginning of class, Tuesday, September 2nd:
Consider all the suggested titles for your movie (by reading all of your responses). Select the one
title that would best fit your movie and note it in your discussion thread, followed by a 1-2 sentence
explanation of why you chose it. Also, bring this response to class.
APPENDIX C-1
Journal Assignment
[Section redacted]
Participation Journal: (Worth 170 points)
Participation Journal 1 up to 10/12/2007: 85 points, incl. Informal Writing 5
Participation Journal 2 from 10/15/2007: 85 points, incl. Informal Writing 13
Note: The Participation Journals are available in the Vista Discussions section. Here you will weekly
post your discussion questions and engage in a 1-to-1 dialogue with me. No one else has access to this
Journal. At Mid-Term and Finals week I will review the Journals and the Summative Journal essays (i.e.
informal writing assignments 5 and 13) and assign the 85 points accordingly.
In Class Participation:
I will frequently ask you to present your views on different subjects during class discussions. You will
be expected to come to class ready to fully participate. Failure to do this will result in the lowering of the
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Cases on Online and

InformatIon scIence reference

Published in the United States of America by

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Cases on online and blended learning technologies in higher education :

British Cataloguing in Publication Data

Preface ................................................................................................................................................ xiv

Acknowledgment ............................................................................................................................... xxii

Compilation of References .............................................................................................................. 296

About the Contributors ................................................................................................................... 313

Index ................................................................................................................................................... 318

Preface ................................................................................................................................................ xiv

Acknowledgment ............................................................................................................................... xxii

Compilation of References .............................................................................................................. 296

About the Contributors ................................................................................................................... 313

Index ................................................................................................................................................... 318

THE COMING OF THE AGE OF BLENDED LEARNING

PURPOSE OF THIS BOOK

ORGANIZATION OF THIS BOOK

INTRODUCTION become an increasingly important challenge in

of what it is to teach in a student-centred manner groups, coined by Wagner (2006) as interactions

Figure 1. Integration of data collection methods

Table 2. Breakdown of statistics for online participation of each participant

Participant Frequency of Average Amount Average Postings Number of Number Number of

Blended Community and

Peers Expressing Concerns:

Subject: Re: re group task Subject: Final Group Report

Hi Sorcha, Thanks for this. I agree re the alloca- Hi Everybody,

I am coming late into this discussion and feel like

Sharing Work Completed on Individual Peers Sharing Resources

Posted by Ryan on Monday, March 27, 2006

Posted by Loirin on Saturday, December 11,

Message no. 785[Branch from no. 748]

Subject: Re: Student survey

Message no. 1413[Branch from no. 1347]

Posted by Myra on Wednesday, February 15,

Subject: Personal greetings • Answers to library questions

Hi all, • Declan will be the Chair.

• Divide up Webliography between us, and report

• Task 3 Home work: to be carried out over two

Community Categories Postings Cognitive Categories Postings

the way that academic staff experience their pro- REFERENCES

INTRODUCTION It is therefore timely to bring together these

Table 1. The three courses at USQ

the contemporary literature, particularly in nated distance education providers of university

Figure 1. Enterprise systems at USQ (Smith, 2005, p. 4)

learner engagement and blended learning environ- Course Design, Development,

CIS5001 is offered with the help of printed ma-

EDU8317 Educational Course Design, Development,

Figure 2. Phase 1 prompts for the online PBL in EDU8317

instructional strategies (Barrows, 1986). (a) Student factors – Several students

laborative engagement with peers and academic Course Design, Development,

Figure 3. Learning by observation in CIS8011

Figure 4. Learning by critique in CIS8011

Figure 5. Example of threaded discussions in CIS8011

INTRODUCTION education. Blended learning retains the benefits of

Blended Learning Merges Case Theme: Confronting the

whether the participants from other buildings in (http://www.wimba.com/products/ wimba_

Figure 1. The Opening Page of a ‘ToonBook’ Scope and Sequence Description