CENG-5501

FUNDAMENTALS OF
BRIDGE DESIGN

Abrham G. (Ph.D)
B/meskel E.(M.Sc)
Yisihak G.(M.Sc)
1
Course Outline
1. Introduction
2. Investigation for Bridges
3. Types of Bridges and their Selection
4. Bridge Loadings
5. Superstructure
6. Substructure
7. Bearings and Railings
8. Culverts and low level water crossings
9. Bridge Inspection and Maintenance
2
CHAPTER 1

Introduction

3
1. Introduction
Background
 Bridge is a vital structure in highway construction
where rivers, gorges,… exist.
 Bridges are constructed primarily to carry
communication routes, such as railways, over an
obstacle like road, river etc.
Bridge Engineering covers :
 planning, design, construction and operation of
structures that carry facilities for the movement of
humans, animals, or materials over natural or
created obstacles.

4
 Ethiopia is one of a mountainous
country in Africa.
 Topographic condition: rough terrain,
deep gorges, rivers, …..

 Roads without constructing crossways

is difficult. Thus, Bridges are vital
structures required during roads
construction.
Bridge Construction in Ethiopia
1. On Blue Nile near Alata, Almeida Bridge,
thick log is placed. (The 1st Bridge)
2. Bridge between Gondar and Gojam-
Portugal Bridge (was constructed in 1625)
3. After 1667 many bridges were constructed in
Gondar and Lake Tana area.
4. For instance in Addis Ababa, Kebena and
Ras Mekonnen (1902) bridges were
constructed;
5. Abay #2 bridge was constructed in 1959 (13
span RC girder bridge – located in Bahir dar)
Bridge between Gonder and Gojam- Portugal Bridge (estimated to be built1625)
7
Bridge Construction in Ethiopia cont’d
• 1935-1945 (Italian occupation)

• During the last 30 years (many bridges were constructed)

• Slab ,T- and Box Girder bridges made using RC, are the
most commonly used bridges in Ethiopia.(almost 85%)

• Most of the bridges so far constructed in the country have

now been widened and replaced because their roadway
widths were too restrictive for the safety of
accommodating modern traffic.
Introduction
Bridges by year of construction (Bridges along Federal road
Network)
1200
1007
1000

800 731

600 556
507
391
400
286
200
200 115
10
0

Almost 40% of the bridges are found in fair & bad conditions
ERA (Ethiopian Roads Authority) Data ERA-BMS Software
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 Bridge by Type ( Bridges along Federal road Network)

ERA (Ethiopian Roads Authority) Data ERA-BMS Software

10
 Major Bridges in Ethiopia
Name Type Length Year Remark
Tekeze RC Deck Girder 424 2014

Blue Nile RC Deck Girder and 355 2010 along Sherkole-Blue

Steel Bridge Nile road segment
(Asossa)
Beshilo RC Deck Girder 319 2002 7-span

Hidasse Extradose, PC 303 2009 3-span

Tekeze No.3 Steel Truss 280 2001 The longest steel

Bridge

Baro RC Deck 276 1981

Multi span bridge
Abay No.4 PC Box Girder 236 1992
Tekeze Bridge
12
Bile Nile Bridge
13
 Beshilo
Bridge (Wollo)

14
Abay Hidassie Bridge
15
Tekeze Bridge
16
Baro Bridge (Gambela)
17
Abay No. 1, 204m
18
Rigid frame bridge-Adaitu Bridge
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 Chapter 2

INVESTIGATION FOR
BRIDGE SITE

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2. INVESTIGATION FOR BRIDGE SITE
Bridge Site Selection
In locating a bridge crossing the following should be
considered
 The reach of the river should be straight
 The channel in the reach should be well defined
 The crossing site should be as narrow as possible
 The crossing site should have firm high banks which
are fairly inerodable.
 The site should be selected where skewness can be
avoided …..
There are two types of rivers namely alluvial
and incised.

Alluvial rivers are winding and they erode their

banks and scour their beds;
They are continually active, scouring and
depositing materials on the banks and
transporting sediments.
Incised rivers have a relatively stable banks and
arc generally narrower and deeper than alluvial
rivers.
Data Collection

 Once the engineer has identified a

likely site for the bridge, it is necessary
to obtain field information on the
catchment area and run off, local
terrain conditions and water levels, and
other clearance requirements.
River Survey

 High water marks can be obtained

from: the hydrologic characteristics of the
basin or watershed of the stream under
study are needed for any predictive methods
used to forecast flood flows. gauges or from
local people.
Soil Investigation
Once at the site it is easy and of great
value to sample for soil, rock, stone,
water, etc.
 Soil investigation is required to get soil
profile, engineering property of the
foundation material and foundation
level of the abutments and piers for
design of the foundation.
 boreholes, test pits or geophysical
surveying shall be conducted
Field Sketching and Photos

 It has proved very practical to make a simple

sketch of the bridge site with approximate
water shores, existing structures, scour
holes, main stream location, etc including
very rough dimensions with approximate
measurements
 Span Determination
Span determination is usually dictated by the hydraulic
requirement. However, there are conditions where
lengthen spans are chosen for the sake of road
alignment.
1. Economy
Structural types, span lengths, and materials shall be
selected with due consideration of projected cost. The cost
of future expenditures during the projected service life of
the bridge should be considered. Regional factors, such as
availability of material, fabrication, location, shipping, and
erection constraints, shall be considered.
(For a given span the most economical span is the length at
which superstructure cost equals to substructure cost.)
2. Hydraulic requirement (DFL,OFL,…)

 Bridges are designed to accommodate design

discharge at design flood. When a river has a
wide flood plain, the economical solution
may be using short span bridge with proper
scour and erosion protection for the
embankment, abutments and piers.

3. Location of the bridge site

 Selection of Feasible site for Bridges
To select an optimum and the most feasible site , different
options should be considered. The factors include:
 Geometry of Approach Road
 Approach Road Earth work volume and its impact
 Opening size
 ROW (Right of Way) and others
 The Right of way along the Bridge crossing option consists of
houses, fences and service lines.

Location of Bridge’s Crossing Options

 In order to select the best crossing, the relevant geometric
design parameters of the approach road to the bridge crossing
have to be considered in line with an appropriate Geometric
Design manual.
29
 Example

Options Cost for Cost for Cost for Cost for Cost for Other Total
Earth Embankment Retaining Approach Bridge costs Cost
works wall Road structure
Pavement
1
2
3

30
 4. Location of Piers
 Piers should be located in such a manner that they can
provide the required lineal waterway and navigational
clearance.
 The alignment of piers and abutments should, if
possible, be set parallel to the direction of flow during
maximum flood.
5. Grade requirement of the road
Often in mountainous areas the road way grade is
governed by the capacity of heaviest vehicle to climb,
vertical curve and sight distance. These requirements
may increase the span beyond the hydraulic
requirement.
 6. Free board: 0.3 – 1.2m fn(Q)
 The waterway below the superstructure must be
designed to pass the design flood and the floating
debris carried on it.

 These clearance measurements should be increased

for backwater effects when the flow is restricted by
short span bridge.
 Chapter 3

Types of Bridges and

their Selection
 Classification of Bridges
Bridges can be classified on the basis of the following
Characteristics

 Functionality as Road bridge, Railway bridge,

Pedestrian bridge
 Construction material as Steel, Concrete, Timber or
combination of any two or more.
 Span length as short, medium or large.
 Structural forms as Slab, T-Girder, Box Girder, Arch,
Rigid, Suspension etc.
 Classification of Bridges

Bridges can be classified on the basis of the following

Characteristics

 Span type as single or multi-span, cantilever.

 Movements as movable or fixed Bridges
 Arrangement as curved, skewed, Inclined, straight, ..
 Life span as Temporary, Permanent
Pedestrian Bridge
Men pull each other across Blue Nile River by
rope prior to the building of a new bridge

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 Span Length

 - L ≤ 6m (Culvert)
 - 7m < L ≤ 15m (Small span bridges)
 - 16 ≤ L ≤ 50m (Medium span Bridges)
 - 50 ≤ L≤ 150m (Large Span Bridges)
 - L≥150m (Extra Large Span Bridges)
 Structural Forms
 - Slab Bridges
 - Girder (Deck girder Bridges)
 - Box Girder
 - Arch Bridges
 - Truss Bridges
 - Rigid Bridges
 - Plate Girder Bridges
 - Cable Stayed Bridges
 - Suspension Bridges
 - Box Cell/ Box culvert
Slab Bridges
 Girder (Deck girder Bridges)

 Chiro-Majete
Holeta Bridge

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47
Box Girder
Arch Bridges
Truss Bridge
Rigid Frame Bridge

Rigid frame bridge- Adaitu Bridge

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53
Cable Stayed Bridge
 Suspension Bridge

pedestrian cable bridge over the Blue Nile in Ethiopia

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57
58
Cantilever bridge-Awash Bridge (Tulubolo)

59
Box Cell/ Box culvert
Span Support
This is on the basis of the Bridge’s support.

 If all the spans of the bridge are simply supported (a

pinned support and a roller support )- Simple Span
Bridge

 A bridge supported by combinations of more than two

pinned and roller supports - Continuous Span Bridge

 A bridge that is built-in at one end and free at the other -

Cantilever Span Bridge
Multiple simple span bridge- Woama Bridge (Afar)
Continuous bridge- Modjo Bridge
Simple Span Bridge
 Particular Problem of Selection
 Different Manuals recommend different
span lengths to be criteria of selection of
bridge types.

 No clear demarcations on the selection of

spans for slab and T- Girder bridges if the
span lies with in the intervals on the basis of
economy. This is a serious design problem
that Engineers face during selection of
bridge type.
 Selection of Bridge Type

 Typically there are three to four viable structure

types for each span length. Criteria to select bridge
include:
 Geometric Condition of the Site
 Subsurface Conditions of the Site
 Functional Requirements
Economy and
ease of maintenance,
aesthetics, etc
 Selection of Bridge Type
Economy
 A general rule is that the bridge with minimum
number of spans, fewest deck joints and widest
spacing of girders will be the most economical.
 By reducing the number of spans, the construction
cost of one pier is eliminated.
Constructability
Construction and erection considerations:
 In general, the larger the prefabricated or precast member, the
shorter the construction time.
 However, the larger the members, the more difficult they are to
transport and lift into place.
 The availability of skilled labour and specified materials will
also influence the choice of a particular bridge type.

Legal Considerations:
 Applicable laws like environmental laws also govern the
type of bridge.
Criteria used for Determination of Location of a Bridge
(Span and span arrangement)

 Geometric requirements for bridges:

These are the requirements of the road alignment such
as vertical and horizontal curves including grade.

 Environmental concern - bridge and its associated

works should not have an adverse impact on adjoining
land or buildings, or the bridge itself be susceptible to
damage from the local environment.

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 . . . cont’d
 Supporting sub-soils must be strong enough to
ensure the stability of the structure;
 Road safety
 Economic considerations
 Hydrology/Hydraulics shall play vital role in the
selection of the span and span arrangement.

The choice of location of a bridge:-based on economic,

engineering, social and environmental concerns as well as
costs of operation involving maintenance associated
activities.

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 CHAPTER 4
Bridge Loadings
 Type of Loads
 Permanent Loads: Dead and Earth Loads
 Transient Load: Live, Water, Wind
 Dynamic Loads: Earthquake Loads
 Force effects due to superimposed deformations
(temp gradient, shrinkage, creep, settlement, . .)
 Friction Forces
 Vessel Collision
 Other stresses
 Dead Load

 Dead load shall include the weight of all

components of the structure, appurtenances
and utilities, earth cover, wearing surface,
future overlays, and planned widening. In the
absence of more precise information, the unit
weights, specified in AASHTO, Table 3.5.1-1,
may be used for the computation of dead loads.
Dead Load
 Vehicular Live Loads
Vehicular live load is designated as HL-93 and
shall consist of a combination of the followings:
• Design truck or design tandem, and
• Design lane load

Except as modified in Article 3.6.1.3.1 of ERA

Bridge Design Manual, each design lane under
consideration shall be occupied by either the design
truck or tandem, coincident with the lane load, where
applicable. The loads shall be assumed to occupy
3000mm transversely within a design lane
Vehicular Live Loads
Design truck :-The weights and spacing of axles and wheels
for the design truck shall be as specified in Figure 1 (HS-20
Loading). A dynamic load allowance shall be considered.
Except as specified in Articles 3.6.1.3.1 and 3.6.1.4.1, of
ERA Bridge Design Manual, the spacing between the two
145000- N axles shall be varied between 4300 and 9000mm
to produce extreme force effects.
Design tandem:- shall consist of a pair of 110kN axles
spaced 1200mm apart. The transverse spacing of wheels
shall be taken as 1800mm. A dynamic load allowance
shall be considered as specified in AASHTO, Article
3.6.2.
Design Truck Load

Fig.1 Design Truck Load

Design Tandem Load

Fig.2 Design Tandem Load

 Design Lane Load:
 The design lane load shall consist of a load of 9.3kN/m,
uniformly distributed in the longitudinal direction.
 Transversely, the design lane load shall be assumed to
be uniformly distributed over a 3.0m width.
 The force effects from the design lane load shall not be
subject to a dynamic load allowance. (AASHTO, ERA Design
manual)
 Dynamic Load Allowance
(IM = Vehicular Dynamic Load Allowance): Dynamic
effects due to moving vehicles shall be attributed to two
sources:
 Hammering effect is the dynamic response of the
wheel assembly
 Dynamic response of the bridge as a whole
Dynamic load allowance need not be applied to:
 Retaining walls not subject to vertical reactions from
the superstructure, and
 Foundation components that are entirely below
ground level.
 Dynamic Load Allowance……

 The dynamic load allowance shall not be applied

to pedestrian loads or to the design lane load.
 The factor to be applied to the static load shall be
taken as: (1 + IM/100).
 Dynamic Load Allowance…..

 The dynamic load allowance for culverts and other

buried structures, in %, shall be taken as:

IM = 33 (1.0 - 4.l*10-4 DE) > 0%

Where: DE = the minimum depth of earth

cover above the structure (mm)
 Number of Design Lanes
 Generally, the number of design lanes should be
determined by taking the integer part of the ratio
w/3600
Where: w is the clear roadway width in mm
between curbs and/or barriers.
 Multiple Presence of Live Load:
 Trucks will be present in adjacent lanes on roadways with
multiple design lanes but this is unlikely that all adjacent
lanes will be loaded simultaneously. This will be considered
by the multiple presence factors.

 When the loading condition includes the pedestrian loads

combined with one or more lanes of the vehicular live load,
the pedestrian loads shall be taken to be one loaded lane.
Centrifugal Forces (CE= Vehicular Centrifugal Force):
 Centrifugal force is due to inertia force of vehicles on
curved bridges at speed. Centrifugal forces shall be
applied horizontally at a distance 1.8 m above the
roadway surface.
 Centrifugal forces shall be taken as the product of the
axle weights of the design truck or tandem and the
factor C, taken as:
 Breaking Force (BR= Vehicular Braking Force):
 From AASHTO Commentary 3.6.4 Based on energy
principles, and assuming uniform deceleration
(retardation), the braking force determined as a fraction
"b" of vehicle weight.

 From AASHTO Article 3.6.4 Braking forces shall be taken as

25 % of the axle weights of the design truck or tandem per
lane placed in all design lanes headed in the same direction.
 These forces shall be assumed to act horizontally at a
distance of 1800 mm above the roadway surface in either
longitudinal direction to cause extreme force effects.
Vehicular Collision (CT= Vehicular Collision Force):
 Unless protections are provided a horizontal force of
1800kN applied at 1.2m above the ground should be
considered.

Pedestrian Loads
 A pedestrian load of 3.6kPa shall be applied to all
sidewalks wider than 0.6m and considered
simultaneously with the vehicular design live load.
 Water Loads

 Water Loads (WA= Water Load and Stream Pressure)

 Static Pressure: Static pressure of water shall be
assumed to act perpendicular to the surface that is
retaining the water.
 P=γ g h
 Stream Pressure
 Longitudinal: The longitudinal drag force shall be
taken as the product of longitudinal stream pressure
and the projected surface exposed thereto.
 Lateral: The lateral, uniformly distributed pressure
on substructure due to water flowing at an angle,θ, to
the longitudinal axis of the pier
 Wind Loads
 Wind Pressure on Structures, (WS): For small and
medium sized concrete bridges below 50m length the
wind load on structures shall be neglected.
 In the absence of more precise data, design wind
pressure, PD in kPa, shall be determined as:
 Earthquake Effects (EQ= Earthquake)
 Earthquake loads are given by the product of the
elastic seismic response coefficient Csm and the
equivalent weight of the superstructure.
 Earth Pressure
 Earth Pressure (EH = Horizontal Earth Pressure; ES = Earth
Surcharge; LS = Live Load Surcharge; DD = Down drag)
Earth pressure shall be considered as a function of the:
 Type and density of earth,
 Water content,
 Soil creep characteristics,
 Degree of compaction
 Location of groundwater table,
 Earth-structure interaction,
 Amount of surcharge, and
 Earthquake effects.
 EH = Horizontal Earth Pressure
Active and Passive Earth Pressures
 Coulomb theory is recommended by AASHTO for
masonry and RC abutment since this theory holds better
for the actual situation.
kh=coefficient of lateral earth pressure taken as ko
ES = Earth Surcharge; LS = Live Load Surcharge
 The “Wall Height” shall be taken as the distance between
the surface of the backfill and the bottom of the footing.

Down Drag (DD):

 When soil surrounding piles settle, it applies a downward
force. In this case, the force should be considered.
 Force Effects Due to Superimposed
Deformations: TU, TG, SH, CR, SE
 Uniform temperature, (TU): it is used to
calculate thermal deformation effects.
 Temperature Gradient, (TG): Temperature rise
can differ on the top and bottom surfaces of a
bridge.
 Differential Shrinkage, (SH):
 Creep, (CR): dependence on time and changes in
compressive stresses shall be taken into account.
 Settlement, (SE): This will cause internal forces in
continues structures.
 Design Philosophy
 In Engineering design the general principle is that
the resistance of a cross section has to exceed the
effects come from the applied loads. That is

Resistance ≥Effect of Loads

 Design Objectives
The objectives in a bridge design are safety,
serviceability, economy, constructability and
aesthetics.

Minimum requirements are provided for

clearances, environmental protection ,geological
studies, rideability, durability, inspectabilty, and
maintainability.
Q
 iii

Load Factors and Load Combinations

 In LRFD method, load factors are applied to the loads and
resistance factors to the internal resistances or capacities
of sections.
 Moreover, the load combinations and load factors are
considered accordingly.
: load modifier specified in AASHTO Article 1.3.2
: load factors specified in AASHTO Tables 3.4.1-1 and 3.4.1-2
 Ultimate Design Load
 The ultimate design load acting on a member will be
the summation of the relevant characteristic load
combinations multiplied by their respective partial
safety factors.
Ultimate Design Load
Ultimate Design Load
 Analysis
Static Analysis
Slab Bridges
 Equivalent Strip Method is used for the analysis

Girder Bridges
 Variation of loads along the transversal and
longitudinal directions are used

Dynamic Analysis
Seismic Design per ES- EN 1998:2015 (Design of
Structures for EQ resistance), in conjunction
with AASHTO, ERA seismic design criteria.

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 CHAPTER 5
Superstructure
1-Deck and overpass 2- Stringer(longitudinal beams) 3-Bearing
4- Pedestal 5-Footing 6- Piles 7-Underpass 8- Embankment
9- Live load

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Approach Expansion
slab Joint
Railing Post
Wing
wall

Abutment
Pier

Girder

Diaphragm
110
 Reinforced Concrete Bridges:
RC bridges possess several advantages over steel
bridges.
- adaptability of concrete wide variety of structural shapes
- Low maintenance cost
- Long life and better resistance to temporary overloads
and dynamic loads than steel bridges.
- Cast-in-place reinforced concrete structures are
continuous and monolithic, which translate into easy
construction, low cost and good seismic resistance.
-They can also be given the desired aesthetic appearance.
 RC Bridges . . .

Disadvantages
 - large dead weight
 - difficulty to widen
 - longer construction time
 - requires formwork and false work
 Advantages of Continuous RC Bridges:
 Less number of bearings than simply supported
bridge since one line of bearings is used over the piers
 Reduced width of pier, thus less flow obstruction and
less amount of material
 Requires less number of expansion joints due to
which both the initial cost and maintenance cost
become less. The rigidity quality over the bridge is
thus improved.
 Advantages of Continuous RC Bridges . . .
 Lesser depth of girder, hence economical supports
 Better architectural appearance
 Lesser vibration and deflection

Disadvantages
 Analysis is laborious and time consuming
 Not suitable on yielding foundations
 Steel Bridges
Steel bridge construction consists of rolled steel
beams, plate girders or trusses with reinforced
concrete deck or steel plate deck-beam bridges.

Steel has got several advantages

 It is a high quality, homogeneous, isotropic material
that is perfectly elastic to its yield point.
 It has high tensile and compressive strengths.
 Steel Bridges
Advantages ….
 Faster construction time
 They can be erected with ease and this
minimizing construction costs.
 Steel superstructures are usually lighter than
concrete superstructures which translate into
reduced substructures costs
 Steel Bridges
Some of the disadvantages are:
 Corrosion of steel
 high maintenance cost
 Corrosion can reduce cross section of
structural members and weaken the
superstructure also.
118
 Arch Bridges
 Arches are generally characterized by the
development of inclined rather than vertical
reactions under vertical loads.

 Cross-sections are designed for thrust,

moment and shear, with magnitudes
depending on the location of the pressure
line.
120
 1. SLAB BRIDGES
 Slab Bridge normally requires more concrete and
reinforced steel than Girder Bridge of the same span
but the formwork is simpler and less expressive, hence
they are economical when these cast factor balance
favourably.
 Slab bridges are most commonly used to span short
spans up to 12 meters.
 SLAB BRIDGES
It is the most common forms of bridges
in Ethiopia, and economical for spans:
 6 m to 15 m [ERA] (and if >15m they
can be ribbed)
 6-12m [AACRA]
 10-12m [AASHTO]
 Optional Criteria for Span-to-Depth Ratios

 Unless otherwise specified herein, if an

Owner chooses to invoke controls on span-
to-depth ratios, the limits in Table 2.5.2.6.3-1,
in which S is the slab span length and L is
the span length, both in ft., may be
considered in the absence of other criteria.
Where used, the limits in Table 2.5.2.6.3-1
shall be taken to apply to overall depth
unless noted.
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 SLAB BRIDGES
Depth Determination:
 According to AASHTO, Table 2.5.2.6.3.1,
minimum recommended depth for slab with
main reinforcement parallel to the traffic is :
1.2( S  3000)
D (mm)
30
where:
D : slab thickness
S : c/c spacing of the bridge (mm)
 SLAB BRIDGES

Depth Determination:
 According to ERA Bridge Design Manual
2013, article 5.4.1.1, the depth of a concrete
deck, excluding any provision for grinding,
grooving, and sacrificial surface, should not
be less than 185 mm and minimum cover
should not be less than 35mm.
 Load distributions:
 The equivalent width (E)of longitudinal strips per lane for
both shear and moment with one lane, i.e., two lines of
wheels, loaded shall be determined as:
Interior Strip width
Edge Strip width
Edge strip is limited to half lane width; use multiple presence
factors 1.2 and half design lane load (for a two-lane bridge, because
the possibility of occurrence of two trucks at a time is less).

Thus, live loads due to truck and tandem are divided by 2 as the width
of the edge strip is less than 2.1m (wheel are placed 300mm from curb
edge and wheel spacing of 1800mm) plus curb width. Thus the effect
of the live load is reduced by half.

 Ei  Where:
 Cw  300   Ee : Edge strip width
Ee  min  2 Cw : Curb width
1800  mm 
 Ei : interior strip width

129
Equivalent Concentrated and Distributed Loads
The equivalent concentrated and distributed loads per meter width of
both interior and edge strips are obtained by dividing the design loads to
the corresponding strip width and applying a dynamic impact factor. For
the calculation of live load force effects, influence line is used and the
maximum effect will be selected for the design.

Lane Load:
The design lane load shall consist of a load of 9.3kN/m uniformly
distributed in the longitudinal direction.

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IL for maximum shear force due to truck and tandem loads

131
m1 
l1 l2 l2 l1  4.3 ( L  1.2)
m2  m1  m2 
L L 4
l1 l2  4.3
m3 
L
IL for maximum bending moment due to truck and tandem loads

132
133
 145 35
M tr   1 2
m  m  m3
E E

110
M tan   m1  m2 
E

M ln 
9.3 L 
2

E 8

(M LL IM )int  1.33max  M tr , M tan   M ln

Thus, the design moment is taking by considering the maximum
effects due to live and dead load moments.

134
Design Moment
The design moment is computed by combining the effects of dead
loads and live loads and applying the corresponding load
combinations and load factors specified in AASHTO, Table 3.4.1.1.

For strength limit state ƞ=1.05- for critical or essential bridges.

135
 Distribution Reinforcement

According to AASHTO, article 5.14.4.1, the amount of bottom

transverse reinforcement may be taken as a percentage of the
main reinforcement required for positive moment.

Shrinkage & Temperature Reinforcement

As indicated in AASHTO, section 5.10.8, reinforcement for

shrinkage and temperature reinforcement shall be provided
near surfaces of concrete exposed to daily temperature
changes. The specified amount of the steel should be
distributed equally on both sides.

136
T-girder Bridges:
 T-Girder Bridges:
 T- Girders are used for bridges spanning from about
10 meters-25 meters.
 These usually consist of equally spaced beams
(generally with spacing of 1.8-3.6m) spanning
longitudinally between supports.
 The slab is structurally continuous across the top.
 The slab serves dual purpose of supporting the live
load on the bridge and acting as the top flange of
the longitudinal beams.
 T-Girder Bridges
They shall be used for span lengths
10 – 25 m [ERA]
 10 – 20 m [Design of RC Bridge]
 10-25m [AASHTO]
 12-18m [Bridge Eng’g Handbook].
140
 T-Girder Bridges . . .
Diaphragms
 Diaphragms are provided transversely between the
beams over the supports and depending on the span,
at mid-span and other intermediate locations.
 The purpose of providing diaphragms is to ensure
lateral distribution of live loads to various adjacent
stringers,

Diaphragms
 T-Girder Bridges . . .
 Design of T- girder bridges consists of

 deck slab analysis and design, and

 T-girder analysis and design.

 Structural analysis of the deck slab involves taking

a continuous strip perpendicular to the girders
(AASHTO Art.9.6.1) and analyzing by moment
distribution or using design aid given by AASHTO.
 T-Girder Bridges . . .
Depth Determination:
Slab thickness
According to AASHTO, Table 2.5.2.6.3.1, minimum recommended
depth for continuous deck slab is

Top Flange thickness

According to AASHTO, article 5.14.1.5.1a, the thickness of
top flanges serving as deck slabs shall be not less than the
clear span between fillets, haunches, or webs divided by
20, unless transverse ribs at a spacing equal to the clear
span are used or transverse pre-stressing is provided
 T-Girder Bridges . . .
Web thickness
 The minimum web thickness shall be determined by
requirements for shear, torsion, concrete cover and
adequate field placement and consolidation of concrete.
As per AASHTO, article C5.14.1.5.1C, the minimum web
thickness, bw (mm)is given by
 The width of equivalent interior transverse strip over
which the wheel loads can be considered distributed
longitudinally in cast - in - place concrete decks is given as
[Table Art. 4.6.2.I .3-1]
 Load Distribution Factors for the Girders:
For moment:
 The live load flexural moment for interior and exterior
beams with concrete decks shall be determined by
applying the lane fractions

For shear:
 The live load shear for interior and exterior beams
shall be determined by applying the lane fractions
 Skewed Bridges
 When the line supports are skewed and the
difference between skew angles of two
adjacent lines of supports does not exceed 10
degrees, the bending moment in the beams
may be reduced in accordance with Table
4.6.2.2.2e-1.
Table 4.6.2.2.2e-1—Reduction of Load Distribution Factors for
Moment in Longitudinal Beams on Skewed Supports
 Box Girder Bridge . . .
 Concrete box girder bridges are economical for
spans of above 25 to 45m.
 They can be reinforced concrete or prestressed
concrete.
 Longer span than 45m will have to be
prestressed.
 They are similar to T-beams in configuration
except the webs of T-beams are all
interconnected by a common flange resulting
in a cellular superstructure.
 Box Girder Bridge . . .
 The top slab, webs and bottom slab are built
monolithically to act as a unit, which means that
full shear transfer must be provided between all
parts of the section.

 Reinforced concrete box girders have high

torsional resistance due to their closed shape and
are particularly suitable for structures with
significant curvature.
 Box Girder Bridge . . .
Concrete box girder bridges have several advantages over
other types;
 The relatively shallow depth of box girders is all
advantage where headroom is limited like in urban
overpasses.
 Monolithic construction of the superstructure and
substructure offers structural as well as aesthetic
advantage.
 Box Girder Bridge . . .
 They provide space for utilities such as water and gas
lines, power, telephone and cable ducts, storm drains and
sewers, which can be placed in the hollow cellular section.
 When the exterior webs are inclined their slope should
preferably be IH: 2V.
 Box Girder Bridge . . .

Interior Girder Exterior Girder

 Box Girder Bridge . . .
Bottom Flange thickness
For Box-girder bridge, as specified in AASHTO, article
5.14.1.5.1b, the bottom flange thickness shall be not less
than:
 140mm;
 the distance between fillets or webs of non prestressed girders
and beams divided by 16; or
 the clear span between fillets, haunches, or webs for
prestressed girders divided by 30, unless transverse ribs at a
spacing equal to the clear span are used.
 Box Girder Bridge . . .
Bottom Flange Reinforcement
According to ERA Bridge design manual, article 5.5.2.4, a
uniformly distributed reinforcement of 0.4 percent of the
flange area shall be placed in the bottom slab parallel to
the girder span, either in single or double layers. The
spacing of such reinforcement shall not exceed 450mm.

A uniformly distributed reinforcement of 0.5 percent of

the cross-sectional area of the slab, based on the least slab
thickness, shall be placed in the bottom slab transverse to
the girder span. Such reinforcement shall be distributed
over both surfaces with a maximum spacing of 450mm.
6. Substructures

161
6. Bridge Substructures
Substructures
• Abutments and Retaining Structures,
• Piers and Columns
• Bearings, access and drainage to
bearings

162
 Piers and Columns
Piers provide vertical supports for spans
at intermediate points and perform two
main functions:
 transferring superstructure vertical
loads to the foundations
 resisting horizontal forces acting on the
bridge

163
 Piers and Columns . . .
Generally piers are subjected to the following
loads:
 Dead loads
 Live loads and impact from the superstructure
 Wind loads on the structure and the live loads
 Centrifugal force from the superstructure
 Longitudinal force from live loads (vehicular
braking force)

164
 Piers and Columns . . .
 Drag forces due to the friction at bearings
 Earth pressure
 Stream flow pressure
 Ice pressure
 Earthquake forces
 Thermal and shrinkage forces
 Ship impact forces
 Force due to prestressing of the superstructure
 Forces due to settlement of foundations

165
 Piers and Columns
Design Criteria: In general, the design of a
highway bridge pier should address:
❏ Safety against overturning
❏ Safety against sliding
❏ Safety against bearing failure of the soil
❏ Safety against excessive or differential
settlement

166
 Pier Types
Solid Wall Pier: A solid wall pier consists of a solid
wall which extends up from a foundation consisting
of a footing or piles.

167
 Pier Types . . .
Hammerhead Pier: A hammerhead pier utilizes one
or more columns with a pier cap in the shape of a
hammer.

168
 Pier Types . . .
Column Bent Pier: A column bent pier consists of a
cap beam and supporting columns in a frame-type
structure.

169
170
171
 Pier Types . . .
 Pile Bent Pier: The pile bent pier is a variation on
the column bent pier with the supporting columns
and footing replaced with individual supporting
piles.

172
 Pier Types . . .
Finally selection of pier is made based on the
following considerations.
 Economy
 Aesthetics
 Flow of water and traffic under the bridge
 Superstructure

173
Abutment is component of a bridge
• provides the vertical support to the
bridge superstructure at the bridge
ends
• connects the bridge with the
approach roadway
• retains the roadway base materials

174
 Abutments and Retaining Structures . . .
Types of Abutments
Abutments can be classified based on the load
resisting mechanism as:
1. Gravity abutments: resist the load acting with its
dead weight and dead weight of retained soil or
backfill on its inclined back face.

2. Cantilever abutments: load resistance derived

from cantilever action and usually constructed from
reinforced concrete.

175
 Abutments and Retaining Structures . . .
Types of Abutments …..
3. Counterfort abutments: are similar to cantilever
ones but ties called counterforts are provided to tie
the stem to the footing.

4. Reinforced earth abutments: The essential

concept is the use of multiple-layer strips or fibers to
reinforce the fill material in the lateral direction so
that the integrated fill material will act as a gravity
retaining structure

176
Abutments and Retaining Structures . . .
Types of Abutments …..

177
 Abutments and Retaining Structures . . .
Abutment Type Selection
 The selection of an abutment type needs to
consider all available information and bridge design
requirements. Those may include bridge geometry,
roadway and riverbank requirements, geotechnical
and right-of-way restrictions, aesthetic
requirements, economic considerations, etc.
 Knowledge of the advantages and disadvantages for
the different types of abutments is important in
choosing the right type of abutment for the bridge
structure.
178
 Abutments and Retaining Structures . . .
An abutment should be designed so as to withstand
damage from:
 the Earth pressure,
 the gravity loads of the bridge superstructure and
abutment,
 live load on the superstructure or the approach fill,
 wind loads, and
 the transitional loads transferred through the
connections between the superstructure and the
abutment.

179
 Abutments and Retaining Structures . . .
Abutment Wingwall
 Abutment wingwalls act as a retaining structure to
prevent the abutment backfill soil and the roadway
soil from sliding transversely.
 A wingwall design similar to the retaining wall
design. However, live-load surcharge needs to be
considered in wingwall design.

180
 Abutments and Retaining Structures . . .
Abutment Slope Protection
 Flow water scoring may severely damage bridge
structures by washing out the bridge abutment
support soil.
 To reduce water scoring damage to the bridge
abutment, pile support, rock slope protection,
concrete slope paving may be used.

181
 Scour
Scour is the washing away of streambed
material by water channel flow. Typically,
scour occurs when the water channel becomes
narrowed or constricted.

The removal of material from under a pier’s

foundation, often associated with scour, is
known as undermining or undercutting.

182
183
184
185
 Scour
 If scour occurs at a specific localized point in the
channel, it is known as local scour.
 If scour takes place over a large area of the channel
it is known as general scour.

Scour Protection:
Scour protection is required when some restriction is
made to the flow of the flood.
 Riprap
 Gabion and Reno mattresses
 Filter Blankets
 Vegetation
186
 CHAPTER 7
Bearings and
Railings
 Bearings
 Bearings are structural devices positioned between
the bridge superstructure and the substructure.

Their principal functions are as follows:

1. To transmit loads from the superstructure to the
substructure, and
2. To accommodate relative movements between the
superstructure and the substructure.

188
 Bearings . . .
 The forces applied to a bridge bearing mainly
include superstructure self-weight, traffic loads,
wind loads, and earthquake loads.
 Movements in bearings include translations and
rotations. Creep, shrinkage, and temperature effects
are the most common causes of the translational
movements, which can occur in both transverse and
longitudinal directions.
 Traffic loading, construction tolerances, and
uneven settlement of the foundation are the
common causes of the rotations.
189
 Types of Bearings
 Bearings may be classified as fixed bearings and
expansion bearings.
 Fixed bearings allow rotations but restrict
translational movements.
 Expansion bearings allow both rotational and
translational movements.

190
 Types of Bearings . . .
Sliding Bearings
 A sliding bearing utilizes one plane metal plate
sliding against another to accommodate
translations.
Rocker and Pin Bearings
 It typically consists of a pin at top that facilitates
rotations, and a curved surface at the bottom that
accommodates the translational movements
Roller Bearings
 Roller bearings are composed of one or more rollers
between two parallel steel plates.
191
 Types of Bearings . . .
Roller bearings have been used in both steel and
concrete bridges.
Elastomeric Bearings
 An elastomeric bearing is made of elastomer (either
natural or synthetic rubber). It accommodates both
translational and rotational movements through
the deformation of the elastomer.

192
Types of Bearings . . .

193
 Selection of Bearings
 Generally the objective of bearing selection is to
choose a bearing system that suits the needs with a
minimum overall cost. The following procedures
may be used for the selection of the bearings.

1. Determination of Functional Requirements

2. Evaluation of Bearings
3. Preliminary Bearing Design

194
 Design of Elastomeric Bearings
The design procedure is according to AASHTO-LRFD and
is as follows:
 1. Determine girder temperature movement
 2. Determine girder shortenings due to post-tensioning,
concrete shrinkage, etc.
 3. Select a bearing thickness based on the bearing total
movement requirements
 4. Compute the bearing size based on bearing
compressive stress
 5. Compute instantaneous compressive deflection

195
Design of Elastomeric Bearings . . .
 6. Combine bearing
maximum rotation.
 7. Check bearing
compression and
rotation.
 8. Check bearing stability
 9. Check bearing steel
reinforcement.

196
 Railings
Railings are provided along edges of bridges for protection of
traffic and pedestrian. There are three types of railings.
1. Traffic railings
2. Pedestrian railings
3. Combination railings

Purposes
 - primarily containing the average vehicle
 - protecting the occupants of a vehicle in collision with the
railing
 - protecting other vehicles near the collision
 - protecting people and property on roadway and nearby
areas underneath
 CHAPTER 8
CULVERTS AND LOW
LEVEL WATER CROSSINGS
 CULVERTS
 Culverts are cross drainage structures used to drain
rain run off collected by side ditches from one side
of the highway to the other.
 Span<6m
 Where the waterway opening is less than about
15m2, and particularly where the road crosses the
waterway on a relatively high embankment, a
culvert will usually be cheaper than a bridge.

199
 Culverts . . .
Culverts are usually constructed from:
 - Precast concrete jointed pipes
 - Single or multi-cell reinforced concrete boxes,
prefabricated or built in situ
 - corrugated steel pipes made of prefabricated
panels

200
 Types of Culverts
1- CONCRETE PIPE CULVERTS
 Cheap and often serves for several years
2- FLEXIBLE STEEL CULVERTS
 They are better suited to unstable conditions than rigid
concrete structures.
 They are also easier to transport and faster to construct
 Corrosion is a problem
3- REINFORCED CONCRETE BOX CULVERTS
 Twin or multiple cell box culverts are used where the horizontal
opening is more than about 4m.

201
 LOW LEVEL WATER CROSSINGS
 In favourable conditions, low level water crossings
can provide economical and relatively simple
alternatives to conventional bridges. These are of
two basic types:
 - fords and bed-level causeways
 - vented causeways and submersible bridges

 Both types are appropriate for sites where traffic

volumes are low or where a reasonably short detour
provides access to an all-weather bridge.
 For most of the year the maximum depth of water
over the carriage way should be less than 150mm.
202
203
 FORDS
 Fords are the simplest form of river crossing
at places where the stream is wide, shallow
and slow, the approaches gentle, and the
surface firm.
 All types of ford may require scour protection
on the downstream side

204
 CHAPTER 9
Bridge Inspection and
Maintenance
205
Bridge Management

Bridge management is the means by which a

bridge stock is cared for from conception to the
end of its useful life. In practice, bridge
management is necessary to coordinate and
implement the tasks associated with the care of
our bridges, such as:
• Collection of inventory data
• Regular inspection
• Assessment of condition and strength
• Repair, strengthening or replacement
• Prioritizing allocation of funds
• Safety
206
Bridge Management
Inspection

Repair,
Rehabilitation, Inventory Assessment
or Replacement

Selection
Prioritization
of Action
Bridge Management Cycle

207
 Old Bridges WHY?

PROBLEM
In various state Causes
 Overloading
of deterioration  Aging
-An issue to maintain
a fully functioning  Poor design
transportation. Load capacity reduced  Poor construction

- Accommodation of
modern and existing Major defects
traffic is in question. Performance Flexural cracks,
Shear cracks,
assessment ??? Concrete peel off,
Rebar exposure,
Repaired, Honey comb & abrasion
strengthened or
replaced
208
209
Visual Inspection
 Visual inspection, as a preliminary step of bridge
assessment, involves gathering of data from existing
bridge via regular visual control based on various
standards. Results of inspection are saved in the
records (bridge book, sheets and digital files as well)
for further analysis.

210
The steps required for the detailed structural
evaluation of bridges include the followings:

 1. Frequent inspection
 2. Material testing to assess strength of structural
components and condition of materials
 3. Load rating
 4. Nondestructive load testing
 5. Remaining fatigue life evaluation.

211
Major Bridge Defects

212
Maintenance
Maintenance applies to:
 Existing concrete deck repairs
 Deck protective systems
 Deck drainage
 Bearings retrofit
 Concrete structure repairs
 Steel girders rehabilitation.

213