Lecture 6

Some Methods of Factorization

Basic Methods of Factorization

(I) Extract the common factors from terms: like

xm + ym + zm = m(x + y + z).

(II) Apply multiplication formulae: like those mentioned in Lecture 5. How-

ever, contrary to Lecture 5, at present each formula is applied for con-
verting an expression in non-product form to a new expression in product
form.
(III) Cross-Multiplication:
x .........
.........
......................
.........
. a ax
x2 + (a + b)x + ab ........
.
. ... ..............
x ........ .......
b bx
..............................................................................................................................................................................
= (x + a)(x + b) (a + b)x

acx2 + (ad + bc)x + bd ax ....................... ...................... b bcx

...
................ .................
cx ...... .....
d adx
= (ax + b)(cx + d). ..............................................................................................................................................................................
(ad + bc)x

(IV) By grouping, splitting, or inserting terms to obtain common factors.

(V) By substituting subexpressions to simplify given expression.

(VI) Coefficient-determining method. First given the structure of the product,

then determine the unknown parameters in the product by the comparison
of coefficients.
(VII) Factorization of symmetric or cyclic polynomials. (cf. Lecture 15.)

35
36 Lecture 6 Some Methods of Factorization

Examples

Example 1. Factorize (d2 ° c2 + a2 ° b2 )2 ° 4(bc ° da)2

Solution
(d2 ° c2 + a2 ° b2 )2 ° 4(bc ° da)2 = (d2 ° c2 + a2 ° b2 )2 ° (2bc ° 2da)2
= (d2 ° c2 + a2 ° b2 ° 2bc + 2da)(d2 ° c2 + a2 ° b2 + 2bc ° 2da)
= [(d + a)2 ° (b + c)2 ] · [(d ° a)2 ° (b ° c)2 ]
= (d + a ° b ° c)(d + a + b + c)(d + b ° a ° c)(d + c ° a ° b).

Example 2. Factorize 64x6 ° 729y 12 .

Solution
64x6 ° 729y 12 = (2x)6 ° (3y 2 )6 = [(2x)3 ° (3y 2 )3 ][(2x)3 + (3y 2 )3 ]
= (2x ° 3y 2 )[(2x)2 + (2x)(3y 2 ) + (3y 2 )2 ]
·(2x + 3y 2 )[(2x)2 ° (2x)(3y 2 ) + (3y 2 )2 ]
= (2x ° 3y 2 )(2x + 3y 2 )(4x2 + 6xy 2 + 9y 4 )(4x2 ° 6xy 2 + 9y 4 ).

Example 3. Factor each of the following expressions:

(i) 2x2 + x ° 6; (ii) 2x2 ° 10x + 8.

Solution
x2 + x ° 6 x .........
.........
......................
3
.........
.
3x
....
.... ................
.....
x ......... .....
°2 °2x
..............................................................................................................................................................................
= (x + 3)(x ° 2). x

2x2 ° 10x + 8 2x .................................................. °2 °2x

.. ..
......... ................
x ........... ...
°4 °8x
= (2x ° 2)(x ° 4). ..............................................................................................................................................................................
°10x

Example 4. Factorize 2a3 + 6a2 + 6a + 18.

Solution
2a3 + 6a2 + 6a + 18 = 2[(a3 + 3a2 + 3a + 1) + 8] = 2[(a + 1)3 + 23 ]
= 2(a + 3)[(a + 1)2 ° 2(a + 1) + 4] = 2(a + 3)(a2 + 3).

Example 5. Factorize (i) x4 + 2x3 + 7x2 + 6x ° 7; (ii) x3 + 9x2 + 23x + 15.

 Lecture Notes on Mathematical Olympiad 37

Solution Let y = x2 + x. Then

(i) x4 + 2x3 + 7x2 + 6x ° 7 = x2 (x2 + x) + x(x2 + x) + 6(x2 + x) ° 7

= (x2 + x + 6)(x2 + x) ° 7 = y 2 + 6y ° 7 = (y + 7)(y ° 1)
= (x2 + x + 7)(x2 + x ° 1).
(ii) x3 + 9x2 + 23x + 15 = x2 (x + 1) + 8x(x + 1) + 15(x + 1)
= (x + 1)(x2 + 8x + 15) = (x + 1)(x + 3)(x + 5).

Example 6. Factorize (i) (a + 1)(a + 2)(a + 3)(a + 4) ° 120; (ii) x5 + x + 1.

Solution

(i) (a + 1)(a + 2)(a + 3)(a + 4) ° 120

= [(a + 1)(a + 4)][(a + 2)(a + 3)] ° 120
= (a2 + 5a + 4)(a2 + 5a + 6) ° 120
= [(a2 + 5a + 5) ° 1][(a2 + 5a + 5) + 1] ° 120
= (a2 + 5a + 5)2 ° 121 = (a2 + 5a + 5)2 ° 112
= (a2 + 5a ° 6)(a2 + 5a + 16) = (a ° 1)(a + 6)(a2 + 5a + 16).

(ii) x5 + x + 1 = (x5 ° x2 ) + (x2 + x + 1)

= x2 (x3 ° 1) + (x2 + x + 1)
= x2 (x ° 1)(x2 + x + 1) + (x2 + x + 1)
= (x2 + x + 1)[x2 (x ° 1) + 1] = (x2 + x + 1)(x3 ° x2 + 1).

Example 7. Factorize (2y ° 3z)3 + (3z ° 4x)3 + (4x ° 2y)3 .

Solution Let 2y ° 3z = a, 3z ° 4x = b, 4x ° 2y = c, then a + b + c = 0.

Hence

(2y ° 3z)3 + (3z ° 4x)3 + (4x ° 2y)3 = a3 + b3 + c3

= (a3 + b3 + c3 ° 3abc) + 3abc
= (a + b + c)(a2 + b2 + c2 ° bc ° ca ° ab) + 3abc
= 3abc = 3(2y ° 3z)(3z ° 4x)(4x ° 2y).

Example 8. Factorize (3a + 3b ° 18ab)(3a + 3b ° 2) + (1 ° 9ab)2 .

Solution The given expression is symmetric in 3a and 3b, so we use u =

38 Lecture 6 Some Methods of Factorization

3a + 3b, v = (3a)(3b) to simplify the expression. Then

(3a + 3b ° 18ab)(3a + 3b ° 2) + (1 ° 9ab)2 = (u ° 2v)(u ° 2) + (1 ° v)2
= u2 ° 2uv ° 2u + 4v + v 2 ° 2v + 1 = (u2 ° 2uv + v 2 ) + 2(v ° u) + 1
= (v ° u)2 + 2(v ° u) + 1 = (v ° u + 1)2
= (9ab ° 3a ° 3b + 1)2 = [(3a ° 1)(3b ° 1)]2 = (3a ° 1)2 (3b ° 1)2 .
Note: Do not stop at (v ° u + 1)2 .
Example 9. Factorize 2x2 + 7xy ° 4y 2 ° 3x + 6y ° 2.
Solution Considering 2x2 + 7xy ° 4y 2 = (2x ° y)(x + 4y), let
2x2 + 7xy ° 4y 2 ° 3x + 6y ° 2 = (2x ° y + a)(x + 4y + b).
By expending the product, it is obtained that
(2x ° y + a)(x + 4y + b) = 2x2 + 7xy ° 4y 2 + (a + 2b)x + (4a ° b)y + ab.
By the comparison of coefficients, the following system of equations is obtained
a + 2b = °3 (6.1)
4a ° b = 6, (6.2)
ab = °2. (6.3)
Then 2 £ (6.2) + (6.1) yields 9a = 9, i.e. a = 1. From (6.2), b = 6 ° 4a = °2.
Since (a, b) = (1, °2) satisfies (6.3), and it is the unique solution, we obtain
2x2 + 7xy ° 4y 2 ° 3x + 6y ° 2 = (2x ° y + 1)(x + 4y ° 2).
Example 10. Given that x5 ° 5qx + 4r has a factor (x ° c)2 for some constant c.
Prove that q 5 = r4 .
Solution If c = 0, then x2 | x5 ° 5qx + 4r ) r = q = 0, the conclusion is
true. When c 6= 0, the condition means
x5 ° 5qx + 4r = (x2 ° 2cx + c2 )(x3 + ax2 + bx + d)
= x5 + (a ° 2c)x4 + (c2 + b ° 2ac)x3 + (ac2 ° 2bc + d)x2
+(bc2 ° 2cd)x + c2 d.
Then the comparison of coefficients yields the following equations:
4r
a = 2c, b = 2ac ° c2 = 3c2 , d = 2bc ° ac2 = 4c3 = ) r = c5 .
c2
Further,
5q = 2cd ° bc2 = 8c4 ° 3c4 = 5c4 ) q = c4 .
Thus, q 5 = c20 = r4 .
 Lecture Notes on Mathematical Olympiad 39

Testing Questions (A)

1. Factorize the following expressions

(i) x9 + 7x6 y 3 + 7x3 y 6 + y 9 ;

(ii) 4x2 + y 2 + 9z 2 ° 6yz + 12zx ° 4xy;
(iii) (x2 ° 1)(x + 3)(x + 5) + 16;
(iv) (2x2 ° 4x + 1)2 ° 14x2 + 28x + 3;
(v) x3 ° 3x2 + (a + 2)x ° 2a;
(vi) x11 + x10 + · · · + x2 + x + 1.
2. Factorize the following expressions

(i) x4 ° 2(a2 + b2 )x2 + (a2 ° b2 )2 ;

(ii) (ab + 1)(a + 1)(b + 1) + ab.
3. Prove that 816 ° 9 · 277 ° 911 is divisible by 45.
4. Prove that 33 · · 33} ° |66 ·{z
| ·{z · · 66} is a perfect square number.
2n digits n digits
5. Factorize the following expressions
(i) (x2 + x ° 1)2 + x2 + x ° 3 = 0;
(ii) (x ° y)3 + (y ° x ° 2)3 + 8;
(iii) (6x + 5)2 (3x + 2)(x + 1) ° 6;
(iv) (x2 + 5x + 6)(x2 + 6x + 6) ° 2x2 ;
(v) (x2 ° 2x)3 + (x2 ° 4x + 2)3 ° 8(x2 ° 3x + 1)3 ;
(vi) a3 + b3 + c3 + (a + b)(b + c)(c + a) ° 2abc.
6. Use the coefficient-determining method to factorize the following expres-
sions.
(i) Given the expression x2 + xy ° 2y 2 + 8x + ay ° 9. Find possible
values of the constant a, such that the polynomial can be factorized
as product of two linear polynomials.
(ii) x4 ° x3 + 4x2 + 3x + 5.
7. Given that y 2 +3y +6 is a factor of the polynomial y 4 °6y 3 +my 2 +ny +36.
Find the values of constants m and n.
40 Lecture 6 Some Methods of Factorization

Testing Questions (B)

1. Factorize 2(x2 + 6x + 1)2 + 5(x2 + 1)(x2 + 6x + 1) + 2(x2 + 1)2 .

2. (CHINA/2001) If x2 + 2x + 5 is a factor of x4 + ax2 + b, find the value of
a + b.
3. Factor (ab + cd)(a2 ° b2 + c2 ° d2 ) + (ac + bd)(a2 + b2 ° c2 ° d2 ).
4. Factorize (ay + bx)3 + (ax + by)3 ° (a3 + b3 )(x3 + y 3 ).
5. Given that a, b, c are three distinct positive integers. Prove that among the
numbers
a5 b ° ab5 , b5 c ° bc5 , c5 a ° ca5 ,
there must be one that is divisible by 8.