Vintage Games 2.0
Vintage Games 2.0
Vintage Games 2.0
Games 2.0
AN INSIDER LOOK AT THE MOST
INFLUENTIAL GAMES OF ALL TIME
Vintage
Games 2.0
AN INSIDER LOOK AT THE MOST
INFLUENTIAL GAMES OF ALL TIME
MATT BARTON
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v
vi Contents
16
Wizardry: A New Perspective on Computer
Role Playing 119
17
Ultima: The Virtues of an Avatar 125
39
Final Fantasy VII: The Legend of the Square Disc 283
40
Metal Gear Solid: Lights, Camera, Inaction! 287
41
Ocarina of Time: Miyamoto’s Finest Hour 293
Afterword 341
Index 343
Preface
We use the term gamer to refer to someone who plays lots of games, but it’d make more
sense to have a term for people who’ve never played them. Statistically speaking, they’re
the oddballs. Today, almost everyone plays video games—not just the stereotypical
basement-dwelling geek! We play them every chance we get, and, thanks to smartphones
and other mobile devices, we have access to them anytime and anywhere. Games have
diffused across all sectors of society, from kindergarten rooms to nursing homes.
Game designer and author Jane McGonigal opened her TED Talk with a startling fig-
ure: We spend 3 billion hours per week playing video games!1 Contrary to popular belief,
it’s not just boys playing them—94% of teenage girls report playing video games on a
regular basis, and more than half of 30- to 49-year-olds haven’t put down their control-
lers.2 Those of us with an account on Steam can see at a glance how many hours we’ve
personally spent enjoying any particular game. Mine shows that I’ve spent more than
750 hours playing Sid Meier’s Civilization V, one of my personal favorites (see Figure P.1).
That’s nearly a month of my life, but it pales in comparison to the years I’ve put into World
of Warcraft. While these figures might arouse “gamer’s regret” in some people, my guess
is that people spend as much time watching television or doing other things they enjoy;
there’s just no computer there to time it. Besides, what’s the alternative—workaholism?
In short, our culture loves video games, and it’s difficult to imagine what our lives would
be like without them. After the “Great Video Game Crash of 1983,” prognosticators were all
too ready to declare that the “fad” of video games was over. Obviously, that didn’t happen,
and video games have only gotten bigger and better since the glorious days of Pac-Man,
Space Invaders, and Donkey Kong. Today’s best-selling games range from “Triple-A” major
studio productions with budgets in the hundreds of millions, to quirky “indie” projects
designed by lone hobbyists using cheap or even free development tools. Online distribution
services like Apple’s App Store, Microsoft’s Xbox Games Store, or Steam roll out new games
on a daily basis. Steam alone has more than 3700 games, far more than any one person could
1 Gaming Can Make a Better World. Produced by TED Video. Performed by Jane McGonigal (2008).
2 Lenhart, Amanda, Joseph Kahne, Ellen Middaugh, Alexandra Rankin Macgill, Chris Evans, and Jessica Vitak. Teens,
Video Games, and Civics: Teens’ Gaming Experiences Are Diverse and Include Significant Social Interaction and Civic
Engagement. Pew Internet & American Life Project (2008).
ix
x Preface
Figure P.2 The top seven sellers on Steam as of this writing. It’s a diverse mix of high pro-
duction titles and indies.
between this “casual” and “hardcore” divide is a smorgasbord of genres, usually divided
into broad categories of action, adventure, multiplayer, racing, role playing, simulation,
and strategy games. Under each of these headings, we could easily list dozens of subcat-
egories, and many popular games, such as Portal 2, are hard to classify.
We play video games on a multitude of devices, from stunningly powerful “gaming
rigs” costing thousands to smartphones, tablets, and handhelds costing hundreds (or less).
Smartphones have opened up gaming to audiences who would never purchase a dedicated
gaming device, but are, for whatever reason, perfectly okay with playing Words with Friends
or Candy Crush. Also, the plethora of mobile options means that we can play games any-
where, at any time. Next time you whip out your iPhone for a quick round of Angry Birds in
the bathroom, imagine if the only place you could play video games were in an arcade!
3 Makuch, Eddie. “Steam Reaches 100 Million Users And 3,700 Games.” GameSpot. September 22, 2014. http://www
Video games have become a critical part of our culture, just as important, if not more
so, than film, television, sports, books, or music. In 2013, Americans alone spent more
than $20.5 billion on games.4 Yet, despite the enormous financial success and ubiquity
enjoyed by the video game industry, many people (and, sadly, many parents and teach-
ers) regard video games at best as a childish time waster and at worst a menace to society.
Even active gamers may struggle to name even a few notable game designers, whereas
prominent film directors or pop artists are known to everyone. Saddest of all, even some
professional game designers dismiss their own past masterpieces, believing that these
games are now obsolete and not worth playing anymore. Imagine if we had the same
prejudice in the music industry—if The Beatles’ or Jimi Hendrix’s albums had been out
of print for decades because they hadn’t been recorded with the latest equipment!
In short, it’s time we started taking video games seriously as a cultural phenomenon.
To me, that means getting to know the maestros and their masterpieces—the games that
have helped define the industry as we know and love it today. I want to tell the story of
the video game industry by talking about the movers and shakers; the paradigm shifts—
those moments when, suddenly, whatever people thought they knew about video games
turned out wrong. Our best game developers were renegades, maniacs, geniuses, fail-
ures, and dreamers. Some considered themselves cultured artists; others wouldn’t know
a Picasso from a pepperoni pizza.
Video games have become a big business, but that doesn’t mean developers are driven
solely by profit. Ron Gilbert, designer of some of the biggest hits of the 80s and 90s, put it this
way: “With any game I make, the goal is to make enough money that I can make another
one.” As we’ll see, the best games were made by people who wanted to play them, not merely
to sell them. At the end of the day, a game is either fun or it’s not, and no amount of market-
ing dollars, cutting-edge tools, or high-level assets will change that. Video games are a risky
business, and the game developers of today are not descended from businessmen.
Bill Loguidice and I wrote the first Vintage Games book back in 2009. That might
seem like yesterday to some readers, but 6 years is a century in this industry. There’s
a whole new generation of consoles and mobile devices, exciting new VR technolo-
gies such as Oculus Rift and Microsoft HoloLens, an explosion of indie game devel-
opment, and, perhaps most significant of all, the runaway success of crowdfunding.
Kickstarter allowed projects such as Double Fine Adventure ($3.3 million), Obsidian
Entertainment’s Project Eternity ($4 million), and Chris Roberts’ Star Citizen ($2.1 mil-
lion) to resurrect moribund genres, bypassing publishers and appealing directly to
fans for backing. Finally, Valve Corporation’s Steam OS, a Linux-powered operating
system optimized for gaming, will power a line of “Steam Machines” that may at last
bridge the gaps between PC and console gaming. Nintendo’s NX, meanwhile, may do
the same for console and mobile gaming. At any rate, it’ll be exciting to see how these
new devices affect both PC and console markets.
4 Ewalt, David M. “Americans Will Spend $20.5 Billion On Video Games In 2013.” Forbes. December 19, 2013. http://www
.forbes.com/sites/davidewalt/2013/12/19/americans-will-spend-20-5-billion-on-video-games-in-2013/ (accessed March 09,
2015).
xii Preface
If you read the first Vintage Games, you’ll notice some big changes to the format that
I think you’ll appreciate. First, the chapters are no longer organized alphabetically by
game title, but rather chronologically by the date of their publication. This arrangement
makes it easier to tell and understand the story of video games, especially the context
surrounding their development and publication. While it was convenient in the old book
to flip directly to your favorite game, the new structure will make it easier to keep track
of what was going on at any particular moment.
I organized the book into five sections based on sociologist Everett Rogers’ Innovation
Adoption Lifecycle, which he described in his book Diffusion of Innovations. The basic
idea is that the widespread adoption of any technology follows a predictable series of
stages, and we can generalize about the type of people who adopt the technology at any
given stage. For example, Rogers calls the first people to embrace a new technology “the
innovators.”5 According to Rogers,
Innovators possess a type of mental ability that better enables them to cope with
uncertainty and to deal with abstractions. [They] must be able to conceptualize rela-
tively abstract information about innovations and apply this new information to his
or her own situation.6
As we’ll see, almost all of the games covered in the first part of this book were created
by precisely these kinds of people, and I think it makes sense to keep these categories in
mind as we proceed through the “generations” of video game history.
Many people look to historians to determine who did something first, or whether
so-and-so had been “inspired” by some earlier project. The Internet is rampant with
contradictory claims of this type, especially in the early days when commercial devel-
opers were attempting to sell games they’d adapted from earlier ones they’d played on
mainframes. Did Bruce Artwick play Air Fight on PLATO before developing his Flight
Simulator game? Was John Romero or John Carmack, credited as the fathers of the first-
person shooter, really just repackaging Maze War, an earlier mainframe game with
similar gameplay? Did Minecraft rip off Infiniminer? These are often the hardest kind
of questions to answer, especially when great sums of money (and personal glory!) are
at stake. Whenever possible, I’ve contacted the parties in question to get their story and
presented my findings as objectively as possible.
A second major change to this edition is that I’ve updated the list of games covered,
based largely on feedback I received from readers of the first book, my editors at Focal
Press, and informal panels of game experts and designers. As you can imagine, one of
the hardest challenges of putting together a book like this is deciding what games to
cover. You or I could easily add dozens, if not hundreds, of titles to this list, and still feel
that key games were missing. For obvious reasons, I can’t cover everything, and even if I
could, even the e-book version of this book would weigh more than an Xbox! I sincerely
hope you will forgive me if your favorite game doesn’t get the attention it deserves.
Finally, I’ve tried to integrate as many insights as I can from the many game develop-
ers and designers I’ve interviewed on my Matt Chat program on YouTube. Since I began
producing the show in 2009, I’ve had in-depth conversations with such industry lumi-
naries as John Romero of Doom, Richard “Lord British” Garriott of Ultima, Tim Cain of
Fallout, and Robert Woodhead of Wizardry—just to name a few. Often enough, they’ve
told me fascinating behind-the-scenes information that I’m excited to share with you in
this book, especially when they give us a better understanding or new perspective on a
design decision or play mechanic.
I really hope that you will enjoy this book. I love video games, and the opportunity
to write books about them is a privilege and a joy. However, the real reason I do this is to
connect with people like you, who share my passion for video games and their history.
If you want to chat with me about the book or your favorite games, please visit my web-
site at http://mattchat.us or visit my YouTube channel at http://youtube.com/blacklily8.
I can also be reached on Twitter (@mattbarton).
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank Chet Bolingbroke, Marty Goldberg, Nathan Tolbert, Adam Dayton,
and Shane Stacks for their help and friendship. Special thanks to my wife, Elizabeth
Barton, for scanning all those boxes and cartridges!
xv
Part I
The Innovators
T
he world did not always have video games, but there have always been games.
Indeed, the Dutch historian and cultural theorist Johan Huizinga argues in his
book Homo Ludens that games and play are what make our culture and civiliza-
tion possible. While even animals play—as anyone who’s watched the squirrels on a col-
lege campus knows—only humans play games, that is, play that involves an agreed upon
structure or system of rules. And we’ve been doing it for a very long time. Archaeologists
have found board games that are at least 5000 years old, and it’s likely they were around
long before that. Chess dates back to 6th century India, and the Chinese invented play-
ing cards over a thousand years ago.
The immediate predecessor of the video game is pinball and electromechanical
games. The first coin-operated pinball machines were introduced by David Gottlieb
in 1931, and innovations quickly followed—electricity and bumpers in 1933, flippers in
1947, and solid-state electronics in the 1970s. It’s beyond this book to give you a detailed
account of the evolution of pinball and the role it played in this story—I suggest you
watch Brett Sullivan’s excellent film Special When Lit (2009) for a quick overview of this
fascinating story and subculture.
For our purposes, what’s important to note is that pinball and similar games had
already established markets and accustomed people to the idea of arcades, coin-
operated gaming, and gaming culture long before Bushnell and Alcorn built their
2 Part I: The Innovators
Figure PI.1 Pinball games were around well before Pong showed up in the arcades, but
they are still around today. Shown here is John Papadiuk’s Theatre of Magic from 1995.
the Computer Revolution, the term originally demarcated a very different group: “They
were adventurers, visionaries, risk-takers, artists … and the ones who most clearly saw
why the computer was a truly revolutionary tool.”2 The particular group of hackers that
concern us, however, had a slightly different view. For them, the computer was a truly
revolutionary toy.
Fifty years ago, the word computer conjured up in people’s minds images of room-
sized machines with banks of vacuum tubes, punch cards, and professional staff in lab
coats. These computers cost millions, but your mobile phone is far more powerful. The
1 Rogers, Everett. Diffusion of Innovations. New York: Free Press, 2003: 214.
2 Levy, Steven. Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution. Cambridge: O’Reilly Media, 2010.
Part I: The Innovators 3
very idea that anyone would use these behemoths just to play games was absurd and
offensive. They were for serious purposes, such as scientific research, census data, and
military ballistics. The rules were absolutely clear: Computers were for serious uses only;
gaming was strictly prohibited.
Computers follow rules. Hackers … not so much.
Chapter 1
5
6 Part I: The Innovators
1 Graetz, J.M. “The Origin of Spacewar.” Creative Computing, August 1981: 56–67.
Chapter 1: Spacewar!: It’s Rocket Science 7
3 Martin Goldberg and Devin Monnens have disputed this claim, arguing that it spread much more slowly than was origi-
nally thought, and its impact was more limited to MIT and Stanford than many realize (Smith 2014).
8 Part I: The Innovators
for the Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator (EDSAC) computer, which sported
a dot-matrix CRT display and a rotary telephone for input. Tennis for Two was pro-
grammed by William Higinbotham on a Donner Model 30 analog computer, which had
an oscilloscope for a display. I’ll talk more about it in the next chapter.
Spacewar! was far more ambitious than either of these early games and inspired
many of the countless men and women who played it to pursue careers in computer
programming. After all, what made Spacewar! so impressive wasn’t just that it was fun; it
demonstrated new possibilities for computers.
However, video games were still unknown to the general public. The arcade industry
was limited to pinball and other electromechanical games. One man familiar with both
worlds was a University of Utah engineering student named Nolan Bushnell, who spent
his summers working at Lagoon Amusement Park in Salt Lake City. There, he saw first-
hand how these machines appealed to the general public. “The things I learned about
getting you to spend a quarter on me in one of my midway games,” said Bushnell; “I put
those sales pitches in my automated box.”4
One day after school, Bushnell’s friend said he had something exciting to show him in
the computer lab. At midnight, the two trekked over, and the future founder of Atari got
his first glimpse of Spacewar!. Bushnell quickly saw that it was much more fun than the
simple midway games he’d hawked as a carney. “If I could take this game and put it into
the arcade at the park,” thought Bushnell, “it could make a lot of money.”5
Bushnell teamed up with a friend named Ted Dabney and began work on a cheap,
coin-operated version of Spacewar!. Because microprocessors weren’t yet readily avail-
able, the two had to work with bulkier and older transistor–transistor logic (TTL) digital
circuits. They did, however, build a sleek futuristic cabinet for the game out of fiberglass.
They fitted in a modified General Electric 15² black-and-white television for the display.
The result was Computer Space, a stripped-down version of Spacewar!. It lacked the grav-
ity well and the all-important two-player combat of the mainframe version. Gameplay
was limited to dodging enemy fire and shooting down computer-controlled flying sau-
cers. It paled in comparison, but Bushnell hoped the novelty of playing a video game,
particularly on such an otherworldly cabinet, would compensate for these omissions—
and besides, most of the public wouldn’t know what they were missing. See Figure 1.4.
Calling themselves “Syzygy,” Bushnell and Dabney worked long hours repairing bro-
ken pinball machines to survive as they sought out a manufacturer for Computer Space.
They finally settled on Nutting Associates, a struggling manufacturer of electromechan-
ical arcade machines. Their game rolled off the line in November of 1971. For its first test,
they put a machine in a bar called The Dutch Goose, a popular hangout for Stanford
University students. It seemed they had a hit on their hands; the students there were very
4 Seabrook, John. “Game Master.” The New Yorker. November 6, 2006. http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2006/11/06
5 There’s considerable controversy surrounding when, where, and on what computer Bushnell actually played Spacewar!.
For a fuller account, see Marty Goldberg and Curt Vendel’s book Atari, Inc.: Business is Fun.
Chapter 1: Spacewar!: It’s Rocket Science 9
6 Dillon, Roberto. The Golden Age of Video Games. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2011: 10.
10 Part I: The Innovators
Lunar Lander would inspire the “gravity” and “thrust” games of the 1980s, including
Atari’s Gravitar in 1982.
Lyle Rains’s and Ed Logg’s Asteroids offered a terrific innovation: instead of blast-
ing a rival space pilot, Asteroids had players destroying huge rocks floating in space.
Whenever one of these asteroids was hit, it splintered into pieces, any one of which could
collide with and destroy the player’s ship. As with Spacewar!, players could blink into
hyperspace, but they might reappear in an even more dangerous situation than before.
Unlike its many attempts at a faithful Spacewar! clone, Asteroids was a huge success, and
has been ported, cloned, and modified ever since.
Despite the success of Asteroids and Space Wars, enthusiasm for this style of game
ebbed after Taito’s Space Invaders in 1978. It gobbled up far more quarters than any of
the old gravity-and-thrust games, which suggested that while realistic physics were
extremely impressive to the engineering types who understood them, they weren’t
important to most gamers. Soon, games that required players to deal with complex
issues of inertia and momentum were pushed to the dustier corners of the arcade.
That said, there are types of games that do benefit from accurate physics, most nota-
bly flight simulators, racing, and virtual pinball games. Clearly, all of these types of
games rely on complex “physics engines” to make their gameplay feel more realistic,
concepts and approaches that were pioneered in Spacewar!.
Spacewar!’s ultimate contribution, however, might be its virtual world. Although
some argue that even a tic-tac-toe or tennis game has a virtual world, I disagree. There’s
a difference between a game surface, such as a tennis court or chessboard, and a game
world, such as the outer space environment of Spacewar! or the islands of Myst. Though
it’s easy to get bogged down in theoretical discussions of “navigable space” and “habit-
able environments,” suffice it to say that Spacewar! introduced the idea that computers
could represent and let players explore virtual worlds (with accurate star maps, no less!),
not just abstract space. You didn’t just play with these toys; you played in them.
For his part, Steve “Slug” Russell’s time in the video game industry was short. After
MIT, he worked on Lisp for the IBM 704, studied artificial intelligence at Stanford, and
eventually took a job at Nohau Corporation designing embedded systems tools. If you’re
lucky, you might catch him at one of the Computer History Museum’s “Revolution”
exhibits, standing humbly before a well-maintained DEC PDP-1. Today, he’s gray haired,
bespectacled, and demure. But, oh, just get him talking about the early days—or rather
the very late nights—of programming Spacewar!, and his eyes light up, like the vector
sun twinkling in the center of a Type 30 Precision CRT display.
that it is “extremely faithful” to the original, but with larger ships and some tweaks to
compensate for varying machine speeds. In any case, be sure to play it with a friend.
Then as now, much of the game’s appeal relies on competition and social interaction.
Assuming you don’t own one of the original arcade machines, Computer Space is more
challenging to find and play. Your best bet is probably Mike “Moose” O’Malley’s version,
available at http://www.computerspacefan.com/NewCompSpaceSim.htm. Most other
arcade spin-offs mentioned in this chapter are easily played with MAME. Instruct ions
for downloading and configuring MAME are available at http://mamedev.org.
Chapter 2
1
Geffen, Haley, and Brandon Lisy. “Atari’s Co-Founder Explains Why Pong’s Ball Wasn’t Round.” Bloomberg.com. December
04, 2014. http://www.bloomberg.com/bw/articles/2014-12-04/atari-co-founder-nolan-bushnell-on-gamings-pioneer-years
(accessed March 13, 2015).
13
14 Part I: The Innovators
Figure 2.1 Pong cabinet designed by Allan Alcorn. (Photo courtesy of Chris Rand.)
day. They were the sounds that were already in the machine.”3 These weren’t the realistic
sounds Bushnell and Dabney wanted, but they were a key factor in the game’s success.
On November 29, 1972, Bushnell and his newly rebranded “Atari” company set up
their first Pong machine in Andy Capp’s Tavern in Sunnyvale, California. They’d changed
the name after learning their old one, “Syzygy,” was, believe it or not, already in use by
another company. Overcome with anxiety that they had another Computer Space on
their hands, they left quickly, leaving their creation to its fate.
Later that evening, the bar filled with regulars. The patrons, clad in colorful bell
bottoms and wide-collared plaid shirts, stared curiously at the odd yellow and wood-
grained cabinet, with its metallic dials and stylish “Pong” logo. After one, perhaps two
Pabst Blue Ribbons, one brave fellow and his date walked over and plunked a quarter
2 Shea, Cam. “Al Alcorn Interview.” IGN.com. March 10, 2008. http://www.ign.com/articles/2008/03/11/al-alcorn-interview
3 Kent, Steve L. The Ultimate History of Video Games: From Pong to Pokémon and Beyond: The Story Behind the Craze that
Touched Our Lives and Changed the World. Rocklin, CA: Prima Pub., 2001: 42.
Chapter 2: Pong: Easy to Learn, Hard to Master 15
4 Dillon, Roberto. The Golden Age of Video Games. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2011: 16.
16 Part I: The Innovators
This story of Pong has been told many times, and it’s a lot more compelling if you
don’t mention the precursors. Bushnell and Alcorn, much like Jobs and Wozniak (the
two Steves who founded Apple), are cultural heroes who are often portrayed as mad
scientist types, ingenious inventors who woke up one morning, shouted “Eureka!” and
changed the world in a single stroke of brilliance. As always, though, the facts have a
habit of getting in the way.
Perhaps the most controversial question is to what extent Bushnell and company
were familiar with the previous games that bear an uncomfortable similarity to Pong. The
earliest of these debuted in 1958 on a visitors’ day at the Brookhaven National Laboratory
(BNL) in Upton, New York. It was there that American physicist William Higinbotham
and technical specialist Robert Dvorak demonstrated Tennis for Two, an analog com-
puter game. Like Spacewar!, it used an oscilloscope for its display.
During the war, Higinbotham had witnessed the first atomic bomb test, a terrifying
sight that troubled him deeply and led to a lifelong crusade against the proliferation of
such weapons. However, he also liked to have fun, throwing parties and amusing his
guests with wild accordion playing. More significantly for our purposes, he was com-
pletely obsessed with pinball.5 In short, he had the training, skills, and playfulness nec-
essary to create a video game.
Visitors’ day was an annual tradition at BNL. A glorified science fair, it attracted thou-
sands of people, who milled about a gymnasium filled with boring displays of black-
and-white photographs and stationary equipment. “I knew from past visitors’ days that
people were not much interested in static exhibits,” said Higinbotham, “so for that year I
came up with an idea for a hands-on display—a video tennis game. If I had realized just
how significant it was, I would have taken out a patent and the U.S. government would
own it!”6 Higinbotham wrote up plans for the game and gave them to his friend and col-
league Robert “Bob” V. Dvorak, who managed to get it built in just 3 weeks—just in time
for the exhibit.
Tennis for Two’s graphics consisted of a moving ball that was affected by gravity—the
first known use of physics in a game. Each player rotated a knob to change the angle of
the ball, and pressing a button shot the ball across the court. Unlike Pong, Tennis for Two
showed players a side view of a tennis court, not the top–down view. The contraption was
roughly the size of a microwave oven.5 Despite the game’s popularity, it was dismantled
2 years later, and its parts were recycled for other exhibits.
Unlike Higinbotham, who never pursued any commercial interest in his invention,
inventor Ralph Baer was determined to turn his idea for a “television game” into rich
profits. After witnessing Tennis for Two in 1958,7 Baer conceived the idea for a home
5 Nowak, Peter. Sex, Bombs, and Burgers: How War, Pornography, and Fast Food Have Shaped Modern Technology. Toronto:
6 Brookhaven National Laboratory. “Video Games—Did They Begin at Brookhaven?” Research and Development of the U.S.
Department of Energy. January 21, 2011. http://www.osti.gov/accomplishments/videogame.html (accessed April 30, 2015).
Kline, Stephen, Nick Dyer-Witheford, and Peuter G. De. Digital Play: The Interaction of Technology, Culture, and Marketing.
7
version of the game, but took 10 years to garner enough support to even build working
prototypes. His first attempt was a simple game of tag featuring two glowing squares,
which soon morphed into his “Brown Box” prototype. The prototype included several
additional diversions, including target shooting and the pivotal paddle and ball games.
After being rejected by several TV manufacturers, Baer finally signed an agreement in
1971 with Magnavox, who produced the Odyssey Home Entertainment System the fol-
lowing year.
The Odyssey shipped with six printed circuit game cards rather than true ROM
(read-only memory) cartridges, which have their own code. The Odyssey’s cards merely
altered the electrical connections between components inside the console but did allow
for a variety of games, including Table Tennis, which is the closest to Pong in look and
design. There are, however, significant differences between the two. Table Tennis had no
sound effects and did not keep score. Moreover, the controller had three knobs, which
players used to move their square paddles up and down and left and right, and adjust the
English or the angle of the ball’s deflection.
Pong’s controls were much simpler and arguably more intuitive. Instead of a dedi-
cated knob or dial to control English, the designers segmented the rectangular paddles
into separate zones; the angle depends on what part of the paddle is struck by the ball.
Furthermore, players could move their paddles up and down, not side to side. This setup
not only simplified the controls but also let players have one hand free to hold a beer (an
important consideration given its location in a bar!).
Despite these differences, Baer and Magnavox took Atari to court for patent infringe-
ment, coercing the fledgling company to settle for a lump sum and other manufacturers
to pay hefty licensing fees for years to come. Baer, a meticulous German engineer with
an array of broad patents, was certainly not willing to stand idly by as Atari and others
reaped all the rewards.
The suit led to considerable animosity between Baer and Bushnell, who admitted to
seeing the game at a Magnavox showing. “I thought it was a relatively crappy product,”
said Bushnell, who felt (and most would agree) that Atari’s version was substantially bet-
ter. “Ralph [Baer] likes to claim he invented Pong, which he didn’t. He invented Odyssey,
which was a marketing failure. Pong happened to be successful, and so he wants to claim
that. I just think it’s wrong.”8 In a classic bit of turn-about-is-fair-play, Baer released
the best-selling Simon toy in 1978, which was essentially a handheld version of Atari’s
Touch Me arcade game from 1974. There is still some debate over the true paternity of the
video games industry, though most agree that Bushnell is the rightful “Father of Arcade
Games” while Baer is “The Father of Consoles” (see Figure 2.4).
After settling with Magnavox, Atari set to work on its own home version of Pong, com-
plete with the arcade version’s automatic scoring and sound. Sears (the dominant retailer
at the time) agreed in 1975 to distribute it under their own brand name, Tele-Games.
8 Edwards, Benj. “VC&G Interview: Nolan Bushnell, Founder of Atari.” Vintage Computing and Gaming. December 12, 2007.
http://www.vintagecomputing.com/index.php/archives/404/vcg-interview-nolan-bushnell-founder-of-atari (accessed May 1,
2015).
18 Part I: The Innovators
Figure 2.4 Nolan Bushnell, founder of Atari. (Photo courtesy of Tech Cocktail.)
became the preferred vendor for the first and largest supply of chips. The lucrative deal
gave them a sizable advantage with their “Telstar” Pong clone.
Sensing the opportunity for a quick buck, a wide range of companies rushed hun-
dreds of new Pong clones into production. Several of these machines were popular and
offered sophisticated features, such as Nintendo’s Color TV Game 6, which was launched
in Japan in 1977. However, demand for Pong was on the decline. In 1976, Fairchild intro-
duced its Video Entertainment System (VES), a fully programmable console with inter-
changeable game cartridges, and Atari soon followed with its Video Computer System
(VCS, also known as the Atari 2600). By 1980, Pong and the other fixed-game consoles of
the 1970s were as obsolete as paisley ties and bell bottoms (see Figure 2.5).
Pong remains one of the most significant and influential games in the history of
the industry. It was the first video game
many of us ever played, and its simple,
intuitive, and competitive gameplay
is still quite fun today. I was person-
ally struck by this fact upon visiting
the Game On exhibition at Chicago’s
Museum of Science and Industry in
2006. This exhibit featured hundreds of
playable games from all eras and across
a broad spectrum of platforms. However,
Figure 2.5 Atari’s Home Pong console. Hundreds of clones followed, saturating the market.
(Photo courtesy of Evan-Amos.)
Chapter 2: Pong: Easy to Learn, Hard to Master 19
the game that attracted the most attention—from all ages, genders, and nationalities—
was good ol’ Pong. As always, what drew gamers to the classic game had less to do with
technology and much more to do with the simple joys of competing with loved ones
and making new friends. For that purpose, Pong will never be obsolete.
Space Invaders:
The Japanese Invasion
So far, our story has focused on the United States. The earliest video games, spawned
on powerful mainframe computers, made their way from universities, to arcades, and
finally into the living rooms of millions of American homes. However, America’s domi-
nance of the video game industry was short lived. Much as the “British Invasion” of the
mid-1960s rocked the music industry to its core, the “Japanese Invasion” of the 1980s
was a turning point for both the industry and culture of gaming. Nintendo and Sega
would become The Beatles and The Rolling Stones of video games, selling more systems
and software than all of their American competitors combined.
The Japanese side of our story begins with a 34-year-old engineer named Tomohiro
Nishikado, and a simple little shoot’em up called Space Invaders (see Figure 3.1).
The Japan of the 1970s was already fast on its way to becoming the technology jugger-
naut it is today. After Japan’s defeat in World War II, its government launched initiatives
and protections designed to spur rapid growth in the technology sector.1 These maneu-
vers paid off handsomely, and by 1978, Casio’s calculators, Sony’s stereos, Toshiba’s tele-
visions, and JVC’s VCRs were familiar sights on both shores.
Nishikado’s interest in games and electronics goes back to his boyhood, which he
spent playing Shogi, a Japanese form of chess, and tinkering with audio electronics,
particularly radios and vacuum tube amplifiers.2 A year after graduating with an engi-
neering degree from Tokyo Denki University in 1968, Nishikado landed a job at Taito
Trading Company. There, the 24-year-old worked on the company’s line of electrome-
chanical arcade games, but in 1973, the company designed their first fully electronic
games, Elepong, a clone of Atari’s Pong, and Soccer, a soccer-themed variant.
In 1975, Nishikado’s game Western Gun was licensed by American arcade game man-
ufacturer Midway Manufacturing Co., who had its partner Dave Nutting Associates3
Uekusa, M., and H. Ide. “Industrial Policy in Japan.” In The Japanese Economy: Technology, Foreign Investment and
1
Competition Policies, by Peter Drysdale and Luke Gower, 34–58. New York: Routledge, 1999: 54.
2 Parkin, Simon. “The Space Invader.” The New Yorker. October 17, 2013. http://www.newyorker.com/tech/elements/the
3 Dave Nutting is the brother of Bill Nutting, founder of Nutting Associates, the company that manufactured Bushnell and
Dabney’s Computer Space. Dave founded Nutting Industries in 1967, which is probably best known for revolutionizing the
pinball industry with hardware based on Intel’s microprocessors.
21
22 Part I: The Innovators
Figure 3.1 Tomohiro Nishikado in 2011, the creator of Space Invaders. (Photo courtesy
of Jordan.)
formula. Instead of two players bouncing a ball back and forth, Breakout had a single
player bouncing a ball up and down. In between the player and the top of the screen
was a row of bricks, which the player destroyed by hitting them with the ball, which
would then ricochet off the brick. Nishikado felt that Breakout gave him a greater sense
of achievement than Pong; somehow, clearing out all those bricks and advancing to a
fresh level made the experience more psychologically rewarding. The game inspired
him to try to create something even better. “I felt I could improve upon [Breakout] by
giving the targets a more interesting shape and turning it into a shooting game”2 (see
Figure 3.2).
His first thought was turning them into airplanes, but he changed his mind after
hearing about Star Wars, which debuted to incredible fanfare in the United States on
May 25, 1977. He hadn’t seen the film—it premiered in Japan on June 30, 1978, 11 days after
the first Space Invaders machines rolled off the assembly line. However, Nishikado pre-
dicted that the timing was perfect for a sci-fi–themed game. Since he had no idea what
X-Wing or TIE Fighters looked like, he thought back to the descriptions of aliens in the
H.G. Wells stories he loved as a kid. He went to work trying to create a pattern of pixels
that would look recognizable as aliens, ending up with three basic designs that are now
iconic symbols of gamer culture.
Nishikado had certainly given himself an ambitious task. Not only was he designing
a new type of game, but he was doing it with a spanking new technology—the micropro-
cessor. The design took him more than a year to complete, but at last, Space Invaders was
ready. It was immediately clear that it was much, much more than just another rip-off
or variant of Pong. The player controls a laser cannon that moves left and right along the
bottom of the screen. Pressing the fire button sends a bolt from the cannon, which soars
upward until striking an alien or flying off screen. Only one shot can be in the air at one
time; hitting the button again causes the first shot to disappear and another to launch
from the cannon (see Figure 3.3).
Chapter 3: Space Invaders: The Japanese Invasion 23
Figure 3.2 Breakout and Super Breakout (shown here) were fast and furious block-smashing
paddle games that helped inspire Space Invaders.
Figure 3.4 Space Invaders running on MAME emulator with simulated inlay and cabinet art.
could seem to grasp the idea that there was anything fun about shooting row after row
of aliens (see Figure 3.4).
Fortunately for Nishikado (and the video game industry!), a few brash pachinko par-
lors and bowling alleys were willing to take a risk on the game. There, amid the blaring
gambling games and crashing pins, a weird, ominous, and irresistible sound joined the
cacophony: “dum, dum, dum, dum … Dum, dum, dum, dum.” What on earth was that?
Finally, someone’s curiosity prevailed, and he plunked a hundred-yen coin into the slot.
And when that was done, he put in another. And another. Word soon spread—there was
a new game in town, and it was a hell of a lot more fun than Pong!
Nishikado is skeptical of the oft-repeated claim that the game caused a national
shortage of the hundred-yen coin. But there’s no denying that it was enormously suc-
cessful. Indeed, many of the bowling alleys and pachinko parlors sold off the rest of their
games to make room for more Space Invaders cabinets. Sadly, Nishikado did not receive
the veneration and affection his achievement deserved. The president sent him a bonus,
which Nishikado exhausted buying a modest television set for his mother.4 Taito had a
strict anonymity policy designed to keep talented employees from being lured away to
work at other companies. Nishikado walked by row after row of Space Invaders machines
and mesmerized players—but couldn’t reveal to any of them that he’d had anything to
do with it. However, perhaps he wouldn’t have enjoyed the attention anyway—“All I
could think about was how terrible it would be if a critical bug appeared,” he later told
4 Hodgson, David. “Where Are They Now?” Electronic Gaming Monthly, November 2001: 36.
Chapter 3: Space Invaders: The Japanese Invasion 25
The New Yorker.2,5 More sadly still is that he was promoted to Section Chief, which,
though it brought a rise in status and compensation, also meant that he’d no longer be
doing what he loved—designing games.
Space Invaders arrived in America via Bally Midway, who began distribution in 1979.
At the time, the American video game industry was in a slump. Atari’s founder, Nolan
Bushnell, had sold out to Warner Communications, who promptly put a no-nonsense
Harvard MBA named Ray Kassar in charge. Atari’s VCS (or 2600) game console was
not selling well, and no amount of advertising could seem to change that fact. Some
pundits were already declaring the whole video game thing had just been a fad. Space
Invaders soon proved them wrong: “People who had never before stuffed a quarter in a
game machine couldn’t destroy enough of the itchy-looking aliens,” wrote a report for
InfoWorld magazine.6
Kassar and his team at Atari realized at once that Space Invaders was the shot in the
arm they needed to finally start selling their new cartridge-based console. They set a
programmer named Rick Mauer to the task of porting it over, which he accomplished
in four sleepless days and nights.7 Despite the rushed production, Mauer’s version was
close enough to the original to please most gamers of the era, and demand for Atari’s
console surged upward8 (see Figure 3.5).
Computer gamers had access to several unauthorized clones, most notably M. Hata’s
Super Invader (1979), also known as Apple Invader, a Japanese import for the Apple II.
It was judged by Softalk magazine’s readers as the most popular game ever in 1981,9
and by 1982, it had sold more than 20,000 copies, tying with Richard Garriott’s Ultima.10
There were many other clones, including several made or published by the home com-
puter manufacturers themselves to help market their systems: Commodore’s VIC
Avenger or just Avenger for its VIC-20 and 64, Tandy’s Invaders! for the TRS-80, and Texas
Instruments’ TI Invaders for its TI-99/4A computer.
Space Invaders inspired far more than just copycats. It spawned a massive genre
called the “shmup,” or “shoot’em up,” that eventually split into a variety of subgenres.
One of the most famous and beloved of these is Galaga, developed by Namco of Japan
in 1981 and brought to the United States by Midway. Galaga was based on an earlier
5 Allegedly, a programming bug was eventually discovered—the “Nagoya Uchi” technique. Once the aliens reach the
lowest row, they can be shot with minimal risk of hitting you with their bombs. Nishikado claims that “no one would get
further than level 6 or 7” without exploiting this “bug” (Hodgson, David. “Where Are They Now?” Electronic Gaming Monthly,
November 2001: 36).
7 Hubner, John, and William F. Jr. Kistner. “What Went Wrong at Atari?” InfoWorld, November 28, 1983: 151–152; 157–158.
8 For a fuller account of the story of how Space Invaders saved the Atari VCS, see our book Vintage Game Consoles (ISBN:
978-0415856003).
9 Tomervik, Margot Comstock. “The Most Popular Program Ever—Results.” Softalk, April 1981: 13.
10 Lombardy, Dana. “Inside the Industry.” Computer Gaming World, September 1982: 2.
26 Part I: The Innovators
Figure 3.5 Super Invader or Apple Invader was one of many unauthorized clones of the
arcade game for home computers.
and even better audiovisuals. The coolest innovation, though, is that the enemy’s mother
ships can trap the player’s ship in a tractor beam. If the player is out of ships, the game is
over. Otherwise, the player can try to destroy the mothership (called a “Galaga”) without
hitting the trapped ship; if successful, the captured ship is released. It then attaches to
the side of the player’s ship and doubles its firepower!
Space Invaders–style games evolved into a plethora of styles. One of the first major
innovations was scrolling. Instead of showing all the action on a single screen, games
like Konami’s Scramble (1981) and Gradius (1986) featured a background that moved
horizontally as the game progressed. The player’s ship could also move up and down
as well as left and right, increasing the complexity. Namco’s Xevious (1982) is often
cited as the first vertically scrolling shooter, though it was predated by Atari’s Sky
Raider (1978). In any case, vertical scrolling became quite popular. Activision’s River
Raid (1982) for the Atari VCS is an example of an early console game of this type. Other
influential shooters of the 1980s include Capcom’s 1942 (1984; vertical), Toaplan’s
Tiger-Heli (1985; vertical), and Irem’s R-Type (1988; horizontal), just to name a few (see
Figure 3.6).
As the years progressed, the audiovisuals improved dramatically, along with nice fea-
tures like power-ups, damage resistance, and boss fights. The genre seemed to peak in the
mid to late 1990s with ambitious titles such as Konami’s Axelay (1992, Super Nintendo),
which featured both horizontal and vertical scrolling along with a bevy of impressive
visual effects. The Atari ST and Commodore Amiga computers were also home to plenty
of lavishly detailed shooters, particularly those from the British company Psygnosis,
such as Menace (1988), Blood Money (1989), and Agony (1992). Game developers competed
to see who could design the best-looking and best-sounding shooters. One of my per-
sonal favorites is Edgar M. Vigdal’s, an unauthorized shareware game Deluxe Galaga for
the Amiga. It manages to preserve much of what made the original game great but adds
power-ups and other updates. Visit http://deluxegalaga.monroeworld.com/ for informa
tion with setup and installation.
Chapter 3: Space Invaders: The Japanese Invasion 27
3.1 Playing Space
Invaders Today
The Taito Corporation seems to be
actively enforcing their copyrights on
Space Invaders, making it difficult (and
potentially litigious) for anyone search-
ing for a way to play the original game in
Figure 3.6 Namco’s Galaxian (1979) was an early Space Invaders–inspired game with much
improved audiovisuals and interesting enemies.
an emulator or browser. The best legal option I’ve been able to find is Taito Legends, a
2005 compilation that includes Space Invaders and 28 other Taito games, available for
PC, Xbox, and PS2. If you have an iOS device, you can buy Taito’s enhanced version of the
game from the iTunes store. There are a great many knockoffs and unauthorized ports of
Space Invaders available for most systems.
If you have a sizable budget and space, you might look for a vintage Space Invaders
arcade machine, which tend to run $1500–$3000 on online auction sites. A cheaper
option is the Space Invaders TV Game, a nice-looking device with an arcade-style joy-
stick that plugs directly into your TV—but keep in mind that the original game had but-
tons for left and right movement, not a joystick.
Of course, Space Invaders is only the first of thousands of shoot’em ups, and many of
these later games are widely available. A common sight in any reasonably sized arcade
is a combination Ms. Pac Man and Galaga machine, and they aren’t too expensive if
you’d like to own for your personal collection (expect to spend at least $3000).
If you’d like something more modern, try searching for “SHMUP” on Steam. At the
time of this writing, there are more than 106 of these games available there, covering
a broad spectrum of themes and styles. Currently, the most popular SHMUP there is
Crimzon Clover World Ignition by YOTSUBANE, a Japanese studio. It’s of the “bullet
hell” subgenre, meaning that the screen is plastered with vivid and colorful enemy fire
that forms and swirls into mesmerizing patterns (and which you must dodge to avoid
28 Part I: The Innovators
damage). It’s quite enlightening to play this game immediately after a bout of Space
Invaders or Galaga; you’ll see at once how far the basic concept has evolved since those
early days.
Finally, making your own SHMUP is a painless process thanks to all the cheap
(or even free) tools designed to simplify the process. Indeed, as early as 1987, Sensible
Software had released its famous Shoot’em Up Construction Kit for Commodore 64,
Amiga, and Atari ST, which made it easy for novices to create their own scrolling
games. One of the best modern tools for making SHMUPs is YoYo Games’ GameMaker,
especially when combined with the free GMOSSE game template. This tool reduces the
complexity down to a simple drag-and-drop interface, so you can focus on building
attractive and rewarding levels. Indeed, building a fun and engaging SHMUP is still a
good learning exercise for anyone interested in a career in game design—see how far
you can push the core mechanics Nishikado introduced back in 1978!
Chapter 4
Zork relies totally on simple text for both output and input, which explains why it’s
called a “text adventure” game, though many prefer the term interactive fiction (IF) for
the genre. Players usually assume the role of a character within the game world, who
responds to commands such as “go west” or “light torch,” which the player types in with
a keyboard. The part of the program that tries to interpret this input is called the “parser.”
The game provides textual descriptions of the scene, objects in view, sounds, other char-
acters, and other bits of information, such as the character’s mood or thoughts. In short,
playing Zork is like reading a novel as it’s being written, or starring in a play without
knowing one’s lines.
Zork’s designers describe the game as a “computerized fantasy simulation” and use
terminology familiar to fans of the game Dungeons & Dragons: “In this type of game,
the player interacts conversationally with an omniscient ‘Master of the Dungeon,’ who
rules on each proposed action and relates the consequences.”1 Creating such a game is
“as much an exercise in creative writing as in programming.”1 Like a good dungeon or
1 Lebling, P.D., M.S. Blank, and T.A. Anderson. “Special Feature Zork: A Computerized Fantasy Simulation Game.” Computer
29
30 Part I: The Innovators
Figure 4.1 The original mainframe version of the game was called Dungeon. This leaflet,
found at the start of the game in a mailbox, told the story of its development.
troll, cyclops, the ever-popular grues, and an infuriating thief who’ll steal your treasure.
Zork is primarily about exploration, involving such activities as breaking into a suppos-
edly abandoned house, rappelling down a steep cavern, and even floating across a river
in an inflatable raft.
Like any good novel, Zork compensates for its lack of images with effective imagery,
irony, and wit. However, the descriptions also contain hints for the players and help get-
ting them into the proper mindset. After all, even though Zork’s parser was well regarded
at the time for its versatility, it couldn’t anticipate or give a proper response to every rea-
sonable input the player might try. The challenge of designing such a game was provid-
ing just enough guidance, helping players along without spoiling the fun or leaving them
hopelessly stumped.
For example, here’s a description of an art gallery: “Most of the paintings have been
stolen by vandals with exceptional taste. The vandals left through either the north or
west exits. Fortunately, there is still one chance for you to be a vandal, for on the far
wall is a painting of unparalleled beauty.” Note how this description manages to convey
useful information (possible exits) but also hints at a desirable outcome—you can steal
the painting. A more thoughtful player might consider why the vandals left the painting
behind, though, especially since it looks so valuable!
Here’s another description, this time of an art studio: “The walls and floors are
splattered with paints of 69 different colors. Strangely enough, nothing of value is
hanging here. At the south end of the room is an open door (also covered with paint).
A dark and narrow chimney leads up from a fireplace; although you might be able to
get up it, it seems unlikely you could get back down.” A player might never have con-
sidered trying to climb up the chimney, so the writers suggest it directly—albeit with a
caveat. The number 69 here appears to be one of the countless references in the game
to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology’s (MIT’s) hacker culture; it was routinely
used by them to refer to any large quantity. The Original Hacker’s Dictionary, based
on a text file compiled by members of MIT’s Artificial Intelligence lab, remarks that
Chapter 4: Zork: Sticking Graphics Where the Sun Don’t Shine 31
Figure 4.2 Zork II running on an Apple II emulator. The brass lantern became an icon of the
genre.
It may surprise some readers to learn that text adventures like Zork are still being
made and sold today, though, as Nick Montfort quips in his wonderful book Twisty Little
Passages, it’s a cottage industry that serves mostly to “amuse the initiated.”2 However,
when a fresh new company named Infocom released Zork commercially in 1980, it was
a runaway bestseller.
Infocom wasted no time following it up with popular sequels and other hit titles,
many of which are also widely regarded as masterpieces, such as Steve Meretzky’s A
Mind Forever Voyaging (1985) and Brian Moriarty’s Trinity (1986). These games appealed
to a broader audience than action titles. A writer for the New York Times wrote in 1987
that “teen-agers, at least those with a somewhat literary bent, particularly love it, but
it can prove addictive for the most serious adult spreadsheet jockey.”3 Other articles
joke about frantic executives quickly clearing Zork off their screens whenever the boss
walked by. Pundits waxed eloquently about the exciting future of the “participatory
novel,” especially as bestselling authors of print novels, including Douglas Adams and
Michael Crichton, entered the fray.
The story of Zork’s development begins like that of many early computer games, that
is, as a fruitful, informal collaboration by ambitious college students. Like Spacewar!,
it was developed at MIT, but by members of MIT’s Dynamic Modeling Group, not the
Tech Model Railroad Club. Both teams were excited about the possibilities of computer
games, and both were fueled by the adrenaline rush of hacking. However, the Zork
team—who took to calling themselves “imps” because they implemented their ideas
in code—were more excited by advances in artificial intelligence (particularly Natural
Language Processing) than graphics (see Figure 4.3).
The imps were enchanted with a game called Colossal Cave Adventure, also known
as Adventure or Advent, which began making its way around college campuses in
1976. Colossal Cave was truly a groundbreaking game, both in the figurative and
2 Montfort, Nick. Twisty Little Passages: An Approach to Interactive Fiction. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2003.
3 Shannon, L.R. “Peripherals; Adventure Continues.” New York Times, December 22, 1987: C11.
32 Part I: The Innovators
Figure 4.3 Colossal Cave Adventure was an influential mainframe game that relied purely
on text for output and input. Its creator was a real-life caver named Will Crowther. Shown
here is an emulated version created for the Halt and Catch Fire television series.
have been seldom, if ever, visited before. These games are really less “interactive novels”
than “interactive maps” (or “interactive worlds” to use language popularized by Cyan
of Myst fame). Another fun coincidence is that the first jigsaw puzzle ever sold was of a
map, and what would an adventure game be without puzzles?
The authors of the mainframe Zork, Tim Anderson, Marc Blank, Bruce Daniels, and
Dave Lebling, began writing the program in 1977 for the DEC PDP-10 computer, the same
computer used by Will Crowther and Don Woods to create Colossal Cave Adventure.
The PDP-10 was a powerful mainframe computer that made home computers look like
toys. This fact explains why so many early game programmers felt there was no money
to be made in it. There just weren’t enough people with access to mainframes to make
it worthwhile, and the idea that a humble machine like the Apple II could run “seri-
ous” software seemed ludicrous at best. Even if a programmer was willing to work with
such paltry amounts of memory and processing power, there was another issue—there
were just too many different home computers on the market, and most were completely
incompatible with each other. Even if you managed to adapt a game for the Apple II,
you’d have to start from scratch if you
wanted another version for the TRS-80,
and again for the Commodore VIC-20 (see
Figure 4.4).
The clash of cultures between main-
frame and home computer enthusiasts
went deeper than technology. The imps
were part of the “hacker ethos” at MIT.
Software should be freely shared to
advance the state of the art, not locked
up with copyrights and proprietary code.
Figure 4.4 Dave Lebling, one of the creators of Zork and a cofounder of Infocom, in 2010.
(Photo courtesy of Ben Collins-Sussman.)
Chapter 4: Zork: Sticking Graphics Where the Sun Don’t Shine 33
In particular, restricting access to information purely for the sake of making a profit
seemed crude; unworthy of a truly brilliant mind. The imps disagreed. According to
Lebling, “Zork itself was written because of the hacker ethos, but the ports were good
design and good business sense in a happy marriage.” In any case, the official story is
that Infocom was founded not to sell Zork, but rather simply to keep the team together
after they left the lab.
The imps had a cunning plan for turning their hobby into a successful business. First
off, they broke it up into three different games, though not without some modifications
and additions. Second, rather than port the code to so many different platforms, Joel
Berez and Marc Blank created a virtual platform called the “Z-Machine,” which was
programmed using a LISP-like language called ZIL. Afterward, all that was required
to port the entire library to a new platform was to write a “Z-Machine Interpreter,” or
ZIP. Scott Cutler took on the task of creating the first ZIP, which was written for Tandy’s
TRS-80, and others soon followed. Although their reliance on purely text-based games
would become their downfall later on, at this point, it gave them a major advantage—as
a publisher, they could cheaply and easily offer their games on all the major platforms.
Graphical games were much harder to port, and results were often inaccurate at best.
According to Lebling, this part of the design was in place from the start: “We
designed a system tailored to writing adventure games. Instead of a one-off, even from
the beginning we wrote Zork as collection of library and reuse-oriented code.” Lebling
also believes that they were the first company to make games that were larger than the
computer’s memory, a feature that also simplified the porting process.
The first port of Zork was a TRS-80 version published by Personal Software in 1980.
Personal Software had recently released the first electronic spreadsheet, Visicalc, a
breakthrough product whose runaway success would soon divert them from pursu-
ing other endeavors. This version was packaged “baggie” style, placed in a Ziploc-style
plastic bag with a disk and thin booklet. Infocom soon took responsibility for its own
publishing and ended up producing some of the most creative and iconic game boxes
and “feelies” in the history of the industry. My favorites are Michael Berlyn’s Suspended
(1982), whose box sports a creepy white face mask, and Lebling’s Starcross (1982), which
shipped in a plastic flying saucer. Sadly, Infocom stuck to fairly conservative packaging
for its Zork games, but eventually added feelies, including one of the “Zorkmid” coins
referenced in the games. On a side note, these coins have become so valuable that some
have stooped to counterfeiting them!
At first, sales were sluggish—only 1500 copies were sold. However, the later Apple II
release fared much better, selling more than 6000 copies.4 As sales continued to climb,
the company expanded, bringing on stellar talent such as Steve Meretzsky, who turned
out some of the company’s biggest hits (Planetfall and Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy)
despite his loathing of computers. At one point, 10 of Infocom’s text adventures were
4 Briceño, Hector, Wesley Chao, Andrew Glenn, Stanley Hu, Ashwin Krishnamurthy, and Bruce Tsuchida. “Down From the
Top of Its Game: The Story of Infocom, Inc.” 2000: 12. http://web.mit.edu/6.933/www/Fall2000/infocom/infocom-paper.pdf
(accessed May 2, 2015).
34 Part I: The Innovators
in the top 20 of the Softsel Hot List of software sales.5 By 1985, the company had raised
enough capital to throw a lavish “murder mystery party” at the Consumer Electronic
Show, hiring a troupe of live actors and allowing participants to indulge in some live-
action role playing. Infocom had hit their peak.
Unfortunately, the company soon floundered. From the beginning, Infocom was
not intended solely to develop and publish games; they felt they needed a “killer app”
that would raise the vast sums that their former publisher, Personal Software, had
acquired with Visicalc. They thought they had such a product in a relational database
called Cornerstone (1985). Cornerstone sounded brilliant—everyone knew that database
software had revolutionary potential for business, but the current offerings were far too
complex for the average user. Infocom saw an opportunity, and felt that the same virtual
machine strategy they used for Zork would work for Cornerstone.
Unfortunately, by the time copies of Cornerstone began lining up on store shelves,
the IBM PC was the overwhelmingly dominant platform for business; portability was no
longer an issue. Furthermore, the virtual machine setup reduced its speed, and it lacked
several of the advanced features that made its rival database programs worth learning in
the first place. The program was not a success, and some wit quipped that its name was
apt—it sat on store shelves like a stone. Infocom had invested so heavily in the product,
however, that they were unable to recover, and in 1986 the company was acquired by
Activision.
What happens next is dismal, at least for fans of the pure text adventures. Activision
seemed uninterested in publishing such games, preferring instead to exploit the brand’s
popularity in graphical adventure games. The first of these was Moriarty’s Beyond Zork:
The Coconut of Quendor in 1987. Beyond Zork had a crude automap and several random-
ized and role-playing game elements to enhance the game’s re-playability. Some fans
objected to these changes, but it was generally well received. Steve Meretzky followed in
1988 with the prequel Zork Zero, which had in-game hints, menus, an interactive map,
and a graphical version of the “Double Fanucci” card game. This game was also praised
by critics and received favorable reviews (see Figure 4.5).
The last game published under the Infocom label was Return to Zork, a 1993 game
released for Apple Macintosh and PC. Developed by Activision, Return to Zork is much dif-
ferent than the previous Zork games, or even the graphically enhanced games described
above. Return to Zork has more in common with Myst, which was released a few months
after it. The parser is gone, replaced by a purely graphical interface that is surprisingly
complex and multifaceted. The game also offers live action sequences, including per-
formances by Robyn Lively, star of the 1989 cult classic film Teen Witch. Contemporary
reviewers seemed mostly pleased, though Zork fans remain divided. Very few of the orig-
inal characters show up in the game, and there will always be the issue of whether any
graphical adventure game could truly compare to the great text-only classics. Jay Kee,
who reviewed the game for Compute! magazine, wrote that “people accustomed to the
Suplee, Curt. “Through the Zorking Glass: Home Computer Games to Plot Your Own Adventure.” The Washington Post,
5
Figure 4.5 Return to Zork was an attempt in 1993 to reboot the series as a graphical adven-
ture game.
compared to Infocom’s, Mystery House had graphics (though admittedly crude). By 1984,
Sierra was releasing much nicer looking games, including its bestselling King’s Quest
series. Another rival, Scott Adams’ Adventure International, had also moved beyond
pure text adventures and begun integrating graphics into his games. Other companies
tried to please purists by allowing them to turn the graphics (really illustrations) on
and off and maintaining text input, but by the 1990s, the industry was clearly moving
to a parser-less, “point and click” format. By May of 1989, the once-bustling offices of
Infocom, the world’s leading computer game publisher, were pitch black.
Even without the lure of commercial success, hobbyists and independent design-
ers have continued to write and publish text adventures. A good source of these games is
the annual Interactive Fiction Competition, which is now in its 21st year. This contest is
just one of the more visible aspects of a thriving IF community, a robust network of like-
minded enthusiasts who pool their creative and technical resources to distribute text-
based games as well as help newcomers play and create their own works. Emily Short’s
blog at http://emshort.wordpress.com is an excellent place to start if you’re interested
in learning more about modern IF. There is at least one active commercial publisher of
IF—Howard Sherman’s Malinche Entertainment, though his posted sales figures (in the
hundreds of thousands) have been challenged by skeptics.
Even if text adventures like Zork are but a mere historical curiosity for some, there’s
no denying their influence on plenty of modern games. What Zork contributed more
than anything was the idea that the computer could simulate a rich virtual world, some-
thing much, much larger and deeper than the playing fields seen in games like Spacewar!
or Pong. Furthermore, the game demonstrated the literary potential of the computer.
Thousands upon thousands of gamers have been charmed by the wit and elegance of
Zork’s many descriptions, and modern IF authors have continued and expanded this
rich tradition of rich, rewarding prose.
If you’d like to try your hand at making a text adventure, you’re in luck. There are
several extremely powerful, yet easily learned—and free—tools to help you achieve
your goal. Three of the most popular ones are Quest, TADS, and Inform 7. Even if you
have no programming background or knowledge at all, you can be up and running with
one of these programs in no time, and each is supported by communities of likeminded
authors.
The title of this chapter takes its name from one of Infocom’s most brazen advertise-
ments, which shows a giant, colorful brain under the headline: “We stick our graphics
where the sun don’t shine.” The ad goes on to explain that “there’s never been a computer
built by man that could handle the images we produce. And, there never will be.” Anyone
who has ever been disappointed by a movie’s adaptation of a novel will likely agree. The
grues that we imagine will always seem more frightening than an artist’s interpretation.
No matter how much skill, talent, and money a game developer has to work with, some-
times it’s just not possible to match the evocative power of a twisty little passage of text.
2 Bartle, Richard. “Richard Bartle’s Pages.” Richard A. Bartle’s Consultancy Web Site. June 24, 2003. http://mud.co.uk/richard
37
38 Part I: The Innovators
Figure 5.1 On the surface, MUD looked very much like Zork or Colossal Cave Adventure, but
this was an online multiplayer game.
becoming a witch or wizard and earning some administrator privileges. The combat sys-
tem is much simpler than that in Dungeons & Dragons; players merely type “kill <name
of monster or character> with [weapon],” initiating a turn-based battle that lasts until
victory or death.
The social dimension is what really set MUD apart from other games. Players who
had never met each other face to face began to feel a sense of community they lacked
outside the game. One of many such players was “Sue the Witch,” a wiz who dialed into
the game each day from a modem. Sue was respected for her extensive knowledge of the
game and her fair but firm approach to enforcing the rules. According to Bartle, “She
played every night for 6 hours solid, day in, day out, and her phone bill came to over 1000
pounds a month.”3 When Sue suddenly quit playing, concerned players drove a minibus
down to South Wales to check on her. “It transpired that Sue was a man who had just
been jailed for defrauding the Department of Transport of 60,000 pounds,” said Bartle.
“We normally leave that bit out of our guidelines for good wiz behavior.”3
Soon after MUD went live at Essex University, word began to appear all across bul-
letin board systems all over the English-speaking world. The game was popular with
players in the United Kingdom as well as the United States, who could access the game
through the ARPANET. Unfortunately, the machine time required to host the game
strained the budget of the University Computing Society. Thankfully, Bartle was able to
get his university to offer a free account for external users, though only during off-peak
hours (see Figure 5.2).
In an interview with me in 2015, Bartle noted that he knew of at least three other MUD-
like programs that had been developed around the same time, though none of these devel-
opers were aware of each other’s existence. The best known of these is Alan E. Klietz’s
Scepter of Goth, and Avatar, a game for the PLATO system. Bartle points out that the basic
concepts behind all of these projects was obvious; who “came up with” the original idea
3 Bartle, Richard. “Anecdotes, Set 3.” Richard A. Bartle’s Counsultancy Web Site. June 21, 2006. http://mud.co.uk/richard
4 O’Brien, Bill. “CompuServe Role-Playing Games: A Respite from the Modern World.” PC Magazine, May 30, 1989: 476.
40 Part I: The Innovators
object locations, send messages, and handle the players’ input. This could all be done
“behind the scenes,” with the installed software serving as an intermediary between
the host (the mainframe running the game) and the client (i.e., the user’s personal com-
puter). The host tracked the locations and activities taking place in the game, whereas the
client provided the user with a handy graphical interface. This approach led to graphi-
cal multiplayer online games, such as LucasFilm Games’ Habitat in 1987 and Beyond
Software’s Neverwinter Nights (1991–1997)5 and ultimately modern massively multiplayer
online role-playing games (MMORPGs) like World of Warcraft.
Despite all the advances in audiovisuals since the first MUD, there are still many
players who prefer MUDs to MMORPGs. According to Top MUD Sites (http://topmud
sites.com), currently the three most popular MUDs are Aardwolf MUD; BatMUD; and
Achaea, Dreams of Divine Lands, each of which has more than 250 players online at
any given moment. There’s also MUDs dedicated to the works of fantasy authors Robert
Jordan (Wheel of Time MUD), Raymond E. Feist (Midkemia Online), Terry Pratchett
(Discworld), and, of course, J.R.R. Tolkien (The Two Towers). Most MUDs are free to play
but may need player donations to keep the servers running. While it’s possible to con-
nect to most with a simple TELNET program, many offer attractive and useful custom
clients.
1 Wichman, Glenn, interview by Matt Barton. Matt Chat 225: Glenn Wichmann, Co-creator of Rogue (January 26, 2014).
41
42 Part I: The Innovators
Figure 6.2 Rogue running on PC. The character set graphics may look primitive, but this
game can still get your blood pumping.
This is where Arnold enters the picture. Arnold had designed a “library” called
Curses, short for “Cursor optimization.” Curses allowed programmers like Toy and
Wichman to control the way text was laid out on the screen, as well as cursor con-
trol—elements vital for any kind of graphical game. It also eliminated the compatibility
issue with different brands of terminals. In short, it was exactly what Toy and Wichman
needed to make Rogue.
Imagine trying to make a map of a dungeon using only the letters, numerals, and
other symbols you can type with your keyboard. You might decide to make a wall by
lining up a series of dashes or vertical bars: —|. You might then use these characters
to make rooms, filling up the empty spaces with periods. Doors might be plus signs.
Finally, you might use an unusual character such as @ for your hero and letters to stand
for your monsters (Z for zombie, R for Rust monster, and so on). Thanks to Curses, this
was a relatively straightforward process, but the algorithms were a different matter.
Chapter 6: Rogue: Procedural Generation 43
Figure 6.3 Rogue running on a Classic Mac emulator. This version takes advantage of the
Mac’s celebrated GUI.
design for the algorithm. The end result were rooms laid out like tic-tac-toe boards, with
nine slots—but rooms could be made smaller than this maximum. Instead of revealing
the entire map all at once, Toy and Wichman introduced what we’d call a “fog of war”
mechanic today, meaning that only sections of the dungeons that the player previously
explored would show on the map (see Figure 6.3).
The control scheme was as intuitive as one might expect from the era before mice
and pulldown menus. Besides the basic movement keys (h, j, k, and l), players also had
to remember somewhat arbitrary comments like “q” for quaff potion or “e” to eat food.
Even with all these commands committed to memory, the game was very challeng-
ing. Sudden death could occur at any moment, particularly if the character wasn’t yet
equipped and stocked with potions and scrolls. However, starting over wasn’t so bad—
at least you wouldn’t have to slog through the same old dungeon again on your next
attempt.
Toy and Wichman’s game was a hit with the nerds on campus, but it didn’t get its big
break until it was added to Version 4.2 of BSD UNIX, the operating system of choice on
university mainframes all over the world. Ostensibly, the game was included as a way
to make sure the operating system had been installed correctly, but it’s just as likely the
technical staff were playing it for fun. According to Wichman, Rogue was the most popu-
lar game on college campuses.2 “It was interesting to see the surge of adrenaline you’d
get when you’d see a T on the screen,” said Wichman, reminiscing about the good old
days. “That T was a troll, the first really threatening monster you’d see if you were doing
well. You could watch people hitting the keys harder, thinking it would help them beat it.
We’d hear screams”1 (see Figure 6.4).
Rogue’s success on the college scene seemed to bode well for a commercial release.
After graduating and moving to Italy, Toy met Jon Lane, who helped him found a com-
pany called A.I. Design to adapt and publish Rogue for the new IBM PC. They handled the
entire operation for 2 years before turning things over to Epyx, an established publisher.
June 9, 2015).
44 Part I: The Innovators
Figure 6.4 Epyx released this charming sprite-based version of Rogue in 1986.
Unfortunately, Rogue was not the hit game they’d hoped for, even with more sophisti-
cated tile-based graphics and other niceties. The team blamed piracy, which was rampant
in those days. Another issue may well have been the abundance of similar games, such
as the aforementioned Sword of Fargoal by Jeff McCord or Daniel Lawrence’s Telengard
(1982), as well as a large number of free or cheap public domain or shareware variants
like Hack (1982) and Moria (1983). Another strong possibility is that the game simply got
overshadowed by Ultima III (1983; see Chapter 15), a superb, critically acclaimed RPG.
The most influential of the countless “roguelikes” are probably Moria, Hack, Larn,
and Ancient Domains of Mystery (ADOM). Moria, as the name implies, is themed
on J.R.R. Tolkien’s The Lord of the Rings. The original version was authored by Robert
Koeneke, a student at the University of Oklahoma. Moria had a persistent town with six
shops where players could buy equipment. Angband, a popular and more recent rogue-
like, is derived from this game. Hack, which first debuted in 1982, was authored by Jay
Fenlason and three friends. It was noted for its clever interaction with the gameworld
and its creatures. Slaying and then eating a leprechaun, for instance, would teleport
the character to a random location. Hack was the basis for the ever-popular NetHack, a
1987 game whose developers took advantage of the Internet. Noah Morgan’s Larn (1986)
offered a persistent starting level and a town with a bank, school, shop, and a tax office.
Thomas Biskup’s ADOM, released in 1994, was probably the most complex of the lot. It
offered quests, skills, and a selection of 10 races and 20 character classes.
Although Epyx didn’t have much commercial success with Rogue, its descendants
have fared much better—indeed, the genre has become quite popular on Steam over
the past few years. Subset Games’ FTL: Faster than Light (2012), AMPLITUDE Studios’
Dungeon of the Endless (2014), and Red Hook Studios’ Darkest Dungeon (2015) are remark-
ably successful indie titles whose designs are clearly inspired by Rogue. The success of
these titles—among at least 50 others tagged with “rogue-like”—has ushered in some-
thing of a modern-day “rogue-like renaissance” that shows little sign of slowing down.
Meanwhile, the “7-Day Rogue-like Challenge,” established in 2005, is now in its 10th
year. For this challenge, contestants strive to create a fully functional rogue-like game
in a week. In 2015, there were 128 games completed for the challenge. Wichman himself
entered back in 2007, submitting a game called Seven Day Quest.
Chapter 6: Rogue: Procedural Generation 45
1 Colley, Steve. “Steve Colley’s Story of the Original Maze.” DigiBarn Computer Museum. November 7, 2004. http://www
.digibarn.com/history/04-VCF7-MazeWar/stories/colley.html (accessed May 6, 2015).
47
48 Part I: The Innovators
Figure 7.1 Maze War SVG, a modern remake of the game in Java. (Image courtesy of
Chris W. Johnson.)
first “bugs” that turned out to be a feature—the delay on the serial ports meant that two
people could kill each other—as if their bullets had passed one another in the hallway
(see Figure 7.1).
As the game began making its way to other institutions, other innovations followed.
Dave Lebling, one of Zork’s creators, became enamored with it. He added a computer-
controlled robot, which silently prowled the corridors in search of human targets—the
first “bot.” Another key innovation came in 1977, when a version was made that could be
played over the ARPANET (the progenitor of the Internet). Now, players from geographi-
cally distant institutions could play together online.
Like Zork and Spacewar! before it, Maze War attracted a large following of highly
dedicated players—who were often told in no uncertain terms that they shouldn’t be
“wasting” precious computing resources playing games. Lebling notes: “To say that the
game was an immediate hit would be an understatement. We had six or eight Imlacs,
and during off-hours they were almost all playing Maze. People would come down from
the AI Lab to play, or bring their friends in to play with them. Some of the best people
recruited by the DM (Dynamic Modeling) group were originally attracted there by these
midnight Maze sessions.”2 The competition grew so intense that some unscrupulous
players resorted to cheating, which led to encrypting the game’s source code.
For many years, the game didn’t have a way for players to chat, but Jim Guyton, who
helped adapt the game for play on Xerox’s Alto systems, noted that “you could get a little
extra feedback by paying close attention to the screams” up and down the hallways.3
Later versions of Maze War did let players chat with each other, and as with modern
online games, many players logged in simply to socialize. Bruce Damer argues that this
2 Lebling, David. “David Lebling’s Story of Maze at MIT (1974+).” DigiBarn Computer Museum. November 7, 2004. http://
Guyton, Jim. “Jim Guyton’s Story of Maze at Xerox (Alto and Star).” DigiBarn Computer Museum. November 7, 2004. http://
3
game originated the concept of being “in-world,” laying the groundwork for the persis-
tent virtual worlds of today’s Massively Multiplayer Online games.4
Written well before the Internet and networked personal computers were ubiquitous
in American homes, Maze War’s commercial potential was virtually nil. This changed
in 1987, when a company named Macromind released a version called MazeWars+ for
the Apple Macintosh, which could be played over the Appletalk network and was even
bundled with some Macintosh systems. It could support up to 30 players, but the flyer
recommends limiting it to 6. During the same year, another port called MIDI Maze was
developed for the Atari ST, which, as the name implies, used the system’s built-in MIDI
interface—normally used for music applications—to serve as a network. MIDI Maze
could theoretically support up to 16 players, but again, adding more than 4 caused the
game to slow down and ultimately become unplayable.
Maze War’s first-person perspective proved useful for other kinds of games, espe-
cially role-playing games for early home computers. We can clearly see the influence
in games like Wizardry, whose turn-based gameplay removed (or at least reduced) the
need for fast, CPU-intensive rendering, making it suitable for play on machines like the
Apple II and Commodore 64. It also allowed many gamers an early glimpse at networked
action games.
Matthew Kirschenbaum of Slate named Maze War the second most influential soft-
ware program (not just game) of all time, calling it the “first first-person shooter.”5 When
we consider how many “firsts” the game can legitimately lay claim to, it’s easy to see
why—but not everyone is convinced the game is worthy of such accolades. Richard
Bartle, the celebrated cocreator of MUD (see Chapter 5), directly questioned its influ-
ence: “We’re all told of Maze’s firsts,” he wrote in an online comment in 2007, “but merely
being first is no guarantee of influence … 3D graphics was something that was always
going to happen, because it was too obvious not to.”6 Bartle’s claim was lent some cre-
dence when I asked if Maze War had inspired John Romero and John Carmack, cele-
brated cofounders of id Software and fathers of the first-person shooter. According to
Romero, neither he nor Carmack has ever played Maze War.7 It’s hardly surprising; after
all, availability was limited mostly to college campuses and research centers. Unlike
Tennis for Two, Spacewar!, or Zork, Maze War did not benefit from an effective transition
to arcades, consoles, or home computers.
How could a game so ahead of its time remain so obscure? Everett M. Rogers’ book
Diffusion of Innovations offers some substantial insights into this question. Rogers
4 Damer, Bruce. “Meeting in the Ether.” Interactions 14, no. 5 (September 2007): 16–18.
5 Kirschenbaum, Matthew. “The 10 Most Influential Software Programs Ever.” Slate. July 30, 2013. http://www.slate.com
/blogs/browbeat/2013/07/30/_10_most_influential_software_programs_of_all_time_from_sabre_to_minecraft.html
(accessed May 6, 2015).
7 Romero, John. Twitter Tweet. May 6, 2015. https://twitter.com/romero/status/596116245637824512 (accessed May 7, 2015).
50 Part I: The Innovators
posits that there are always five perceived attributes of an innovation that lead to their
widespread adoption: relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability, and
observability.8 It seems clear that, at least to those who played it, Maze War was tech-
nically advanced (relative advantage), fulfilled all the same psychological or social
desires as other games (compatibility), and was not especially difficult to learn how to
play (complexity)—though making a game like Maze War required fairly advanced 3D
graphics programming skills.
By “trialability,” Rogers is referring to the costs of simply trying out a new product
or feature. For example, trying out Pong costs only a quarter, which was literally pocket
change. Imagine, however, if the machine had demanded a dollar per play, which would
have been well over $5 in today’s currency. That’s roughly the price of a good bottled beer
or a cocktail and certainly a lot higher than what pinball gamers were accustomed to.
Bushnell wisely kept the price per play low, making it painless for even the poorest bar
patrons to give those dials a spin.
Maze War’s trialability is more difficult to define. On the one hand, it was basically
“free software” in the modern sense; anyone with access to a compatible mainframe
computer could have legally downloaded and played the game for free. On the other
hand, very few people owned or had access to such a machine, and not just anyone could
waltz into NASA, Xerox, or MIT’s computer labs and play a game! As mentioned above,
there were ports available for the classic Macintosh (MazeWars+) and the Atari ST (MIDI
Maze). While devotees of these vintage platforms are rightly proud of these games, they
remain obscure to the broader gaming community.
Observability is where Maze War fails the hardest. Rogers gives a helpful example of
observability: solar panels. Even if you don’t have them on your roof, you may be able
to see them on your neighbors’ houses. Seeing solar panels on a daily basis might well
put the idea in your head to look into installing them yourself—the old keepin’ up with
the Joneses phenomenon. It’s also the principle behind product demonstrations—once
you’ve seen what that new Blend-o-Chop can do, you’re more likely to want one. It’s clear
that many people did see, play, and love Maze War—just not enough to hit the tipping
point.
Maze War may have been the first game to introduce a great many important innova-
tions that are now standard in modern games—but Bartle is right; just being first does
not guarantee influence. I’d add that it’s especially hard when you don’t try to capitalize
on your innovations and protect your intellectual property. Timing is also important,
and Maze War was simply too much, too soon for an industry that still thought Pong was
a pretty neat idea.
History is full of fabulous “what ifs,” and I’ll end this chapter with a good one.
Lebling noted that after Infocom was founded in 1979, his company strongly considered
building an arcade version of Maze War. It’s fascinating to imagine what the industry
would look like today if Infocom had successfully followed through on this plan, rather
than abandoning it to focus on text adventures. The arcades of the 1980s might have
8 Rogers, Everett M. Diffusion of Innovations. New York: Free Press, 2003, 15.
Chapter 7: Maze War: The First First-Person Shooter? 51
looked more like the LAN parties of the 1990s! Of course, we’ll never know, and, besides,
I liked those arcades just fine the way they were.
consoles with slots for read-only memory (ROM) cartridges. This innovation eventually
led (despite much legal wrangling) to the separation of video game hardware and soft-
ware developers. Some owners complained about having to buy extra cartridges; why
couldn’t they just be built-in like they were in the “good old days?” But imagine what the
industry would be like today without independent software houses like Electronic Arts
and Bethesda! The third-party software companies churned out a huge variety of games,
some of which were as good if not better than the manufacturer’s own. Unfortunately,
the lack of industry regulation, control, and common sense led to the “Great Videogame
Crash” of 1983, in which tons of poorly conceived games and related products oversatu-
rated the market, bringing the industry to its knees.
Early adopters also witnessed the first great console rivalries, as gamers struggled
to decide among a bevy of incompatible machines each claiming to be the best. Coleco,
Mattel, and others vied for Atari’s clientele, making all kinds of promises that seem
bizarre today. It’s hard to imagine a major game console today advertising its educational
value, or its potential to be expanded into a full-blown computer. Yet, at this period, the
market was so young that marketing departments were willing to try anything to gain a
foothold over the competition!
The home computer market was also rapidly expanding, especially after the intro-
duction of the Commodore 64, the best-selling PC of all time. Even though it was a pain
to program for and had a slow, inefficient disk drive, the C-64 was cheap, powerful, and
more than just a great game machine. My grandmother ran her tax preparation business
with one.
Floppy disks and earlier “datasettes” were a double-edged sword for the home com-
puter industry. On the one hand, it did mean that the machines could be used for busi-
ness and other nongaming purposes, since you clearly needed a way to save all your hard
work. It also made it much easier for third parties to publish software for your machine,
since disks and tapes were cheaper and more accessible than custom cartridges. On the
other hand, try as they might, software publishers could not seem to prevent unscrupu-
lous users from illegally copying and distributing their products. These early “pirates”
may have made life hard for publishers, but they inadvertently boosted sales of the
machines, since potential buyers might reckon on tons of “free” software to justify the
purchase.
Finally, this generation was the Golden Age of the video game arcade, when hordes
of teens flooded each weekend to their local mall, bowling alley, or dedicated gaming
center for bout after bout of Pac-Man, Donkey Kong, Space Invaders, Q*Bert, and Pole
Position. At this point, arcade machines offered much better audiovisuals than your
humble Atari 2600 or Commodore 64, and, besides, what’s the point of racking up high
scores that no one will ever see?
In short, the period we’re about to cover is one of the most exciting, important, and
wildest eras in the history of the video game industry, with major implications for con-
sole, arcade, and computer games. It all began with a slice of pizza.
Chapter 8
1 Lohr, Steve. “Technology Spurs Change: High Technology Spurs Nonconformists in Japan.” New York Times, March 8, 1983: D1.
55
56 Part II: The Early Adopters
Figure 8.1 Toru Iwatani, the creator of Pac-Man. (Photo courtesy of Official GDC.)
Iwatani. “Even when you eat them, their eyeballs come back,” decreasing the appear-
ance of real violence.4 Iwatani recounted later that his supervisor, who he described as a
kind, elderly woman, asked him to make all the ghosts one color (red) to make them eas-
ier to identify as enemies.5 Iwatani wisely held out, and Inky (blue), Blinky (red), Pinky
(pink), and Clyde (orange) kept their colors. Sticking with his food and eating theme,
Iwatani called his game Puck-Man—the sound “puck puck” is a Japanese convention to
represent the sound of eating, similar to our “nom nom.”
2 Purchese, Robert. “Iwatani: Pac-Man was made for women.” Eurogamer.net. May 20, 2010. http://www.eurogamer.net
/articles/iwatani-pac-man-was-made-for-women (accessed May 19, 2015).
3 Kshosfy. “Q&A: Pac-Man Creator Reflects on 30 Years of Dot-Eating.” Wired. May 21, 2010. http://www.wired.com/2010/05
4 Pfeffer, Helen. “Exclusive: Pac-Man Creator Speaks!” VH1 Game Break. June 6, 2007. http://vh1.blogs.com/vh1
_games//2007/06/exclusive_pacma.html (accessed May 19, 2015).
Cifaldo, Frank. “A Real Ladies Pac-Man: How Namco’s Yellow Dot Won Over Female Gamers.” 1up.com. May 25, 2011. http://
5
A key part of relaxing the tension was a small set of cut scenes or “intermissions.” These
humorous sketches starred Pac-Man and Blinky, the red ghost. These brief, charming
segments gave gamers a chance to relax their wrists, while also helping to establish per-
sonalities for what would otherwise have been abstract characters.
It took Iwatani and his small team 18 months to complete the game, and anxiety was
running high. They knew they would face incredible competition in the arcades. How
would Pac-Man fare against the likes of Atari’s Centipede (1980) and Asteroids (1979), or
Namco’s own Galaxian?
Lammers, Susan. Programmers at Work: Interviews With 19 Programmers Who Shaped the Computer Industry. Redmund, WA:
6
To check its appeal, they secretly placed a test unit in the lounge of a large movie
theater, where couples were known to congregate after watching a movie. Iwatani hid
himself nearby and nervously waited to see if all his hard work had paid off. Iwatani was
delighted to see that “the women and couples were very happy about the machine, very
excited,” even if “the core gamers, the men, were not … But it was for people who didn’t
play games on a daily basis—women, children, the elderly.”3
Sadly for Iwatani, the core group was the one that mattered. Japanese gamers were far
too enamored with shoot’em up games to give Puck-Man a chance. One might well have
expected Iwatani to shrivel up and die like his own captured Puck-Man. When Midway
approached Namco to license some of their games for America, they were far more inter-
ested in Galaxian and another game called Rally-X. Still, they decided that Puck-Man
was worth a shot. Before shipping it to the Americans, Namco’s president Nakamura
quietly changed the name to Pac-Man to discourage vandalism, and, no doubt, inap-
propriate jokes.7
Nakamura was right. We Americans thought Pac-Man was pucking awesome.
Pac-Man hit Western shores like a tsunami, flooding into arcades and then out into
the wider market. Soon, every pizza parlor, supermarket, and drug store in the United
States had to have one. It was all Midway could do to keep up with the demand for the
quarter-munching machines, churning out a hundred thousand of them in 1980 (three
times that number would be produced over the next 7 years). The machines were well
worth the investment; in total, they raked in more than a billion dollars’ worth of quar-
ters in the first year alone.8 As successful as Space Invaders had been just 2 years earlier,
it was just a small slice of Pac-Man (see Figure 8.3).
“Pac-Man is the most popular video game ever,” said Harold Vogel, an analyst for
Merrill Lynch. “With 100,000 units out there [by November, 1981], that’s an all-time
record.”8 It’s not hard to appreciate Pac-Man’s appeal. As Iwatani had predicted, there
were hordes of potential female gamers who’d been turned off by space, war, and tank
games. But the game had a lot more going for it than simply its avoidance of any violent
themes: it was extremely competitive.
While anybody could learn to play and enjoy Pac-Man in a matter of minutes, it
was possible to master it on a level that you just couldn’t say about the likes of Pong or
Space Invaders. The predictable behavior of the ghosts as they chased Pac-Man could
be learned and incorporated into successful strategies. These “pattern players,” as they
came to be known, could earn scores (and hog the machine!) far longer than a casual
player. For countless gamers of the 1980s, mastering these patterns was highly reward-
ing, not just for the social status it might bring, but the thrills of hacking a system—in
effect, outsmarting the game’s designers. Pattern players were the new pinball wizards
of America. Determined players could even buy books like Ken Uston’s Mastering
7 Kent, Steve L. The Ultimate History of Video Games: From Pong to Pokémon and Beyond: the Story Behind the Craze that
Touched Our Lives and Changed the World. Rocklin, CA: Prima Pub., 2001.
8 Katya, Goncharoff. “Video Games: A Glutton for Globs… And Quarters.” New York Times, November 15, 1981: F21.
Chapter 8: Pac-Man: Gamers Just Want to Have Lunch 59
Figure 8.3 Pac-Man and Puck-Man arcade machines. (Photo courtesy of Gerard van Schip.)
may increase, to perhaps 5000 or so. He will note the “High Score” posted at the top of
the screen and wonder how on earth any mortal could have scored 56,800, or 106,500,
or even 249,300 … It’s surprisingly easy if a methodical approach is taken. Indeed, the
characteristic that attracted me to Pac-Man is that a predetermined plan is far more
important … than physical coordination.9
Thus, Pac-Man really could appeal to everyone, from casual players drawn to the cute
graphics or charming characters, to the hardcore gamer who could truly appreciate the
game’s complexities.
More recently, a 34-year-old kitchen manager named Billy Mitchell came to interna-
tional attention after playing the first-ever “perfect” Pac-Man game, gaining the maxi-
mum 3,333,360 points after 6 hours of play, earning himself a Guinness World Record for
his trouble.10 Rather than following patterns, Mitchell worked out methods to manipu-
late the ghosts into the corners of his choice. “I chose to do it this way because I wanted to
demonstrate the depths of my abilities,” said Mitchell, “I wanted to raise the bar higher—
to a level that no one else could match.”11 We’ll have the opportunity to discuss Mitchell
again when we discuss Donkey Kong.
A list of Bally Midway’s Pac-Man licensees from May 28, 1982, reveals just how lucra-
tive and widespread America’s “Pac-Man Fever” had become in just 2 years. There are
lunch boxes, watches, roller and ice skates, stadium cushions, towels, lapel pins, board
9 Uston, Ken. Mastering Pac-Man. Brattleboro, VT: Echo Point Books & Media, 1981.
10 Kahney, Leander. “July 3, 1999: Gobbling Up a Pac-Man Record.” Wired. July 3, 2008. http://archive.wired.com/science
11 Trueman, Doug. “An Interview with Billy Mitchell.” GameSpot. 2004. http://www.gamespot.com/features/vgs/universal
games, lamps, air fresheners, swimwear, cross-stitch patterns, drapes, soaps, cigarette
lighters and cases, and even a hot air corn popper.12 At the height of his fame, Pac-Man
even had his own Saturday morning cartoon produced by Hanna-Barbera, which ran for
two seasons between September 1982 and November 1983. I’m pretty sure that even The
Beatles didn’t get this much love. Sadly, that love didn’t extend to Iwatani himself, whose
bosses at Namco didn’t give him a raise, bonus, or even a citation for his epic achieve-
ment. “I was just an employee,” said Iwatani.4
Naturally, Atari and other console manufacturers were eager to cash in on America’s
Pac-Man Fever, but the crude consumer hardware of the era made a satisfactory port
unlikely, even with a talented team, extra memory to work with, and a lengthy devel-
opment cycle. Atari’s executives must have felt the Pac-Man branding alone would be
sufficient to sell 10 million copies of the game, because they gave Tod Frye only 6 weeks
to develop the game all by himself.13 Furthermore, they restricted him to 4K ROM rather
than the more expensive (but significantly more capable) 8K bank-switched ROM.14
Needless to say, Frye’s game was a poor substitute indeed for playing Pac-Man in the
arcade. Even compared to other Atari 2600 games, Pac-Man was a disaster, with crummy
audio, flickering visuals, missing cut scenes, and inaccurate gameplay. Although millions
of unsuspecting or desperate Atari 2600 owners purchased the cartridge, word quickly
spread, and Atari was soon overwhelmed with unsold inventory—which many blamed
for crashing the industry in 1983. In any case, Pac-Man ports for other consoles, such as
Mike Winans’ for the Mattel Intellivision (a licensed Atarisoft product), and Atari’s own
version for their 5200 console, adhered more faithfully to the original (see Figure 8.4).
Having paid millions for the exclusive home translation rights, Atari was determined
to stop competitive maze chase games from reaching market, especially on non-Atari
hardware. Even though programmer Ed Averett took pains to distinguish his excellent
K.C. Munchkin! Game for the Magnavox Odyssey2, providing four mazes, moving dots,
and user-programmable playfields, Atari sued them for infringement. Magnavox’s game
sold briskly at first and was far superior to Atari’s game for its 2600. Magnavox won in
court, but grew complacent in victory. Atari’s deep pockets helped them win a hard
fought appeal, and K.C. Munchkin! was taken off shelves. Yet again, Atari had smashed
its old arch-enemy Magnavox.
In 1981, Midway released Ms. Pac-Man, which they’d based on Crazy Otto, a Pac-Man
conversion (mod) kit developed by engineers at the General Computer Corporation
(GCC). Midway presented the game as a sequel to Pac-Man, altering its appearance to
make it more in-line with the original. Ms. Pac-Man improved on its predecessor in sev-
eral key areas. First, the character now sported a bright red bow, lipstick, and a beauty
12 Bally Midway Mfg. Co. “List of Bally Midway Mfg. Co. Pac-Man Licensees.” Arcade Museum. November 28, 1982. http://
13 Montfort, Nick, and Ian Bogost. Racing the Beam: The Atari Video Computer System. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2009, 67.
14 Montfort and Bogost’s book Racing the Beam: The Atari Video Computer System gives an excellent account of the
technical challenges faced by Frye in adapting the game.
Chapter 8: Pac-Man: Gamers Just Want to Have Lunch 61
Figure 8.4 The wretched Atari 2600 version of Pac-Man was a high-profile disaster for Atari.
A popular misconception is that GCC and Midway’s Ms. Pac-Man game was unau-
thorized by Namco, who took them to court over it. I’m not sure how this myth got
started, but GCC’s founder Doug Macrae set us straight in 2010 during a presentation at
California Extreme. Macrae claims that not only was Namco aware of their project, they
actively supported it, with Namco’s president Nakamura himself suggesting the charac-
ter’s distinctive bow (see Figure 8.5).
While most people still have fond memories of the original Pac-Man, many modern
gamers prefer the sequel. Indeed, one of the most common “retro” arcade machines in
production today is a combination Ms. Pac-Man and Galaga cabinet. Atari took more
care in porting Ms. Pac-Man to its 2600,
resulting in a much more polished and
playable game.
A few months after Ms. Pac-Man’s
debut, Midway released Super Pac-Man,
substantially altering the gameplay of
the original. Most noticeably, Pac-Man
no longer eats dots, but fruits and keys.
As the title suggests, Pac-Man can now
gain super powers by munching a super
pellet. In super form, Pac-Man is twice
as big and invulnerable, but cannot eat
ghosts. Despite these innovations, the
game wasn’t nearly as popular as Ms.
Pac-Man. Bally and Midway (later Bally
Midway) released other Pac-Man–related
games throughout the early 1980s, includ-
ing Pac-Man Plus (1982), a minor altera-
tion of the original that manipulates the
Figure 8.5 Ms. Pac-Man was a much-loved follow-up to the original game.
62 Part II: The Early Adopters
1 Kent, Steve L. The Ultimate History of Video Games: From Pong to Pokémon and Beyond: The Story Behind the Craze that
Touched Our Lives and Changed the World. Rocklin, CA: Prima Pub., 2001, p. 157.
63
64 Part II: The Early Adopters
Figure 9.1 Shigeru Miyamoto at GDC 2007. (Photo courtesy of Vincent Diamante.)
Yamauchi’s star toy and game designer, Gunpei Yokoi, had taken a liking to him,
and had long conversations with him about all his fantastic ideas for sophisticated
new games; with all the new technological advances coming out on an almost daily
basis, the possibilities seemed endless. He talked about games based on cartoons
and movies, like King Kong and Popeye the Sailor Man, with detailed backstories and
epic special effects.
Yokoi had invented the Game & Watch system and would go on to design the Game
Boy. He was committed to a design philosophy called “Lateral Thinking with Withered
Technology,” which is all about finding creative, unexplored ways to use old technology—
not foolishly chasing after the cutting edge. “There is a better way,” he told Miyamoto.
Chapter 9: Donkey Kong: Miyamoto’s 800-Pound Gorilla 65
Yokoi told his young protégé to sit down and open his hand whenever he flipped on
the lights.3 Miyamoto did as he was instructed. “Okay, now stand up when you hear a
sound … Bleep! … Bloop!” Again, Miyamoto obeyed, probably wondering if his mentor
had gone senile. “Now,” said Yokoi, “do both simultaneously.” As Miyamoto struggled to
keep up with Yokoi, laughing and trying not to trip over his chair as he leapt to his feet, it
suddenly dawned on him: this was fun.
Something else dawned on Yokoi: his protégé was ready for his first real test, and
there was a perfect storm brewing. Nintendo had an American branch in imminent
peril, with a warehouse crammed with 2000 machines that nobody wanted. He told
Yamauchi about the progress he’d been making with Miyamoto. “But he is an artist. He
knows nothing about programming—about technology,” Yamauchi must have thought.
“I will guide him,” promised Yokoi.
“Bring him to me,” said Yamauchi.
We can only imagine the anxiety and nervousness the young Miyamoto must have
felt, standing there in front of the powerful man. Many words have been used to describe
Nintendo’s third and greatest president, Hiroshi Yamauchi, but never “sympathetic.” He
was a cold, ruthless administrator, who’d had his own kin fired to remove any challenge
to his absolute authority.4 What a sight—this severe, austere man sitting at his massive
desk, staring at this shaggy-haired, goofy young artist. A long, tense silence passed as
Yamauchi took his measure of the man.
“Do you think you can design a video game?” he asked at last.
“Yes, Yamauchi-san!” said Miyamoto.
“Then design one,” said Yamauchi. The interview was over.
If there was ever a time for Yokoi’s “lateral thinking with withered technology,”
this was it. Yamauchi wasn’t interested in new tech; he wanted a game that would run
on Radar Scope’s hardware, which Arakawa could use to convert his unsold machines
(see Figure 9.3).
Miyamoto, meanwhile, hadn’t even thought about the hardware—he was going
about his game design backward, thinking first about the story and characters. That sort
of thing was what the professionals did last, grafting some kind of story onto a finished
game. Miyamoto’s story was straight out of Hollywood—a giant gorilla escapes, kidnaps
a carpenter’s girlfriend, and brings her up to the top of a giant construction site.5 As the
carpenter tries to make his way up the structure, the ape rolls barrels at him.
This was a fine story for any game, but it was just the first act. Miyamoto was just
getting started! No, after the carpenter makes his way to the gorilla, the scene changes.
4 Kohler, Chris. Power Up: How Japanese Video Games Gave the World an Extra Life. Indianapolis: Brady Games, 2005, p. 29.
5 Nintendo had been pursuing a license to make a game based on Popeye the Sailor Man, but when that fell through,
Miyamoto had to create his own characters and storyline. You can still see some vestiges of the earlier game; the Lady is
similar to Olive Oyl, and Donkey Kong is like Bluto.
66 Part II: The Early Adopters
Miyamoto was flummoxed. He’d forgotten all about that damn button! Sweat beaded
on his freckled forehead.
Sensing his protégé’s discomfort, Yokoi asked, “Miyamoto … If you had a barrel roll-
ing toward you, what would you do?”
“I would jump,” said Miyamoto. “It’s not a fire button! It’s a jump button!”
“Fire button jumps,” noted the supervisor. Miyamoto had been thinking all along of
another “maze-chase” game like Pac-Man.6 Now, that entire concept was overturned.
A game with a running man who could jump called for a different perspective—a side
view. The levels—they wouldn’t just be separate games; they were higher levels of the
building … How high could you go? It was all starting to come together.
“What is the name of this game?” asked another.
“Donkey Kong,” said Miyamoto.
“Donkey Kong?”
“Yes, you know, Kong means gorilla in English, and Donkey means stubborn. So this
name is like Stubborn Gorilla. Don’t worry; I looked it up.”
“Donkey Kong,” noted the supervisor.
6 Iwata, Satoru. “New Super Mario Bros: Volume 1.” Iwata Asks. n.d. http://iwataasks.nintendo.com/interviews/#/wii
After hammering out the details of the gameplay, it was now time for the artwork.
Miyamoto had imagined characters with lots of detail, similar to those in cartoons like
Popeye or the manga he loved so much. He wanted faces that showed emotion and con-
vincing body language; hair billowing in the wind. When he learned that none of this
would be possible on the primitive hardware, he went back to “lateral thinking” and
looked for ways he could work around the limitations. Instead of hair, he gave his car-
penter a bright cap. Since he couldn’t show a good looking mouth, he gave him a big
mustache instead. The running animation looked better with a squat character, so he
made him short and pudgy.
Miyamoto found other ways to breathe life into his game. He gave Donkey Kong a
smirk, and had his lady scream “Help!” in comic-style text. A purple heart appears above
the carpenter and the lady when they are reunited at the top. These were simple, rela-
tively easy additions, but they helped tell a story.
When the prototype was ready, it was presented to Yamauchi. His approval was
far more than a rubber stamp; he could easily have canned the entire project and sent
Miyamoto to clean out his desk. What he saw was weird; unorthodox. Nintendo had
always played it safe, sticking to clones of existing games and trying to find minor ways
to stand out from the crowd. This was something new, something … risky.
Many words have been used to describe Yamauchi, but never “coward.” He picked up
the phone and called Arakawa. “We are sending you Donkey Kong.”
“Yes, Yamauchi-san,” said his son-in-law.
Now, it was Nintendo of America’s task to sell this game to the arcades. It wasn’t an
easy sell, to say the least. The name was weird, and the gameplay didn’t look anything
they’d seen. Arakawa’s sales team tried to get Yamauchi to change the name, but that
was futile. Like it or not, they were stuck with Donkey Kong, and now they had to
translate its story into artwork for the cabinet. They called the lady “Pauline,” after
one of their wives, and the carpenter “Jumpman” (see Figure 9.4). However, they nick-
named him “Mario,” because he looked so much like the owner of their warehouse,
Mario Segale.7
Now, it was all up to Nintendo of America’s two distributors, Ron Judy and Al Stone.
Arakawa had offered them a great deal on commissions, but so far, it hadn’t paid off—
and now they were on the brink of bankruptcy. As predicted, owners were wary of the
weird name and couldn’t wrap their heads around the concept. Perhaps if Nintendo
had a string of hits behind their name, they could’ve overcome these doubts, but the
Radar Scope debacle loomed large. They needed more than just a clever marketing
spiel and promises; they needed hard evidence that Donkey Kong was more than just
a silly name.
Judy and Stone decided to take a page from Bushnell’s playbook, and set up a couple
of demonstration machines in a couple of bars in Seattle. A week later, they had their
evidence. For seven straight days, players plunked in 120 quarters ($30) for a shot at
Figure 9.4 Donkey Kong was Miyamoto’s first great triumph for Nintendo.
Saturday morning cartoon circuit, and likewise reaped the benefits of a third-party
licensing. Kids could start their day with Donkey Kong cereal, dance to Buckner and
Garcia’s “Do the Donkey Kong” on the radio, and then go to bed in Donkey Kong paja-
mas. Naturally, Atari and other console makers were eager to sign an exclusive deal with
Nintendo.
However, it was Eric Bromley, the designer of the ColecoVision, who sealed the
lucrative deal. In typical Yamauchi fashion, the president of Nintendo demanded
$200,000 upfront and $2 per cartridge, and before Bromley could protest that these
figures were completely unreasonable, he threw in the kicker—get the money by mid-
night or the deal was off.9 Knowing that Donkey Kong would give the ColecoVision
the leverage it needed to compete against the Atari 2600 and the Mattel Intellivision,
Bromley made the deal.
It turned out to be a smart move. For 6 months, the only way you could play Donkey
Kong at home was to buy a ColecoVision. Coleco’s profits soared, especially after they
made versions for their rival systems—though not the Atari 5200, whose graphics rivaled
their own console. Programmer Garry Kitchen did a wonderful job on the conversion
and really showed off the power of the new console. Coleco also developed a line of
popular (and, now, very collectible) “table-top” games, which looked like miniature
arcade machines: Donkey Kong, Pac-Man, Galaxian, and Frogger. Nintendo would later
use Donkey Kong to help sell its own console, the Famicom. As with Pac-Man and Space
Invaders, there was no shortage of unauthorized clones, bootlegs, and rip-offs.
9 Hunter, William. “The ColecoVision—The Arcade In Your Home!” The Dot Eaters. January 2014. http://thedoteaters
Figure 9.5 Billy Mitchell was one of the stars of The King of Dong documentary in 1997.
(Photo courtesy of Florence Ivy.)
film has its critics, it does give us a peek into the fascinating subculture of modern
competitive arcade gaming.
After Donkey Kong, Miyamoto went on to create Popeye in 1982, and a trio of games
the following year: Donkey Kong Jr., Donkey Kong 3, and Mario Bros. While all of these
games were successful, none could save the American side of the industry from a terrific
“video game crash,” which we’ll talk more about in Chapter 14. They did, however, allow
Miyamoto to hone the skills he’d need to build his greatest masterpiece, Super Mario
Bros.
In 1994, a British studio named Rare developed Donkey Kong Country for the SNES,
with considerable input from Miyamoto. Even after a decade, Miyamoto was obsessing
over details and trying to find small but effective ways to squeeze more personality out
of his characters:
I ordered them to give Donkey Kong eyebrows, but because that was something that
was difficult to show in CG, I was pacified by making the area around his eyes black.
10 Caruso, Norman. “Universal vs. Nintendo Case.” The Gaming Historian. March 24, 2011. http://thegaminghistorian.com
And then, I had indicated that I wanted his hair to stand up straight more, but that
was also difficult, so we made it all one piece. In the end, I felt like the “dumb” feeling
wasn’t apparent enough, so I was the one to decide to give him a necktie.11
When Retro developed Donkey Kong Country Returns a decade later for the Wii,
Miyamoto was clear about his passion for the characters: “This is my baby,” Miyamoto
told them. “You’d better get it right.”12 Miyamoto’s paternal attitude toward the legacy of
one of his oldest games is touching, but it may also reveal why his games have remained
so endearing. Lesser designers worry about whether their games are cutting edge
enough, or whether they’ll appeal to the broadest possible demographic, or how they
can attract the attention of the mass media with over-the-top violence or sex.
Miyamoto is more concerned with the necktie on an ape.
11 Miyamoto, Shigeru, interview by Riko Kushida. Exclusive Interview with Donkey Kong Creator Shigeru Miyamoto (February
2000).
12 Parish, Jeremey. “Shigeru Miyamoto is Still Donkey Kong’s Papa.” US Gamer. June 14, 2013. http://www.usgamer.net
1 Fujihara, Mary. “Atari Sales Estimates for Other Manufacturers #2.” Atari Games. November 2, 1983. http://www
.atarigames.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=49:atari-sales-estimates-for-other-manufactures-2
(accessed May 20, 2015).
2 Defanti, Thomas A. “The Mass Impact of Videogame Technology.” Advances in Computers 23 (1984): 93–140.
71
72 Part II: The Early Adopters
Figure 10.1 The Japanese version of Pole Position. The billboards were changed for the
American version.
Figure 10.2 This cool Pole Position cabinet lets you sit inside and pretend to be in a real
race car. (Photo courtesy of the International Arcade Museum.)
map printed on a cylinder that rotated and moved side to side as the game progressed.
It was the player’s job to keep the car positioned above the road while avoiding any
obstacles. Primitive by today’s standards, these games still earned tidy profits for their
owners—even though players inserted pennies rather than quarters!
Auto Test, a driving simulation released in 1959, was, as the name implies, intended
more to help teach driving skills to students than entertain children. Nevertheless, it
3 Carter, Lance. History of Racing Games. June 13, 2007. https://historyofracinggames.wordpress.com/ (accessed May 20,
2015).
Chapter 10: Pole Position: Where the Raster Hits the Road 73
offered a nice innovation—the road was shown in a film projected onto a screen located
directly in front of the player. There were many such machines produced throughout the
1960s and 1970s. Perhaps the pinnacle of this genre is Namco’s F-1, a 1976 title imported
by Atari. The “deluxe” model offered a cabinet that resembled an actual race car and was
quite popular with gamers. Unfortunately for modern collectors and anyone who’d like
to try these machines, their fine, complex assemblies of moving parts weren’t built to
last. If you’d like to see one, watch carefully during the arcade scene in George Romero’s
zombie flick, Dawn of the Dead.
The first true racing video game in arcades was Atari’s Gran Trak 10 (1974). The cabi-
net featured a steering wheel, accelerator and brake pedals, and even a gear shift. The
graphics consisted of a fixed screen, with the player’s car shown from a top-down per-
spective. Since there were no other cars, the game was really only a race against time—
the challenge was staying within the pylons and avoiding oil slicks. Atari’s Indy 800
was a particularly ambitious 1975 game that allowed eight players simultaneously. The
players’ wheels surrounded a screen housed in a central pit. It was also the first video
game to use full color, boasting an enormous 25″ display. There were even mirrors that
let bystanders watch the race!
The Japanese got into the top-down racing craze in the mid-1970s as well. A great
example is Taito’s Speed Race, which made its way in 1974 to US arcades via Midway,
who rebranded it as Racer. Its claims to fame were vertical scrolling and great collision
detection. This model would prove quite influential. We can definitely see its influence
in Atari’s 1975 game Highway, the first racing video game to feature a sit-in cabinet like
the old electromechanicals.
In passing, I should mention Exidy’s infamous Death Race (1976), a top-down game
that aroused controversy for its gameplay, which consisted of running over people (later
called “gremlins”) to earn points. An otherwise forgettable game, Death Race somehow
managed to attract the attention of the mainstream media, who always seemed eager to
tarnish the neophyte industry. Phil Brooks, Exidy’s general manager, downplayed the
violence: “It’s like laughing at ourselves. None of us drive all that well. It’s poking fun at
our driving ability.”4 The National Safety Council was not amused, calling it “sick, sick,
sick” and calling for a ban on the game. Imagine what they would have thought of Grand
Theft Auto!
Atari used some of its leftover cabinets from Highway for Night Driver, released in 1976.
Night Driver was a hodgepodge of old and new technology. Superficially, it resembled the
older electromechanical games, which offered a scrolling road rather than a fixed view.
Atari’s game was black and white, and the car was merely a plastic overlay glued to the
bottom of the screen. The “night driving” aspect of the game was really just a justifica-
tion for its primitive graphics, which consisted of rectangular reflectors demarcating a
winding road. The challenge came from taking sharp turns at high speeds; there were no
other cars. Despite these limitations, the game deserves some respect for offering some
4 Blumenthal, Ralph. “‘Death Race’ Game Gains Favor, But Not With the Safety Council.” New York Times, December 28,
1976: 12.
74 Part II: The Early Adopters
Figure 10.3 The standard arcade cabinet for Pole Position. It was still fun, even if driving
while standing felt a little strange. (Photo courtesy of the International Arcade Museum.)
games it would license for manufacture in the United States. The company foolishly
chose Mappy, a cutesy jump and run game that received nowhere near the success of
Pole Position. Atari later licensed Pole Position for its own platforms as well as others (via
its Atarisoft label) (see Figure 10.3).
Namco and other video game developers wasted little time following up on the suc-
cess of Pole Position. Namco released Pole Position II the following year, which offered
two new racetracks and improved graphics. A flood of derivatives and clones followed for
arcade, computer, and console markets. One of the most innovative was Epyx’s Pitstop, a
1983 game for the Atari 8-bit, Coleco ColecoVision, and Commodore 64. The big innova-
tion here was the titular pit stops, where players took control of a pit crew to refuel their
Chapter 10: Pole Position: Where the Raster Hits the Road 75
racecar and change its tires. Another popular racing game of the era was Rick Koening’s
Racing Destruction Set (1985) for the Commodore 64 and Atari 8-bit line, which let players
design their own tracks and then race on them (alone or with a friend) using a selection
of modifiable vehicles.
1986 saw the release of Sega’s Out Run, an influential game with much in common
with Pole Position. However, here the player controls a Ferrari Testarossa convertible,
and the game seems to take itself much less seriously than its rivals. Players could
select among three different songs to listen to while driving and choose which route
to take through the course. One version of the cabinet introduced a hydraulic system
that became influential in later arcade racing games; it moved along with the car on the
screen, greatly heightening the feeling of immersion.
Yet another great innovation came in 1988 with Atari’s Hard Drivin’, which the com-
pany billed as “the world’s first authentic driving simulation game.” It offered a racing
environment composed entirely of three-dimensional polygons, a highly realistic gear
shift, and a steering wheel with “force feedback,” which made it bump and vibrate in a
manner that corresponded to the car’s situation in the game. The game’s most impres-
sive feature was its accurate simulation of actual driving; it boasted a fun stunt track as
well. It replaced the “above and behind” or chase-cam perspective of Pole Position and
Out Run with a first-person or “windshield” view.
As we saw with flight simulation games in Chapter 7, fans of racing games soon
diverged into two basic camps of casual and hardcore players. The former were less inter-
ested in accurate driving physics than they were in interesting themes or fun gameplay.
We certainly see this in Bally/Midway’s 1983 hit Spy Hunter, which combined a vertical-
scrolling racing game with elements from shoot’em ups. We can also find an alternative
to realism in Rare’s R.C. Pro-Am, a 1987 game that put players behind remote controls
instead of steering wheels. As with Spy Hunter before it, the gameplay was focused not
only on racing but also on collecting power-ups for battling one’s opponents. This trend
would continue in later games like Nintendo’s Super Mario Kart (1992), which inspired a
whole genre of cutesy “kart racers,” and in what we might call “crash simulators,” such
as Sega’s Crazy Taxi (1999), Reflection’s Destruction Derby (1995), and Angel Studios’
Midtown Madness (1999).
Meanwhile, the trend toward increasingly realistic driving games continued in 1989
with Papyrus’ Indianapolis 500: The Simulation, a game released for Apple Macintosh,
Commodore Amiga, and PCs. Like Hard Drivin’, it offered a first-person view and
focused on realistic physics and detailed graphics. What really set it apart was its “car
setup” options, which allowed players to make all sorts of adjustments to their vehicle,
such as gear ratios and tire pressure. It also offered a replay mode that let players study a
race from six different perspectives. Sega’s Virtua Racing (1992) took things a step further
by offering fully rendered cars as well as environments and the ability to switch perspec-
tives during the race. It was left behind a year later when Namco’s Ridge Racer roared
into arcades, once again raising the bar on realism.
As with flight simulation, the racing genre’s best days seem to be ahead of it rather
than behind. Modern fans have a number of superb games and franchises to choose
76 Part II: The Early Adopters
from, such as Forza Motorsport, Grid, Project Cars, and F1 2014 just to name a few. Some
racing games such as DiRT Rally and Live for Speed are already offering support for
Oculus Rift VR. Combined with one of the many steering wheel and pedal controller
rigs, these setups could add a downright uncanny feeling of being on the track.
But despite their beautiful graphics, accurate physics, tight controls, or even virtual
reality immersion, modern racers still owe a great debt to Toru Iwatani and his classic
Pole Position.
Pitfall!: Activision’s
Fearless Fortune Hunter
David Crane, the creator of Pitfall!, is another towering figure of the video game industry,
referred to by some as its Charles Schultz (see Figure 11.1). Like the famous and incred-
ibly prolific cartoonist, Crane works tirelessly at his craft every day of his life, with an
active career that reaches back over three decades. His influence extends well beyond
the impact of the many best-selling video games he personally conceived, designed,
and implemented. On October 1, 1979, Crane and a handful of former Atari employees
jumped ship to form the first ever third-party developer of cartridge software. It was a
move with awesome ramifications for the industry—today, almost all video games are
developed and published outside the auspices of the console manufacturers themselves.
Crane was raised in Nappanee, a small town on the northern border of Indiana, where
his father moved after serving as a skipper during World War II. To keep himself occupied,
the young Crane took apart radios and televisions, and experimented with chemistry—
even making his own gunpowder.1 For a high school science fair, Crane built an elaborate
Tic-Tac-Toe playing machine, but it burned up the night before.2 His mother, perhaps to
interest him in less dangerous hobbies, encouraged him to draw, paint, and play tennis.
The young Crane’s dream was to invent an airplane that would be powered entirely by
electricity. “I wanted to be the guy who solved the weight issue of an electric motor and its
batteries that had enough power to lift its own weight plus a payload,” said Crane. Shortly
thereafter, he discovered someone had beaten him to it—a toy manufacturer from Japan.
“That was something of an epiphany for me,” said Crane. “I realized that time and time
again the latest technology was finding a home in toys, games, and entertainment. And
why not? If we can’t make our time on earth more enjoyable, what good are we?”2
Nerdy well before nerdy was cool, Crane was a lifelong lover of math, science, and
tragically bad haircuts. He proudly admits to wearing a suit “precisely three times in my
adult life,” preferring his plaid button-ups, and clings to his Red Wing shoes until they
1 Amrich, Dan. “Interview: Pitfall! creator David Crane.” Activision Community. September 13, 2012. https://blog.activision
2 Thomasson, Michael. “Interview David Crane.” Good Deal Games. 2003. http://www.gooddealgames.com/interviews
77
78 Part II: The Early Adopters
Figure 11.1 David Crane, creator of Pitfall!, at Retro Gaming Expo 2011. (Photo courtesy
of Joe Grand.)
own. After graduating in 1975, he headed out to Silicon Valley to find an exciting job in
his chosen field. He found one at National Semiconductor, where he designed integrated
circuits.1 At first, he found the work fascinating but gradually lost interest over the next
2 years as his life settled into a dull routine.
At least he still had tennis. One day, as he was enjoying a few sets on a warm
Californian evening, he met a kindred spirit—Alan Miller.3 Miller had been tasked
with finding talented programmers to work on Atari’s new console. A few days later,
Miller asked for Crane’s help proofreading the want ad he intended to put in the
paper—perhaps a clever ploy to attract his first applicant. If so, it worked, because
Crane interviewed the next morning and got the job.
When Crane first joined Atari in the fall of 1977, it was still being run by its founder,
Nolan Bushnell. An engineer himself, Bushnell understood the eccentricities of those
attracted to that profession, respecting the intelligence and recognizing the skills his
employees brought to the table.
But after Bushnell departed, Ray Kassar took over, a buttoned-down business exec-
utive with little tolerance for “unprofessional” conduct. In Kassar’s eyes, Atari’s game
developers were no more integral to the process than the minimum-wage factory work-
ers assembling the cartridges, a fact he was quick to let them know when they asked for
better compensation.
The final straw was a memo Kassar sent out intended to frighten the less talented
developers into coding for their lives (or, at least their jobs). It showed that only four of
Atari’s designers were responsible for more than 60% of their sales—the others had bet-
ter step up their game, or else. However, Crane and the other three top developers noted
3 Covert, Colin. “Meet David Crane: Video Games Guru.” Hi-Res, January 1984: 46.
Chapter 11: Pitfall!: Activision’s Fearless Fortune Hunter 79
something on the memo. They were only being paid $30,000 a year, but their games
were making more than $100 million a year in profits for Atari. “That will get anyone
thinking about a piece of the pie,” said Crane.4 A few days later, Crane cleaned out his
cubicle, joining Miller, Jim Levy, Bob Whitehead, and Larry Kaplan on a bold, risky new
venture: Activision.
Before Activision, it was assumed that the company that manufactured a console
held exclusive rights to produce games for it. It was often compared to the razor busi-
ness; sell the razor for cheap or even at a loss, and make up for it with expensive, patented
replacement blades. Activision’s entry into the industry as a third-party, independent
game developer and publisher threatened to undermine this lucrative and efficient way
of doing business.
Naturally, Kassar and Atari weren’t going to sit idly by as their star talent set up their
own shop across town. In 1980, Atari sued them for patent and copyright infringement,
and even took out full-page ads intended to unite Atari fans against them.5 Atari strug-
gled mightily for years but never managed to shut them down. Activision, meanwhile,
happily published its games for Atari’s rival consoles, the Intellivision and ColecoVision,
as well as the home computers of the era.
Activision’s first four games hit the shelves in 1980 and made an immediate impres-
sion. They shipped in bright, colorful boxes that were quite distinctive, and for the first
time, the names of the developers were there for all to see. Crane and his fellow design-
ers at Activision had long resented the forced anonymity they’d had to endure at Atari.
They didn’t go as far as Trip Hawkins did at Electronic Arts, promoting designers as “rock
stars,” instead preferring to think of themselves as game “authors.”
Crane wrote two of the games in Activision’s initial offering—Fishing Derby and
Dragster (see Figure 11.2). The latter title was a clone of an arcade game called Drag Race
(1977), programmed and designed by Mike Albaugh for Kee Games, a secret Atari sub-
sidiary. Despite all of Activision’s rhetoric about designers getting proper credit for their
work, they made no mention of Albaugh for this game or Boxing, which was based on
Albaugh’s design for an unreleased arcade machine.6 In any case, adapting these coin-
operated games for the Atari 2600 was no mean feat. Anyone could have ideas for a box-
ing or racing game, but precious few had the programming chops to implement it on
such a humble device.
In the manual for Dragster, Crane is described as a designer who “specializes in
games that other designers consider impossible.” His reputation grew the next year,
with two hits called Freeway and Laser Blast. However, the game that’d really establish
his name came in 1982. It began as a simple animation of a running man he’d created
4 Donovan, Tristan. “The Replay Interviews: David Crane.” Gamasutra. January 3, 2015. http://www.gamasutra.com/view
/feature/134618/the_replay_interviews_david_crane.php (accessed May 29, 2015).
6 Albaugh, Mike, interview by Dag Spicer. Mike Albaugh Interview (November 12, 2010).
80 Part II: The Early Adopters
Figure 11.2 Dragster was one of Activision’s first titles. It was a clone of Mike Albaugh’s
Drag Race arcade game.
treasures to collect. And literally, in ten minutes I had the design document … It took one
thousand hours of programming.”7 The jungle theme was most obviously inspired by
Indiana Jones and the Raiders of the Lost Ark, which had arrived in theaters a year previ-
ously. However, Crane also credits a classic cartoon called Heckle and Jeckle, whose intro
shows the titular magpies hopping across a line of crocodiles just before their mouths
snap shut. Nintendo’s Donkey Kong had been out for nearly a year, but Crane had already
designed a significant chunk of Pitfall! before he saw it: “Like Freeway and Frogger, [they]
were developed simultaneously in Japan and California.”8
Designing the game was the easy part; the real challenge was realizing the design in
code. One of the greatest obstacles was dealing with the memory limitations of the 2600;
Crane says he had to “get down to saving individual bytes to make it fit.”7 He also worked
hard on the graphics, carefully selecting colors and bordering “on-screen color changes
with black pixels to reduce color bleed. We were our most demanding critics, and we
didn’t stop until the game was better looking than anything we had seen.”5
“The last hundred hours are spent on details you might never notice,” said Crane:
I made it easier for the guy to jump from a standing start. Originally you’d have to
hit the joystick and the fire button right at the same time. Now, if you don’t, the logic
takes care of it. Just thinking about it, coming up with the idea and deciding to do it
and getting it right took about a week. But it was a very important aspect of the game,
making it play right.3
The end result of this genius and hard work was a game that was simply amazing (see
Figure 11.3). It was the biggest selling game of 1982 and stayed at the number one posi-
tion on the Billboard charts longer than any other game.1 Electronic Games Magazine
7 Crane, David. “Pitfall: Classic Game Postmortem.” GDC Vault. 2011. http://www.gdcvault.com/play/1014632/Classic-Game
8 This quotation is from my Twitter dialog with Crane on June 6, 2015. View the Tweet at http://tinyurl.com/p3tspvh.
Chapter 11: Pitfall!: Activision’s Fearless Fortune Hunter 81
9 Katz, Arnie, ed. “Players’ Guide to Heroic Fantasy.” Electronic Games Magazine, June 1983: 47–58.
10 Buchanan, Levi. “Top 10 Best-Selling Atari 2600 Games.” IGN. August 26, 2008. http://www.ign.com/articles/2008/08/26
/top-10-best-selling-atari-2600-games (accessed June 1, 2015).
82 Part II: The Early Adopters
Figure 11.4 The famous crocodile sequence was inspired by a scene from the cartoon
Heckle and Jeckle.
including Kassar, lost their jobs. Arcade operators were bemoaning drops in revenue of
40%.11 Retailers were hit hard as well; sales had dropped by half (see Figure 11.4).
Hopes were high that Christmas sales would make everyone merry again. However,
prices on cartridges and consoles had been reduced to “bargain bin” levels. Crane
believed that, inadvertently, Activision was to blame for this dire situation. “We showed
that you don’t have to spend $100 million to produce a game console to make money in
video games,” said Crane.4 Activision’s amazing success had convinced 30 other com-
panies to try their luck. Quaker Oats alone put out 14 games, but all of them were flops.12
Even Purina put out a game: Chase the Chuck Wagon, based on their TV commercials.
According to Crane, a liquidator bought up all these terrible games and sold them in bar-
rels for $5 each during that holiday season. “When dad went in to buy junior the latest
Activision game for $40,” said Crane, “he saw that he could be a hero and get eight games
for the same money. Sales of new games went to near zero.”4 Activision, which had every
reason to expect a tremendous year, lost millions.
The most infamous disasters, though, were Atari’s. While it’s probably not fair to
blame the crash on their wretched Pac-Man and E.T.: The Extra Terrestrial cartridges,
they had definitely tarnished the company’s reputation and eroded consumer confi-
dence. Mattel’s Intellivision was the first high-profile casualty, and Coleco found itself
making far more off its Cabbage Patch dolls than ColecoVision. Atari racked up $536 mil-
lion in losses and was unceremoniously sold off by Warner.13 Christopher Kirby, an ana-
lyst for a New York investment firm, spoke for many when he declared that video games
were just another fad, not much different than the C.B. radio craze of the early 1970s.11
11 Kleinfield, N.R. “Video Games Industry Comes Down to Earth: COMPANY NEWS The Boom Is Over for Video Games.” New
12 Alexander, Charles P., Lisa Towle, and Richard Woodbury. “Video Games Go Crunch!” Time, October 17, 1983: 72.
13 Kent, Steve L. The Ultimate History of Video Games: From Pong to Pokémon and Beyond: The Story Behind the Craze that
Touched Our Lives and Changed the World. Rocklin, CA: Prima Pub., 2001: 240.
Chapter 11: Pitfall!: Activision’s Fearless Fortune Hunter 83
Kirby, however, wasn’t thinking of video games as a medium, but rather video games
as dedicated devices—consoles and arcade machines. It’s important to keep in mind
that during this time personal computers were competing directly with the console
manufacturers. For a little more than the price of a console, you could buy a cheap
but powerful computer such as the Commodore 64 or Atari 800. Most popular games,
including Activision’s, were available for these systems, so you wouldn’t be missing out
on the gaming action. In passing, it’s worth noting that Kitchen recreated Pitfall! to dem-
onstrate his GameMaker tool, the first all-in-one video game construction kit. Activision
published this award-winning product in 1985.
Crane and Kitchen left Activision in 1986 to found Absolute Entertainment. Absolute
published David Crane’s Amazing Tennis in 1992 for the Super Nintendo and Sega Genesis,
which was generally well received. However, his next game, A Boy and His Blob (1989)
was a bigger hit, and won “Best of Show” at the Consumer Electronics Show of 1989. After
Absolute shut down in 1995, Crane and Kitchen founded Skyworks Interactive, which
specialized in “advergames,” or games made to promote a product or company. Though
Crane mocked the Quaker Oats and Purina-branded games of yore, he was now doing it
himself, shamelessly churning out browser-based games to promote Nabisco, Wrigley,
and Kraft products.
In 1994, Activision made a game called Pitfall: The Mayan Adventure for a variety of
platforms, but Crane was not involved. While some reviewers were kinder than others,
it was clear to everyone that it was not the groundbreaking title that its predecessors
had been—and, at worst, a shameless attempt to exploit whatever nostalgic value the
“brand” still possessed. When Shane R. Monroe interviewed Crane in 2002, he asked
if he felt the game was “an abomination of your original creation,” expecting a spirited
response.14 Instead, Crane replied drily that it was “just a game,” and seemed baffled by
the idea that he might be protective or have any personal affection for Pitfall Harry.
Regardless of Crane’s indifference about his “little running man,” no one denies
the technological and cultural achievement he represented. Here was not an abstract
shape or spaceship, but a recognizable human figure. It was also a grand achievement
for the Atari 2600—Crane had indeed achieved what others had thought impossible.
Furthermore, the company he cofounded and wrote his best games for, Activision,
marked a decisive turning point for the games industry, creating a space for indepen-
dent game studios that persists to this day.
14 Monroe, Shane R. RetroGaming Radio: The Interviews. Amazon Digital Services, Inc., 2011.
84 Part II: The Early Adopters
Crane himself recommends playing it on a real Atari 2600. According to Crane, “The
original game ran at a full 60 frames per second, and none of the emulated versions work
at a fixed frame rate. The original Atari joystick was the best, and the game was tweaked
for that controller.”1 You can usually find a working system on eBay for $100 or less, and
loose Pitfall! cartridges run $5–$10.
Chapter 12
Flight Simulator:
The Sky’s the Limit
Flight. There are few dreams as universal to humanity as taking wing, soaring through
the air, free to explore our world in three glorious dimensions. Sadly, over a hundred
years after the Wright brothers’ first powered flights, most of us can still only experience
flight as passengers. Even if you’re willing to purchase or (more likely) rent an aircraft,
there’s still the considerable amount of training and courage you’ll need to earn your
license. In short, flying an airplane into the great blue yonder is still but a dream for the
average person.
Thanks to Bruce Artwick, however, we can experience the thrills of flight with our
feet firmly on the ground. In 1975, Artwick was an electrical engineering student at the
University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, where he built logic circuits and designed
graphic terminals for the Digital Computer Laboratory. He’d started off as a com-
puter engineer, but decided that “electrical engineer” sounded more marketable (see
Figure 12.1).
Artwick’s roommate, Stu Moment, was majoring in organizational administration
and organization psychology but also had a strong interest in math. However, his real
love was airplanes, and he’d saved his earnings as a busboy for two full years to earn his
pilot’s license.1 In 1973, he became an FAA (Federal Aviation Administration) Certified
Flight Instructor and is now best known for his fabulous stunt shows (and impersonat-
ing Elvis Presley). Serendipitously, he was able to talk his roommate into taking a flight
with him and later taught him to fly.
Part of Artwick’s training included professional flight simulators. In his thesis, Artwick
describes systems with “prefilmed movies and ‘flying’ television cameras,” as well as
“attempts” at computer-generated graphics.2 The Aviation Research Lab had a Raytheon
704 computer and a Singer Link GAT-2 simulator (see Figure 12.2). The GAT-2 was a for-
midable beast, resembling a hacked-off cockpit section of a twin-engine aircraft, which
moved and shifted to simulate the feeling of flight. While the instrument panel and con-
trols were realistic enough, there wasn’t a display. Artwick sought to remedy this problem,
1 Moment, Stu. Classic Airshows. n.d. http://www.classicairshows.com/ (accessed May 16, 2015).
2 Artwick, Bruce. A Versatile Computer-Generated Dynamic Flight Display. Urbana–Champaign: Aviation Research Laboratory,
1976: 1.
85
86 Part II: The Early Adopters
Figure 12.1 Bruce Artwick, creator of Flight Simulator, in 2010, shown here at the PLATO@50
event hosted by the Computer History Museum.
Figure 12.2 Commercial flight simulators like this one were much too expensive and imprac-
tical for consumers.
than home computers of the time. They were still, of course, far more expensive than the
“home” or “personal” computers of 1977 (the Apple II, TRS-80, and Commodore PET).
After graduating, Artwick moved to Culver City, California, where he’d landed a job
at Hughes Aircraft working on radar systems. After the “home computer” revolution of
1977, Artwick tinkered with the idea of adapting his mini-computer program for these
machines. After all, the Apple II was powered by MOS Technology’s 6502 microproces-
sor and designed by some of the same Motorola engineers who’d developed the 6800.
It was only a sixth of the price of the 6800, though Artwick noted that “a 6800 program
cannot run on a 6502 without major revision,” owing to the completely different set of
operation codes (or “opcodes”).3
3 Artwick, Bruce. Microcomputer Interfacing. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1980: 59.
Chapter 12: Flight Simulator: The Sky’s the Limit 87
An oft-repeated claim (that I’ve sadly been unable to confirm) is that around this
time Artwick began writing some editorials for a magazine covering the nascent home
computer industry. Some accounts say that these articles were only about a hypothetical
three-dimensional (3D) graphics program; others suggest that he was already talking
about flight simulation. An editor informed Artwick that readers were writing in asking
where they could buy this program, inspiring him to get serious about his plans to found
and incorporate his own software company.
A story from Personal Computing tells another story.4 Artwick was at his home
in Culver City when he heard a tremendous clamor outside. Rushing out to investi-
gate, he found the smoldering debris of an airplane floating in his swimming pool!
Understandably frightened by this event, Artwick decided to move back to Champaign,
Illinois, and try his hand at running his own business.
In any case, Artwick teamed up with Moment to found subLOGIC, whose first
products were 3D graphics programs, one written in BASIC and the other with 6800
assembly. Artwick outlined in the manual why such programs were so challenging to
develop:
Fortunately for us, Artwick himself was one of this rare breed—and better yet, also had
his own, as well as his partner Moment’s, extensive knowledge of flying at his disposal.
The pair was ready to put all these skills to use with a full-fledged flight simulator for the
Apple II.
Artwick might have been inspired by a PLATO game called Air Fight, a flight simu-
lator using the platform’s vector graphics (see Figure 12.3). Air Fight was programmed
by Brad Fortner in 1976, and it’s a sophisticated 3D simulation. As the title implies, it’s
focused on combat, and could host up to 30 other pilots. Of course, this game ran on a
far more powerful computer than the Apple II. When his colleagues suggested that he
make a version for home computers, Fortner said, “It is flat out impossible to do a flight
simulator on an Apple II. It can’t be done. It doesn’t have a floating point processor; it is
impossible.”6
Artwick, obviously, disagreed, and felt that the home computers’ crude displays
(compared to PLATO’s) would lessen the need for such intense calculation. In 1979,
4 Nelson, Robin. “Rough Air.” Personal Computing, July 27, 1990: 43.
5 Artwick, Bruce. Three Dimensional Microcomputer Graphics. Culver City, CA: SubLOGIC Company, 1977: 1.
6 Computer History Museum. “PLATO—An Early Community of Multiplayer Games.” YouTube. June 22, 2010. https://www
At any time during a flight, the player could press the “w” key to declare war, which
would immediately send five enemy planes into the air. It was then up to the player to
engage the opposing planes and drop a bomb on their fuel depot before being shot down. It
7 Baker, Roxton. “subLOGIC FS 1 for the TRS-80 (1980).” The Old Flight Simulator Vault. 1980. http://fshistory.simflight.com
8 Grupping, Jos. “The Story of Flight Simulator.” Flight Simulator History. March 4, 2005. http://fshistory.simflight.com/fsh
Microsoft’s long-running Flight Simulator series nosedived in 2009, when the com-
pany discontinued it after poor sales. Its Microsoft Flight game in 2012 failed to take off,
too. However, an English company called Dovetail Games has now acquired the rights
to make new entries in the series and released an updated edition of Microsoft Flight
Simulator X for Steam in 2014 to rave reviews from long-term fans as well as newcomers
to the series.
The future of flight simulators looks bright at the moment, especially if we con-
sider the impact that Oculus Rift Virtual Reality Headset might make in 2016. There are
already four flight or space simulators out that take advantage of it, including DCS World,
Ambient Flight, War Thunder, and Elite Dangerous. Third parties have begun developing
hardware that complements the visual experience of Oculus Rift with “full body simula-
tors” that move you around as you play, such as Somniacs’ Birdly that lets you flap your
arms like a bird. Artwick mentioned in a 2010 interview that he’d like to get back into
the business by designing full-enclosure cabinets that would tilt and move along with
the action—in short, a virtual successor of the mechanical simulators that inspired him
back in the 1970s.
When I was a kid growing up in the 1980s, I was constantly assured that by the year
2000 (which sounded so far away at the time!), we’d all be flying our own jets, helicop-
ters, or at least a hoverboard. Sadly, it’s 2015, and obviously that’s not happened. Still,
thanks to Artwick and his vision for a PC-based flight simulator program, I can take to
the skies whenever I feel like it—no pilot’s license required.
1 I highly recommend Anthony and Nicola Caulfield’s documentary film, From Bedrooms to Billions, for a fascinating and
in-depth look at the UK side of the early games industry.
93
94 Part II: The Early Adopters
2 Daleske, John. “How Empire Came To Be.” Plato Empire. 2008. http://www.daleske.com/plato/empire.php (accessed June
10, 2015).
Bowery, Jim. “Spasim (1974) The First First-Person-Shooter 3D Multiplayer Networked Game.” Geocities (Wayback
3
Among the earliest examples of space sims for home computers are Edu-Ware’s Space
(1978) and Empire (1981) for the Apple II, as well as Omniverse’s Universe series (which
launched in 1984 for a variety of home computers). All of these games offered many of the
tropes seen in Elite. There are the same economic imperatives to sell cargo between and
among countless planets, purchase upgrades for your ship, and the chance to battle as
or against space-faring pirates. One recurring theme across this genre is the “sandbox”
or “open world” style of gameplay. There is no right way to play these games, and plots (if
they exist at all) have little bearing. Indeed, even in Elite, the missions were quite liter-
ally an afterthought. To create the illusion of a huge or even endless universe, planets
are spawned and randomly assigned names or other attributes to planets or systems.
Daunting manuals and interfaces are another hallmark of the genre; Universe’s 93-page
manual came in a three-ring binder! Elite’s manual was a relatively modest 64 pages.
I’ve found no evidence that Elite’s creators were familiar with any of these games.
They did, however, play Traveller and Space Opera, tabletop role-playing games with
science fiction themes and several of the same tropes—indeed, the default character is
named Jameson, the same as the sample character in Traveller. Regardless, the authors
maintained that the game was “as original as any computer can be.”4 To be fair, these
tabletop games owe much of their inspiration to “hard science fiction” novels, partic-
ularly those of Larry Niven, Poul Anderson, H. Beam Piper, and Jerry Pournelle. The
authors working in this subgenre try their best to stay within the realm of plausible sci-
ence, which for obvious reasons strongly appealed to computer nerds. In short, the ideas
were out there, and it was really just a question of who could best implement them into
a solid game design.
A more obvious inspiration for Elite was flight simulators, which, as we saw in the
previous chapter, were quite advanced by 1984. Developers had been quick to adapt the
traditional flight sim for space flight, including Activision’s Space Shuttle: A Journey into
Space (1982) and Edu-Ware’s Rendezvous: A Space Shuttle Simulation (1982).
A more prescient predecessor is Doug Neubauer’s Star Raiders game for the Atari
home computer, published in 1979 (see Figure 13.3). Like Elite, this innovative game fea-
tured real-time 3D space battles, hyperspace jumps, and galactic charts for navigation.
However, when asked if it inspired Elite, Braben replied, “It didn’t. I know that’s surpris-
ing, but the problem is I didn’t have an Atari and none of my friends did. I didn’t know
anyone who had an Atari.”5
The story of Elite’s development begins on Christmas morning, 1981, when 17-year-
old Braben unwrapped a shiny new Acorn Atom and fell in love with programming.6
4 Croft, Martin. “An Elite Crew.” Micro Adventurer, January 1985: 15.
5 Helion, Marcel. “The Elites: David Braben Talks Elite: Dangerous and Space Sims.” The Escapist. February 13, 2015. http://
www.escapistmagazine.com/articles/view/video-games/columns/gamedesign/12976-David-Braben-Discusses-Elite
-Dangerous-and-Space-Sims (accessed June 11, 2015).
6 Robinson, Martin. “The Resurrection of Elite: Braben Talks Dangerous.” Eurogamer. July 3, 2014. http://www.eurogamer
.net/articles/2014-03-07-if-elite-were-on-console-there-would-be-an-expectation-the-game-would-be-dumbed-down
(accessed June 10, 2014).
96 Part II: The Early Adopters
Figure 13.3 Star Raiders running on the Atari 800 Win emulator. Doug Neubauer’s 1978
space combat game was far ahead of its time.
love of programming computer games. While their personalities were quite differ-
ent, they found that they worked well together, and set out to make a 3D space game.
According to Bell, setting the game in space “was the easiest, because space didn’t have
anything in it. With a flight sim you’ve got the ground, but space is beautiful because
it’s a sparse environment.”7 It was enough to add pirates for space dogfighting, and they
worked out the aforementioned docking sequence that is one of the game’s most memo-
rable moments. However, both felt the game was still lacking something.
According to Braben, the next idea came from playing games like Space Invaders,
which typically awarded you an extra ship if you reached 10,000 points. He wondered—
why an extra ship? What if I wanted more bullets instead? Why shouldn’t I have a choice
of how to spend my points? These thoughts eventually led him to the upgrade system
of Elite, in which players start off with a barebones vessel and have to save up money to
gradually upgrade its components.8 One way to make money was by shooting the pirates
and collecting bounties, but again they felt they needed more. The solution this time was
a full-fledged interstellar economy and the ability to trade from planet to planet. Since
it would likely take weeks, if not months, to work your way up to the best possible ship
(and highest ranking—the vaunted “Elite”)—they decided to let players save the game
whenever they wanted.
Braben and Bell feared that their game was too complex for the arcade-loving crowd,
who were used to short bursts of instant gratification and would never dream of read-
ing a manual. They were right to be worried—the first publisher they approached with
a demo of the combat and docking sequence, Thorn EMI, rejected it precisely on those
grounds. They had more luck with Acornsoft, the software branch of Acorn Computers,
7 Spufford, Francis. “Masters of Their Universe.” The Guardian. October 18, 2003. http://www.theguardian.com/books/2003
8 From Bedrooms to Billions. Directed by Anthony Caulfield and Nicola Caulfield. 2014.
Chapter 13: Elite: The Stellar Sandbox 97
manufacturers of the Electron, Atom, and BBC Micro, who agreed to take on the project.
Bell and Braben would write the game for their BBC Micro, model B first, and follow it up
with a stripped-down version for the lesser-powered Electron.
All in all, it’d take the pair two full years and plenty of long nights to complete the
game.9 Their first major stumbling block was memory—even a humble 10 solar systems
with hardcoded names and other variables would overwhelm the 22K of RAM they had
to work with. “Then we had a Eureka! moment,” said Braben in a 2011 GDC postmor-
tem.10 The solution was to use long number sequences that appeared to be random but
were actually based on a generalized Fibonacci sequence.11 This breakthrough allowed
them to quickly generate names, locations, and other variables for each planet and sys-
tem using only 6K of memory. Braben was fascinated by the fact that, even though they
were fully aware of all the mathematics behind the procedure, it was still wondrous to
explore the galaxies it generated. The system always managed to surprise them—such
as when they stumbled upon a planet named “Arse” and realized they’d have to work
out a scheme for eliminating naughty names! Some sources you’ll find online claim that
Elite was the first game to use procedural generation techniques; this is, of course, false
(see Chapter 6, Rogue: Procedural Generation). Still, the massive degree to which Elite
was able to leverage these techniques to create whole galaxies was unprecedented (see
Figure 13.4).
To round out the Elite package, the publisher furnished a large box (most UK games at
the time shipped in bags), stickers, a novella by Robert Holdstock, and the all-important
manual (see Figure 13.5). According to Chris Jordan of Acornsoft, the game sold more
than 100,000 copies between 1984 and 1989 for the BBC Micro, and 35,294 for the Acorn
Electron.12 Bell and Braben had reserved the rights to any ports of their game to other
platforms and were now in a position to command top dollar for these rights, which they
auctioned to the highest bidders. For their trouble, they received what Braben believed
to be the first-ever six-figure advance for a game.10 The wild success of the game ensured
Braben and Bell a prominent role in the gaming press of the United Kingdom, who
tended to be much more focused on the lives and personalities of game developers than
their US counterparts. Ralph Bancroft of Personal Computer News called it the “most
addictive game I have ever come across, and the first that truly could claim the title of
‘mega game.’”13 They even made the evening television news!
9 Braben, David. “Elite Frequently Asked Questions.” Frontier Developments (Wayback Machine). 1999. http://www.frontier
10 Braben, David. “Classic Game Postmortem—ELITE.” GDC Vault. 2011. http://www.gdcvault.com/play/1014628/Classic
Scholten, Wouter. “Elite: Claims about numbers sold etc.” Wouter’s BBC Micro Software, Scans, Pictures, Etc. February 12,
12
13 Bancroft, Ralph. “Gameplay.” Personal Computer News, October 6, 1984: 47.
98 Part II: The Early Adopters
Figure 13.4 A shot of the BBC Micro’s version of Elite. Shown here is the famous docking
sequence. Expect to crash many times before getting it right.
Figure 13.5 Firebird’s dramatic box art. To thwart pirates, the game shipped with a plastic
“Lenslock” device, an annoyance that was remedied in future versions. When my dad and
I went to buy our copy, only one was left. Upon closer inspection, we discovered that some-
one had managed to get that box open in the store and swipe the Lenslock!
Chapter 13: Elite: The Stellar Sandbox 99
player began with the offensive “poor” rank, moving up through several stages from “com-
petent” to “dangerous,” and finally joining the vaunted “elite,” the most fearsome pilots in
space. There were also three reputation ranks: clean, offender, and fugitive. Players who
consistently broke the law were hunted by the “galcops,” who flew about in packs of vicious
Viper-class ships. Pirates weren’t the only threats lurking out in space—the insectoid
Thargoid race was at war with humanity and its allies, and only the best pilots could hope to
survive an encounter with their invasion ships.
The game consisted of two basic interfaces: a mostly text-driven menu interface for
trading and upgrading, and a first-person, simulator-style view for spaceflight and com-
bat. An intriguing sensor system at the bottom showed other ships and objects in three
dimensions. Objects that were above or below the character were represented by dots con-
nected to lines resembling narrow towers. Other aspects of the interface resembled a con-
ventional flight simulator, but Elite adhered to realistic physics. For instance, the player
could roll the ship clockwise or counterclockwise but could only turn by aiming in a direc-
tion and firing the engines. It took practice and patience to learn to maneuver the ship,
and even more to maneuver it well enough to survive combat. Experts could even make
special maneuvers on the basis of the gravitational force of planets or bodies. The game
made high demands on players and had a low tolerance for incompetence. While this level
of difficulty turned away some, others savored the challenge.
After Elite, Braben and Bell found that they had different priorities. Braben wanted
to focus on making the physics and astronomy more realistic, but Bell thought this was
a mistake. After Braben founded his own company, Frontier Developments, their friend-
ship deteriorated into a bitter feud over royalties. Braben’s company developed two offi-
cial sequels to Elite—Frontier: Elite II (1993) and Frontier: First Encounters (1995).
Elite’s intoxicating mix of trading and space dogfighting is seen in plenty of other
games, most notably Origin’s Wing Commander: Privateer (1993), Egosoft’s X series
(1999), Digital Anvil’s Freelancer (2003), and Eve Online (2003). More recently, Chris
Roberts’ Star Citizen (expected 2016) raised more than $2 million in its much-publicized
Kickstarter campaign. This massive, juggernaut of a project promises a full single-player
campaign as well as a massive multiplayer component.
Braben himself went to Kickstarter in 2012, successfully raising 1.5 million pounds
to fund a project called Elite: Dangerous. The game was launched on December 16, 2014,
and has already sold half a million copies and generated more than 22 million in sales.14
Reviewers of the game have been mostly positive, though some complained about
“moments of emptiness, frustration, and boredom.”15 The bulk of the negative comments
focused on the lack of narrative and long periods of inaction; some players need to feel
that their actions have some meaning beyond the simple pursuit of wealth, status, and
exploration.
14 Cambridge News. “Frontier’s Elite Dangerous Earnings Boost Cambridge Index.” Cambridge News. April 28, 2015. http://www
15 Thursten, Chris. “Elite Dangerous.” PC Gamer. December 22, 2014. http://www.pcgamer.com/elite-dangerous
I’m reminded of the unsettling conclusion of Holdstock’s novella, Elite: The Dark
Wheel, which seems to have as much relevance for Elite: Dangerous as it did for the origi-
nal game:
Elite was not an easy game, nor was it always an exciting one. Like most games worth
playing, it was worthless to many. But it was a game that pushed you out of your nest, and
if you fell, you fell.
But if you flew, you soared.
1 Kohler, Chris. “Trailblazing DIY Pinball Game Snags Pioneer Award for Bill Budge.” Wired. January 21, 2011. http://www
101
102 Part II: The Early Adopters
Figure 14.1 Bill Budge, legendary Apple II programmer and creator of Pinball Construction
Set. (Photo courtesy of Jason Scott.)
Figure 14.2 Budge’s Raster Blaster pinball game was the best in its class for many years.
“No matter what I tried, the ball would sometimes stick to a wall and freeze or slide right
through.” His solution was both unorthodox and stunningly brilliant:
I made a scan-line table; for each scan line on the screen I entered a list of wall loca-
tions, together with the slope of the wall at that point. To collision detect the ball
with the game board, I used the ball y-coordinate to index into the table and the
x-coordinate to check against all the walls at that y.5
To sell the game, Budge had teamed up with his more business-oriented sister, Ellen
Beritzhoff, to form BudgeCo. Beritzhoff soon found herself submerged under a torrent of
4 Tommervik, Margot Comstock. “The Most Popular Program of 1981: Raster Blaster.” Softalk, August 1982: 163–167.
Hague, James. “Bill Budge.” Halcyon Days. March 1997. http://www.dadgum.com/halcyon/BOOK/BUDGE.HTM (accessed
5
tens of thousands of orders. When asked how she planned to follow up such an outstand-
ing debut, she replied, “Well, I guess Bill will have to program another one.”4
Budge, meanwhile, was “sick” of video games and was again working on software for
the Apple Lisa, another ambitious Apple computer. The Lisa flopped in the marketplace
despite its awesome innovation—it was the first home computer with a Graphical User
Interface (GUI), complete with windows, icon, and a mouse-driven cursor. One of the
programs Budge saw demonstrated was a simple painting program that let users draw
pixels onto the screen.
Budge began to wonder if this concept could be expanded, allowing users to cre-
ate and manipulate shapes. Then, he thought about how much easier—and more fun
it would have been for him to create tables for Raster Blaster if he’d had access to such
a tool. It dawned on him that others, particularly those with less programming skills,
might enjoy this process even more. What began to take shape in his brain was a design
for a program that, while technically not really a “game” at all, might turn out to just as
much fun.
“You can’t ask people what they want to see on a computer,” said Budge in a 1984
episode of Computer Chronicles. “[Designers] have to write a program that they want to
write, and that they want to use. When I started writing [PCS], it was something I really
wanted to do—I really wanted to see it work.”6 This time, Budge had taken on an even
greater challenge than he’d faced with Raster Blaster. Yet again, he’d struggle with colli-
sion detection, graphics, and physics, but would also have to work out a system for shar-
ing files and editing artwork and sounds. He’d also be attempting to adapt some key
functionality from the Lisa’s GUI to the much humbler Apple II—which didn’t yet sup-
port the mouse. It was a difficult, intimidating, and probably seriously misguided proj-
ect that a publisher would have likely rejected out of hand. It’s a good thing that Budge’s
sister was too busy stuffing Raster Blaster inserts into Ziploc bags to question him—and,
besides, he had that look in his eyes again!
It took him several months, but at last Pinball Construction Set was ready for ship-
ment. The pitch was simple, straightforward, and electrifying:
The Pinball Construction Set contains the pieces and tools to make millions of hi-res
video pinball games. No programming or typing is necessary. Just take parts from
the set and put them on the game board. Press a button to play! Use the video tools
to make borders and obstacles. Add game logic and scoring rules with the wiring
kit. Create hi-res designs and logos using the BudgeCo magnifier. Color your designs
with the paint brush.
The fact that Budge’s own Raster Blaster could be recreated and even surpassed with PCS
was enticing to anyone who’d ever dreamed of making a virtual pinball game. Exciting
6 Budge, Bill, interview by Stewart Cheifet and Gary Kildall. “Computer Games.” Computer Chronicles. PBS. September 28,
1984.
104 Part II: The Early Adopters
Figure 14.3 Pinball Construction Set’s drag’n drop interface seems uncannily modern. Just
click and drag the components you want onto the highly configurable table. Genius!
Power. Pure, sheer and unadulterated. A nearly telepathic link between you and the
machine. Here is the promise made good. Here is the reason you bought a computer
in the first place. It’s been called the best program ever written for an 8-bit machine.
Boot the disk and find out why.
Budge, though, was a humble man, hardly one to brag or boast about his accomplishments.
About to give a talk at an industry event, Budge was overcome with stage fright when he
noticed Bill Atkins, creator of MacPaint, sitting in the front row. “I was so nervous,” said
Budge. “Atkinson is four or six times better a programmer than I am.”7
Hawkins’ goal, however, was not just to sell games, but to sell the medium, and Budge
tried his best to play along. Hawkins put together a typically splashy, unreserved adver-
tising campaign focused on the question “Can a computer make you cry?” and the claim
that “We see farther.” It’s telling that even in the midst of such hyperbolic ad copy, Budge
is quoted asking “Software artists? I’m not so sure there are any software artists yet.
We’ve got to earn that title.”
Budge later recounted a story of anxiously showing up to sign autographs at an elec-
tronics store in Boston. The manager promptly explained that his job would be to ring
Figure 14.4 EA developed some stylish, if slightly creepy, cover art for the game’s “rock
album” style packaging.
Budge, “and a program comes along that tells them they can build video games—well, it
doesn’t register at first.”6 PCS wasn’t really a “game” at all, but rather one of the very first
software toys or “construction sets,” programs that have more in common with Lego
blocks or model train building than pinball or Pac-Man. A good construction set not
only has to empower users to achieve their creative visions but also has to simplify that
process, which of course entails heavily constraining one’s options. The key is abstract-
ing out just those parts of making a pinball simulation that would be fun for the average
person.
To that end, PCS’s interface is consolidated to a single screen, split down the middle.
Creating a board is a simple matter of dragging components from the right, such as bum-
pers, flippers, and alleys, onto the canvas or board on the left. At any time, you can play
a quick game on your board, a critical feature for both experimentation and working out
the kinks in a design. More advanced users can even tinker with the logic or physics of
the game, such as adjusting scoring methods or even gravity. While some users liked to
“keep it real,” so to speak, you could just as easily create wild and crazy boards that could
never function in reality.
PCS touched off a flurry of other construction sets, including Will Harvey’s Music
Construction Set (1984), Rich Koening’s Racing Destruction Set (1985), and Stuart Smith’s
Adventure Construction Set (1985). Music Construction Set was intended more for education
than entertainment, but was still popular. As a music composition notation program, it let
users drag and drop notes right onto the staff, play back their creations, and print them out.
Racing Destruction Set was a split-screen, isometric-perspective racing game that could
be played in either racing or destruction modes, the latter allowing for offensive weap-
ons like oil slicks and landmines. Vehicles included a variety of cars, including a jeep and
106 Part II: The Early Adopters
Figure 14.5 Budge’s next pinball construction set game, Virtual Pinball, didn’t appeal to
Genesis fans.
Meanwhile, Budge spent the next 5 years trying to outdo them all with what he
called a “Construction Set Construction Set,” whose goal was to let novices make any
kind of game they liked. Unfortunately, this project proved too ambitious even for the
likes of Budge, who finally had to give up in frustration. Arguably, Activision accom-
plished this goal with Garry Kitchen’s GameMaker in 1985. This product was most pop-
ular on the Commodore 64, where it was used to create more than 100 games.8
After a long hiatus, Budge returned in 1993 with Virtual Pinball for the Sega Genesis
(see Figure 14.5). The challenge of designing a pinball construction set for a device with
no keyboard, disk, or mouse appealed to Budge, but the console crowd seemed resistant
to the concept.
In any case, it’s not hard to see the influence of Budge’s “construction set” concept
in later titles. Sensible Software’s Shoot’em-Up Construction Kit (1987) was a hit among
SHMUP fans, who created enough quality games with the software to warrant its own
category: SEUCK games, which are still being made with it today. In 1991, fans of The
Bard’s Tale series could create similar adventures with The Bard’s Tale Construction Set,
and SSI’s Forgotten Realms: Unlimited Adventures did the same for its “gold box” engine
a few years later. Of course, in modern titles, “user-generated content,” as it came to
be known, is greatly aided by powerful tools such as Bethesda’s Skyrim Creation Kit or
Obsidian Entertainment’s Electron Toolset for Neverwinter Nights 2. Often enough, these
fan-made productions can rival or even surpass the popularity of the original game. Of
course, creativity is at the heart of both LittleBigPlanet (2008) and Minecraft (2009), two
of the most successful games in recent memory.
In 2011, Budge became the second recipient of the Pioneer Award from the Academy
of Interactive Arts & Sciences, who recognized him for “revolutionizing game design
and user interfaces.” Will Wright was on hand to acknowledge his debt to the hon-
oree: “Pinball Construction Set was the first game that introduced me to the idea of
constructive games and systemic thinking. I doubt SimCity would have existed without
it.”9 Budge accepted his award and signed autographs with his customary humility, and
this time no one said anything about his t-shirt or sneakers.
9 Chen, Debby. Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences Names Bill Budge as its Second Pioneer Award Recipient.
King’s Quest:
From Peanuts to Palaces
By 1984, the “home computer” industry had evolved far beyond the humble Apple II,
TRS-80, and Commodore PET. Newer machines, such as the Apple IIe, Tandy Color
Computer, and Commodore 64, offered substantially enhanced graphics capabilities
and computing power for games over their predecessors. Therefore, it was a bit shocking
when IBM, the world’s largest and best-respected computer maker, finally entered the
fray in 1981; its IBM PC had no sound beyond a puny built-in PC speaker or “buzzer,” and
graphics were limited to four-color CGA at 320 × 200 resolution (and many owners were
quite satisfied with MDA, or monochrome graphics!). In any case, the IBM PC’s high
price (a barebones model ran $1565) sharply limited its appeal purely as a gaming plat-
form. Though the IBM PC was a hit among business professionals, it posed little threat to
the burgeoning commercial gaming market.
To address the situation, in November of 1983, IBM announced the PCjr, a lower-
cost, more gamer-friendly home computer. Nicknamed “Peanut” by IBM’s engineers,
the PCjr could display 16 colors, output up to three channels of mono sound, and
had two built-in joystick ports and two cartridge slots for instantly loading games. It
was also roughly half the price of an IBM PC. Not everyone was impressed with the
new kid on the block—in many ways the Commodore 64 was a much better value.
However, IBM’s name and deep pockets caught the eye of Sierra On-Line’s president,
Ken Williams. “What other machine would one develop software for?” he asked his
audience at the 1983 Consumer Electronics Show.1 Williams arranged a deal with
IBM to publish their new game King’s Quest exclusively for the new platform (see
Figure 15.1).
Designed by Williams’ wife, Roberta Williams, King’s Quest: Quest for the Crown defi-
nitely had the potential to be the PCjr’s killer app (see Figure 15.2). It single-handedly
established many of the features we take for granted in modern adventure games, such
as brightly colored animated graphics, a navigable three-dimensional (3D) environ-
ment, sight-based puzzles, and the quirky, irreverent humor so typical of the genre. It
put the PCjr’s enhanced audiovisual hardware to good use. IBM made it a central part of
its marketing campaign for the platform, as we see in the following “review” (actually an
1 Wierzbicki, Barbara. “Developers Embrace PCjr Despite Drawbacks.” InfoWorld, December 19, 1983: 51–52.
109
110 Part II: The Early Adopters
Figure 15.1 King’s Quest was the first of many best-selling graphical adventure games by
Roberta Williams.
Figure 15.2 Ken and Roberta Williams launched an empire with their hit series of graphical
adventure games. It all started with King’s Quest.
to rerelease the game for other platforms the following year, including the Tandy 1000,
a much more successful IBM PC-compatible computer inspired by the PCjr. Sales of
the game soared as scores of gamers flooded into software shops, eager to see the game
that all their friends were talking about.
3 IBM. “Read Only: A Review of the IBM Personal Computer Family, Vol. 1, No. 2.” InfoWorld, December 10, 1984: 37–40.
Chapter 15: King’s Quest: From Peanuts to Palaces 111
Figure 15.3 King’s Quest’s iconic opening screen. Be careful not to fall in the moat!
began studying programming. After learning to code, he did contract work for a wide
variety of companies.
After playing Colossal Cave Adventure (see Chapter 3) with Roberta one night in the
late 1970s, the two concocted a plan to make a similar game but with graphics for the
Apple II. As Roberta worked up some simple line illustrations and a story, Ken devel-
oped the engine. The result was the first-ever graphical adventure game, Mystery House,
which turned out to be the right product at the right time. Though almost laughably
crude-looking today, the game took the Apple II community by storm and provided the
capital the Williams needed to fulfill their dream of moving out of the city and running
their own business. By the time rumors began circulating about the IBM PCjr, the two
had earned a solid reputation for innovative graphical adventures, including The Wizard
and the Princess, the first such game with color graphics, and Time Zone, a huge game
with more than 1400 rooms. The Williams saw in the IBM PCjr a chance to up the ante
yet again.
Their goal was to make a game that would not only look better than the competition but
offer a much freer range of movement. Although Roberta maintains in several interviews
that she prioritizes plots and characters over audiovisuals, King’s Quest was a technologi-
cal marvel, requiring six programmers and artists $700,000 and 18 months to complete.4
The result was stunning (see Figure 15.3). Not only were the 16-color animated graphics
superior to her earlier works, but this time the player controlled a character that could
move in three dimensions, all in real time! King’s Quest isn’t true 3D—the character does
not shrink or expand as he moves up and down but can walk behind or in front of objects
on the screen—but it was still spectacular for its time. Trivette of Compute! Magazine’s
response was typical: “The graphics and animation in the PCjr version of King’s Quest are
spectacularly better than in any other adventure game I’ve seen. The three-dimensional
quality makes it seem like Sir Grahame is moving through an animated cartoon.”4
Simplicity was an important goal while designing the interface, but no one was
thinking of doing away with the text parser quite yet. While the character (Graham) is
controlled by the arrow keys, players still had to type in commands and read plenty of
textual descriptions. The parser wasn’t nearly as sophisticated as Infocom’s, and the
low resolution of the graphics made some objects hard to identify; what looked like a
stone might actually be a walnut. Typing “TAKE STONE” would simply result in an error
message; only “TAKE WALNUT” would work. While savvy players could find ways to
deal with these problems (such as typing “LOOK AT GROUND” to learn the name of the
object), others relied on hint books or advice from friends.
Even putting these interface issues aside, the game was still quite difficult. Graham
was easily and frequently killed in the adventure, so frequent saves were necessary to
prevent tedious repetition. Getting the game into an unwinnable state was a more insid-
ious problem; you might play for days only to realize that something you did (or failed to
do) early on has now made the game impossible to complete.
Roberta earned a reputation during these years for creating hard puzzles with
obscure or even misleading clues. One such puzzle involves a condor. The idea is to
stand in a certain spot on the screen (walkthroughs have gone so far as to offer close-
up screenshots to help) and enter “JUMP” into the parser at just the right moment. The
precise timing and placement, combined with the somewhat obscure command to jump
(why not catch or grab?), stumped many gamers.
The most infamous puzzle is based on the old fairy tale about Rumpelstiltskin, but
with a twist. When players were asked to name the gnome, they might not have real-
ized that an earlier clue to “think backward” meant they had to transcribe the name
Rumpelstiltskin using a backward alphabet, yielding “IFNKOVHGROGHPRM.” Roberta
acknowledged that she “received a LOT of letters about the old gnome’s name. In retro-
spect, it was an awfully nasty puzzle,” but points out that “it was a typical ‘advanced’ puz-
zle in those days.”5 A later sequence involves climbing a beanstalk, from which Graham
will fall to his death at even the slightest deviation from the pre-established (and dif-
ficult to find) path. Even seasoned veterans were forced to save and restore countless
times to get to the top of the beanstalk, a frustrating experience to say the least.
Later, Sierra adventure games (and those from LucasArts) were much more forgiv-
ing than King’s Quest; players were encouraged to explore without fear of dying or mak-
ing the game impossible to beat. Some fans of the older style disliked these changes,
claiming that gamers simply weren’t patient or intelligent enough to meet the challenge.
Sharply disagreeing with this opinion is Ron Gilbert, designer of LucasArts’ breakaway
hit The Secret of Monkey Island (1990). His 1989 diatribe, “Why Adventure Games Suck,”
has been widely quoted and is worth partially quoting here:
Some people say that following [my] rules makes the games too easy to play. I disagree.
What makes most games tough to play is that the puzzles are arbitrary and uncon-
nected. Most are solved by chance or repetitive sessions of typing ‘light candle with
match,’ ‘light paper with match,’ ‘light rug with match,’ until something happens.
This is not tough game play, this is masturbation. I played one game that required
the player to drop a bubble gum wrapper in a room in order to get a trap door to open
5 Williams, Roberta. King’s Quest Collection Series Manual. Oakhurst, CA: Sierra On-Line, Inc., 1994.
Chapter 15: King’s Quest: From Peanuts to Palaces 113
Figure 15.4 Another scene from the first King’s Quest. Note the fiddle in the lower right
c orner. Getting to it and figuring out its purpose are a few of the game’s many puzzles.
Figure 15.5 The second King’s Quest game starred a new lead character. This early scene in
the game is an effective teaser—look at all those intriguing locations in the background!
and reread growing up. The goal is to recover three stolen artifacts for the Kingdom of
Daventry. These items are a shield that makes its bearer invulnerable, a chest that never
empties of gold, and a mirror that shows the future. The mirror, which plays a strong
role in later King’s Quest games, was taken by a wizard who promises in exchange to
“bring an heir” to the king and queen, who have been childless throughout their long
and otherwise happy marriage. Rather than bear a child, however, the queen becomes
deathly ill. Next, a dwarf shows up who offers to cure the queen in return for the shield.
The dwarf takes the shield, but the queen dies shortly after. The miserable king, how-
ever, manages to rescue a beautiful princess, who he takes for his wife. When she learns
about the chest, though, she takes off with it, leaving the king without a bride and the
kingdom without its last magical artifact. The player’s character, Sir Graham, shows up
to help, and is promised the throne of Daventry if he can restore the three artifacts (see
Figure 15.4).
The success of the game made a sequel all but inevitable (see Figure 15.5). To facili-
tate the process, Ken developed AGI, the Adventure Game Interpreter, similar in concept
to Infocom’s Z-Machine (see Chapter 3). As with the Z-Machine, AGI not only made it
6 Gilbert, Ron. “Why Adventure Games Suck.” Grumpy Gamer. 1989. http://grumpygamer.com/why_adventure_games
Figure 15.6 Shown here is the first King’s Quest running on different platforms. Starting
from the top left and going clockwise, they are Apple II, Atari ST, Mac, and the Sega Master
System.
(1987), and Lori Ann Cole’s Quest for Glory (1989). All of these series earned high acclaim for
their designers and remain among the best-loved PC games of all time.
Sierra continued refining and pushing the boundaries of PC graphics technology
with its King’s Quest series well into the 1990s. King’s Quest V: Absence Makes the Heart
Go Yonder (1990), made another leap forward, this time to 256-color VGA. In her March
1991 review of the game in Computer Gaming World, Scorpia remarked that “this is the
game to boot up when you want to show off your VGA system,”7 a sentiment shared by
plenty of other gamers and critics at the time. Another big change was a switch to icon-
based interaction, with the cumbersome and oft-lamented text parser finally laid to rest.
An updated CD-ROM version released a year later added digitized voices, but the shoddy
voice acting made some question its value.
1990 also marks the release of the first remake of the original King’s Quest, which
featured enhanced graphics, sound, and a modernized interface (sans parser). It was the
first project assigned to Josh Mandel, who candidly described the experience in a 2011
interview with me:
It was tortuous. Every designer at Sierra, including me, had been brought up using
the parser interface, which allowed us to create any type of puzzle we could imag-
ine … Now we were reduced from using an entire dictionary’s worth of verbs, to four
or five. It was difficult and painful for every designer to adjust their thinking to come
up with ways to present, at least, an illusion of the old flexibility … I felt like my arms
and legs were cut off.
Though Sierra would never return to the old format, the negative reactions to the remake
were enough to put them off future attempts to update their back catalog.
7 Scorpia. “Scorpion’s View: When Is a Sequel More than a Sequel? Sierra’s King’s Quest V.” Computer Gaming World, March
1991: 50–54.
Chapter 15: King’s Quest: From Peanuts to Palaces 115
King’s Quest VI: Heir Today, Gone Tomorrow, released September 1992, is usually
regarded as the highpoint of the series, and it shows up on several greatest game lists. It
brought together two of Sierra’s most celebrated designers: Roberta Williams and Jane
Jensen, the designer responsible for the hugely popular Gabriel Knight series. The famil-
iar blend of folk and fairy tales seems more thoughtfully and artistically explored here
than before. What appears at first to be a very basic plot (Prince Alexander sets off to find
Princess Cassima) expands rapidly. Alexander must contend with four different islands
in the Land of the Green Isles, each with its own theme and personality. What makes
the story worthwhile are the characters; neither Alexander nor Cassima act in the ste-
reotypical ways we might expect from the previous games, and the inhabitants of each
island have a unique theme and personality. Finally, and perhaps most importantly, the
puzzles are much less frustrating than previous games, and the game is much more for-
giving of mistakes. It’s quite accessible to novices, especially when compared to previ-
ous entries.
The biggest change graphically was a lengthy introductory 3D cut scene; it was cut-
ting edge for its day and provided gamers with yet another impressive sequence to show
off the power of their systems. The intro is particularly impressive in the later CD-ROM
release, which (mercifully) features professional quality voice acting. Both versions
boast full 3D animation and dramatic music. Of course, the actual game is less impres-
sive than its cinematic introduction.
The series declined after the sixth game, perhaps because Roberta was too engrossed
in her Phantasmagoria project, an adult-oriented game with large amounts of full-
motion video. King’s Quest VII: The Princeless Bride appeared in November 1994, and
seems to be an effort to create a game in the style of Disney’s Aladdin. It featured cell ani-
mation and SVGA graphics, qualities that give the game a distinctly modern look despite
its age. Its cutesy story, characters, and animation style seemed a rather sharp contrast
to the previous game, and its simplified interface seems a response to Cyan’s monster hit
Myst, which had debuted the year before.
In 1996, Sierra On-Line was purchased by CUC International, an event that signaled
the beginning of the end for their adventure game line. Since Sierra was a publicly traded
company, the decision wasn’t up to CEO Ken Williams. He said later that “I had no power
to control things, and they got out of hand. I transferred out of the games division, pri-
marily because I couldn’t stomach watching my company ripped apart.”8 It’s not hard to
imagine how this drama behind the scenes affected the confidence, morale, and, ulti-
mately, the quality of the final King’s Quest games.
The final game, Mask of Eternity (1998), was controversial even before its release. The
boldest change to the gameplay was the introduction of role-playing elements. Sierra
had had great success with Lori Ann Cole’s Quest for Glory series of adventure/RPG
hybrids, but many fans were appalled to find them in a King’s Quest game. Nevertheless,
Roberta felt that a drastic change was necessary:
8 Jong, Philip. “Ken Williams Interview.” Adventure Classic Gaming. March 28, 2006. http://www.adventureclassicgaming
.com/index.php/site/interviews/197 (accessed May 18, 2015).
116 Part II: The Early Adopters
I was trying to bring new blood into the genre … thereby trying to keep it from dying.
Times change, and tastes change … they just do, and you’ve gotta do what you’ve gotta
do to try and reach the biggest possible audience to keep a genre alive … The old-style
adventure game that we all know and love will just not cut it in today’s world.9
Reactions to the game were mixed among fans and critics, with lots of grumbling about
the combat and role-playing mechanics. It still managed to more than double the sales
of its key competition that year, LucasArts’ Grim Fandango.
The influence of King’s Quest is immense, particularly during the “point-and-click”
heyday of the 1990s. While there are literally hundreds of games we could mention, the
most important are those developed by LucasArts (earlier, Lucasfilm Games). These
include two classics by Ron Gilbert: Maniac Mansion (1987) and The Secret of Monkey
Island (1990), which are indisputably among the greatest adventure games of all time.
Like Sierra, LucasArts created its own in-house development tool called SCUMM,
or “Script Creation Utility for Maniac Mansion,” and countless best-selling games were
composed with it. Maniac Mansion offered a purely icon-based interface (no text parser)
and was much more forgiving than Sierra’s hits. The Secret of Monkey Island further
refined the formula, making it impossible for the protagonist (Guybrush Threepwood) to
die except in one place. Since players no longer had to be worried about sudden death or
getting the game into an unwinnable state, they were much more comfortable exploring
and experimenting, savoring the story and witty dialog. Gilbert’s masterpiece has been
translated into five languages and is certainly worth the attention of any King’s Quest
fan. LucasArts would go on to produce dozens of best-selling games but was never able
to seriously threaten Sierra’s dominance in the American adventure game market.
The influence of King’s Quest still lives on today in modern point-and-click adven-
tures such as Telltale Games’ The Walking Dead (2012), Double Fine Productions’ Broken
Age (2014), and Ron Gilbert and Gary Winnick’s Thimbleweed Park (expected 2016).
Activision resurrected the series with a five-part episodic series of King’s Quest games
by The Odd Gentlemen. Their first episode debuted on July 28, 2015, and met with ecstatic
reviews from fans and newcomers alike. Featuring prominent voice talent and modern
graphics, these games tell the untold stories of Graham’s life and times.
9 Sluganski, Randy. “Roberta Williams Speaks Out...” Just Adventure. March 1999. http://justadventure.com/Interviews
There’s also an impressive enhanced edition of the first game developed by AGD
Interactive, currently in its fourth version. It has great graphics, a full voice cast, and
many other refinements, and, better yet, runs fine on a modern PC or Mac. You can
download it (for free) at http://www.agdinteractive.com/games/kq1/.
Finally, it’s surprisingly easy (and fun!) to make your own point-and-click adventure
games. The best place to start is the Adventure Game Studio (AGS), a free download at
http://www.adventuregamestudio.co.uk/. With this free, powerful, and intuitive tool,
you can make your own games in the style of King’s Quest or The Secret of Monkey Island
in no time, regardless of your previous experience with coding.
Chapter 16
1 Woodhead, Robert, interview by Matt Barton. Matt Chat 260: Robert Woodhead on Anime and Plato (October 3, 2014).
119
120 Part II: The Early Adopters
Figure 16.2 Woodhead and Greenberg were inspired by Oubliette, an RPG for the PLATO
system.
pricing using one of the new “home computers” he’d been hearing about. Janice saw an
opportunity to bring her son into the business. Sirotek purchased a souped-up Apple II
with extra RAM, and young Woodhead went to work, quickly developing a solution that
greatly impressed Sirotek.
Woodhead sensed that his program might be valuable to other companies, and
developed it into a product called Info-Tree. As it happened, there was a major computer
festival going on at Trenton, and Woodhead felt it’d be a great opportunity to market his
program. Unfortunately, Woodhead didn’t drive, and Sirotek wouldn’t let him mail or
try to take the Apple II with him on a plane. Instead, he asked his son, Norman, to drive
him there.
Norman wasn’t interested in computers, but that changed after seeing the wonders
at the Trenton Computer Festival. Woodhead finally talked him and his brother Robert
Sirotek into going into business with him, an arrangement the elder Sirotek heartily
2 Maher, Jimmy. “The Roots of Sir-Tech.” The Digital Antiquarian. March 18, 2012. http://www.filfre.net/2012/03/the-roots-of
approved. Naturally, the question arose about what product the newly founded Siro-tech
(later Sir-Tech) should develop next. That product was a Star Trek–inspired arcade game
called Galactic Attack, which ended up garnering more media attention and sales than
their database program had. Woodhead, who’d never really lost interest in Oubliette and
PLATO, now wanted to do a game like it in PASCAL for the Apple II. He called the game
Paladin.
Woodhead somehow ran into Greenberg, the lab technician at Cornell who’d tried
vainly to keep him from playing so much Oubliette. Woodhead was stunned to learn
that Greenberg had also been developing an Oubliette-style game, but in Apple BASIC.
He called his project Wizardry. Woodhead and Greenberg were sufficiently impressed
with each other’s ideas to join forces. “I don’t think the game would have been nearly as
good if it’d just been me or just been him,” said Woodhead. “I was better at banging out
code, and he had a better understanding of the story and balancing out the monsters.”
Greenberg agreed that their game should be done in PASCAL, and the two were soon
fleshing out a very promising design, with Greenberg’s friends doing much of the play-
testing (and many of whom were immortalized as monsters in the game).
The game’s story concerned The Mad Overlord Trebor (Robert spelled backward),
whose madness was caused by a magical artifact—an amulet. The evil wizard Werdna
(Andrew spelled backward) manages to steal this artifact, but somehow sets off an
earthquake in the process. Conveniently, the quake creates a 10-level dungeon beneath
Trebor’s castle, and in an effort to save face, Werdna claims that creating this lair was his
intent all along. Trebor encourages adventurers to pursue Werdna and retrieve his arti-
fact, promising them riches as well as a prestigious position in his honor guard should
they succeed. It’s not much of a story, to be honest, but something more elaborate might
well have only detracted from its dungeon crawling appeal.
Rather than put the player in charge of a single character, the game allowed you to
create a party of six, which could be made up of various combinations of four races, eight
classes (four starter and four advanced), and three alignments. There was no system for
automapping—serious players had to learn to map out the 20 × 20 dungeons onto graph
paper, a process that some detested but others enjoyed. The magic system boasted 50 spells
and nearly 100 types of enemies ranging from bubbly slimes and creeping coins to fire
dragons and greater demons. Overall, the development took about 16 months to complete.
Right away, though, there was a problem. Woodhead’s souped-up Apple II had more
memory than the typical Apple II configuration, which he’d relied on with the expecta-
tion that Apple was coming out with a 48K runtime version of PASCAL, which would
allow his program to run on an unmodified system. Apple took longer than promised
to deliver, but, on a positive note, the delay gave them more time to polish the program.
Once 16K expansions became more widely available, Woodhead used it as a disk cache,
substantially speeding up loading times.
When Woodhead got around to showing the game to Norman Sirotek, his partner
wasn’t impressed. “I remember late one evening telling Bob Woodhead to forget the new
game and put his efforts into something worthwhile, like a business package. I said nobody
wants or needs the game. Bob looked straight at me and said I was wrong and went back
122 Part II: The Early Adopters
VisiCalc’s sales! By 1984, they had sold more than 200,000 copies.5 Sir-Tech eventually
ported the game to the Macintosh, DOS, Commodore 64, and even the NES (see Figure
16.4). After their success with the first game, Woodhead and Greenberg developed three
more scenarios using the same engine. The first two let you import your party from the
previous games, but the third was an unforgiving reboot in which you played as Werdna.
Some have argued that Wizardry is, in significant ways, a clone of Oubliette. Chester
Bolingbroke, aka the “CRPG Addict,” though hesitant to make that claim himself, points
out 11 of the more obvious commonalities between the two programs. The following are
five of the more blatant ones:
• The overall structure of the game, with a castle and shops on top and a first-
person wireframe dungeon below
3 Salmons, Jim. “Exec Sir-Tech: Wizzing to the Top.” Softalk, August 1982: 32–35.
4 Sirotek, Robert, interview by Matt Barton. Matt Chat 244: Robert Sirotek on the Origins of Sir-Tech (June 8, 2014).
5 Bateman, Selby. “Is a Picture Worth a Thousand Words?” Compute!, October 1984: 32.
Chapter 16: Wizardry: A New Perspective on Computer Role Playing 123
Figure 16.4 Wizardry running on the NES. The series became wildly popular in Japan,
where it continues to this day.
• Some identical spell names and root syllables, identical spell effects, and the
basic spell “slot” system
• The traps associated with chests found in the dungeon, which are exactly the
same in both games6
However, Bolingbroke points out as well that there are substantial differences between
the two games, most notably the switch from multiplayer to single player. “It seems clear
to me that the Wizardry developers started with an Oubliette paradigm and worked from
there,” but calls it “slightly unforgivable” that the developers failed to acknowledge their
inspiration in the game or manual.
Corey Cole, a co-designer of Quest for Glory and former PLATO user, responded to
these criticisms in the comments on the post by pointing out that “copying an existing
game or tool, then modifying it, was both common hacker practice and an excellent way
to learn programming back in the 1970s.” Furthermore, the source code couldn’t have
been directly copied, since the language and platform in question were totally different
systems.
I contacted Jim Schwaiger and his fellow Oubliette authors to get their views on the
matter. Incidentally, they released a commercial version of Oubliette for the Commodore
64 in 1983, and, more recently, an iOS and Android version in 2012 based on that version’s
source code. Schwaiger claims that he “only examined Wizardry on the Apple II once—
spent just a short time, certainly less than 30 minutes, but could not find any meaningful
difference with Oubliette.” He even argues that the most distinguishing factor—single
player rather than multiplayer—was a “necessary concession to reality rather than a
deliberate failure to copy.”
I agree with Cole. Many games in this book were commercial adaptations of free
games running on mainframes. It makes no more sense to deride Sir-Tech than it would
6 Bolingbroke, Chester. “Game 12: Oubliette (1977).” The CRPG Addict. October 17, 2013. http://crpgaddict.blogspot
.com/2013/10/game-12-oubliette-1977.html (accessed May 27, 2015).
124 Part II: The Early Adopters
to blast Bushnell for ripping off Spacewar! or Infocom for plagiarizing Colossal Cave
Adventure. Furthermore, focusing too much on what they borrowed distracts us from
their real contributions. After all, adapting a game intended for a powerful mainframe
computer for a humble home computer is no small feat, and as cool as PLATO and other
mainframes were, only a privileged few had access. Atari, Infocom, and Sir-Tech helped
bring these joys to the masses.
Wizardry in its turn inspired plenty of other games, including The Bard’s Tale (1985),
Might and Magic (1986), Dungeon Master (1987), Pool of Radiance (1988), and Ultima
Underworld (1991) just to name a few. Though these games had much better audiovisuals
and added their own innovations, you can still see the tropes of mapping out dungeons
shown in first-person perspective, grinding out levels, grabbing loot, and dispatching
wave after wave of randomly encountered enemies.
The original designers, Woodhead and Greenberg, left the series after Wizardry V,
handing the reins over to David W. Bradley. Bradley oversaw a significant revamping
of the engine for Wizardry VI: Bane of the Cosmic Forge (1990), which brought a much-
needed overhaul to the aging interface. The last Wizardry game published by Sir-Tech
was 2001’s Wizardry 8, designed by Brenda Romero.
The series has remained commercially relevant in Japan, where it was localized in
the early 1980s, and the series became nearly (if not more) influential there than it was
in the United States. Chris Kohler notes that Yuji Horii and Koichi Nakamura were avid
fans, and incorporated several of its core concepts into their hit Dragon Quest series.7
In short, Wizardry and Sir-Tech played a key role in bringing the CRPG to the masses.
Even if the game owes more to Oubliette than its developers seem willing to admit, I
still commend them for introducing so many of us to the dungeon crawler. I spent many
happy weeks making my way through this game on my Commodore 64, even though I
had better-looking games I could have played instead. Wizardry is dungeon crawling
stripped down to its core essence, and for some of us, that’s all we ever really needed.
7 Kohler, Chris. Power Up: How Japanese Video Games Gave the World an Extra Life. Indianapolis: Brady Games, 2005: 86.
Chapter 17
1 Garriott, Richard, interview by Matt Barton. Matt Chat 196: Lord British on Ultima and Akalabeth (June 2, 2013).
125
126 Part II: The Early Adopters
King, Brad, and John Borland. Dungeons and Dreamers: The Rise of Computer Game Culture from Geek to Chic. Emervyille, CA:
2
Figure 17.2 Garriott’s first commercial product, Akalabeth, sold much better than he
expected given his lack of training and experience. He determined that his future products
would be much more professional.
graphics. Code in hand, Garriott went to work designing tiles and building levels on a
much larger scale than before.
The tiled overhead view was used whenever the main character (known after the
fourth game as “The Avatar”) roams outside or in towns or villages (see Figure 17.3). The
new graphics routine enabled a much vaster gameworld, and now players could see
much more of it on-screen. However, when the character descends into a dungeon, the
perspective shifted to the first-person, wireframe mode of Akalabeth; Garriott had recy-
cled these routines from his earlier endeavor.
Garriott added plenty of new features, including quests and a scripted ending.
There was also a clearly defined mission: destroy the evil wizard Mondain, hated ruler
of Sosaria. Achieving this goal required traveling back in time to destroy a gem that
granted the wizard immortality. Naturally, traveling back in time wasn’t easy—in fact,
the player had to travel to outer space! The fact that the game included both fantasy and
sci-fi elements generated a great deal of buzz; it was one of the most ambitious games
players had ever seen.
The underlying role-playing mechan-
ics were fairly simple. Players were given
90 points to distribute among six stats
(strength, agility, stamina, charisma, wis-
dom, and intelligence) and could play as a
fighter, cleric, wizard, or thief. There were
also four races to choose from, one of
which was hobbits—an obvious allusion
to J.R.R. Tolkien’s famous fantasy works.
Figure 17.3 Ultima employed “tile-based graphics,” which allowed him to make large,
varied maps with very limited memory.
128 Part II: The Early Adopters
Ultima and its sequels not only set sales records but helped expand the market from a
cottage industry into the multibillion dollar juggernaut it is today. Garriott’s determina-
tion to up the ante with each new Ultima earned him a reputation as one of the world’s
best game developers, and his eagerness to take full advantage of the latest hardware
and programming routines kept him (and fans) on the cutting edge of technology. In
time, gamers and critics would look to the latest Ultima as a paradigm shift; not just a
new installment in the series but the next stage of gaming itself.
However, Garriott’s ambition and perfectionism occasionally brought him into con-
flict with publishers. After his publisher, California Pacific Computer, went bankrupt,
Garriott recovered the rights to his series. By this point, Ultima was a well-respected
brand, and Garriott was choosy—he wanted to find a publisher who’d agree to let him not
only publish his games in nice boxes (rather than in cheap plastic bags) but also include
a cloth map of the land. He’d gotten this strange idea from the movie Time Bandits (1981).
Only Sierra On-Line was willing to agree to his demands, and published Ultima II: The
Revenge of the Enchantress in 1982.
The new game offered several key improvements, most notably the option to talk to
other characters. It was, like the earlier game, an immense undertaking that included
both fantasy and sci-fi elements. It also marked a major leap for Garriott as a program-
mer, since he was now programming in assembly language rather than BASIC. The more
advanced language allowed for more efficient routines and smoother gameplay. In any
case, it says something about Garriott’s personality that he risked creating a new game
with a difficult language he hadn’t yet mastered; indeed, he was learning as he went.
Ultima II was successful, but Garriott had become disillusioned with Sierra. One
problem concerned the IBM PC port of Ultima II, which hadn’t been discussed in his
contract since that platform didn’t exist (or at least wasn’t viable) when it was drafted.
Garriott thought Sierra was bilking him on royalties. Another problem was that Sierra
felt its licensing agreement extended to making new Ultima games, even if Garriott
wasn’t involved in their production.
With yet another hit game under his belt, Garriott felt confident enough to found his
own publishing company. Together with his father, brother, and a friend named Chuck
“Chuckles” Bueche, he founded Origin Systems in 1983. In addition to their flagship
Ultima series, Origin would also publish Chuckles’ Autoduel (1985), Chris Roberts’ Wing
Commander (1990), and Paul Neurath’s Ultima Underworld (1992). But that was all in the
future. For now, the new company’s fate rested solely on the success or failure of a single
product. That product was Ultima III: Exodus, and Garriott was more determined than
ever before to prove he had the right stuff.
By this time, Garriott had mastered assembly language and was ready to put his
freshly honed skills to the ultimate test. Ultima III, which became the company’s flag-
ship product, introduced a number of bold changes, including the ability to create and
control a party of adventurers rather than the lone Avatar. In an interview with Shay
Addams, Garriott acknowledged that he was inspired by Wizardry.4 Combat was also
4 Addams, Shay. The Office Book of Ultima. Greensboro, NC: Compute! Books, 1990.
Chapter 17: Ultima: The Virtues of an Avatar 129
altered, now adopting a turn-based system with time limits; if players didn’t move fast
enough, the monsters got a free swing at the characters. This model may have served as
the inspiration for the Active Time Battle system of the Final Fantasy series. There were
also loads of new magical spells and weapons, including ranged weapons like bows. The
dungeons, which were now central to the mission, had been upgraded from the mono-
chromatic wireframe to solid color.
Finally, Garriott incorporated a dynamic musical score that took advantage of Sweet
Micro System’s new Mockingboard card for the Apple II. The Mockingboard compen-
sated greatly for the Apple’s limited sound capabilities and is a good example of how
Garriott pushed the industry forward by catering to high-end, rather than just the far
more numerous low-end gamers.
Exodus was a triumph for the series and a bestseller for Origin. It established the
company as a world famous developer and Lord British as a master craftsman of CRPGs.
The game was ported to most of the popular platforms of the era, including the Nintendo
Entertainment System, and is easily the best of the early series. GameSpot selected it
as one of its “15 Most Influential Games of All Time,” citing it as the inspiration for later
hits such as BioWare’s Baldur’s Gate (1998; Apple Macintosh, PC).
The immense popularity of Exodus had made Garriott a powerful and influential fig-
ure in the industry, but he didn’t necessarily feel giddy. Indeed, he began to feel guilty
about his previous work. A letter from a concerned parent convinced him that most
games, including his own, did little to promote good, ethical conduct in players, instead
rewarding them for pillaging and plundering. As one of the game industry’s most power-
ful individuals, Garriott now believed he had a responsibility not just to entertain his
fans but also to enlighten them.
The result of Garriott’s soul-searching was Ultima IV: Quest of the Avatar, a 1985
release that debuted the “Age of Enlightenment,” a trilogy of games exploring morality
and society. The gameplay was reworked substantially from the previous game, and the
difference was visible immediately. Rather than create a character or party based on
stats, players were asked a series of questions pertaining to moral dilemmas. The system
was based on eight virtues: humility, sacrifice, compassion, justice, valor, spirituality,
honor, and honesty, each of which was
linked to a particular character class. The
goal was to let the player make a charac-
ter that would truly conform to his or her
own outlook and moral values, as well as
take the game well away from its roots in
“hack and slash” (see Figure 17.4).
The manual speaks of the game as a
“search for a new standard, a new vision
of life for which our people may strive,”
Figure 17.4 Ultima IV was a critical breakthrough for the series, introducing a highly influ-
ential “moral” component to the gameplay.
130 Part II: The Early Adopters
in short, a game that would make players into better people. This spiritual aspect of the
game was reinforced with another feelie, this time a small metal ankh.
Quest of the Avatar was another massive hit for Origin, outselling its predeces-
sor and reaping high praise from critics. It remains the favorite of many longtime
fans of the series, and has shown up on plenty of “all time” lists; Computer Gaming
World voted it the #2 game of all time in 1996, and 1Up.com named it as the 21st of its
“Essential 50” list.
After Quest of the Avatar, Garriott set himself to converting the earlier games into full
assembly language, updating the audiovisuals and releasing the set as Ultima Trilogy in
1987. The timing was perfect for such a compilation, since the countless thousands who
had been introduced to the series with Quest of the Avatar now had a convenient way to
familiarize themselves with its backstory. The trilogy sold exceptionally well.
The next game in the series, Ultima V: Warriors of Destiny (1988), was the last devel-
oped on the venerable old Apple II platform, and also the last time Garriott himself did
a significant amount of coding. Whereas the first game had been about the Avatar’s
own quest for virtue, this game put players in a more ambiguous position: What hap-
pens when the state tries to force its own interpretations of moral virtues on its peo-
ple? As players explored the world, they found that some bad people prospered and
some good people were condemned; the lines between good and evil were often quite
blurry.
The sixth game was The False Prophet. The moral theme this time is racism and
xenophobia, and again players were faced with tough decisions with disturbing conse-
quences. It was the best-looking game of the series so far, with 2048 different tiles in 256
colors. It also had support for the Roland and AdLib sound cards. As with his support
of the Mockingboard earlier, here Garriott was a driving force behind the wider adop-
tion of these graphic and audio standards. Countless gamers were more than willing to
upgrade or purchase new systems to play the new Ultima game in its full glory.
Garriott’s finest moment may well have been Ultima VII: The Black Gate, released in
1992 for the PC. The game’s primary feature is a huge and robust interactive world, which
was far more detailed than anything gamers had experienced before. Players could,
for instance, plant seeds, grow wheat, bake it into bread, and sell it at the market; these
diversions were compelling enough to make some players forget all about the main story
and quest line! It also took advantage of the mouse, which had by that time begun to
take root among PC users. Mouse control was perhaps a necessity given the alterations
to the gameplay, which was now in real time; fast, precise control was essential. Garriott
claims to have been inspired by Times of Lore, a game by Chris Roberts that Origin pub-
lished in 1988, and FTL’s Dungeon Master (1987; Apple IIgs, Atari ST, Commodore Amiga,
etc.), a pioneering real-time game with first-person perspective and full-color three-
dimensional (3D) graphics.4 Though Origin spent a million dollars developing the game,
they were back in black the first day it was released.
Ultima VII was a very tough act to follow, even for Garriott. Ultima VIII: Pagan, a 1994
game for PC, was really the first major misstep for the series. Garriott had signed on with
Electronic Arts to publish the game, a deal he regretted after they harried him to rush the
Chapter 17: Ultima: The Virtues of an Avatar 131
Figure 17.5 Ultima IX: Ascension had fully rendered 3D graphics and looked awesome.
However, it wasn’t the game many longtime Ultima fans had longed for. (Photo courtesy
of Good Old Games.)
and Shamino are nowhere to be found,” though he applauded the enhanced graphics
and wondered “how far are we from virtual-reality Ultima?”5 Like most Ultima games,
Pagan pushed the era’s hardware to the limits; one reviewer called it “demonic when it
comes to system resources.”6
If Pagan disappointed some fans, the last Ultima game, Ascension, appalled nearly all
of them (see Figure 17.5). Although Garriott had been touting the game for months, a long
and drama-filled development cycle had done its damage. Perhaps still smarting from
the sharp criticism he received for Pagan, Lord British seems to have become shaken
and indecisive, forcing the code through four different versions. We should also keep in
mind that Ultima Online was in production at this time, and Garriott may have struggled
to stay on top of the two vastly different projects.
Ascension was fully 3D rendered in third-person perspective and involved quite a
few action/reflex sequences. Greg Kasavin’s review for GameSpot called it “both an epic
and a farce,” admiring its ambition but lamenting the poor implementation, which was
fraught with bugs.7 IGN’s Trent C. Ward, a longtime fan of the series, faced the unpleasant
task of reviewing a game he felt was “nearly unplayable,” describing himself as “nearly
paralyzed with disappointment over the way the last chapter turned out.”8 The criticisms
were many, but the consensus was that Lord British had lost his way. It was a sad ending
for this magnificent and influential series.
6 Yee, Bernard. “Ultima VIII: Pagan.” PC Mag, September 13, 1994: 471.
7 Kasavin, Greg. “Ultima IX: Ascension.” GameSpot. December 10, 1999. http://www.gamespot.com/pc/rpg/ultima9ascension
8 Ward, Trent C. “Ultima IX: Ascension.” IGN. December 10, 1999. http://www.ign.com/articles/1999/12/11/ultima-ix-ascension
(accessed May 28, 2015).
132 Part II: The Early Adopters
Ultima’s influence on the game industry is immense, as the size of this chapter
attests. The games were discussed at great length in almost every gaming magazine of
the day, and ports found their way onto virtually every viable platform. Compiling a list
of commercial games that have been inspired by Ultima is a formidable task. Some, such
as DieCom Production’s Gates of Delirium (1980) for the Radio Shack Color Computer,
are shameless and insipid clones. Others, such as SSI’s Questron (1984) were authorized
games based on Garriott’s engine. Questron was admired for its smooth gameplay and
accessibility to novices. This series led to SSI’s later and more successful Phantasie (start-
ing 1985), Wizard’s Crown (starting 1985), and the “Gold Box” (1988) series of CRPGs.
Perhaps the influence of the Ultima series is most evident in Japan, where it inspired
the countless games featuring top-down perspective, randomized combat, and roam-
ing NPCs who must be found and interrogated. According to Koichi Nakamura, his
friend Yuji Horii was a fan of Ultima, whereas he preferred Wizardry. “So both of us said,
why don’t we create a role-playing game? We were really into these role-playing games
at the time. And that was how Dragon Quest started.”9 Wizardry and Ultima, blended
together and simplified for the console audience, proved the right product at the right
time. Dragon Quest (also known as Dragon Warrior) was a huge hit, eventually selling
more than 2 million copies in Japan and becoming a “cult hit” when it was exported to
America.10
The fan base remains active and committed to keeping the Ultima games playable
and relevant for modern gamers. The site Ultima Codex tracks a myriad of these projects.
One of these is Ultima IX: Redemption, an effort by a group called Titans of Ether that
hopes to “live up to the Ultima greatness that the original game … failed to achieve. It
will feature total freedom in moral decision-making (which the original didn’t grant), as
well as multiple endings.” It’s being built with the Morrorwind: The Elder Scrolls engine.
An older project called Exult is a “cross-platform reworking of Ultima 7” for modern sys-
tems, including Android and Linux.
In 2015, Garriott and his new company Portalarium launched a Kickstarter project
for a game called Shroud of the Avatar: Forsaken Virtues, which managed to raise nearly
2 million dollars. I’ll have more to say about this project when we discuss Ultima Online
in Chapter 36.
9 Parish, Jeremy. “Koichi Nakamura Interview: On the Birth of the Console RPG.” 1up.com. August 7, 2012. http://www.1up
.com/features/koichi-nakamura-interview-console-rpg (accessed May 29, 2015).
10 Kohler, Chris. Power Up: How Japanese Video Games Gave the World an Extra Life. Indianapolis: Brady Games, 2005: 87, 223.
Chapter 17: Ultima: The Virtues of an Avatar 133
A better option still is to purchase the Ultima trilogy from GOG, which comes with
PDF scans of the manuals, clue books, and maps. Pick it up for Windows or Mac at http://
www.gog.com/game/ultima_1_2_3. You can find the other Ultima games there as well,
all set up and ready to run on a modern system. I’d also suggest checking out the Ultima
Codex site at http://ultimacodex.com/. Besides information about the games them-
selves, there are interviews, fan projects, news, wikis, forums, and more.
Part III
The Early Majority
A
nd now we come to the third of Rogers’ category of adopters: the “early majority.”
These were the folks who’d shown little interest in Pong, found all that Pac-Man
nonsense childish, and would never have dreamed of buying one of those so-
called home computers or an Atari 2600. These were the folks smugly saying “told you
so” after the Great Video Game Crash of 1983.
This cynical attitude was keenest among American retailers, who had zero interest in
enduring another gruesome loss on the video game “fad” or flooding their warehouses
with unwanted game cartridges.
To put it simply, the rusting pipes of the American game industry were clogged so
tight with crap that nothing was going in or coming out. Thankfully, a plumber was on
the way.
By far, the most important event of this generation was the launch of the Nintendo
Entertainment System (NES), a Japanese import that not only put an end to the Great
Video Game Crash of 1983 but also expanded the industry far beyond Atari and
Activision’s wildest dreams. Nintendo wouldn’t make the same mistakes that doomed
their predecessors, and their vicious stranglehold over the industry wouldn’t be seri-
ously threatened until the arrival of Sony’s PlayStation a decade later. In fact, if I had to
divide the whole history of video games into just two big periods, I’d call one B.M. and
the other A.M.—before and after Mario!
136 Part III: The Early Majority
Figure PIII.1 Defender of the Crown was the first of many Hollywood-inspired productions
by Cinemaware. The Amiga version was one of the earliest games to demonstrate the pos-
sibilities afforded by its advanced hardware.
Gone were the days when a console’s claim to fame was how well it could approximate
an arcade hit. Now, console gaming was growing into its own, with much longer games
featuring memorable characters and increasingly detailed stories. Pretty soon, every
family with a disposal income just had to have a “Nintendo” in the house. Poorer fami-
lies needn’t despair, either—they could always rent one from their local Blockbuster!
A few years later, Nintendo revolutionized the industry yet again with its Game Boy
handheld, which many people bought just to play the greatest game ever to emerge from
Russia, if not the greatest game, period—Alexey Pajitnov’s Tetris. Once again, these units
appealed to a diverse audience, not just nerdy young men or boys.
This period also sees the last gasp—or perhaps I should say the last great punch—of
the arcade industry. As computers and consoles evolved to rival and then surpass arcade
machines, the coin-operated business dried up. However, in 1991, a game called Street
Fighter II provided the arcade with an extra life, turning it into a virtual arena for teenag-
ers hoping to prove themselves in vicious one-on-one combat. An explosion of sequels,
spin-offs, clones, and rip-offs followed, and the “competitive fighting game” genre was
born.
These were also great times for computer gamers. New machines such as the
Commodore Amiga, Atari ST, and Apple Macintosh offered substantially more power
than their predecessors. During this period, we find such vital games as Cinemaware’s
Defender of the Crown (1986) (see Figure PIII.1), FTL’s Dungeon Master (1987), Interplay’s
Wasteland (1987), SSI’s Pool of Radiance (1988), Jordan Mechner’s Prince of Persia (1989),
and Will Wright’s SimCity (1989). By the end of this period, MS-DOS would be the undis-
puted champion of home computing platforms, with the Macintosh a distant second.
Chapter 18
Steamboat Willie was the classic short that not only debuted two of the most famous
cartoon characters of all time (Mickey and Minnie) but also was a remarkable techno-
logical achievement—the first cartoon with synchronized sound. This amazing feat was
but a small step for Disney; he’d barely embarked on the glorious career that would make
him the greatest animator of all time. By the end of it, Steamboat Willie was positively
archaic, with its grainy black and white footage, simplistic (even incoherent) narrative,
and an all-too-brief 7-min running time.
Yet, when Disney first showed Steamboat Willie to an audience in 1928, the “effect was
nothing less than electric. They responded almost instinctively to this union of sound
and motion … It was terrible, but it was wonderful! And it was something new!”1 Nearly
60 years later in 1985, when American children played Super Mario Bros. for the first
time, their reactions were identical. But I would add one more exclamation point: “It
was fun!” For Super Mario Bros. was more than just an animation. It was animation you
could control. And that has made all the difference.
Walt Disney and Shigeru Miyamoto were artists of a special breed, men who, with
pencils or pixels, showed the rest of us what’d they’d seen on blank paper and an empty
screen. But Disney put aside his brush to build a Magic Kingdom of bricks and mortar,
concrete, and steel. Miyamoto’s dreams led to equally imaginative worlds enjoyed by
1 Maltin, Leonard. Of Mice and Magic: A History of American Animated Cartoons. New York: New American Library, 1987.
137
138 Part III: The Early Majority
Figure 18.1 Super Mario Bros. made Miyamoto an international superstar among game
developers.
The corporate ethos in Japan, and especially at Nintendo, is self-effacing; the humility
that has kept Miyamoto at the company for three decades, rather than in, say, Silicon
Valley seeking his billions, also governs the apportionment of credit. Miyamoto has
been a superstar in the gaming world for more than two decades, but neither he nor
the company seems inclined to exploit his stardom. They contend that the develop-
ment of a game or a game console is a collaborative effort—that it is indecorous to sin-
gle out any one contributor to the exclusion of the others. Miyamoto is also guarded
about his private life. The fact that anyone would be curious about it baffles him.2
Well before he began work on Super Mario Bros., Miyamoto had already established
his reputation with Donkey Kong, the megahit arcade game that put Nintendo’s name
on the radar (see Chapter 9). But the games Miyamoto designed after it, Popeye (1982),
Donkey Kong Junior (1982), Donkey Kong 3 (1983), and even Mario’s debut title, Mario
Bros. (1983), weren’t as successful. Perhaps he’d peaked. Or, maybe Miyamoto was only
perfecting his craft, testing out new innovations and refining his techniques in prepara-
tion for something truly extraordinary.
The original Mario Bros. is a case in point. “Jumpman” from Donkey Kong was
given a new occupation as a plumber and officially named Mario. At Yokoi’s sugges-
tion, Mario was given a brother, Luigi, who was controlled by a second player. Luigi
2 Paumgarten, Nick. “Master of Play.” The New Yorker. December 20, 2010. http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2010/12/20
could either collaborate with his brother or compete with him, sabotaging his efforts
by bumping or shoving him into enemies.
The level design consisted of a number of platforms with pipes at the top and bottom
on each side, from which the game’s turtle-like “shellcreeper” adversaries entered and
exited. Mario and/or Luigi had to defeat each wave of these creatures by first bopping
them from below the platform they’re walking across, causing them to temporarily flip
over on their backs, helpless. Then, Mario or Luigi could stomp on them from above. It
was a fun, even if illogical, gameplay mechanic. Later stages introduced tougher ene-
mies and other perils. Make no mistake, Mario Bros. is not nearly the game its successor
would be, but you can clearly see the painstaking attention to even the minutest details.
The distinctive green color of the pipes, for example, was the result of careful experi-
ments; no design or aesthetic decision was taken lightly.
Japan had not suffered the same retail catastrophe that had all but destroyed the
American industry, and in 1983, Nintendo successfully introduced an advanced console
there called the Family Computer Disk System, or Famicom for short. After selling half a
million of these systems in Japan, they decided to try their luck in America.3
After a deal with Atari fell through, greatly angering Yamauchi, Nintendo’s formi-
dable president, they decided to go it alone and devised a cunning two-pronged strategy.
The first prong was a toy robot named R.O.B., and a light gun called the Zapper. These
accoutrements allowed Nintendo to market the device as a gee-whiz electronic toy like
the highly successful Simon or Electronic Battleship games and distance itself from the
dread category of “video game console.”
The second prong was equally unprecedented: a money-back guarantee. Nintendo of
America’s president, Arakawa, had proposed this risky, and frankly desperate, scheme
to further allay the fears of retailers. Yamauchi—Arakawa’s son-in-law—could see no
reason for it, but Arakawa was convinced it was the only way. The department stores who
signed on to sell the NES now were committing only to floor space. Even this degree of
risk was too much for some, but others signed on. The die was cast.
Arakawa’s plan worked, but not as well as he’d hoped. The NES only sold a modest
50,000 units.4 The problem was likely the games—neither Duck Hunt nor Gyromite, which
were bundled with the system, nor the other 15 games available at launch, were sufficient
reason to get excited about the system. When Arakawa picked up the phone to call his
father-in-law boss, the imperialistic Yamauchi, he must surely have experienced déjà vu.
Once again, Yamauchi tapped his star designer, Miyamoto, to save his American branch.
The design of Super Mario Bros. was a rather organic process. Miyamoto was joined by
Takashi Tezuka, a fellow designer, who’d often sit beside him drawing on the same maps.5
3 Kent, Steve L. The Ultimate History of Video Games: From Pong to Pokémon and Beyond: the Story Behind the Craze that
Touched Our Lives and Changed the World. Rocklin, CA: Prima Pub., 2001: 280.
5 deWinter, Jennifer. Shigeru Miyamoto: Super Mario Bros., Donkey Kong, The Legend of Zelda. New York: Bloomsbury
Academic, 2015.
140 Part III: The Early Majority
Figure 18.2 Super Mario Bros. was an effective demonstration of the NES’s technology as
well as Miyamoto’s skill as a designer.
6 Iwata, Satoru. “New Super Mario Bros: Volume 1.” Iwata Asks. n.d. http://iwataasks.nintendo.com/interviews/#/wii
Figure 18.3 With a quick switch of color palettes and music style, the game took on a
vastly different look and feel for underground levels.
Mushroom Kingdom into stone, bricks, and plants, and only the Princess has the power to
turn them back. This whimsical tale worked well with the bright, cartoony graphics and Koji
Kondo’s charming score, which is certainly among the most memorable of any ever com-
posed for a video game.
Super Mario Bros. was indeed the killer app Arakawa needed to overcome the
American resistance. He lost little time in replacing it as one of the “pack-in” or games
bundled with the system, and reportedly sold more than 40 million copies, though as
a bundled game, it’s unclear how many of those people would have bought it if it were
only available separately.9 By 1988, Douglas McGill of the New York Times could write
“for boys in this country between the ages of 8 and 15, not having a Nintendo is like not
having a baseball bat.”10 McGill credited Nintendo’s “colorful names and eccentric cast
of characters,” of whom none loomed larger than Mario.
Nintendo of America released Super Mario Bros. 2 in 1986 and Super Mario Bros. 3
in 1988. The first of these was actually a conversion of a different game called Yume
Kōjō: Doki Doki Panic, which had been rebranded to serve as the American sequel. The
original Japanese sequel was thought too difficult for Americans.11 Though some con-
sider it the black sheep of the series, it sold well. However, the third game fared much
better, becoming the system’s greatest bestseller (see Figure 18.4). Today, it’s ranked
7 She was called Princess Peach in Japan; this name eventually became standard everywhere.
8 Some sources claim that Miyamoto had intended Bowser to be an ox, but his animator misinterpreted his drawing. See
http://www.theguardian.com/technology/gamesblog/2010/sep/13/games-gameculture.
9 Cifaldo, Frank. “Sad But True: We Can’t Prove When Super Mario Bros. Came Out.” Gamasutra. March 28, 2012. http://www
.gamasutra.com/view/feature/167392/sad_but_true_we_cant_prove_when_.php (accessed June 16, 2015).
10 McGill, Douglas. “Nintendo Scores Big.” New York Times, December 4, 1988: F1.
11 McLaughlin, Rus. “IGN Presents: The History of Super Mario Bros.” IGN. September 13, 2010. http://www.ign.com
Figure 18.4 The highly anticipated Super Mario Bros. 3 was everything you thought it’d be,
and so much more.
with the latter calling it a “complete waste of time and money.” Making a successful
movie based on a video game has always been a challenge, but the high profile this one
enjoyed explains some of the rancor one still finds for it online.
Nintendo’s flagship franchise has played a key role in defining each of its consoles,
maintaining a brand consistency despite radical changes in the underlying technology:
Super Mario World (1990) was more than enough incentive to buy a Super Nintendo
Entertainment System (SNES), and Super Mario 64 (see Chapter 37) not only sold
Nintendo 64 consoles but also was many gamers’ first experience with immersive three-
dimensional graphics and controls. But these games are just the tip of Mario’s iceberg.
Wikipedia lists more than 200 games featuring Mario, several of which are success-
ful franchises in their own right. Some of the best known are Dr. Mario (1990), Super
Mario Kart (1992), Mario Party (1998), Super Smash Bros. (1999), and Mario & Luigi (2003).
Needless to say, there’s a lot more I could write about Mario’s legacy.
At the start of this chapter, I compared Super Mario Bros. to Steamboat Willie, but
there’s a key difference. I don’t imagine that many people today are still interested in
watching the Disney classic, at least outside of historians. By contrast, Super Mario
Bros. is still very much in active circulation today, and just as much fun as it was in 1985.
Furthermore, hundreds of avid fans have taken to YouTube to showcase their efforts to
become the world record holder for the shortest completion time (a “speed run”). At the
time of this writing, the record is 4.57.693, claimed by a German player going by “i_o_l.”
Super Mario Bros. might look primitive compared to modern games, but any rumors of
its obsolescence are greatly exaggerated.
In 2015, Nintendo announced Super Mario Maker for its Wii U, a highly anticipated
construction kit for making Mario-style platform games. It featured four themes, includ-
ing the original Super Mario Bros. The tool promised to make creating levels feel as
simple as sketching them out on paper, which was in fact how Miyamoto and Tezuka
designed the original. It’s certainly a fitting way to celebrate Mario’s 30th anniversary,
Chapter 18: Super Mario Bros.: Mario and the Mushroom Kingdom 143
and the promised ability for users to easily share their levels with others bodes well for
the future of the genre.
Super Mario Bros. was the last game for which Miyamoto would (and could) over-
see every last detail. After it, the size and scale of the projects, as well as his increased
responsibility for multiple simultaneous projects, meant delegation. Like Disney, the
franchise Miyamoto had fathered would grow from its “primitive” roots into a genuine
cultural phenomenon.
The influence of Super Mario Bros. on the rest of the gaming industry was deep, pro-
found, and lasting. Gone forever were the days of console games slavishly mimicking
the arcades, and dour predictions about the future of the industry—taken quite seri-
ously in 1983—seemed outright preposterous after Super Mario Bros. Indeed, the con-
tinued relevance of the side-scrolling platform game was evinced quite clearly in 2006,
when Nintendo rolled out New Super Mario Bros. While this successful and critically
acclaimed game offered a substantial audiovisual overhaul and lots of other fun fea-
tures, the influence of the original game is evident.
One of many professional game designers inspired by Super Mario Bros. was Will Wright,
designer of SimCity and The Sims. “The breadth and the scope of the game really blew me
away,” said Wright. “It was made out of these simple elements, and it worked according to
simple rules, but it added up to this very complex design.”12 Wright would develop these
ideas into his “possibility space” concept, the founding principle of his best-selling games.
The platform mechanics the game popularized would show up in countless other
games, but few of these even came close to rivaling it. To compensate, lesser design-
ers turned to licensing whatever television or Hollywood title they could force fit onto
a platform engine, such as Capcom’s Disney’s Adventures in the Magic Kingdom (1990),
Hi-Tech Expressions’ Barbie (1991), Ocean’s The Addams Family (1992), or T*HQ’s Wayne’s
World (1993), just to name a few. My personal favorite clone of the game is Time Warp
Productions’ The Great Giana Sisters, which swaps out Mario for a female punk rocker.
Unfortunately, the game was close enough to Super Mario Bros. for Nintendo to take
notice and stop sales of the game.
12 Seabrook, John. “Game Master.” The New Yorker. November 6, 2006. http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2006/11/06
1 Kohler, Chris. Power Up: How Japanese Video Games Gave the World an Extra Life. Indianapolis: Brady Games, 2005: 88.
145
146 Part III: The Early Majority
Figure 19.1 Every self-respecting Nintendo fan will recognize this famous scene from early
in the game. According to Glitterberri’s “Retranslation Redux,” the line should have read “It’s
dangerous to go alone. I shall grant you this.”
Figure 19.2 The Legend of Zelda had a huge map to explore, but you needed to be careful.
There were all kinds of monsters wandering about!
Zelda series is something that lends itself more naturally to that idea.”2 Both games cer-
tainly had their challenges, but Zelda required players to explore and navigate a large
game world, find all sorts of hidden items, and ensure that Link was properly geared
before taking on certain enemies. Significantly, it was the first game cartridge with a
battery, which allowed players to conveniently save and resume their progress. Before
this innovation, games with save options required players to write down and input
long codes, an arduous process that also made it easier to cheat. To highlight its special
2 Kohler, Chris. “Q&A: Nintendo’s Shigeru Miyamoto on Mario, Zelda, Project Natal and More.” Wired. June 6, 2009. http://
Figure 19.3 Just to make sure you’d know that The Legend of Zelda was special, Nintendo
placed it in a stunning gold cartridge. (Photo courtesy of Dave or Atox.)
the fields, forests, and caves near his family’s home in Kyoto. Koji Kondo’s magnificent
soundtrack for the game contributed to the sense of wonder and potential danger.
Minoru Arakawa was anxious that American gamers wouldn’t be able to figure out
Zelda and would probably demand refunds if they got lost. To that end, he set up a toll-
free hotline for stumped players to call for help.4 Soon, players were calling the num-
ber not just for help with Zelda but with other games as well, and the operators were
swamped. The problem became an opportunity, however, when Arakawa switched
the number to a 1-900, pay-by-the-minute service. Players could also turn to Nintendo
Power magazine for help with the game, which published maps and provided players
with strategies and tips. This magazine was another of Arakawa’s brilliant ideas, and it
remained in publication from July 1988 to December 2012.
Zelda wasn’t quite as phenomenally successful as Super Mario Bros., but it was a
terrific bestseller for Nintendo, eventually selling more than 7 million units.5 Indeed,
it’s estimated that 1 in 10 console owners had the cartridge. It’s hard to imagine a game
achieving this level of worldwide penetration today. Link’s image was plastered on cereal
boxes, bed sheets, and Saturday morning cartoons.
The next Zelda game was Zelda II: The Adventure of Link, released in the United States
in 1988. Although the success of the first ensured its high sales, it’s generally considered
the black sheep of the series. It had a number of features that are found in no other Zelda
game. The most noticeable change was a two-dimensional, side-view mode for combat
and in-town scenes (the overhead perspective was maintained for overland travel). This
is also the only Zelda game that qualifies as a true RPG, since Link now gained experi-
ence points and attack, magic, and life levels.
3 Vestal, Andrew, Cliff O’Neill, and Brad Shoemaker. “The History of Zelda.” GameSpot. November 14, 2000. http://www
4 Kent, Steve L. The Ultimate History of Video Games: From Pong to Pokémon and Beyond: the Story Behind the Craze that
Touched Our Lives and Changed the World. Rocklin, CA: Prima Pub., 2001.
5 Nichols, Max. “Zelda: Sales Numbers in Context.” Zelda Data. June 14, 2014. http://www.zeldadata.com/zeldadata
Figure 19.4 The arrival of the Zelda series to the SNES was more than enough reason to
own the system.
improved audiovisuals. The game’s enormous sales helped Nintendo’s new platform
establish itself in the market and eventually outperform its rival, the Sega Genesis—
which had beaten Nintendo to the 16-bit era.
Sega, always struggling to “do what Nintendon’t,” introduced a CD-ROM add-on
for the Genesis in 1992, and new titles with full-motion video (FMV) were all the rage.
There were other, short-lived standalone CD-ROM consoles available. One of these was
Philips’ CD-i, released in 1991, which plays a small role in the Zelda story.
Nintendo was reluctant to follow Sega’s lead. On the one hand, CD-ROMs had enor-
mous storage capacity and were much cheaper than cartridges. On the other hand,
Nintendo feared they would be copied and distributed illegally. Still, they seemed will-
ing to at least explore the option, first partnering with Sony, and then Philips, to create
a CD-ROM add-on for its SNES. However, by the time the unit was ready, much of the
hype over FMV had died down, and Nintendo decided to cancel their agreement. In an
unusual, even bizarre move, they granted Philips a license to create some games based
on Zelda for its CD-i console.
Philips moved quickly to exploit the arrangement and, in addition to developing
Mario-themed titles, released three infamously bad Zelda games for its console: Link:
The Faces of Evil (1993), Zelda: The Wand of Gamelon (1993), and Zelda’s Adventure (1994).
Like most early CD-ROM games, these were loaded with unplayable FMV sequences (the
first two are animated; the last has live actors). All three of these games were poorly con-
trived and had none of the polish and attention to detail that characterized Nintendo’s
games. Few fans of the series consider these wretched games worth playing today, but
their notoriety makes them valuable to collectors.
Zelda made its first appearance on a handheld in 1993, with The Legend of Zelda:
Link’s Awakening, for Nintendo’s Game Boy. A year and a half in the making, it sold mil-
lions of copies and received praise from nearly all major critics.
However, 1998’s The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time is the game most fans of the
series consider its finest moment. We’ll return to this game in Chapter 41.
The Legend of Zelda is a foundational game, one of a small handful of titles that can
truly be said to have defined the industry. Its popularity and name recognition are
Chapter 19: The Legend of Zelda: A Link to the Future 149
second only to Super Mario Bros. and Pac-Man, and the franchise it spawned is still
going strong today.
1 Kohler, Chris. Power Up: How Japanese Video Games Gave the World an Extra Life. Indianapolis: Brady Games, 2005.
2 Keizer, Gregg. “One Million Sold in One Day.” Compute!, June 1988: 7.
3 Duwell, Ron. “History of Dragon Quest Localizations.” TechnoBuffalo. October 11, 2014. http://www.technobuffalo
151
152 Part III: The Early Majority
Figure 20.1 Dragon Warrior was a sensational hit in Japan, but only a minor title in the
United States.
well have balked at this adorable little slime ball. The slime in Wizardry, by contrast,
looks far more menacing, with bits of bone in some versions and a menacing scowl in
others. To put it bluntly, Dragon Warrior looked childish to many Americans who’d come
to role playing by way of Wizardry, Ultima, or Dungeons & Dragons. However, even in
Japan, there were those who desired a grittier take on the genre.
Final Fantasy was designed by Hironobu Sakaguchi, a senior game designer at Square
who’d joined the young new company, along with his roommate, Hiromichi Tanaka,
as a part-time gig in 1984 while they were off for spring break from Yokohama National
University.4 The pair ended up staying on, however, when the early games they designed
turned out to be big hits. However, Sakaguchi longed to return to school to finish his
degree, so he agreed to do one final game and then call it quits. Fate had other plans.
Sakaguchi was a huge fan of Wizardry, which he loved playing until the wee hours of
the night on his roommate’s (Hiromichi Tanaka) Apple II. Still, as fun and addictive as
the game was for Sakaguchi, he felt it lacked something—it needed graphics, sound, and
music to match its gameplay—features that Nintendo’s Famicom system had at its disposal.
As it happened, an ace programmer at Square, Nasir Gebelli, was also a fan of the
Apple II—and was something of a hero among Apple II programmers for both his skill
and speed at coding for the machine. His claims to fame were Space Eggs and Gorgon,
bestsellers that really brought out the best of the Apple II’s hardware. The Great Video
Game Crash of 1983 had destroyed his company, Gebelli Software, so he was happy to
take the job offer at Square. “I was a huge fan of his,” said Sakaguchi. “When the president
brought him into the company, I was all, ‘Wow, it’s Nasir; let me have your autograph!’ ”5
Gifford, Kevin. “Hironobu Sakaguchi on Final Fantasy I’s Roller-Coaster Development.” 1up. December 21, 2011. http://
5
Unfortunately, the hotshot coder Gebelli knew zilch about role-playing games.
“I had to explain everything,” said Sakaguchi. “I’d say the character’s hit points go
down at this point, and he’d reply, ‘What’re hit points?’”5 Fortunately, Gebelli caught
on quickly.
Sakaguchi wanted Final Fantasy to stand out from Dragon Quest in several impor-
tant ways. For one, he wanted a “sabishii” (lonely) style look instead of the “kawaii”
or cutesy style. When he was looking for a suitable artist to design characters, Koichi
Ishii, a co-designer, recommended Yoshitaka Amano, who’d worked on the darkly
ominous Vampire Hunter D graphic novels. “Never heard of him,” said Sakaguchi.
He then showed Ishii some clippings he’d cut out of magazines. “I want this guy,
instead.”
“Uh, that’s Amano,” replied Ishii.
Final Fantasy would also boast a more sophisticated storyline than Dragon Quest.
At first, it would appear to be another “rescue the damsel in distress” cliché, but that
was only the prologue. Afterward, players discovered a much more involved quest
involving four light warriors, crystals, and the mythical elements (fire, water, earth,
and air). The characters the player met along the way were better developed, too, and
there was always the possibility of deception. “We weren’t making a product but a cre-
ation,” said Sakaguchi. “It was putting our soul into the production … not saving any-
thing for the sequel.”6
Final Fantasy was a hit in Japan, where it sold more than 400,000 games, a figure that
convinced Sakaguchi to stay on at Square rather than resume college (see Figure 20.2a
and b).5 According to a report on Square Enix’s website, 780,000 copies of the game were
sold outside of Japan, for a total of 1.9 million. Anecdotal evidence also suggests the game
was widespread. However, apparently the sales were insufficient to warrant localizing
the next two games, which were only released in Japan (see Figure 20.2a and b).
Americans had to wait for the fourth installment, which was confusingly pub-
lished as Final Fantasy II in 1991 for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System
(SNES). This critically acclaimed title sold more than 4 million copies and estab-
lished a new standard for console role-playing games. The big leap came with Final
Fantasy VII, which leveraged the CD-ROM to spectacular effect—but we’ll cover that
game in Chapter 39.
Both Dragon Quest/Warrior and Final Fantasy were hugely successful in their home
country but were elsewhere only modest contenders. Of the two, Final Fantasy was more
popular in America, perhaps because its grittier aesthetic appealed more to Western
audiences than the cutesier Dragon Quest. In any case, a few years and a generation of
consoles later, American gamers took to the series in droves, finally establishing the
franchise as a true global phenomenon. I speculate that we might explain this lag simply
by age. The 8-year-old who’d bought an NES back in 1985 was now 13, the perfect age to
fully appreciate a game like Final Fantasy (see Figure 20.2a and b).
6 Fear, Ed. “Sakaguchi Discusses the Development of Final Fantasy.” Develop-Online. December 13, 2007. http://www
20.1 Playing Final
Fantasy Today
The easiest way to play Final Fantasy
today is simply to buy it on Nintendo’s
Virtual Console for Wii U or 3DS. If
you prefer a remastered version with
enhanced graphics and other features,
you could try Final Fantasy (2007) for
Sony’s PSP handheld. This version is also
available for Android, iOS, and Windows
Phone. Sadly, there’s no legal way to play
(a) it on a modern PC.
Fans of the series are divided over
whether it’s desirable to start your Final
Fantasy experience with the first game,
which hasn’t held up as well as Final
Fantasy II/IV. If you want to start there
instead, I recommend the DS or 3DS
versions.
(b)
Figure 20.2 Shown here is the (a) exploration and (b) combat modes of Final Fantasy.
Chapter 21
1 Though you can see a YouTube video of an electromechanical version called Mekaniskt Tetris at https://www.youtube
.com/watch?v=EHgLK8-snaM. Judging by the video, it does not keep score or erase finished lines.
2 Nutt, Christian. “Alexey Pajitnov—Tetris: Past, Present, Future.” Gamasutra. June 28, 2010. http://www.gamasutra.com
155
156 Part III: The Early Majority
Figure 21.1 Alexey Pajitnov, designer of Tetris. (Photo courtesy of Eunice Szpillman.)
punctuation symbols to form the pieces. Since it was too difficult to form all 12 pieces,
he simplified it to 7. After he’d created the pieces, Pajitnov tried to figure out what to do
with them:
Next I put together the procedures for manipulating the pieces: pick a tile, flip it,
rotate it. But the playfield filled up in 20 seconds flat. Also, once you’d filled a line,
it was kind of dead, so why keep it on the screen? So I made each full line disappear,
which was key. I was a pretty good programmer and it took me about three weeks to
get something controllable on screen.3
Pajitnov himself became the first victim of Tetris addiction; he told his supervisors that
the program needed more debugging, but in reality he was enamored with his own cre-
ation. A few of his closest colleagues got hold of it, and soon everyone else at the USSR’s
Academy of Science was hooked. These early fans included a 16-year-old high school stu-
dent, Vadim Gerasimov, who helped Pajitnov add new features and made a version of it
for the PC (see Figure 21.2).
While Pajitnov and his colleagues were playing Tetris, the General Secretary of the
Communist Party, Mikhail Gorbachev, was introducing his policies of “glasnost” and
“perestroika,” which ultimately led to the lifting of the Iron Curtain, the toppling of
3 Hoad, Phil. “Tetris: How We Made the Addictive Computer Game.” The Guardian. June 2, 2014. http://www.theguardian
Once it hit the shelves, we’d be helpless addicts, mindlessly tapping the keys until we
fell to the floor, victims of the deadly game as the Red Army marched in to effortlessly
conquer us.4
One of many who played Spectrum Holobyte’s Tetris was Henk Rogers, whose job
was finding suitable games and licensing them for Japan’s video game market. He first
became aware of Tetris at Spectrum Holobyte’s booth at the Consumer Electronics
Show of 1988. “I was hooked instantly,” said Rogers. “I licensed every version on every
system I could through Spectrum Holobyte. But it turned out their parent company,
Mirrorsoft, had already given some of the Japanese rights I thought I owned to Atari”3
(see Figure 21.3).
Rogers was primarily interested in Tetris because he judged correctly that it was the
perfect game for Nintendo’s new Game Boy handheld system. Rogers approached our
old friend Arakawa, president of Nintendo of America, and told him, “If you want little
boys to buy your machine include Mario, but if you want everyone to buy your machine,
Figure 21.3 Spectrum-Holobyte added colorful backgrounds and Russian music. They also
enhanced the look of the pieces.
Figure 21.4 The GameBoy version of Tetris was a killer app, not just for the system, but for
handheld gaming in general.
Fortunately, Rogers was able to make a hasty deal with the Russians, securing exclu-
sive rights (this time officially) for the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) and the
GameBoy versions (see Figure 21.4).
Atari jumped the gun, however, and released an NES version under its Tengen label.
This version was superior to Nintendo’s because it allowed two players to simultaneously
play the game on juxtaposed boards—a cool feature that ramped up the competitive
factor. Those who bought it in time were lucky; Nintendo took them to court and had it
taken off the shelves.
5 Peckham, Matt. “Tetris at 30: An Interview with the Historic Puzzle Game’s Creator.” Time. June 6, 2014. http://time
.com/2837390/tetris-at-30-pajitnov-interview/ (accessed June 23, 2015).
6 Wynne-Jones, Jonathan. “Computer Game Tetris Celebrates 25 Years.” The Telegraph. June 6, 2009. http://www.telegraph
Even though Tetris is one of the most abstract video games, it still made an indel-
ible mark on popular culture. The annual Tetris World Championship is now in its fifth
year and was the subject of a 2011 documentary film called Ecstasy of Order: The Tetris
Masters. It also appears in an exhibit at New York City’s Museum of Modern Art and
played on the side of skyscrapers! Tetris has been referenced in several films and televi-
sion shows. Tetris merchandise ranges from stackable LED desk lamps to nifty animated
alarm clocks. There’s even Tetris-themed board games and a fun “Bop It” electronic toy
from Hasbro.
The unexpected and unprecedented success of Tetris predictably led to a sea of imita-
tors and derivatives called “tile-matching” games. One of the best known is Dr. Mario, a
1990 game for the NES with branding from its popular Mario franchise. Here, the Tetris-
style gameplay is given a medical theme. Instead of blocks, players guide pills (consist-
ing of two pieces) that fall from the top of the screen to a set of viruses toward the bottom.
Players win the game by matching up pills and viruses of the corresponding color (red,
blue, or yellow). There was also a popular two-player mode available, which employed
side-by-side simultaneous gameplay.
Other early tile-matching games are Sega’s Columns (1990), Taito’s Puzznic (1989),
Compile’s Puyo Puyo (aka, Puyo Pop, 1991), Taito’s Puzzle Bobble (aka, Bust-a-Move, 1994),
and PopCap Games’ Bejeweled (2001). While always popular, these games really took off
after the smartphone and tablet revolution, where their bright colors, casual gameplay,
and low demands on hardware made them ideal. It’s easy to see the influence of Tetris on
modern hits such as King.com’s Candy Crush Saga (2011), PopCap’s Bejeweled Blitz (2013),
and, of course, Electronic Arts’ Tetris Blitz (2013).
Pajitnov made several games after Tetris, and the reputation he’d earned for Tetris
was more than sufficient to interest publishers. The first was Welltris, a 1989 title pub-
lished by Spectrum Holobyte. The gimmick was a third dimension, which made it look
as though you were playing Tetris down the sides of a well (thus the name). Later efforts
included Hatris (1990), which replaced the blocks with colorful hats; Wordtris (1991),
which had players arranging letters to make words; Hexic (2003), a game with hexagonal
tiles; and Marbly (2013), the first game Pajitnov designed exclusively for mobiles. Sadly,
none of these games have come anywhere close to the success of Tetris.
Sadder still is that Pajitnov himself profited little from the runaway success of his
greatest achievement. “I don’t really like to talk about that because when I think about
those things I lose my sense of humor,” Pajitnov told an interviewer.7
Things did improve after 1996, when Pajitnov reclaimed the rights. He’d emigrated to
the United States and teamed up with Rogers to form The Tetris Company. Their goal was
to extract royalties from the many companies making Tetris games. However, although
the company claims the exclusive right to the Tetris name, their control does not extend
to the “look and feel” and basic concept of the game. This loophole allows people to make
7 Almaci, Hasan Ali. “Interview: Tetris—The Making of an Icon.” Kikizo. December 5, 2007. http://archive.videogamesdaily
.com/features/tetris_iv_dec07_p1.asp (accessed June 24, 2015).
160 Part III: The Early Majority
unauthorized Tetris clones as long as they call them by other names, such as Wolfgang
Strobl’s Klotz (1989), Tingly Games’ Atlantris, or Absolutist’s Pentix.
At least Pajitnov was able to get a personalized TETRIS license plate on his Tesla.
Now nearing 60, the famed designer spends his days driving around Bellevue, reading
Russian fantasy novels, working out, and playing tennis or mobile games. When he does
get the urge to design, he works with paper and pen, not a computer. Will he ever manage
to top Tetris, one of the best-selling games of all time? “I have a project in the back of my
mind,” said Pajitnov, “but I’m not literally doing it.”8 No matter what he comes up with,
though, I doubt it’ll distract the hordes of Tetris addicts for long.
8 Gravning, Jagger. “The Man Who Made ‘Tetris’.” Motherboard. November 20, 2014. http://motherboard.vice.com/read
9 See http://www.arduboy.com/.
Chapter 22
1 Williams, Mike. “Street Fighter V’s Sales Below Expectations, Capcom Plans ‘Full-Scale Offensive.’” US Gamer. May 9, 2016.
http://www.usgamer.net/articles/street-fighter-vs-sales-below-expectations-capcom-plans-full-scale-offensive
(accessed July 7, 2016).
161
162 Part III: The Early Majority
Figure 22.1 Victory or defeat came quickly in Street Fighter II. Would you go home in shame,
or beg mom for another quarter?
While there were several great fighting games before it, Street Fighter II trumped
them all with spectacular graphics, sound effects, numerous characters, and technically
sophisticated, even artistic combat. A seemingly endless line of teenagers lined up in
front of these machines, eager to demonstrate their virtual street fighting skills—or at
least their mastery of its esoteric combat system. For countless gamers growing up in the
1990s, Street Fighter II wasn’t just a game, but a rite of passage (see Figure 22.2).
An important point to consider is that Street Fighter II’s emphasis on competition
made it uniquely suited to the arcade; playing it at home alone against the computer
was for training purposes only—the real challenge came from other players. The game’s
producer, Yoshiki Okamoto, explained that this emphasis on player-versus-player was
inspired by his team’s efforts to make arcade machines profitable again. The problem
with games like Space Invaders, Okamoto felt, was that players felt cheated when they
hit the “game over” screen too soon. Of course, the brief play times were necessary to
keep the quarters rolling in. On the other hand, while you could get away with charging
50 cents for visually stunning games like Cinemaware’s Dragon’s Lair (1983) or Space
Ace (1984), which streamed cartoons off a laserdisc, the cost of the necessary hardware
jacked up the cost of the machine. According to Okamoto,
Chapter 22: Street Fighter II: The Arcade Comes Back Swinging 163
Figure 22.2 Street Fighter II offered a wide variety of protagonists to choose from. Shown
here in mid-arc is Chun Li, the only female contender in The World Warrior version.
We thought about it more and came to the conclusion that if two people played at
once, operators would get twice the money. Players would essentially split the cost so
they could both play for longer … If we dictated the difficulty, players could always
get frustrated. But if players were competing against each other, whether they won or
lost would be up to them.2
This brilliant tactic not only doubled the quarters the machine could bring in, but did so
in a way that felt justified—you only had to pony up another quarter if you lost to another
player, and that was your fault, not the game’s (see Figure 22.3).
To better understand Street Fighter II’s appeal, it’s helpful to look at its predeces-
sors. As usual, there’s debate about what game really deserves credit for being the first
“true” fighting game, whatever that means, but two of the best were Technos Japan’s
Karate Champ (1984) and System 3’s International Karate (1986). Both games rode the wave
formed by John G. Avildsen’s blockbuster film The Karate Kid (1984), which raked in more
2 Leone, Matt. “Street Fighter II: An Oral History.” Polygon. February 3, 2014. http://www.polygon.com/a/street-fighter-2
Figure 22.3 A Street Fighter II machine at the Bradford Media Museum. Note the six-button
layout. (Photo courtesy of John Turner.)
was treated to a bonus round. Data East published ports for home computers and the
Nintendo Entertainment System (NES), but none of these were as good as the arcade
version.
International Karate (also known as World Karate Championship) was a similar
game published by Epyx for home computers. Its gameplay was considered superior to
the Karate Champ home versions and was successful enough to invite a lawsuit from
Data East USA, who sued them for copyright infringement. The courts eventually ruled
in favor of Epyx, resolving that no one game company could monopolize an entire sport,
and the creative elements (backdrops, graphics, sounds, etc.) weren’t close enough to
constitute infringement. Thus, anyone could make a karate game as long as they didn’t
copy the artwork, music, and other “creative” elements5 (see Figure 22.4).
This decision led to a cavalcade of computer, arcade, and console games based more
or less on Karate Champ released in the mid to late 1980s. One of many such games was
Capcom’s first Street Fighter in 1987. While it offered better audiovisuals than Karate
Champ and had health bars instead of one-hit rounds, the controls were inaccurate
3 IMDb. “The Karate Kid.” Box Office Mojo. June 29, 2015. http://www.boxofficemojo.com/franchises/chart/?id=karatekid
4 The original version was single player only; the more popular Player versus Player edition followed a few months later.
5 Kent’s The Ultimate History of Video Games offers a detailed account of these legal proceedings.
Chapter 22: Street Fighter II: The Arcade Comes Back Swinging 165
Figure 22.4 Karate Champ was an instant hit with fans of The Karate Kid movies.
on their own. It was a great design decision, but executing these techniques required
split-second timing and were difficult to pull off.
Despite its shortcomings, the original Street Fighter was successful enough to impress
a rival company, SNK, who managed to woo its design team away from Capcom—its
designer, Hiroshi Matsumoto, would later create the Art of Fighting for the Neo Geo
platform.
To fill the void, Capcom tapped Yoshiki Okamoto, a tempestuous 30-year-old
who’d been fired by Konami despite his success with Time Pilot (1982) and Gyruss
(1983), two of my favorite arcade games. He soon proved his value to his new employer
with 1942 (1984), a hit scrolling shoot’em up game that is still widely admired and
played today. However, before Okamoto finished his game, Tecnos Japan’s Double
Dragon landed in arcades.
Double Dragon was a “beat’em up,” a genre with side-scrolling levels occupied by
large numbers of enemies, who players must dispatch with martial arts and, in the case
of Double Dragon, a variety of fun weapons (whips, baseball bats, dynamite, and more).
From an operator’s perspective, the game’s brilliance lay in its cooperative multiplayer,
which doubled the number of quarters it could earn at one time.
In response to Double Dragon’s enviable success, Okamoto seized the moment and
abandoned his plans for a Street Fighter sequel. Instead, he produced Final Fight, a beat’em
up designed by Akira Nishitani and Akira Yasuda. “Capcom was in trouble at the time,”
said Okamoto. “If Final Fight didn’t sell well, Capcom [was] in danger of going under.”2
166 Part III: The Early Majority
Fortunately, the game was a hit, and Okamoto was asked to make a sequel for it, but there
was a problem—“I don’t generally do what people ask,” said Okamoto. The nonconformist
decided that now was the right time to go back to his earlier plans for a Street Fighter sequel.
Capcom threw money at Okamoto, who swelled his team to include more than 20 art-
ists to create characters, backgrounds, and other assets. The original Street Fighter had only
had two characters, but now the sequel would have many more, each with a distinctive
look, fighting style, theme song, and national origin: Japan, the United States, Brazil, China,
the Soviet Union, and India were all represented by player characters, lending the game an
international appeal, even if some objected to the rather blatant stereotyping. The artists
and designers enjoyed a friendly competition to see who could create the best characters.
The most celebrated feature of the game—the combos—was a fortuitous accident.
The team had decided that the special moves in Street Fighter were too hard to pull off, so
they cut players some slack with the timing. Much to their chagrin, however, they soon
discovered that players could manipulate the process, stringing together special moves
into powerful combinations, or “combos” as they became known. Considered a bug at
first, combos turned out to be one of the game’s most popular and endearing features.
Each character had his or her own appropriately themed moves. Chun-Li, a Chinese
martial artist, had the “Spinning Bird Kick,” whereas Dhalsim, an Indian fighter, could
do the “Yoga Smash.” Later games in the series would add tons more characters and
moves, but the original had plenty enough to keep you busy.
Okamoto had taken a big risk making Street Fighter II; Final Fight II would have been
a much safer bet. The tension escalated after the game launched in Japan to a lukewarm
reception. “Nobody fought against other people,” said Okamoto. Earnings were less than
a third of what they’d predicted. “People around me were saying, ‘Your game tanked.’”2
However, it was just a slow start—once these solo players had finished their “training”
by defeating the computer-controlled opponents, they challenged their friends. Word
quickly spread.
The game got off to a stronger start in the United States. Jeff Walker, Capcom USA’s
VP of Sales and Marketing, grew anxious when one of his operators in Fort Lauderdale,
Florida, asked for a second machine. “I’m afraid if I put a second one in there I’m gonna
cannibalize it. I’m gonna have two doing $600 [instead of one doing $1200]. Not the
case at all. They both did $1400 … Now we know we’ve got a juggernaut on our hands.”2
Capcom eventually sold more than 200,000 Street Fighter II cabinets, a figure that no
one had seen since Pac-Man and Space Invaders, the only games that top its estimated
3.5 billion dollars in earnings.6,7
Street Fighter II: The World Warrior was a staggering success for Capcom and the
arcade industry as a whole. Capcom released dozens of variations over the years, add-
ing or revising content or tweaking the gameplay. Street Fighter II aficionados endlessly
debated the merits and limitations of each port, sequel, and remake.
6 Rignall, Jaz. “Top 10 Highest-Grossing Arcade Games of All Time.” US Gamer. May 22, 2015. http://www.usgamer.net/articles
7 This figure adjusted for inflation. It’s $2.3 billion in 1995 dollars.
Chapter 22: Street Fighter II: The Arcade Comes Back Swinging 167
Naturally, Street Fighter II spurred a huge number of clones and spin-offs. SNK
added several key games to the genre, including Fatal Fury: King of Fighters (1991), Art
of Fighting (1992), and Samurai Shodown (1993), just to name a few of the best known
examples. However, the most (in)famous of all was Mortal Kombat, a 1992 game devel-
oped by Midway Games’ Chicago studio, where Americans Ed Boon and John Tobias—
both fans of Street Fighter II—decided to take the genre in a much darker direction (see
Figure 22.5).
Mortal Kombat looked more realistic than Street Fighter II because it was made
with live actors who had been filmed over a bluescreen and digitized—a technique
pioneered in Atari Games’ otherwise insignificant Pit-Fighter, released a year earlier.
Word quickly spread of the game’s “fatalities,” which allowed victorious players to per-
form gruesome finishing moves on the fallen competitor. Perhaps the worst offender
was a “spine rip” fatality performed by the character Sub-Zero. The over-the-top vio-
lence, coupled with the realistic graphics, ignited a firestorm in the media that led
to US Senate hearings. Unfortunately for those concerned about the effects of such
violence on youth, the political furor amounted to little more than free publicity for
Figure 22.5 Mortal Kombat offered a bloodier take on the genre. Fans loved the realistic
look, but some worried that they might encourage real-life violence.
168 Part III: The Early Majority
Midway, who ended up selling more than 24,000 cabinets and grossing over a half-
billion in profits.
While most of the excitement around Street Fighter II and Mortal Kombat happened
at arcades (or wherever an arcade machine could be found!), they were ported to most
computer and console platforms in various editions. Street Fighter II Turbo/Champion
was adapted for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System (SNES), Turbo-Grafx 16, and
Sega Genesis, and even if none of these could hope to achieve 100% fidelity with their
arcade equivalents, they were critically acclaimed and drove system sales. It was espe-
cially vital for Nintendo, who managed to get first dibs. It sold more than 6.3 million cop-
ies and was a major coup for Nintendo.8
Mortal Kombat’s excessive violence led to plenty of controversy when it came to
adapting it for consoles. Nintendo had a family-friendly policy, and naturally Mortal
Kombat needed a serious scrubbing. The fatalities were toned down or taken out com-
pletely, and the blood was recolored gray and referred to officially as sweat. Even though
Sega had tried to distinguish itself from Nintendo by projecting an edgier image, they
also censored it—but by entering a special code, gamers could bring back the violence.
Once this information leaked out, Sega’s version was the preferred choice.
Both Street Fighter II and Mortal Kombat received live action silver screen treatments.
The first was Steven E. de Souza’s dreadful Street Fighter, a 1994 starring Jean-Claude Van
Damme, whose earlier movies had been the inspiration for Mortal Kombat. Paul W. S.
Anderson’s film Mortal Kombat, which debuted in 1995, fared much better both critically
and commercially, with a solid story, awesome soundtrack, and excellent martial arts
action.
As the 1990s drew to a close, developers kept searching for ways to keep the genre
fresh. Sega had a surprise hit in 1993 with its arcade game, Virtua Fighter, a pioneer-
ing attempt at a three-dimensional (3D) fighting game (see Figure 22.6). Critics raved
about its realistic fighting system and impressive 3D graphics. The Virtua Fighter
series inspired several other 3D fighting games, including Namco’s Tekken (1995) and
Team Ninja’s Dead or Alive (1996). Both games led to best-selling and long-running
series. The Dead or Alive series gained some measure of fame for its scantily clad
female characters, a trend that culminated in Dead or Alive Xtreme Beach Volleyball
(2003) for the Microsoft Xbox—a volleyball game that starred the series’ female cast
in next to nothing.
There are, of course, plenty of other interesting and innovative one-on-one fighting
games worth mentioning, such as Squaresoft’s Bushido Blade (1997; Sony PlayStation),
a realistic weapons-based game featuring one-hit kills; Arc System Works’ Guilty Gear
(1998), featuring beautiful anime-style graphics; and Namco’s Soulcalibur (1999), a
weapons-based fighter with greater freedom of movement.
8 Patterson, Eric L. “EGM Feature: The 5 Most Influential Japanese Games Day Four: Street Fighter II.” EGM Now. November 3,
2011. http://www.egmnow.com/articles/news/egm-featurethe-5-most-influential-japanese-gamesday-four-street-fighter-ii/
(accessed July 1, 2015).
Chapter 22: Street Fighter II: The Arcade Comes Back Swinging 169
Figure 22.6 Sega’s hit Virtua Fighter brought the genre into three dimensions.
The widespread adoption of broadband reduced the demand for the arcade slug-
fests. On the plus side, it’s easier than ever to find worthy contenders to play with, as
it’s always butt-kicking o’clock somewhere in the world. On the downside, though,
there’s something to be said about putting the smack down on someone standing
within kicking distance, especially with an appreciative audience to admire your
technique.
Space Invaders and Pac-Man were certainly influential but seemed more suited to
individuals than communities of gamers. Competition was indirect and based on an
abstract high score table. It was like runners competing by comparing lap times rather
than racing down the track together. Street Fighter II was, if nothing else, very clear about
winning and losing. As players competed, they talked, either to taunt their opponent or
compare notes. Serious players analyzed the game’s ins and outs with the same dedica-
tion a sports fanatic lavishes on her favorite team.
Okamoto and Capcom left themselves wide open by introducing such a complex and
sophisticated game. Arguably its greatest feature was a bug, and it broke with that age-
old advice to “be easy to learn, but hard to master.” Street Fighter II was hard to learn, and
as far as mastery is concerned, I’ll quote Daigo Umehara, one of the world’s most famous
Street Fighter players and world record holder:
Though I’ve been called “God’s Hand” and “The Beast,” I’ve never thought of myself
as someone with talent. Actually, if we’re only talking about talent, I think there are a
lot of people who have more of it than I do.9
Humble words. Mr. Miyagi would be proud.
9 Taylor, Nicholas. “Daigo Umehara.” Event Hubs. May 30, 2013. http://www.eventhubs.com/news/2013/may/30/daigo
-umehara-ive-never-thought-myself-talented-talks-about-his-gaming-career-and-views-what-winning-means/
(accessed July 1, 2015).
170 Part III: The Early Majority
Figure 22.7 A promotional screenshot of Street Fighter V, due in 2016. (Photo courtesy of
Capcom U.S.A.)
1 Kent, Steve L. The Ultimate History of Video Games: From Pong to Pokémon and Beyond: The Story Behind the Craze that
Touched Our Lives and Changed the World. Rocklin, CA: Prima Pub., 2001: 142.
2 Keighley, Geoff. “Simply Divine: The Story of Maxis Software.” GameSpot. 1999. http://www.gamespot.com/features
3 Seabrook, John. “Game Master.” The New Yorker. November 6, 2006. http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2006/11/06
171
172 Part III: The Early Majority
Figure 23.1 Will Wright at GDC 2010. (Photo courtesy of Official GDC.)
hostages (see Figure 23.2). As we’ll see, helicopters were never far from Wright’s mind. He
cherished the memories of flying in them with his father, who died when Wright was only
9 years old. His dad had never told his son his ideas were crazy or misguided. Instead, he’d
sat with him on many a night, pointing up at stars and wondering what sort of creatures
might live there. Wright’s father was gone from the earth, but the stars were still there.
The program that had the strongest impact on Wright’s life and his career was not
really a game at all, but rather a simulation. It was John Horton Conway’s Game of Life, a
simulation of cellular automation that dated back to 1970 (see Figure 23.3). It was based
on four simple rules—algorithms—that determined the growth or decay of the cellular
system—life at its most abstract. The Game of Life was fascinating then, and it’s fascinat-
ing now—with so little input, the computer spawns wondrously complex, elegant, beau-
tiful patterns; spaces of the possible. Wright became obsessed with the Game of Life and
spent a year programming versions of it in PASCAL and later machine language.
As Wright’s confidence grew in his programming, he decided the time was right to
try making his own game. He knew his Apple II inside and out, but the Commodore 64,
the most popular computer the world had ever seen, was the surest route to success. He
bought one and set to work learning to code it, and, like many Apple II programmers,
found it painfully deficient, like typing with one hand. Wright found the situation intol-
erable, so he built an interface that allowed him to program on his Apple II and then
run his code on the Commodore. It wasn’t an elegant solution, but it worked, and “good
enough” is the mantra of every wealthy programmer.
Of course he’d choose to make his first game about helicopters. However, this would
be much more than a Choplifter clone. Instead, he’d use Conway’s Game of Life algo-
rithms to simulate a dynamic, virtual world; a “world large enough to get lost in,” as he
4 Wright, Will. “Classic Game Postmortem: Raid on Bungeling Bay.” GDC Vault. 2011. http://www.gdcvault.com/play/1014635
/Classic-Game-Postmortem-RAID-ON (accessed July 8, 2015).
Chapter 23: SimCity: A City of Silicon 173
Figure 23.2 Choplifter was a hit Apple II helicopter rescue game. It was developed by Dan
Gorlin and published by Brøderbund in 1982.
Figure 23.3 Conway’s Game of Life is a simple simulation of cellular automation, but its
tendency to produce mesmerizing patterns showed Wright how complexity could emerge
from very humble origins.
Brøderbund, who’d brought out Choplifter in 1982, published Raid on Bungeling Bay in
1984 as a sequel of sorts—the “Bungeling Empire” introduced in that game was carried over
to maintain some continuity (it also appeared in Douglas E. Smith’s Lode Runner). They
ported it to the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) and MSX (a Japanese platform) a year
later. Critics were impressed with both the graphics and movement, but few even mentioned
its greatest innovation, the one for which Wright was so proud: the clockwork universe. “It
was totally opaque to people,” said Wright.4 He blamed himself; he didn’t even depict the
resources the boats collected, thus masking the entire process. It was a failure of design, not
concept, but he still earned “enough money to live on for several years”3 (see Figure 23.4).
Like Bill Budge, Will Wright had more fun making his game than he did playing it.
This was especially true of his game world: “I was more interested in creating the build-
ings on the islands than in blowing them up.”3 However, just putting up buildings on a
map wasn’t much of a game. There was something missing.
He talked it over with his next-door neighbor, who happened to be the city planner
for Oakland, California. He gave him a copy of Urban Dynamics, a controversial book by
Jay Wright Forrester, the father of system dynamics. The book’s argument was that city
174 Part III: The Early Majority
Figure 23.4 Will Wright’s Raid on Bungeling Bay was a fun action game, but it was easy to
overlook what really made it special—its living game world.
could simulate its behavior, revealing its true characteristics. It was heady stuff, but per-
fect thought fodder for Wright, who’d always been an electric and fervent reader.
Another key influence was a short story by Polish author Stanislaw Lem called “The
Seventh Sally,” in which a robot builds a miniature kingdom whose description could
serve for SimCity: “It was only a model, after all. A process with a large number of param-
eters, a simulation, a mock-up for a monarch to practice on, with the necessary feedback,
variables, multistats…” The robot in the story made his simulation a little too perfect; the
tiny citizens eventually became self-aware and turned on their master, who’d became
a despot—much like the countless fans of his game, few of whom could long resist the
temptation to unleash disaster on their city just for the fun of it.
Wright spent the next year adapting Forrester and Lem’s ideas into a playable game
for the Commodore 64, a formidable task given that machine’s limitations. In the mean-
time, the Macintosh, Amiga, and Atari ST had popularized the graphical user interface,
and Wright tried his best to apply these concepts (as well as multitasking) into a program
he called Micropolis, which he completed in 1985. Though it lacked many of the features
of the later versions, it was already an impressive achievement (see Figure 23.5).
Wright himself was proud of the unpredictable citizens that populated his virtual city, the
“sims.” “They don’t obey,” said Wright. “That’s what makes it fun … You keep trying to keep this
city together, but it keeps falling apart … You have a certain amount of control, but there’s a cer-
tain amount of entropy of the system, and it’s balanced just right … It’s life at the edge of chaos.
Shit happens.”6 Much like the despot in Lem’s story, players could spend hours manipulating
the variables, then sit back to witness the long-term effects of their playing at God.
Unfortunately, Brøderbund was baffled by its open-ended design. “They kept saying,
‘Where’s the ending? When do you win or lose?’ And they wanted to have an election where
you got kicked out of office or not. And I was like, ‘No, it’s even more fun if you’re doing it
5 Forrester, Jay Wright. Urban Dynamics. Cambridge, MA: MIT, 1969: 108.
6 Kelly, Kevin. “Will Wright: The Mayor of SimCity.” Wired. January 1994. http://archive.wired.com/wired/archive/2.01
/wright.html (accessed July 8, 2015).
Chapter 23: SimCity: A City of Silicon 175
Figure 23.5 The first version of SimCity was done on the Commodore 64. It wasn’t much to
look at, but the gameplay was deep and addictive.
factory-floor automation systems, but after learning about the Commodore Amiga, “decided
it was going to change the world,” and invited a bunch of game developers in hopes of snag-
ging a few into a new venture.8 When Braun asked Wright what kind of games he made, the
despondent developer sighed, “You won’t like the games I make. They’re really bad.”9
Braun was eventually able to coax Wright into showing him his game anyway, and
unlike the executives at Brøderbund, he immediately recognized the game’s potential.
“It was a breakout, something I had never seen before,” said Braun, who partnered with
Wright to develop it for the Amiga and other computers under their own label, Maxis.8
Brøderbund reluctantly agreed to distribute the product, but only after they’d added sce-
narios based on historical cities (Hamburg of 1944, Detroit in 1972, etc.) (see Figure 23.6).
Braun, like Trip Hawkins of Electronic Arts, was wrong about the Amiga; a few years
later, it was all but irrelevant. As the weeks crept into months after SimCity hit the streets,
it looked as though he was wrong about it, too. “It was such a strange thing; nobody
knew what to make of it,” said Braun.9 If the sluggish sales weren’t worrisome enough,
he was soon the target of a lawsuit by Toho, the Japanese film company, who claimed the
unnamed monster in SimCity impinged on their Godzilla trademarks.
And this might have been the end of Maxis and SimCity were it not for a full-page review
that appeared in Newsweek. The reviewer, Bill Barol, sums up the game’s appeal quite
aptly: “Control. The exhilarating ability to manipulate an environment. Maybe even their
own environment, by proxy of imagination. In a world where cities seem to have ungov-
ernable lives of their own, that’s a gift.”10 It was the first time Newsweek had ever published
a game review, and it sent the game’s sales through the roof. By 1992, it had sold more than
7 Sinclair, Brendan. “Spot On: ‘Here’s the Pitch...’.” GameSpot. December 7, 2007. http://www.gamespot.com/articles/spot
8 Bryant, Adam. “Computer Games with Principles.” New York Times, November 7, 1993: ED36.
9 Buckleitner, Warren. “Dust or Magic 2009: Jeff Braun on the Early Days of Maxis, Will Wright, and SimCity.” YouTube. July
30, 2010. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3g1OZlj0dSQ (accessed July 8, 2015).
10 Barol, Bill. “Big Fun in a Small Town.” Newsweek, May 29, 1989: 64.
176 Part III: The Early Majority
Figure 23.6 SimCity Classic running on the DOSBox emulator. If you didn’t want to start a
city from scratch, you could load one of several included scenarios to test your mettle as a
city planner.
beyond traditional gamer circles. It soon found its way into classrooms, government
offices, labs, executive boardrooms, and, of course, architect and designer studios. The
Journal, the biggest newspaper in Rhode Island, had the five candidates for mayor play
the game as a test of their fitness for the office. Most failed spectacularly, but Vincent
Cianci, who “solved a housing crunch, avoided new taxes, and left office with a small
budget surplus,” did end up winning the election.11
Wright didn’t rest on his laurels, and immediately went to work with SimEarth: The
Living Planet (1990). It put players in control of a planetary ecosystem, which they could
affect by altering its temperature, atmosphere, and landmasses, and then observing how
these conditions influenced the evolution of living organisms. It was based on another of
Wright’s informal scholarly pursuits, James Lovelock’s Gaia hypothesis. The hypothesis
describes the earth itself as a living organism; its organs are living and nonliving entities
that interact in powerful and dynamic ways. Lovelock himself contributed to the game’s
manual, a 212-page document loaded with facts, theories, and cheesy one-liners: “Is this
a random world or did you planet?” Corny jokes aside, the game’s steep learning curve
and complex interface (described in the manual as a “planetary spreadsheet”) turned
away those looking for a SimCity successor, and it wasn’t nearly as successful.
Next up was SimAnt, released in 1991. This ant colony simulation attracted more
attention than SimEarth, probably because of its more intuitive interface and appealing
subject matter. A lifelong “ant lover,” Wright was inspired this time by ant expert E.O.
Wilson, whose massive book The Ants is considered the definitive work on the subject and
was richly influential in ecology and sociobiology. Wright read this and all of Wilson’s
other works. Wright took the chance to interview him for NPR’s Open Mic program in
2009 and discovered a mutual admiration. When asked if he thought there was a place
for games in education, Wilson responded that “Games are the future in education …
I envision visits to different ecosystems that the student could actually enter, taking this
path, going to that hill, with an instructor … I hope I’ll meet you sometime, maybe walk-
ing together through a Jurassic forest.”
11 Rivenburg, Roy. “Only a Game? Will Your Town Thrive or Perish?” Los Angeles Times, October 2, 1992: http://articles
.latimes.com/1992-10-02/news/vw-391_1_electronic-game.
Chapter 23: SimCity: A City of Silicon 177
Figure 23.7 SimIsle: Missions in the Rainforest was a 1995 game designed by Matthew Stibbe
outside of Maxis. Despite its intriguing premise, it was one of many SimFails.
Figure 23.8 SimCity 2000’s sharper visuals and new structures made it a must-have for fans
of the series.
Urban Renewal Kit, which allowed players to alter the in-game images to represent
particular buildings or settings. The award-winning game was another crowd-pleaser
for Maxis and is considered the best of the series by many aficionados.
12 Montagne, Renee. “E.O. Wilson and Will Wright: Ant Lovers Unite!” NPR.org. September 1, 2009. http://www.npr.org
/templates/transcript/transcript.php?storyId=112203095 (accessed August 26, 2015).
178 Part III: The Early Majority
Despite the financial success of SimCity 2000, Wright himself was tired of doing sim
games. Instead, he spent several fruitless months designing a “freeform adventure game
with a flight simulator,” based on the Hindenburg airship disaster.2 Wright eventually
scrapped the ill-conceived project, fearing that some might think he was a Nazi sympa-
thizer (the German LZ 129 Hindenburg had giant swastikas on its tail fins).
It took a sim game based on his old flame, helicopters, to bring Wright back to the
table. SimCopter (1996) was a 3D game that put you in the cockpit of a helicopter soaring
over a simulated city. Gameplay consisted of redirecting traffic, apprehending crimi-
nals, fighting fires, performing daring rescues, and transporting people to and fro. You
could even import maps from SimCity 2000. It was also the first appearance of Simlish,
the fictional language of the Sims.
The last SimCity game that Wright himself designed was SimCity 3000, whose devel-
opment began in 1996. By this point, first-person shooters with 3D graphics were all the
rage, and it seemed to make sense to bring SimCity into the third dimension as well. Sam
Poole, a former sales executive with no game development experience, was now running
Maxis and promising “photo-realistic 3D graphics and an enhanced simulation model”
in time for Christmas.13
Unfortunately, this challenge proved far more formidable than Maxis anticipated,
and all they had to show for their efforts at E3 a month later was a brief trailer with blocky,
outmoded graphics. Soon after this dismal showing, Maxis was acquired by Electronic
Arts, and Luc Barthelet became the general manager. He moved decisively, gutting the
staff and reducing SimCity 3000 back down to two dimensions.
The resulting product may not have been 3D, but it looked great in 2D and did offer
more sophisticated choices. Naturally, there were more structures to build, which now
included farms and wastewater management services. Players could also interact with
neighboring cities to work out business deals or purchase services. There was also a
greater emphasis on land values. A jazzy score by Jerry Martin rounded out the package.
Electronic Arts published SimCity 4 in 2003, which was also warmly received. Unlike the
previous games, which focused on a single city, this time the planning was at a regional
level, with interactions between neighboring cities.
The latest entry in the series was confusingly titled SimCity (unofficially, it’s known
as SimCity 5) (see Figure 23.9). This 2013 release was a high-profile disaster for Maxis and
Electronic Arts, caused mostly by the decision to require an online connection to a per-
sistent universe. It wasn’t necessarily a bad idea, but there were many issues in practice.
Like many other players, I had troubles logging in and staying connected when I did.
To soothe bitter tempers, EA gave owners a free game and made the online connection
optional, but the damage was done. In March of 2015, EA shut down Maxis’ studio in
Emeryville, where the SimCity games were made.
SimCity inspired plenty of games from rival companies eager to cash in on the “city
management” craze. One of the earliest and most successful was David Lester’s Caesar
game, which was popular enough to warrant three sequels. As the title implies, the series
13 PR Newswire. “Next Generation in Best Selling SimCity Line Set for Holiday Release.” PR Newswire, May 16, 1997.
Chapter 23: SimCity: A City of Silicon 179
Figure 23.9 The new SimCity had a lot of promise, but connectivity issues plagued its
launch and incensed many devoted fans. Shown here is a promotional screenshot courtesy
of Electronic Arts.
city-building aspects with political and cultural satire. The latest of these, Tropico 5, was
published in 2014. Other SimCity-inspired games are the Tycoon and Empire series, such
as Sid Meier’s Railroad Tycoon (1990–2006) or Chan’s Restaurant Empire (2003). There
are dozens of these themes to choose from, including hospitals, theme parks, and zoos.
Sometimes, Peter Molyneux’s Populous (1989) game is mistakenly lumped in with
such games. However, this game had players in the role of a god, not a mayor or park
manager—a substantial difference, I’d argue. Furthermore, the player doesn’t decide
what to build where, but rather raises and lowers land tiles to facilitate settlement by
your minions or followers. Gradually, their devotion grants you divine powers to create,
well, acts of God, and also to promote followers to higher ranks. Honestly, it deserves its
own chapter in a book like this, but suffice it to say, it was in many ways an equally bril-
liant and influential game.
We’ll come back to Wright when we talk about his greatest game, The Sims, in Chapter 32.
1 Edwards, Benj. “The History of Civilization.” Gamasutra. July 18, 2007. http://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/1523
/the_history_of_civilization.php (accessed July 29, 2015).
2 Schreier, Jason. “Sid Meier: The Father of Civilization.” Kotaku. June 26, 2013. http://kotaku.com/the-father-of- civilization
181
182 Part III: The Early Majority
Figure 24.2 Hellcat Ace was one of many flight simulator games Meier developed before
Civilization.
Stealey’s approach worked, and soon he and Meier were making healthy profits and
earning a name for themselves in the flight simulator genre with Spitfire Ace (1982), Solo
Flight (1983), and several more by other designers. Meier appears to have shared Wright’s
interest in helicopters and the game Choplifter as well; though his Chopper Rescue (1982)
was a more straightforward derivative than Wright’s Raid on Bungeling Bay.
3 There’s some debate about which is Meier’s first commercial game. Other contenders are Formula 1, Chopper Rescue, and
Floyd of the Jungle, all circa 1982. Formula 1 was published by Acorn Software Products. Read more at http://web.stanford
.edu/group/htgg/cgi-bin/drupal/?q=node/237.
4 Cockroft, Jason. “Jake the Software Dude.” ROM Magazine, October/November 1983: 11.
Chapter 24: Civilization: Just One More Turn 183
Figure 24.3 Pirates! was one of Meier’s most influential games. Shown here is the
Commodore 64 version.
(see Figure 24.3). Since it was such a radical departure from the games Microprose normally
published, Stealey decided to make its designer’s name part of the title—a suggestion offered
by the comedian Robin Williams at an industry event.5 Microprose fans were familiar with
the name from title screens, but this move significantly enhanced Meier’s reputation as a
master game designer.
Pirates! was based more on Hollywood and popular myth than actual history, but
that didn’t seem to bother anyone. Most players and critics appreciated its open-ended,
player-directed gameplay; there was no prescribed way to play; you could be a vicious
pirate or an honest trader. The variety of activities was especially impressive, with fun
swordfights, sea battles, and political intrigue. Meier designed it on a Commodore 64,
but it was ported to most platforms of the day, including the Nintendo Entertainment
System (NES).
Meier’s next project was a game based on trains, a preoccupation of the earliest nerds
(remember that Spacewar! was developed by members of MIT’s Tech Model Railroad
Club). Sid Meier’s Railroad Tycoon hit the rails in 1990 and became the first in a series
of such games. Much like Pirates!, Railroad Tycoon gave players leeway in how they
approached the game, and many elements were inspired by Wright’s SimCity, which
had debuted a year before.1 The game was another big hit for Microprose, sweeping up
awards (see Figure 24.4).
Meier’s collaborators on Railroad Tycoon were Bruce Shelley and Max Remington.
Shelley had been hired away from Avalon Hill, an influential maker of strategy board
games. “Board games were at a tough point at Avalon Hill. I didn’t think I had any future
there. When I found out the company had created the Commodore 64 game Pirates!, I
looked into trying to get a job there.”1
Shelley and Meier worked so well together their colleagues started calling the pair “The
A*Team.” Meier’s design methodology was to simply start immediately on a prototype,
making huge changes to the design as he went along. Occasionally, he’d show his project
Birnbaum, Ian. “How Sid Meier Became One of the Most Recognizable Names in Gaming.” PC Gamer. June 27, 2013. http://
5
Figure 24.4 To derail pirates, Railroad Tycoon required players to correctly identify a loco-
motive. Unless you happened to know a member of the Tech Model Railroad Club, you’d
probably need to consult the documentation.
as a preeminent designer. However, he’d yet to make his magnum opus, a game that
would take place over the entire course of human history, starting with the first city
and progressing through all the centuries up to the present and beyond. While there
was a board game called Civilization, Meier claims not to have played it before making
his game. Instead, his inspiration was the classic board game Risk, which he wanted
to “bring to life on the computer,” and along the way added the technology tree that
became the core of the game.1
Meier’s original plan was to do something more akin to SimCity and his own Railroad
Tycoon, which were both real-time games. However, Meier was also a fan of the clas-
sic computer strategy game Empire, a turn-based war game created by computer pro-
grammer Walter Bright in 1971. Empire was a brilliant game that had players conquering
cities, which produced a range of military units (planes, tanks, and ships) that could
be controlled individually. Like Civilization, game maps could either be procedurally
generated or based on actual continents, and an important early step was exploration
(a fog of war covered unexplored areas). The similarities to Civilization are hard to miss,
but there’s no tech tree, and it’s entirely focused on military production (see Figure 24.5).
According to Shelley, one day Meier
asked him to come up with 10 ways that
Empire could’ve been better. It’s not clear
if the tech tree was on Shelley’s list, but, at
any rate, the idea occurred to them that
it might be more fun if instead of being
allowed to build all the various types of
units from the beginning, you’d have to
research and develop them first—and
Figure 24.5 Civilization was heavily influenced by this classic turn-based strategy game,
Empire. My dad and I spent many pleasant weekends playing the Amiga version, shown
here.
Chapter 24: Civilization: Just One More Turn 185
thus have to make decisions about which ones to prioritize. This led naturally to a richer
historical aspect; why not start off with primitive weapons like clubs and spears and
proceed throughout the ages, ending up with nuclear weapons and beyond? Finally,
more for flavor than anything else, Meier delved into some actual history but was care-
ful to avoid the dreaded “educational” label. To that end, their research was limited to
the “children’s section of the library,” said Shelley.1
Working with a team of 10 people, Meier was able to get the game done in a year.
“It started to go viral within the company,” said Brian Reynolds, one of Meier’s col-
laborators and designer of Civilization II. 2 Frequently, those who played it came up
with their own ideas for the game, and Meier was always happy to take them into
consideration—“feedback is fact,” he was fond of saying. Just because he liked an
idea was irrelevant if others didn’t. However, he was more concerned with taking
things out than putting more stuff in; the complexity and scale of the game made
even small additions tricky to implement—rather like adding extra gears to a pocket
watch.
Meanwhile, Meier had distanced himself from Stealey and the management of
Microprose. He believed that their focus on arcade and console versions of their com-
puter games was a mistake, and stepped down. His fears were well grounded; the com-
pany was soon nearing bankruptcy and had to go public. Meier stayed on as a contractor,
and a new VP, Kip Welch, took over his production responsibilities.
Unfortunately, Meier’s new status as an outside contractor meant that there was
less incentive within the company (namely, personal bonuses) to support his projects.
According to Shelley, “The VP of production got no bonus for what Sid published. So he
wanted to put resources on stuff he was being paid for. It was a struggle to get the people
we needed to finish Civ.”1 The only employees of Microprose who weren’t already prom-
ising to stop playing the game “after just one more turn” were the upper management,
who Shelley believes would have canned the project if Meier had still been his employee.
“I don’t think management had much of a clue about what it was until it started selling,”
said Shelley.1
When they finally cobbled the final pieces together, Meier was further disappointed
to learn that Microprose would not be actively promoting it. If the game was to succeed,
it’d have to be by word of mouth.
A few months later, Stealey called Meier to inform him that his game had just won
an award. The gaming public still respected the name Sid Meier, even if his own com-
pany had all but forgotten he existed. Indeed, the game sold better than Meier’s other
hit games—more than 850,000 copies by 1996. Computer Gaming World gave it five stars
and called it “more addictive than crack. It should come with its own warning label.”6
Keith Ferrell penned as nearly an effusive review for Compute!, and took a worthy stab at
articulating its broad appeal:
6 Brooks, M. Evan. “The Modern Games: 1950-2000.” Computer Gaming World, June 1992: 121.
186 Part III: The Early Majority
Figure 24.6 Civilization has come a long way since the first game, shown here, but much
of the core gameplay remains the same.
ing Shakespeare’s theater? The presence of that option indicates Meier’s growth as a
designer; that plowshares can in some ways be as fundamental to success as swords
indicates the sophistication of the game.7
The game’s unprecedented success set a high bar for Meier, who was happy to let
Reynolds take responsibility for the sequel while he worked on C.P.U. Bach, a program
that used algorithms to create original musical compositions. It was a niche product
at best, and it didn’t help that it was published exclusively for Trip Hawkins’ short-
lived 3DO platform. “I realized if I tried to top Civilization right away I’d probably go
crazy,” said Meier. “I didn’t want to … try to top what we had done.”8 Meier designed
several noteworthy games after Civilization, such as Sid Meier’s Colonization (1994), Sid
Meier’s Alpha Centauri (1999), Sid Meier’s SimGolf (2002), and more recently, Sid Meier’s
Civilization: Revolution (2008), a simplified version of Civilization for consoles. However,
none of these or Meier’s other games has come close to matching the appeal of his undis-
puted masterpiece (see Figure 24.6).
For his part, Meier seems content to rest on his laurels. “If that’s what’s on my epi-
taph—‘Did Civilization’—that would be fine,” said Meier.1 The continued success of
the franchise bodes well for his legacy. While the later games in the series offer plenty
of welcome refinements, the core design hasn’t changed as radically as some might
assume—and Meier was not involved with their design and his name on the games
is only a matter of branding. In any case, most modern fans prefer Civilization V
(2010) or Civilization IV (2005), but even Civilization III (2001) is still actively played. A
Civilization VI seems all but inevitable, though no official announcements have been
made to date—and I have no reason to believe Meier would be more involved with it
than he was with previous sequels.
8 Jenkins, David. “Sid Meier Interview—A Lifelong Strategy.” Metro. March 12, 2015. http://metro.co.uk/2015/03/12/sid
On a personal note, I have spent more than 600 h playing Civilization V, mostly with
my friends on Steam. It always surprises me how well the game can keep us all engaged
to the end, no matter how many times we’ve played from start to finish. It truly seems
timeless, more like a great board game, whose appeal comes almost solely from a bril-
liant design, not fancy graphics or a gripping narrative. I wouldn’t be surprised if fans
are still playing some form of Civilization a hundred years from now, and it’d only be
fitting if the game itself was memorialized in some future edition as a Great Work of Art.
Pool of Radiance:
The Gold Box Games
By 1988, there were plenty of great computer role-playing games (CRPGs) on the m arket—
you had your pick of Origin’s Ultima, Sir-Tech’s Wizardry, Epyx’s Apshai, or New World
Computing’s Might and Magic, just to name a few. All of these were based more or less on
older pen-and-paper or “tabletop” role-playing games.
By far the most influential of these was Dungeons & Dragons (D&D), designed by Gary
Gygax and Dave Arneson in the 1970s. It introduced millions of people to the concept of
role-playing, where players assume the role of a character and participate in a campaign
managed by a GM (game master). D&D combined an effective rule system for combat
with rich fantasy settings like Dragonlance and Greyhawk; the adventures were only as
limited as the players’ own imaginations.
Developers were quick to see the potential of D&D as a computer game but devised
their own rules and settings rather than deal with TSR, who owned the rights. The upside
was they didn’t have to pay royalties or licensing fees, but their systems were seldom as
sophisticated or as battletested, so to speak, as TSR’s. The first officially licensed D&D
videogames were for Mattel’s Intellivision console, but none of those approached the
sophisticated mechanics of the tabletop games.
The first serious effort at integrating the official ruleset came in 1988, with the arrival
of SSI’s Pool of Radiance for home computers (see Figure 25.1). SSI’s design team lever-
aged the extensive Forgotten Realms campaign setting, with all its lore, history, bestiary,
and geography, as well as its well-honed rules for combat, magic, and leveling. However,
TSR gave SSI their own region of the Forgotten Realms to develop just for the game, so
they wouldn’t have to worry about breaking continuity with modules for the tabletop. It
was a win–win situation for both companies.
Pool of Radiance built on the foundation established by Sir-Tech’s Wizardry, with its
first-person, three-dimensional exploration mode, but switched to a tactical isometric
view for combat. Like TSR, SSI had started off making war games and, by 1988, had a
well-earned reputation in that genre. They’d also developed the RPGs Wizard’s Crown
(1986) and The Eternal Dagger (1987), which borrowed freely from the tactical and stra-
tegic dimensions of their strategy titles. Their game Questron (1984) was a hit as well,
though its similarity to Ultima was close enough to warrant a reaction from its creator,
Garriott, but they managed to come to a licensing arrangement. They were best known,
189
190 Part III: The Early Majority
As soon as we got the license, we were able to start hiring more developers; we hired
our first artists … Before that, the programmers did all their own art. Now there was
a whole art team, a team of scripters for encounters, the story behind the game. In a
couple years, we went from a development team of ten people to forty.2
The newly expanded team was led by 35-year old Chuck Kroegel, who had a year to
develop TSR’s assets into the gold standard of CRPGs. Paul Murray and Keith Brors set
to work designing and programming the new engine, paying special attention to the
enemy’s behavior in combat. They’d already developed sophisticated AI routines for
1 Ritchie, Craig. “Developer Lookback: Strategic Simulations, Inc.” Retro Gamer, October 11, 2007: 82–87.
2 Billings, Joel, interview by Matt Barton. Matt Chat 184: Joel Billings on the Gold Box Series (February 10, 2013).
Chapter 25: Pool of Radiance: The Gold Box Games 191
3 St. Andre, Ken. “It’s Only D&D, But I Like It!” Computer Gaming World, December 1988: 28, 60–62.
192 Part III: The Early Majority
Figure 25.3 Pool of Radiance offered exceptional tactical turn-based combat. The larger
battles could take hours.
SSI also developed and published several spin-off series. There were three games
based on TSR’s Dragonlance campaign, two games by Stormfront Studios set elsewhere
in The Forgotten Realms and a series of Buck Rogers games. In 1991, Stormfront Studios
adapted the Gold Box engine for online play. Their Neverwinter Nights game ran on
America Online for 6 years and boasted more than a hundred thousand players at its
peak.
In 1993, SSI published MicroMagic’s Forgotten Realms: Unlimited Adventures, which
let you create your own Gold Box–style games for DOS or Mac. This popular product is
still in use today; the UA Archive site hosts more than 500 modules made with the origi-
nal and hacked versions of the program.
In addition to the Gold Box series, SSI published a “Black Box” series of TSR-licensed
games developed by Westwood Associates. We’ll come back to these when we talk about
Dungeon Master in Chapter 27.
After its success with its Gold Box series, SSI struggled to maintain its momen-
tum, and eventually TSR revoked their license. The next company to properly assume
the AD&D mantle was BioWare, whose epic Baldur’s Gate revived the moribund genre
in 1998.
Ghadaksaz’s The Bard’s Quest (1996) and John H. Wigforss’ The Bard’s Lore (1998).
2 Kosman, Marcin. “Brian Fargo: ‘The Golden Era of Computer RPGs is Yet to Come’.” Polygamia. June 24, 2013. http://
polygamia.pl/Polygamia/1,112250,14171391,Brian_Fargo___The_golden_era_of_computer_RPGs_is_yet.html (accessed July
22, 2015).
193
194 Part III: The Early Majority
Figure 26.1 The Bard’s Tale was a massive hit for Interplay.
But the setting wasn’t the only aspect that set Wasteland apart from the mainstream. “One
thing that made Wasteland such a big deal at the time, and why so many people still have
a positive memory of it,” said Fargo, “is that it was the first sandbox game. It was open
world: Do anything you want, any order you want, and see ripple effects that could hap-
pen one minute or thirty minutes later.”4 There had been “go anywhere and do anything”
games before, but Wasteland emphasized the short- and long-term consequences of your
actions. For instance, choosing to kill rather than ignore a group of mocking children will
ultimately lead to a lake drying up, which in turn makes a town uninhabitable.
Furthermore, the world was persistent, meaning that areas didn’t reset until you
started completely over. If you lost your original group, you could create new ones and
start off again in the same world.
Fargo’s original plan called for a story similar to the film Red Dawn, but St. Andre
talked him out of it. “I developed another idea that I thought would be more fun. It was
Arizona Rangers versus Terminators in the deserts of New Nevada … I chose Arizona
because I live here and know the geography very well, and the desert seems like a post-
nuclear wasteland already.”5
The player was put in charge of four Desert Rangers, former US Army soldiers who
now struggled to maintain some semblance of order in the chaotic wastes: Hell Razor,
Angela Deth, Thrasher, and Snake Vargas.6 In addition to Mad Max–inspired punks and
3 Barton, Matt. Honoring the Code: Conversations with Great Game Designers. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2013: 67.
4 See footnote 3.
6 You could create your own party if you didn’t like the premade group.
Chapter 26: Wasteland: Hot, Mean, and Radioactive 195
Figure 26.2 Don’t let its bright tiled graphics fool you—Wasteland is a dark and gritty
game.
Figure 26.3 The designers ran wild with the postapocalyptic setting. Here, my party faces
off against a killer bunny.
murder children and even babies. Emil Pagliarulo, lead designer on Fallout 3, remarked
that this level of violence “seems gratuitous, unnecessary, and cruel,” and refused to
“cross that line,” which he felt the ESRB would never allow anyway.8 To a large extent,
the cartoony tile graphics and hilarious encounters with enemies like “Harry, the Bunny
Master” provide some counterbalance to the darker aspects of the game. That said, no
one would ever mistake Wasteland for Disneyland.
8 Pagliarulo, Emil. “Emil Pagliarulo Writes for Edge.” Edge-Online. October 26, 2008. http://www.edge-online.com/blogs
/emil-pagliarulo-writes-edge (accessed November 14, 2008).
Part IV
The Late Majority
R
ogers’ fourth stage of the diffusion of innovations is called the “late majority,”
which the sociologist describes as skeptical or apathetic about a new technol-
ogy. By the early 1990s, the bulk of Americans had at least played a video game
before, and many already owned systems and already considered themselves “gam-
ers.” However, there were still a fair number who weren’t quite sure what to make of this
“whole video game thing,” or assumed it was only for children or nerds. Some simply
didn’t have the money to indulge in a gaming hobby, or felt they lacked the supposed
education or technical skills to enjoy them. I suspect most simply felt it wasn’t respect-
able for someone like them to enjoy a video game.
This situation began to change dramatically in the mid-1990s as both consoles and
computers made huge leaps forward. The younger markets were never in question; they
accepted the new breed of video game consoles (the SNES Sega Genesis) with enthusi-
asm. What was more remarkable was the upsurge of adults who dove into Trilobyte’s
The 7th Guest and Cyan’s Myst, whose incredible popularity led to rapid adoption and
development of CD-ROM technology. As these games were attracting people who’d
never played games before, a community of “hardcore” gamers was forming around a
shareware title from an obscure company called id. Their obsession with Doom and the
“first-person shooter” genre it spawned led to massive gatherings called “LAN parties”
and drove research and development in three-dimensional graphics technology.
198 Part IV: The Late Majority
Dungeon Master:
Real Time Hits the Big Time
We’ll begin this section with FTL Games’ Dungeon Master, first published for the Atari
ST back in 1987. Even though it’s older than other games in this section, it was very much
ahead of its time and influenced much of what was to follow. Most importantly for fans
of modern computer role-playing games (CRPGs), it was Dungeon Master that shrugged
off the slavish imitation of tabletop RPGs that characterized the bulk of its predecessors.
Instead of trying to recreate the tabletop experience on a computer, Doug Bell and Andy
Jaros used the power of the new Atari ST and Commodore Amiga computers to provide a
more immersive experience, with real-time action, three-dimensional (3D) perspective
and sound.1 It was an ambitious plan, but Jaros and Bell were up for the challenge. Their
game Dungeon Master was a smash hit on both platforms, won dozens of major industry
awards, and established a new paradigm for RPGs that is still in use today (see Figure 27.1).
Bell and Jaros met as students at the University of California. Jaros had brought his
parents’ Apple II+ computer with him to college, and the two spent many a pleasant eve-
ning playing their way through Ultima and Wizardry games. Bell was “The Wild Man,”
a nickname he earned by blowing things up with dynamite and indulging in extreme
sports: “I love the feeling of risking my life,” said Bell.2 Jaros, who majored in chemistry,
was a much quieter man. He turned to the video game industry after a 2-year stint as a
Quality Control Chemist for 3M. “The prospect of a lifetime titrating carcinogenic chem-
icals for a salary that crept upward only once a year was not my idea of a real career,”
said Jaros.3
One day, Bell decided that he should try his own hand at making a game and part-
nered with Jaros to found a company they called “PVC Dragon.” They managed to sell
enough shares to family and friends to fund development of their first game, Crystal
Dragon.4 The pair worked on this project for 2 years but ran out of money before it was
Dungeon Master was not the first game to achieve this feat. Dyna-Micro’s Dungeons of Daggorath (1982) for the Tandy
1
CoCo and Philip Price’s Alternate Reality: The City (1985) were even further ahead of their time, but not as successful.
2 Schneider, Boris. “Licchtschnell zur Spitze.” Power Play, April 1988: 82–83.
3 Mitchell, Andy. “Behind the Mask—Chaos Revealed.” ST Action, June 1990: 34–36.
4 McFerran, Damien. “The Making of Dungeon Master.” Retro Gamer, January 1, 2011: 30–31.
199
200 Part IV: The Late Majority
Figure 27.1 The cover art for Dungeon Master. The man pulling on the torch is Andy Jaros,
co-designer of the game.
hold and worked with Holder to port and enhance SunDog for the new computer. It was a
wise decision; the game was the best-selling ST game that year and gave the team much-
needed experience on the new platform.
With SunDog filling FTL’s coffers, Bell and Jaros went back to work on their game,
which they were now calling Dungeon Master. They thought of it as “the dungeon equiva-
lent of a flight simulator.”5 However, their game wouldn’t allow smooth movement like
a flight simulator but a grid-based system of discrete moves through the dungeon. Even
with this limitation, Bell’s coding skills were put to the test. “We started with a proof
of concept to use a painter’s algorithm (drawing from back to front) to create the dun-
geon,” said Bell. This made substantial demands on the hardware, so Bell spent the next
3 weeks teaching himself C and rewriting his code, which he’d done in Pascal.4
Jaros, meanwhile, was working on the graphics for the game. A consummate per-
fectionist, he spent several days creating and refining his designs for each monster.2
About half were familiar monsters such as mummies, but he created many on his own,
drawing inspiration from animals. He had never taken any art classes in school but
5 Atari Roundtables. “Interview of FTL Team.” DMWeb. January 1990. http://dmweb.free.fr/?q=node/94 (accessed July 27,
2015).
Chapter 27: Dungeon Master: Real Time Hits the Big Time 201
Figure 27.2 Combat in Dungeon Master was fast, furious, and surprisingly fun.
Master, Jaros used a program called N-Vision, which “had a very handy tool that could
change one color to another (or swap them) in a user-defined area. This was useful for
finding the most aesthetic color combinations in the dungeon, menus, and inventory
screen”3 (see Figure 27.2).
Holder’s job was the sound effects, which he programmed to grow or lessen in vol-
ume according to the characters’ proximity to their source. This feature would become
one of the more memorable aspects of the game, and the manual declared that it was
best experienced with stereo headphones. Indeed, anyone who’s played the game has at
least one story of being jolted by a sudden noise.
Holder’s wife, Nancy, was tasked with writing the game’s storyline. This decision
wasn’t made for the sake of convenience or nepotism; she was a New York Times best-
selling author and won the Bram Stoker Award for horror writing on four separate occa-
sions. For Dungeon Master, Holder penned a 20-page prologue, printed in the manual. It
amounted to a quest to retrieve a magical “Firestaff,” but a nice twist was that the play-
er’s party was composed of resurrected heroes who had already fallen victim to one of
the dungeon’s many perils.
Two additional programmers, Mike Newton and Dennis Walker, filled the gaps, but it
was still a very small team for such an enormous project. The real challenge was getting
all the code and assets to fit onto a single 360K floppy disk, which the Atari ST used as
its storage media. It would’ve been much easier to simply span the game across multiple
disks, but this would’ve necessitated frequent disk swapping—which the developers felt
would shatter the immersion. The raw data was well more than 1.6 megabytes, but the
team crammed it onto a single disk with sophisticated compression and memory man-
agement techniques. “No game ever got as much onto a 360K floppy disk or into the Atari
520ST’s memory as DM,” said Bell.4
With a few exceptions, most CRPGs before Dungeon Master that offered a 3D perspec-
tive restricted the player’s view of the world to a small window. The rest of the screen was
used to display statistics and textual descriptions of the action. Dungeon Master’s view-
ing window was much larger, dominating the screen. Health and mana bars were used
instead of numbers, and the game was designed to be completely controlled by a mouse
(a row of buttons with directional arrows were clicked for movement). The mouse was
also used to click on switches, items, buttons, and many other items (see Figure 27.3).
202 Part IV: The Late Majority
Figure 27.3 Do you see the hidden lever on the wall? Dungeon Master was filled with
secrets like this one, rewarding patient, careful exploration of each area.
the party’s flank. There were four basic character classes (fighter, ninja, priest, and wiz-
ard), but many characters were hybrids of two or more of these types. Characters gained
more expertise in these areas by practicing the corresponding skills; casting lots of wiz-
ard spells, for instance, built up that skill, whereas throwing lots of shurikens would
spike the ninja skill. Furthermore, rather than relying on a numbered series of levels,
the characters progressed through stages like “novice,” “journeyman,” and “artisan.” It
was an intuitive and logical system.
To add further realism, the characters required food and water. Thankfully, they
used up these resources very slowly, and there were lots of these items lying about.
If your stomach churned at the idea of noshing on a turkey leg that’s been sitting in
a dusty corner of a dungeon for days, if not weeks, you could try eating some of your
vanquished foes. Players also had to manage torches; run out and you’d be lost in the
dark. Health and mana were replenished by napping but also left you vulnerable to
wandering enemies.
When the game was finally published in 1987, ST owners were delighted. Heidi
Brumbaugh’s review for START magazine summed up the general enthusiasm:
First, turn off your ST. Turn on a lamp. Open the package and take out the instruction
booklet. Read the short history of the adventure on which you’re about to embark.
Now take a deep breath. Go around the house gathering supplies you’ll need: scratch
paper, grid paper, pencils, rulers, blank disks, blankets—and food and water for eight
hours. Ready? Then put the disk in your drive, turn on your ST and be prepared to shed
every preconception you ever had about computer games. This is Dungeon Master.6
Brumbaugh also mentioned that CompuServe was a good place to look for help with the
game, since the Dungeon Master forum was the “single longest discussion on the entire
service.” The game sold at unprecedented numbers, eventually outselling all other
games for the Atari ST. The team scored another triumph a year later, when they released
6 Brumbaugh, Heidi. “Into the Dungeon with You!: The Dungeon Master Experience.” STart The ST Quarterly, September
1988: 23.
Chapter 27: Dungeon Master: Real Time Hits the Big Time 203
a version for the Commodore Amiga. Versions for Apple IIgs, MS-DOS, Super Nintendo
Entertainment System (SNES), and Japanese computers followed these successful ports.
Indeed, FTL had become so focused on making ports of Dungeon Master for other
systems that they neglected their plans for expansions and sequels. The plan all along
had been to use the engine for expansions and other scenarios, including some intrigu-
ing horror, science fiction, and spy games. Fans had to wait until 1989 to get Chaos Strikes
Back, the first of a planned series of “expansions.” Despite this designation, however, it
did not require the first Dungeon Master to run. In any case, critics were dismayed by the
game’s severe difficulty and lack of any substantial improvements to the original. After
this game, FTL focused on the Japanese market, quietly fading from the scene.
If FTL itself wasn’t willing or able to follow up on the success of Dungeon Master in
North America and Europe, other studios were happy to take their place. Perhaps the
best known of the DM-likes, if you will, were the Eye of the Beholder series (1991–1995),
developed by Westwood Associates and published by SSI. These games wedded the
DM-interface style to TSR’s AD&D ruleset. Westwood’s popular Lands of Lore: The Throne
of Chaos (1993) was also a DM-style game. There were plenty of lesser known (though
not necessarily less innovative) DM-inspired games, such as Bloodwych (1989), Captive
(1990), Crystals of Arborea (1990), Black Crypt (1992), Ambermoon (1993), and Hired Guns
(1993).
Perhaps the most influential successor was Ultima Underworld: The Stygian Abyss,
a 1992 game by Blue Sky Productions (later Looking Glass Studios). Paul Neurath, who
designed it, said that he played Dungeon Master on his Amiga. “While the game play
was fairly standard fare,” said Neurath, “its first person 3D perspective, with detailed
bitmapped walls and animated sprite monsters, had more impact and immediacy than
prior CRPGs. This game provided a glimpse into the future.”7 Neurath’s game updated
the DM formula with continuous rather than grid-based movement, an important step
forward in terms of immersion.
However, not all gamers were ready to abandon DM’s “obsolete” grid-based move-
ment style. In 2012, Almost Human, a Finnish indie studio, released Legend of Grimrock,
a DM-style game with updated graphics. It was enough of a hit to warrant a sequel in
2014. These critically acclaimed games do more than pay homage to their predecessors
and provide a nice alternative to the now-mainstream first-person shooter-style move-
ment of The Elder Scrolls and similar games.
Now that we’re so accustomed to continuous movement, it might be hard to imagine
how incredibly immersive Dungeon Master felt in 1987. Not everything about it has aged
well, but gamers willing to see past its outmoded graphics will still find much to enjoy.
Just turn off the lights, put on your headphones, and see if you don’t feel your hair stand
up the first time you hear a monster shuffling somewhere down one of those dark, dank
corridors.
7 Neurath, Paul. “The Story of Ultima Underworld.” TTLG Forums. June 23, 2000. http://web.archive.org/web/20010309140053;
http://www.ttlg.com/articles/uw1.asp (accessed July 28, 2015).
204 Part IV: The Late Majority
1 Jones, Grayden. “Software Developers Strike Gold.” Spokane Chronicle, March 8, 1991: A12.
205
206 Part IV: The Late Majority
4 Hanlon, Patrick. Primbranding: Create Zealots for Your Brand, Your Company, and Your Future. New York: Simon and Schuster,
2006.
Chapter 28: Myst: Creating Worlds, One Tent at a Time 207
Figure 28.3 Myst opens quite mysteriously with an unnamed character falling through a
fissure. What the heck is going on here?
the brothers suspected that there were plenty of adults buying their games despite the
children’s label. The next logical step, it seemed, was to make a more sophisticated game
for an older audience. That would mean going head-to-head with Sierra and Lucasfilm
Games, venerable developers who dominated the adventure game market.
Myst deviated sharply from the paradigms established by King’s Quest or Maniac
Mansion. Unlike those games, which emphasized plots, characters, and humor, Myst,
like Cyan’s earlier works, was all about immersion in fantastic, highly imaginative
worlds (see Figure 28.3). “We’re not game designers,” said Rand. “We were place design-
ers … We just started drawing maps, and the maps fueled the story.”5 The team used their
drawings to design terrain, structures, and other objects on their Macintosh, drawing
them first in grayscale to indicate height (lighter colors meant taller features). They
then used a program called StrataVision 3D to render them into three d imensions—
2500 images in all. They also created more than an hour’s worth of video clips, filming
themselves over a blue screen and using QuickTime, a multimedia tool that had just
shipped from Apple.
Perhaps the most unorthodox aspect of the Millers’ development process was their
reliance on HyperCard. As its name suggests, it was a hypermedia programming tool
based on the concept of a Rolodex card stack. The cards would hold various kinds of data
and GUI (graphical user interface) elements (check boxes, buttons, etc.) and the user
could then write a script to direct a user through the stack. It was an early form of hyper-
text or hypermedia and was intended to give nonprogrammers an easier way to build
dynamic content. It was a hit among academics, but most game developers would have
found it hopelessly limiting and clunky. It’d be like trying to build a game using a wiki or
blog engine today; possible, certainly, but hardly ideal for most purposes.
Using HyperCard wasn’t the only “mistake” the young duo made as they developed
Myst. “We didn’t see a reason for buttons,” said Robyn, an artist and anthropologist by
training. The brothers believed that the bulky on-screen menus seen in games like The
Secret of Monkey Island and Gabriel Knight: Sins of the Fathers were too distracting: “We
intuitively didn’t like the artifice of game stuff … If you’re playing a game, you should
Yoshida, Emily. “Lost to the Ages.” Grantland. September 24, 2013. http://www.webcitation.org/6JvoME936 (accessed
5
August 3, 2015).
208 Part IV: The Late Majority
Figure 28.4 The iconic opening scene of Myst. What is that strange structure off in the
distance? Gamers at the time were mesmerized by the incredibly realistic graphics.
breakthrough Colossal Cave Adventure. Omitting it was, if not heresy, at least a line in the
sand between Cyan and the rest of the industry. Rather than cater to gamers, the broth-
ers were more interested in their parents or even their grandparents. “We didn’t want
[anything] to stand in the way of anyone playing the game,” said Rand5 (see Figure 28.4).
Finally, whereas most games made the player’s mission obvious from the get-go (col-
lect treasures, get off the island, save the princess, etc.), Myst’s now-iconic opening only
served to bewilder players. It begins when The Stranger (the player’s avatar) is literally
sucked into a mysterious book about an island. As The Stranger learns more about the
world of Myst, he or she learns about the authors of the books, powerful beings who link
to parallel dimensions with a magic script. The central dilemma of this game concerned
two brothers and their father. All are trapped in the books; it was up to the player to col-
lect their missing pages and decide their fates. These “linking books” opened to reveal
distorted full-motion video segments; each restored page sharpened the videos and
eventually let the player hear and see the brothers (see Figure 28.5).
The brothers accuse each other of murdering their father, but a savvy player soon
discovered that neither is trustworthy. However, Myst spelled out nothing; instead, play-
ers pieced the story together themselves, considering what they saw and heard as they
explored the large gameworld. Although there was no way for The Stranger to die, only
one of the game’s possible endings was a happy one.
The game was presented through
The Stanger’s eyes in a first-person per-
spective but was not free-roaming like
modern three-dimensional (3D) games.
Instead, the player clicked “hot spots” on
the screen, special locations that enabled
possible actions. For instance, clicking
on an exit moved the perspective to a
new location, whereas clicking on a lever
Figure 28.5 Myst made judicious use of full-motion video, using it more as a plot device
than a cheesy gimmick.
Chapter 28: Myst: Creating Worlds, One Tent at a Time 209
raised or lowered it. The interface was easily controlled entirely by the mouse. This setup
was radically different from most adventure games of the era, which were usually repre-
sented in third-person perspective, with on-screen avatars the player directed with the
mouse or keyboard. Myst’s interface and eerie ambience lent the game a timeless, Zen-
like quality that starkly contrasted with other adventure games, which usually featured
cartoony aesthetics and geeky, self-referential humor.
Unlike Cyan’s previous works, Myst did have a number of challenging logic puzzles
to solve. Most of these required finding clues or working out the strange mechanics of
mysterious contraptions. Working out these conundrums allowed The Stranger access
to new areas and eventually enough of the linking book pages to complete the game. It’s
not hard to see the influence of Robyn’s anthropological training at work; The Stranger
is given very little information upfront about the purpose of anything or anyone on the
island. It’s up to him or her to figure things out by studying their devices, artwork, archi-
tecture, and fragments of writing.
The game was launched quietly in 1993, mostly to negative reviews from the gam-
ing press. To them, Myst was little more than eye candy; a series of prerendered, static
images and a handful of digitized video clips. The severest critics lumped Myst along
with The 7th Guest and other early CD-ROM games as mere technological curiosities;
evolutionary dead ends. Edge, Electronic Gaming Monthly, Power Play, and GameSpot all
gave it miserably low scores, describing it as boring, dull, and repetitive—almost offen-
sive to a real gamer’s sensibilities. Even today, there seems to be a consensus among tra-
ditional gamers that Myst was terrible. “It’s hard to believe we let this game slide,” wrote
IGN’s Jack DeVries in a review of the 2008 DS version. “These gameplay mechanics were
boring and outdated 14 years ago … At its best it’s a poorly aged, arbitrary puzzle-filled
slideshow adventure.”6 But the Miller brothers were never interested in the traditional
gamer demographic anyway. They pinned their hopes on a broader, much larger audi-
ence: everybody else.
Cyan pitched Myst to Brøderbund, who’d published Spelunx (Cyan had published
their own games before that). Their CEO, Doug Carlston, was looking for something dif-
ferent. “I see a lot of hotshot groups right out of college who just need ten million dollars,”
said Carlston. “A lot of their work has a kind of sameness to it, the stuff they played when
they were teenagers.”4 Carlston had never seen anything like Myst, and that was precisely
what he was looking for.
The brothers caught a major break when Jon Katz of Rolling Stone magazine got hold
of it. “Myst’s strange, mystical world rewards not the quick reflexes of Super Mario Bros.,
but creative reasoning,” wrote Katz:
Users need to keep a detailed journal of their observations, of the graphics and sym-
bols they encounter in their travels. The process makes the consumption of even
6 DeVries, Jack. “Myst Review.” IGN. May 16, 2008. http://www.ign.com/articles/2008/05/16/myst-review-2 (accessed
August 3, 2015).
210 Part IV: The Late Majority
Katz’ article reinforced a reputation forming around the game as a sort of high-tech IQ
test; a game for the literati. Jon Carroll of Wired also waxed eloquently about this aspect
and the supposed genius of its designers: “Myst is designed to be played in 40 hours by the
‘average’ first-time player. Rand Miller once did it in two hours.”8 The fact that Rand, as a
designer, would’ve known all the solutions to the puzzles must have been lost on Carroll
along with his objectivity. Indeed, his review reads like ad copy: “Myst was good. Myst was
better than anything anyone had ever seen. Myst was beautiful, complicated, emotional,
dark, intelligent, absorbing. It was the only thing like itself; it had invented its own cat-
egory.” If mainstream gaming magazines weren’t impressed with Myst, Carroll and other
members of the popular press were absolutely enraptured. Myst fans “talk about the game
in the transported tones of a convert,” wrote Steve Daly of Entertainment Weekly.9
The Millers themselves were more humble. “People ask me all the time if Myst was
art,” said Rand. “I don’t even know what art is.”5 Perhaps to avoid any hint of blasphemy,
they preferred calling themselves “subcreators” rather than “creators” of worlds. “We
know how much work it took to create Myst, and how puny and unreal it is compared to
the real world … It just makes us realize how great God is.”8 They fervently denied having
any specific “agenda” for the game and were unsettled by the reactions overzealous fans
had for the game. “As long as there’s nobody claiming to be the leader, there’s no cult.
We’re going to keep reminding ourselves of that,” said Robyn.9
Cyan followed Myst with five sequels, which, with one exception, were well received
by critics and gamers. The first of these, 1997’s Riven, was the most highly anticipated
game of the year. By that time, Myst had sold more than 3.5 million copies, and game
sites and magazines had been buzzing for months about the upcoming sequel.10 When
it was finally released, critics praised it and obsessed Myst fans lined up to purchase it.
For Riven, Cyan had a much larger budget and team to work with, which now included a
former Disney designer. The game also offered much more full-motion video than Myst,
though the enthusiasm for this technique was waning by 1997. The story picked up after
the first game and had the player chasing down Gehn, a villain who had captured Atrus’
(the father in the first game) wife Catherine.
After Riven, the Miller brothers went their separate ways. Rand stayed on at
Cyan while Robyn left to pursue writing, music, and film. Rand’s next project was
7 Katz, Jon. “Rom & Roll.” Rolling Stone, April 7, 1994: 43.
9 Daly, Steve. “The Land of Myst Opportunity.” Entertainment Weekly. October 7, 1994. http://www.ew.com/article
10 Sengstack, Jeff. “Riven: The Sequel to Myst Review.” GameSpot. November 3, 1997. http://www.gamespot.com/reviews
Figure 28.6 Myst Uru was a radical departure from the previous games. It was originally
intended as an MMO.
a project called Uru and didn’t have the time or resources to allocate to the sequel. Presto
Studios had earned a solid reputation with The Journeyman Project (starting 1992) series
of adventure games for the Macintosh and other platforms, and seemed a good choice
for the project. Exile proved to be another successful game in the series, with good pro-
duction values, well-designed puzzles, and good acting. The game sold well, but wasn’t a
media darling like its predecessors.
The Uru project mentioned above—Uru: Ages Beyond Myst—was nearly the end for
Cyan (see Figure 28.6). The idea was to bring the Myst concept to a massively multiplayer
format, which by 2003 had become a vital sector of the game market. It had potential:
Individual players would be able to create their own realms and puzzles, adding value
to the game far beyond Cyan’s initial investment. It was also the only Myst game to offer
a third-person perspective and the ability to create a unique avatar. Unfortunately, the
developer ran out of time and money, and the resulting product was a dismal effort to
salvage the material for use as a single-player game. Critics were appalled by the high
number of bugs and the cumbersome control scheme, made worse by an inexplicable
addition of precision action sequences: “It was an odd addition to a series that in the past
had never required much hand–eye coordination,” wrote Charles Herold for the New
York Times. “It alienated many Myst fans but failed to make the game any more interest-
ing for action gamers.”11 “Cyan and Ubisoft have completely ruined the Myst experience
for me,” wrote Murray Peterson in his scathing review for Brass Lantern.12
Herold, Charles. “Tackling the Mystery of the Missing Game: URU, Ages Beyond Myst.” New York Times, March 4, 2004:
11
G5.
I think it was simply lack of commitment and cold feet … Because Uru was a very dif-
ferent type of online entertainment we were convinced we needed a year of uptime to
really test the waters and grow the idea … Meanwhile Ubisoft was watching The Sims
Online’s lack of overwhelming success and instead of a year commitment they pulled
the plug before we even launched … It would have been nice to pick up the pieces and
do it ourselves at that point, but we were completely spent.13
Myst IV: Revelation was developed by Ubisoft Montreal and released in 2004. Critics
were much more impressed with Revelation than they’d been with Uru, and for good
reason. It boasted the best audiovisuals and some of the best puzzles yet seen in the
venerable series.
For the fifth and final entry in the series, 2005’s Myst V: End of Ages, Rand Miller
resumed the helm. The series at last abandoned prerendered graphics for real-time 3D.
The end result may not have been as pretty as Revelation, but it was still well received
by many critics, who admired its detailed models and quality voice acting. It received
many accolades, but not all reviewers were impressed. The New York Times commen-
tator quipped that it “does less with its real-time 3D engine than 1997’s Riven did with
pre-rendered backgrounds and some clever animations,” and claimed it lacked imagi-
nation.14 Twelve years had passed since two outsiders from Cyan had stunned the world
with Myst; now, they were established developers, relying more on reputation than inno-
vation to drive sales.
Rand and Robyn returned to the industry in 2013, launching a Kickstarter funding
campaign for Obduction, a spiritual successor to Myst and Riven that raised $1.3 million.
Although it will be an “entirely new property,” it will have “the same framework that
made Cyan’s earlier games such a wonderful experience: stunning landscapes, deep
storyline, engaging characters, dramatic soundscapes, and challenging yet intuitive
puzzles.”15 Like the original Myst, the game will “plop” you into the middle of a mysteri-
ous, unknown location, with little initial information to go on. It will be built with the
Unreal Engine 4, a far cry indeed from the days of HyperCard!
Despite the unprecedented success of Myst and Riven, few other developers suc-
cessfully imitated Cyan’s approach. There were, of course, many derivatives such as
Dreamcatcher’s The Crystal Key (2000), Knut Muller’s Rhem (2003), and Detalion’s
Sentinel: Descendants in Time (2004), to more creative offerings like Her Interactive’s
Nancy Drew series (starting 1998), XXv’s Dark Fall (2003), Kheops Studio’s Return to
13 Pearce, Celia. “The Ending Is Not Yet Written: A Conversation with Rand Miller.” Game Studies. April 2010. http://
14 Herold, Charles. “The Final Chapter in a Most Influential Series.” New York Times, October 1, 2005: D7.
Mysterious Island (2004), Nucleosys’ Scratches (2006), and Omni Adventure’s The Omega
Stone (2006).
More recently, Myst’s influence is evident in The Talos Principle by Croteam, a 2014
game that was met with rave reviews. There’s also HyperSloth’s Dream (2015), White
Paper Games’ Ether One (2014), and Krillbite Studios’ Among the Sleep (2014), just to
name a few of many indie developers churning out quality first-person adventure games
and selling them on Steam. These modern takes on the genre offer fluid 3D movement
rather than the perspective switching of the originals. The earlier method is still found
in certain casual games, though, such as Artiflex Mundi’s Grim Legends: The Forsaken
Bride (2014) and Enigmatis: The Ghost of Maple Creek (2011), and Kheops Studio’s excel-
lent Safecracker: The Ultimate Puzzle Adventure (2006).
As all these titles suggest, the spirit of Myst lives on but is not as pervasive as fans
or the developer would like. According to Rand, “It wasn’t that [Myst] didn’t take over.
It was that it didn’t create its own big fork in interactive entertainment … Gaming just
settled back to what it was … They’re all used to shoot aliens or zombies, for the most
part.”5 And so what if the tourists have left? Myst was always a quiet, solitary place, once
bustling, but now disturbed by none but the occasional wandering stranger, poking here
and there among the ruins.
Doom has taken control of my life. I can’t stop playing the game, can’t just turn off the
computer and walk away. No matter what I should be doing, I play Doom instead. My wife
can come home from work, eat dinner, and go to bed without my ever looking away from
the computer. Ed McMahon could pound at my front door, shouting, “You are our latest
millionaire” through a megaphone, and I’d never hear him. I’d just keep playing Doom.1
Even if Firme was being a bit tongue-in-cheek, there truly was something alarm-
ingly addictive about Doom. Wandering through the exhibits at the Winter Consumer
Electronics Show that year, Firme saw the game everywhere. Everyone he talked to
asked if he’d played it yet.
“We knew we had made the best game ever, and we knew that because we were
gamers,” said John Romero, who helped design it. Romero, with his long dark hair and
Californian accent, spoke in almost reverent tones: “The development of Doom was
so smooth that it really felt like it was just our destiny.”2 Destiny or not, one thing’s for
sure—Doom didn’t just turn the industry on its head.
Doom blew its head clean off.
Amazingly, the game that brought the industry to the next level did not come from
a large, well-funded studio in Silicon Valley. Rather, Romero was one of four young,
hotshot developers from id Software, a company they founded themselves in 1991 (see
Figure 29.1). It was composed of former Softdisk developers, a “disk magazine” based
in Shreveport, Louisiana. Disk magazines, or diskmags, thrived in the days before the
Internet and were especially popular with people who lacked access to electronic bul-
letin board systems. Available at newsstands or by subscription, they were a convenient
way to get regular infusions of new software.
Some of the programs on diskmags were public domain or fully functional pro-
grams that could be copied and distributed freely by anyone. However, others were
1 Firme, Matt. “Doom: Why It Took Over My Life.” PC Gamer, May 1994: 50–52.
2 Barton, Matt. Honoring the Code: Conversations with Great Game Designers. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2013.
215
216 Part IV: The Late Majority
Figure 29.1 The boys of id, circa 1990. As the saying goes, a picture is worth a thousand
words. The man in blue is John Carmack; to his right is John Romero. The screaming man to
his right is Tom Hall.
3 On a side note, while it was always possible to illegally copy and distribute the full versions of these programs without
the author’s consent, in my experience there was a certain shame in “screwing over” a shareware developer, who was likely
a small team (or even a lone individual) and not associated with a big company. Even hardened pirates I knew strongly
discouraged it.
4 The full story of Romero and Carmack’s rise to prominence has been told elsewhere; I recommend David Kushner’s
Masters of Doom, as well as Brad King and John Borland’s Dungeons and Dreamers books for starters. This chapter is just a
sketch of a long and fascinating story.
Chapter 29: Doom: Profound Carnage 217
Figure 29.2 After playing Carmack’s Tennis game, Romero would stop at nothing to recruit
him to his team. It may not look like much to us, but Romero was savvy enough to know that
the Apple II animation that ran this smoothly took genius.
Figure 29.3 When Romero saw what Carmack had achieved with Dangerous Dave and
Copyright Infringement, he realized they’d outgrown Softdisk. It was time to strike out on
their own.
“I knew when I saw the horizontal scrolling that we had a Nintendo on the PC,” said
an awestruck Romero. “Boom! Here it is. We’re out of here.” Romero, convinced that
Softdisk wouldn’t recognize the game’s potential, talked Carmack and two other Softdisk
employees—artist Adrian Carmack and designer Tom Hall—into founding id Software
in 1991. At 27, Hall was the oldest of the bunch—John Carmack, the youngest, was only 21.
Romero’s instincts were good; id’s Commander Keen series, which implemented
Carmack’s scrolling techniques, was a stunning achievement. Sandy Petersen, who’d later
work for id, wrote a review of the game for Dragon magazine. “When Nintendo first made
its appearance,” wrote Petersen, “arcade games for home computers took a blow from
which they have never really recovered … [but] Commander Keen is one of the best games
of its type that I’ve played … In a number of ways, it stands above its rivals.”5 Petersen
was most impressed with the small touches, such as Keen’s ability to hang on to a ledge
by his fingertips and look up and down to scope out a level. Barry Simon of PC Magazine
Figure 29.4 Id’s Commander Keen games brought NES (Nintendo Entertainment System)-
style platforming to DOS.
could already play plenty of games as good if not better on consoles. What Romero and
Carmack really wanted was something that would not just set them apart from other
DOS developers, but from all other developers, period. Id launched that game in 1992:
Wolfenstein 3D, the first first-person shooter.7
Wolfenstein 3D was loosely based on the much older Castle Wolfenstein, a pioneering
stealth game Silas Warner had written for the Apple II. Id’s original design had included
many elements from the Apple II classic that didn’t make it into their finished game,
like dragging and searching bodies or picking locks. “But that stopped you from kill-
ing, from slowing shit down,” said Romero. “So we got rid of it.” The team also wisely
figured that just using a mouse and keyboard to control a character in three dimensions
would be enough challenge for many people. The first episode did loosely follow the plot
of Warner’s game; your task was to recover secret Nazi war plans and escape a heavily
guarded castle.
The game also drew heavily from two of id’s previous games, Hovertank One and
Catacombs 3-D, completed in May and November of 1991, respectively (see Figures
29.5 and 29.6). Each was an important step toward Wolfenstein 3D. For Hovertank One,
Carmack developed a “raycasting” technique for efficiently drawing graphics onto the
screen, as well as digital sound effects. Carmack devised a texture mapping routine for
Catacombs 3-D, which allowed for more detailed surfaces on its models.8 It was also
notable because players controlled a person, not a tank or other vehicle. The character’s
hand was shown on screen instead of crosshairs. Carmack expanded on these concepts
for the new game, most notably switching to the 256-color palette of the new VGA stan-
dard and adding digitally sampled sound effects.
6 Simon, Barry. “Arcade Game Offers Nintendo-Style Action with Scrolling Graphics.” PC Magazine, June 25, 1991: 480–481.
Some have contested this claim, as we saw in Chapter 7. In any case, later first-person shooter developers looked to
7
8 There’s some debate about the extent that Carmack’s texture mapping routines may have been inspired by an early
demo of the game Ultima Underworld by Looking Glass Studios, which employed a similar technique.
Chapter 29: Doom: Profound Carnage 219
Figure 29.5 Hovertank was an early stab at a 3D game. It’s generally not considered an
“FPS” because the player is in a vehicle, not on foot.
Figure 29.6 You’re supposed to rescue the people in the building, not shoot them. Oops!
Figure 29.7 Id’s Wolfenstein 3D was fast and bloody, and had amazing 3D graphics.
of stick-figure guards in the original Castle Wolfenstein and never thought twice, the
first-person perspective with the graphic detail and digitized sound really brings the
act of killing home.”9 The fact that both reviewers seemed anxious about this aspect of
the game says something about the unprecedented realism of its engine. As crude as it
might look today, Wolfenstein 3D was sufficiently immersive to unnerve sensitive play-
ers, who seemed both anxious and excited about the potential of the first-person shooter.
9 Lombardi, Chris. “The Third Reich in the Third Dimension.” Computer Gaming World, September 1992: 50, 52.
220 Part IV: The Late Majority
Former US Army Colonel Dave Grossman called them “murder simulators” and feared
that they might be conditioning children to kill.10 Scientific evidence linking them to
school shootings has yet to be produced, however.
In any case, Wolfenstein 3D did exceptionally well for id, which sold more than
100,000 copies of the game by 1993. Id’s shareware model also meant that it was able
to retain a much larger share of the profit than the traditional publisher model. A copy
cost id less than $5 to produce, but they sold it for $50—a “profit margin any software
company would envy.”11 Romero and Carmack now had the financial resources to do
whatever they wanted—and what they wanted was to make an even better game than
Wolfenstein 3D.
Their first move was to cut ties with Apogee, Scott Miller’s shareware company. Even
though Miller had given them an unheard of 50% royalty deal, Jay Wilbur, whom id had
appointed its CEO, urged them to go it alone; to “grab opportunity by the scruff of the
neck and pull it through.”12 Another casualty was Tom Hall, who’d become disillusioned
with the company. He wanted id to return to their roots, with cutesy, zany Commander
Keen–style games. He was also insistent that their games have well-developed stories;
Carmack thought stories in games were as irrelevant as “a story in a porn movie; it’s
expected to be there, but it’s not that important.”12 These creative differences led unsur-
prisingly to Hall’s departure.
According to Romero, the hype around id’s new project began early: “In January
of 1993, we put out a press release that had everything we wanted to put in the game.
We told everybody: This is Doom, and it’ll be out at the end of the year. Everything was
groundbreaking, and we hadn’t done any of it. But we knew we could. It was like it was
predetermined.”2 The press release promised “light diminishing and light sourcing,” a
“seamless world—inside and outside,” “incredible movie-like cinematic sequences,”
and, most exciting of all, “four players at once on LANs, two by modem.”13
Carmack’s new engine was also far more advanced in terms of level design. Unlike
Wolfenstein 3D, whose levels were limited to flat, rectangular grids, Doom let level
designers put floors, walls, and ceilings wherever they wanted. Carmack had also set up
a texturing system that allowed for some parts to be transparent—a useful feature for
creating windows. Romero took full advantage of these new features:
10 Grossman, David. “National Commission to Stop the New Violence.” The Schiller Institute. May 20, 2000. http://www
.schillerinstitute.org/new_viol/ctte_grossman.html (accessed August 7, 2015).
11 Antoniades, Alexander. “The Game Developer Archives: ‘Monsters from the Id: The Making of Doom’.” Gamastura.
12 Kushner, David. Masters of Doom: How Two Guys Created an Empire and Transformed Pop Culture. New York: Random
House, 2004.
13 id Software. “15. Doom Press Release.” 5 Years of Doom. 1993. http://5years.doomworld.com/doombible/section15.shtml
I started playing around with height, making ceilings really high up, and putting bal-
conies in the walls … I played around with stairs leading up to [the room], changing
light values, making recessed stuff. I wanted to demonstrate the feeling of going from
a closed-in area, down a hallway, and now you’re upstairs—now that was different.
Whoa, stairs! Then you go up, and the room opens up into this huge thing.2
Romero felt he’d achieved the right look for Doom (see Figure 29.8).
The team had also made breakthroughs in AI. “Doom was the only game I’d played
where the emergent behavior of the monsters felt unpredictable,” said Romero. “Even
if you made the level, the game would always have some mystery to it.” Different mon-
sters would attack each other; hear gunshots through windows; even lure them into
ambushes. Monsters weren’t the only perils awaiting the player. Ceilings caved in, slime
could be radioactive, and barrels could explode—blowing up a reckless player, but also
a way for savvier players to destroy monsters.
Finally, Doom added an impressive array of weaponry, including pistols, shotguns,
chainguns, a rocket launcher, and the ultimate weapon—the BFG9000, the “Big Fucking
Gun” that could kill almost anything with a single shot. There were also health and armor
pickups, as well as radiation suits and “stimpacks,” a “booster enzyme that make[s] you
feel like a new man,” according to the game’s manual.
Doom went live on December 19, 1993, and rapidly made its way across electronic bul-
letin board systems and FTP servers. Tens of thousands of gamers raced to their modems
Figure 29.8 Doom was an instant success for id, turning the them into the new superstars
of the industry.
222 Part IV: The Late Majority
to download the game, far too impatient to wait for mail. “It was a mob scene the night
Doom came out,” said Rogers of AOL’s game forum. “If we weren’t on the other side of a
phone line, there would have been bodily harm.”12 Downloads of the game and the net-
worked multiplayer crashed the networks on college campuses and beyond—even Intel
had to ban the game after its systems were overloaded.
Id was quick to follow up the original Doom with many upgrades, sequels, and spin-
offs. Doom II: Hell on Earth appeared in 1995, which was basically the same game, though
with a larger area to explore. The critical difference was that Doom II was never released
as shareware; it was a commercial product that sold upward of 2 million copies and
earned id, who’d self-published it, more than $80 million in revenue.12 This game received
several official expansion packs, many of which were based on levels designed by users:
The Ultimate Doom (1995), Master Levels for Doom II (1995), and Final Doom (1996).
Id has also published spin-off games with Doom’s engine. These include Raven
Software’s Heretic (1994) and Hexen (1996), well-received games set in a fantasy setting.
These games were noted for a more sophisticated inventory system and the ability to
look up and down.
In 1996, id released Quake, another definitive first-person shooter. This tremendously
successful game and its sequels again put players in the boots of a soldier. Government
officials experimenting with teleportation technology (“slipgates”) unwittingly granted
access to a race of vicious “death squad” marauders, and, of course, it’s up to the player
to enter the slipgate and kill “Quake,” a mysterious and powerful enemy responsible for
the death squads (see Figure 29.9).
Despite Quake’s success in the market, Romero himself was disappointed. He’d
wanted to achieve another giant leap forward like the one between Wolfenstein 3D and
Doom. Instead, they’d settled for more of the same. “It wasn’t the same place anymore,”
said Romero, who afterward quit id to work on his own project, an ill-fated game called
Daikatana that tarnished his reputation.
Meanwhile, other developers were making their own first-person shooter games. Two
of the most influential were Valve’s Half-Life (1988) and Bungee’s Halo: Combat Evolved
(2001). Half-Life introduced several ambitious innovations but was perhaps most nota-
ble for weaving in a more sophisticated narrative—a successful challenge to Carmack’s
belief that stories are unimportant in
games. Its sequel, Half-Life 2 (2004) was
even more story focused, with characters
and a plot as good as any science fiction
film. The ever-popular Counter-Strike
game started off as a modification of
Half-Life.
Halo: Combat Evolved was also ac
claimed for its excellent story and writing
but was more noteworthy for successfully
Figure 29.9 Quake was an awesome game, but Romero felt it lacked ambition.
Chapter 29: Doom: Profound Carnage 223
adapting the genre for the console market. There had been earlier attempts (including
ports of Doom), but with the key exceptions of Rare’s GoldenEye 007 (1997) and Perfect
Dark (2000) for the Nintendo 64, these had largely failed. The complex control scheme
demanded by the genre seemed to necessitate a keyboard and a mouse. Bungee and
Microsoft solved the problem with a specialized controller. Indeed, now even many PC
gamers prefer game controllers to a keyboard and mouse set.
There are, of course, a multitude of other vital first-person shooter games, such as
Looking Glass Studios’ System Shock (1994), Red Storm Entertainment’s Tom Clancy’s
Rainbow Six (1998), Dynamix’s Starseige: Tribes (1998), Digital Illusion CE’s Battlefield
1942, Infinity Ward’s Call of Duty (2003), Crytek’s Far Cry (2004), and Monolith’s F.E.A.R.
(2005). All these games contributed new ideas and are worth playing. The first-per-
son shooter genre proved quite versatile for rebooting older game franchises, such as
Bethesda’s Fallout 3 (2008), Starbreeze Studio’s Syndicate (2012), and, of course, 3D
Realm’s Duke Nukem 3D (1996) and Retro Studio’s Metroid Prime (2002).
As for Doom, id released the third official sequel in 2004, which rebooted the fran-
chise and ignored the story arcs of the previous games. While many praised its graphics
and purely technical achievements, other aspects felt antiquated. The style of gameplay
that was so fresh and exhilarating back in 1993 was now stale. Bethesda published an
enhanced remake of the game called Doom 3 BFG Edition in 2012. Another reboot of the
series is planned for 2016.
Andrzej Bartkowiak’s Doom film hit theaters in 2005. Roger Ebert gave it one star
and quipped, “Doom is like some kid came over and is using your computer and won’t
let you play.”14 It did fairly well on its opening weekend, but quickly dropped into
obscurity.
It’s been more than two decades since gamers got their first taste of Doom, but the
paradigms it introduced are alive and kicking today, and I suspect they’ll stay with us
regardless of the progress of the underlying technology. In 1997, to preserve its legacy
and support future generations of game programmers, id facilitated this process by
releasing the Doom source code under a not-for-profit license.
14 Ebert, Roger. “Doom.” RogerEbert.com. October 20, 2005. http://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/doom-2005 (accessed
August 6, 2015).
Chapter 30
The real football field that the video games once struggled to imitate now imitates the
simulated one—but the similarities between Madden and actual football don’t stop with
graphics and physics. The stuntmen who don futuristic-looking motion-capture suits to
perform tackles, tosses, and other moves for the game often end up as bruised and bat-
tered as the athletes themselves.
The game’s impact on the NFL runs deep. Many pros play it actively, and more than a few
coaches use it as a training tool. Everyone pays attention to the in-game ratings it assigns
1 Gaudiosi, John. “Madden: The $4 Billion Video Game Franchise.” CNN Money. September 5, 2013. http://money.cnn
2 Bissell, Tom. “Kickoff: Madden NFL and the Future of Video Game Sports.” Grantland. January 26, 2012. http://grantland
3 Baudrillard, Jean. Simulacra and Simulation. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1981.
225
226 Part IV: The Late Majority
Figure 30.1 The title screen of the first John Madden Football game. Apple II version.
Sometimes older stars first recognize their careers are on the downslopes when the new
Madden games arrive in August and their ratings have slipped.”5 Not everyone takes it
lying down. Kerry Rhodes of the New York Jets took to YouTube to rant about his and his
teammate Nick Mangold’s ratings in a video called “WTF Madden!”
For many years, John Madden himself graced the cover of the games that bore his name,
but now they feature exemplary NFL athletes like Odell Beckham, Jr. of the New York Giants.
The honor brings a great deal of celebrity. “Teams go on the Wheaties box,” said Josh Cribbs,
a kick returner for the Cleveland Browns, “but, individually, when you make the cover of
Madden, you’ve arrived” (see Figure 30.2). Cribbs is obviously unconcerned about the “Madden
curse,” a popular superstition that arose after a series of honorees met with disaster.
Most date the origins of the Madden series back to the late 1980s, where it played
a large part in making EA the third-largest game publisher in the world. However, we
should probably go back two decades earlier. As a boy, EA’s charismatic founder, Trip
Hawkins, dreamed of creating an alternative to his favorite board game, Strat-O-Matic.
Strat-O-Matic came out in the early 1960s and was developed by Hal Richman, a math
major. Richman used his background in math to simulate sports (football, baseball, and
others) with a combination of dice and cards full of performance statistics. The player
managed a team of these athletes and then used the dice and information on the cards
to simulate a game. It might sound a bit like fantasy football, and, indeed, the company
refers to it as “the ancestor of fantasy sports.”
As a teenager, Hawkins made and tried to sell his own take on Strat-O-Matic, which failed
miserably. Nevertheless, Hawkins clung to his dream, and created a computerized version
on a PDP-11 while he was a student at Harvard. Finally, after a highly lucrative stint as an
employee at Apple (where he was nicknamed “Junior Steve Jobs”), Hawkins cashed in his
4 Paine, Neil. “How Madden Ratings Are Made.” Fivethirtyeight.com. February 25, 2015. http://fivethirtyeight.com/features
5 Stapleton, Arnie. “Madden Ratings Guru Has the Players’ Attention.” Denver Post. August 25, 2014. http://www.denverpost
.com/business/ci_26389107/madden-ratings-guru-has-players-attention (accessed August 12, 2015).
Chapter 30: John Madden Football: The Greatest Play 227
Figure 30.2 Madden ’06 for the Xbox. Philadelphia quarterback Donovan McNabb was
featured on the cover.
Apple stock and used the millions to found EA.6 As you’ll recall from Chapter 14, Hawkins
fostered an ideology of game designers as rock stars and published several innovative and
influential games for early home computers. Among these was a hit basketball game, Eric
Hammond’s Dr. J and Larry Bird Go One on One, which EA published in 1983. The game was
celebrated for its realistic animation, which, given the technology of the era, did a great job
imitating the style of the titular athletes, who Hawkins had licensed for a mere $25,000 each.7
Licensing actual athletes costs far more than just using generic or made-up names, but it was
a brilliant marketing ploy. EA would use it again for Earl Weaver Baseball in 1987.
Of course, Hawkins had always been interested in doing a football game, and knew
exactly who he wanted to grace the cover: Joe “Cool” Montana, the famous quarterback
for the 49ers. Unfortunately for Hawkins, Atari had beaten him to the punch. Crestfallen,
Hawkins tried for his second choice: former Vikings quarterback Joe Kapp. Kapp was
available and interested, but only if EA paid him royalties, a deal-breaker for Hawkins.
Finally, however, Hawkins found a suitable candidate willing to agree to his terms: John
Madden, the Super Bowl–winning coach and color commentator.
6 Hruby, Patrick. “The Franchise: The Inside Story of How Madden NFL Became a Video Game Dynasty.” ESPN Outside the
Lines. August 5, 2010. http://sports.espn.go.com/espn/eticket/story?page=100805/madden (accessed August 10, 2015).
7 Nelson, Murray R. American Sports: A History of Icons, Idols, and Ideas. Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood, 2013: 371.
228 Part IV: The Late Majority
Figure 30.3 This photo of John Madden and designer/programmer Robin Antonick
appeared on the inside front cover of the game box.
and Ybarra, knowing full well the constraints of the home computers of the era, had in
mind a simplified version of the sport with six-man teams. “If it isn’t 11 on 11, it isn’t real
football,” insisted Madden, who wouldn’t budge on the issue.8
Reluctantly, Hawkins agreed, but these and other technological demands turned out
to be more formidable than anticipated. “We were trying to model NFL football on a com-
puter with less horsepower than your watch,” said Ybarra. The task of turning Madden’s
vision into working code fell to Robin Antonick (see Figure 30.3).9 Madden once said that
the fewer rules a coach has, the fewer rules there are for players to break. Ybarra and
Antonick found a corollary: the more players there are, the more ways there are for a pro-
gram to fail. “All my memories are of pain,” said Ybarra.6 The project consumed so much
time and resources that some around the office took to calling it “Trip’s Folly.”
Sadly, the struggle was mostly for naught. By the time John Madden Football finally
hit store shelves in 1988 (see Figure 30.4), the time of Madden’s development and release,
the computer gaming market was in an awkward transition from 8-bit computers like the
Apple II and Commodore 64 to 16-bit machines, but neither the Atari ST nor the Commodore
Amiga could get much traction against the IBM PC despite its higher price and lacklus-
ter graphics. Finally, EA’s product faced stiff competition from the likes of Brøderbund’s
8 Michaels, Al. “IGN Presents the History of Madden.” IGN. August 8, 2008. http://www.ign.com/articles/2008/08/08/ign
9 There’s significant dispute about Antonick’s actual involvement. Antonick sued EA in 2011, asserting that it owed him
billions in unpaid royalties. Hawkins claimed that he was just one of many people who worked on the game, and not “the
person driving the game” (Pham 2011). However, as mentioned above, Antonick is credited as a designer on the box, where
he’s featured in a photo. It also includes this signed statement from him: “Thanks to Trip for believing in me and the project,
to EA for the opportunity … to pursue a dream come true—John Madden Football.” In any case, Antonick left the company
in 1992 and wasn’t involved in the Genesis version. EA eventually won the case.
Chapter 30: John Madden Football: The Greatest Play 229
Figure 30.4 The Apple II version was an impressive technical feat but wasn’t nearly as suc-
cessful as the later Genesis version.
System (NES) had taken over, Hawkins was wary of Nintendo’s policies and attitudes
toward third-party developers. In addition, the NES already had a hit football game
called Tecmo Bowl (1987), an arcade port with the names of actual NFL athletes (but not
the names of their teams). Another Japanese console maker, Sega, had tried to level the
playing field with its Master System, but couldn’t tear Americans away from Mario and
Zelda. Hawkins believed, however, that their next system, the Genesis, had a much bet-
ter shot—especially if he threw the full weight of EA behind it.
John Madden Football for the Genesis was going to make their earlier effort look
primitive by comparison. It boasted an extensive playbook, variable field conditions,
passwords for saving games, digitized voice clips, tons of statistics, and an amazing
pseudo-3D perspective with multilevel parallax scrolling. The distinguished C-64 com-
poser Rob Hubbard did the soundtrack.
Hawkins played a smoke-and-mirrors game with Sega, demanding an insultingly
low fee per cartridge ($2 rather than the typical $10) and an unprecedented $2 million
cap even on that.6 Meanwhile, Hawkins put a team on reverse engineering the console
to bypass the fee altogether—a feat they accomplished in short order. Sega finally con-
sented to Hawkins’ demands. It wasn’t worth it to get bogged down in a court battle with
EA, and if they lost, they’d lose everything. According to Hawkins, “That $2 million cap
saved us $35 million.”
If Hawkins screwed Sega over with this deal, his next move was outright dastardly.
Sega had planned to do its own football game starring—you guessed it—Joe Montana.
Sadly, the team Sega had working on it was unable to deliver, at least not in time for the
all-important Christmas season. Out of desperation, Hayao Nakayama, Sega’s president,
called Hawkins personally and asked if he’d consider trading Montana for Madden.
Instead, Hawkins agreed to make both games, though in the case of Joe Montana
Football, “We made sure it was totally inferior.”6 EA essentially gutted the best features of
their flagship game, including the impressive pseudo-3D perspective. Surprisingly, both
games did exceptionally well regardless, and helped make the Sega Genesis the console
of choice for sports fans (see Figure 30.5a and b).
230 Part IV: The Late Majority
Figure 30.5 John Madden Football on the Genesis was a critical breakthrough for EA, Sega,
and the industry in general. Shown here is the game’s title screen (a) and gameplay (b).
EA finally acquired an NFL team license for Madden NFL ’94. Twenty-eight teams were
now officially represented along with classic Super Bowl teams. John Madden was a much
more audible presence, greeting players when they booted the game and delivering his
trademark exclamations like “Amazing!” and “Boom!” Madden NFL ’95, released in 1994,
was the first version with the full names of most NFL players, not just their numbers, and
had full-season stat tracking. It was available for lots of platforms, including the Game
Boy and Sega Game Gear handhelds. Madden NFL ’96 added classic teams and a create-a-
player feature. A planned Sony PlayStation version was canned after Sony showed an early
version of its NFL GameDay, a wonderfully advanced game that some deemed a Madden
killer. “If you want to play next year’s Madden early, buy this year’s GameDay,” quipped
Kelly Flock, head of Sony Interactive Studios. He also poked fun at Madden’s “Liquid AI,”
which EA’s press releases claimed would allow the computer to “react exactly as a human
would.” Flock called it “the crap that ran down EA’s leg when they saw GameDay.”6
GameDay did temporarily bring Madden down the charts. But, ultimately, Flock’s
routine was just a lot of tough acting—and Madden NFL ’97 brought the Tinactin. It had
full 3D, a much-loved franchise mode, and solid AI (see Figure 30.7).
Chapter 30: John Madden Football: The Greatest Play 231
Figure 30.6 John Madden Football ‘92 was an even greater success. Shown here is the
game’s title screen (a) and a crowd-cheering sequence (b).
Year after year, EA would add and loudly tout new features for each new Madden,
even if cynics dismissed them as mere graphical tweaks and roster updates. After the
cancellation of Sony’s NFL GameDay and Sega’s NFL 2K series in 2004, Madden unveiled
its “hit stick” feature in Madden NFL 2005. This feature let you use the analog stick to ram
into or tackle a ball carrier—provided your timing was good. Alex Navarro of GameSpot
called it “the best defensive innovation made in any football game, ever … absolutely
phenomenal.”11 If the success of this game wasn’t enough to solidify Madden’s position
as the undisputed king of football games, the NFL’s decision to give them an exclu-
sive license certainly did. Through it all, Madden himself has stayed almost parentally
involved in each game’s production, lending the designers his expertise and insisting
they meet his high standards.
As of this writing, Madden fans are pining for Madden NFL 16, with an impressive array
of features. The most interesting (especially given the discussion of hyperreality at the start
MacDonald, Ryan. “Madden NFL 2001 Review.” GameSpot. October 13, 2000. http://www.gamespot.com/reviews
10
11 Navarro, Alex. “Madden NFL 2005 Review.” GameSpot. August 6, 2004. http://www.gamespot.com/reviews/madden-nfl
Matic game left EA in 1991 to found 3DO, a pioneering but short-lived console and pub-
lishing company. The 3DO was the first 32-bit console and used CD-ROMs rather than
12 Murray, Brian. “Go Beyond the Broadcast with Madden NFL 16 Presentation.” EA Sports. July 9, 2015. https://www
cartridges for storage. Sadly, its high price put it out of reach of most gamers. It was viable
long enough for Hawkins’ former company to publish a Madden game for it. It was sig-
nificantly ahead of its time, with tons of digitized animations, 3D stadiums, and color
commentary by John Madden. It was an impressive game, but not enough to save 3DO,
especially after Sony launched its PlayStation the following year.
“Sony committed more than $2 billion, and not only beat 3DO but pushed aside larger
and stronger competitors like Sega and Nintendo,” said Hawkins. “I was trying too hard
to push the envelope ... I think many of us young entrepreneurs are trying to find out
exactly who we are and where our edges are, and you don’t know where the edges really
are until you fall off a few times.”13
Hawkins may be long gone from EA, but John Madden, who’s even more involved
with the series now that he’s retired from broadcasting, hasn’t forsaken him. “John and
I have a special shared feeling from what got created there, a mutual appreciation,” said
a teary-eyed Hawkins. “It wouldn’t have been created as well without the both of us. He
could have thrown me under the rug. But he knows what we did.”6 What they did was
score the most points—and, as Madden once put it, “Usually, the team that scores the
most points wins the game.”
Perhaps the greatest legacy of Madden was demographic in nature—it made it “okay” for
adult men to play console games. These men—and no doubt some women, too—couldn’t
have cared less about Sonic or Mario, but they were passionate enough about football to
overcome whatever social stigma they felt about gaming. Love it or hate it, Madden helped
make video games a respectable hobby that adults could enjoy without shame.
Hawkins once said that EA could “see farther.” Madden would’ve probably added,
yeah, especially if they had their contacts in.
1 From the Sonic Adventure manual: “With a strong love of freedom, the only thing Sonic hates is oppression. Despite his
short temper, deep down he’s a really nice guy who is 100% committed to helping those in trouble whenever and wherever
he can” (20).
2 NEC unveiled its lesser known TurboGrafx-16 2 weeks later. It was a hit in Japan (where it was called the PC Engine), but
235
236 Part IV: The Late Majority
with Mario. Contrary to some popular histories, Sega did have a mascot, albeit an unof-
ficial one—Alex Kidd, who made his debut in 1986’s Alex Kidd in Miracle World on the
SMS. He was an adorable little boy with big pointed ears and a red and yellow jumpsuit.
The game and character were popular, but Sega of Japan’s president, the volatile Hayao
Nakayama, didn’t think Kidd was the best choice for the new console. So he literally sent
his “AM8” team to the drawing board to come up with ideas for a new character. The best
design would become the new face of Sega. The only imperative was that whatever they
came up with, it’d better not look anything like a certain rotund plumber whose name
must not be mentioned.
There were lots of intriguing ideas, but one stood out to Nakayama, and not just
because he looked cool. The pair who pitched it hadn’t merely created a character, but a
game design to go with it—a design that was not only appropriate for the new character,
but was suitably ambitious, and would take full advantage of the Genesis hardware. He
was blue, spiky, and fast as hell. His name was Mr. Needlemouse.
The winning team was composed of Naoto Oshima and Yuji Naka (see Figure 31.2).
Naka was a stellar programmer, obsessed with games, who’d jumped right into the indus-
try after high school—he didn’t have time
for college. He applied to Namco, but the
famed creators of Pac-Man weren’t inter-
ested in an “uneducated” man like Naka.
Their loss. He got a job at Sega instead,
whose president was a college dropout
himself. At Sega, Naka worked on the
best-selling Phantasy Star games and
eventually climbed his way up to a lead
programmer position.
In his spare time, Naka knocked out
a tech demo that showed a sprite moving
smoothly along a curve. This breakthrough
Figure 31.2 Oshima and Naka in 2010.
Chapter 31: Sonic the Hedgehog: Faster than a Portly Plumber 237
led to a concept for a game involving rolling balls and long, winding tubes. It’d be like
a cross between a pinball and a platform game. Naka was describing all this to his col-
league Oshima, an artist and designer. Pinball and platforming had been done before, but
one thing Naka said caught the artist’s attention: “He can curl up into a ball to attack its
enemies.”
“You’re talking about a hedgehog,” said Oshima.3 Thinking about what could fur-
ther set the character apart from Mario, Oshima added, “a very fast hedgehog.” Oshima
grabbed his pencils and went to work, sketching out an anime-style hedgehog charac-
ter, complete with fangs, sharp quills, and big, manga-style eyes. Oshima said later that
Sonic’s boots were inspired by Michael Jackson’s from the album Bad, but thought their
black color was boring—so he recolored them red because of Santa Claus, who has …
black boots. This makes only slightly more sense than Oshima’s claim that Sonic’s per-
sonality was inspired by President Bill Clinton.4
I suspect he might have been inspired more by Oshima’s boss, Nakayama, whose
prickly persona and short temper were legendary. It’s easy to see why Oshima would
want to keep this information to himself. “Few people, especially in the United States,
have heard of Mr. Nakayama,” wrote Andrew Pollack for the New York Times. “He
is a sometimes whimsical but often demanding executive who is held in fear by his
subordinates.”5 “He speaks extremely rapidly and impatiently orders [them] around in
a whiny voice.”
Mr. Needlemouse wasn’t the Sonic that we know and love today, but the character
coupled with the game idea was enough for Nakayama. Now, it was time to refine Naka’s
concept. For one thing, they discovered there was such a thing as too fast: the game made
them nauseated. Once they’d found the sweet spot for speed, Hirokazu Yasuhara started
mapping out levels. He had a tough job. On the one hand, it was important that players
who’d mastered a level should be able to zip through it with style, finesse, and above all,
speed. On the other hand, it shouldn’t be so difficult that a casual gamer would give up
in frustration. He was also very conscious of the need to differentiate it from Mario, in
terms of both aesthetics and gameplay. He succeeded admirably; no one would mistake
the spectacular Green Hill or Star Light zones for Mario levels (see Figure 31.3).
Sonic was not a purely Japanese creation; Sega of America took pains to “Americanize”
the concept. Indeed, their project manager, Madeline Schroeder, became known as the
“Mother of Sonic.” Schroeder felt that Oshima’s Sonic was “too Japanese” and redesigned
him with softer lines and removed his fangs. She also rejected the proposed backstory;
Sonic was originally a singer in a rock band and had a sexy (human) girlfriend named
3 Horowitz, Ken. “Sega Stars: Yuji Naka.” Sega-16. June 22, 2005. http://www.sega-16.com/feature_page.php?id=42&title=Sega
4 Gametap. “Sonic the Hedgehog GameTap Retrospective.” YouTube. February 9, 2009. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v
5 Pollack, Andrew. “Sega Takes Aim at Disney’s World.” New York Times. November 3, 1993. http://www.nytimes.com
/1993/07/04/business/sega-takes-aim-at-disney-s-world.html (accessed August 14, 2015).
238 Part IV: The Late Majority
Figure 31.3 Sonic was so fast he could even defy gravity. Shown here is one of the iconic
loops from the first level of the game.
When one of his copyrighters suggested the slogan “Genesis does what Nintendon’t,”
Katz latched onto it, hammering the gaming public with the notion that Sega’s console
was technologically superior. According to Shinobu Toyoda, who was executive vice
president of Sega of America, Katz waited to tell Nakayama about the ads until it was too
late to stop the broadcasts.7 “I learned that it was considered inappropriate in Japan to do
competitive advertising,” said Katz.6
Despite the “guerilla” marketing campaigns and efforts to differentiate Sega from
Nintendo by emphasizing their licensed sports titles and a Michael Jackson game, there
was clearly something missing. What that something was, Katz wasn’t sure, but it cer-
tainly wasn’t Sonic the Hedgehog. “Nobody even knew what a hedgehog was,” said Katz.
“We went into the game room, stuck it in, and it really wasn’t very fun.”6 Nakayama had
had enough. He fired Katz and replaced him with Tom Kalinske, the former president of
Mattel.
If anyone knew what American boys wanted, it was Kalinske—he’d launched the
Master of the Universe line and revived Hot Wheels. However, it was doubtful even the
great Kalinske could replace Mario in the hearts and minds of 6- to 11-year-olds, but he
thought there might be a chance with older kids. Sonic the Hedgehog looked like the per-
fect game to help him do that; the hedgehog wasn’t nearly as cutesy as Mario, and older
boys and girls would love his bad boy persona.
In fact, Kalinske liked the game so much he planned to bundle it with the Genesis,
a suggestion that infuriated Nakayama, who demanded a face-to-face board meeting
in Japan. As soon as the Americans walked in, the president tore into them. He insisted
that they were in the business of selling software, not hardware. Then as now, consoles
were usually sold at cost or even at a loss; the real profits were made when the owners
6 Stuart, Keith. “How Sonic Helped Sega Win the Early 90s Console Wars.” Kotaku. October 31, 2014. http://kotaku.com/how
7 Sonic: The Birth of an Icon. Directed by Anthony Caulfield and Nicola Caulfield. Produced by Gracoius Films. 2011.
Chapter 31: Sonic the Hedgehog: Faster than a Portly Plumber 239
bought games for them. In Nakayama’s mind, Kalinske’s plan was like a rancher giving
away milk in order to sell more cows. Abruptly, Nakayama leapt to his feet and kicked
his chair, sending it soaring across the room. The room erupted in chaos, shouting in
Japanese, and Kalinske must have feared for his job, if not his life.
But before he stepped out the door, Nakayama abruptly turned and calmly asked
Kalinske, “Will this will really help us beat Nintendo?”
“Yes, it will,” said Kalinske, undaunted.
“Then do it,” said Nakayama, and slammed the door. As much as he detested the
idea of giving away Sega’s best game, he was prepared to do whatever it took to knock
Nintendo off their perch.
If the first two parts of this plan were risky, the last bit was sheer hubris. At the
Consumer Electronics Show where Sonic the Hedgehog would be unveiled, they’d actu-
ally have the game running side by side with Super Mario World on the Super Nintendo
Entertainment System (SNES), Nintendo’s new 16-bit console that was certain to be
the talk of the show. Keep in mind that the SNES supported 128 simultaneous sprites
compared to 80 on the Genesis, and twice as large to boot. It could also show 256 colors
compared to 64 on the Genesis, from palettes of 32,768 to 512, respectively. This wasn’t
risky; this was suicide.
Al Nilsen, the director of marketing, sat in the Sega booth, biding his time until the
exhibitor’s hall opened. The first event of the day—the main event—was Nintendo’s
unveiling of its shiny new SNES. Nintendo’s marketing team had gone all out, outspend-
ing Sega 10-to-1. A large and imposing-looking man, Nilsen must have cringed each time
he heard that massive audience erupt with applause. Imagine Schroeder standing next
to him, the “mother of Sonic,” already sweaty in her Sonic the Hedgehog mascot cos-
tume. Nilsen checked his watch. An only slightly muffled chant of “Nintendo, Nintendo,
Nintendo!” echoed through the cavernous hall.
And then, after one last thunderous cheer, the doors burst open, and out came the
flood of journalists, critics, developers, merchandisers, and pretty much anybody who
was anybody in the games industry. One smug journalist headed over to Nilsen, flipped
open his notepad, and demanded, “The Super Nintendo has 32,768 colors. Your Genesis
only has 512. What are you going to do about that?”
Nilsen motioned toward a screen behind him. On the left was Super Mario World,
running on a spanking new SNES. On the right was Sonic the Hedgehog, running on a
3-year-old Sega Genesis. “Which has more colors?” asked Nilsen. The reporter leaned in
to take a closer look, comparing one, then the other. He couldn’t tell. “It’s not how many
colors you have,” said Nilsen at last. “It’s how you use them.”7
If it looked good, it played even better. Lines began to form—everyone wanted to play
this new hedgehog game they kept hearing about. Was it really as fast as they said?
It was obvious to anyone who played it that day that Sonic the Hedgehog was a killer
app—one of those rare titles that’s worth buying a system just to play. Well, almost any-
one. Stewart Cheifet of Computer Chronicles observed that Sega had announced “two
new games, one featuring a well-known mouse [Mickey Mouse and the Castle of Illusion],
the other a lesser-known … hedgehog.” Unbeknown to Cheifet, within 5 years, Sonic
240 Part IV: The Late Majority
Figure 31.4 The Sonic the Hedgehog cartridge. Collectors tend to shun these “Not for Resale”
versions, which makes them cheap and easy to find.
had tried to crush Sega. But as many a predator has discovered to its dismay, stomping on
a hedgehog hurts like hell.
Of course, all these sales and market penetration wouldn’t mean zilch if Sega couldn’t
sell all those new Genesis owners a game they’d actually have to pay for. Obviously, Sonic
the Hedgehog needed a proper sequel, and if it bombed, Sega’s newfound market share
would come and go faster than a Sega Scream.
Then, Yuji Naka, the “father” of Sonic, quit. Unlike Nintendo’s Miyamoto, Naka was
not content to sit by as he was passed over for promotions despite his obvious value to the
company. Fortunately, Mark Cerny of Sega Technical Institute (STI) heard about Naka’s
resignation and begged him to come work for him in California. Yasuhara, whose fabu-
lous levels were a key part of the first game’s appeal, accepted his offer.
Cerny was no stranger to game design. He designed the amazing Marble Madness
arcade game in 1984 and the SegaScope 3D Glasses for the Master System. His love of
teaching made him a natural choice to head STI, a skunkworks operation that paired tal-
ented novices with seasoned developers from both countries. It sounded good on paper,
but the cultural differences were larger than Cerny expected and eventually proved
insurmountable. But they did manage to do a spectacular follow-up to Sega’s killer app:
Sonic the Hedgehog 2 (1992) (see Figure 31.5).
The biggest innovation by far was Tails, Sonic’s friend. Having two playable char-
acters on screen at the same time was a programming challenge, but the newly con-
figured team pulled it off. It was even more ambitious than its predecessor had been,
with more levels, secrets, enemies, and a new “spin dash” maneuver. They were less
successful with a split-screen competitive mode, which scrunched the graphics, but
it was still fun to play.
8 Arenot, Susan. “Dice: Creating Characters that Last.” Wired. February 7, 2008. http://www.wired.com/2008/02/post-1-12/
(accessed August 14, 2015).
Parish, Jeremy. “Sega Genesis 25th Anniversary: The Rise and Fall of an All-Time Great.” US Gamer. August 14, 2014. http://
9
Figure 31.5 Sonic the Hedgehog 2, a game no Sonic fan could live without.
going to have the world’s first global launch.”10 These and other high-profile marketing
efforts paid off; Sonic the Hedgehog 2 eventually sold more than 6 million copies and
became the second best-selling game for the Genesis (after the first Sonic).11
Sonic the Hedgehog 3 launched on February 2, 1994, and was even more ambitious
than its predecessors. Knuckles the Echidna joined the cast in what many Sonic fans
consider to be the best game in the series. A “surprise” sequel followed a few months
later—Sonic & Knuckles, which snapped into a special slot on the Sonic the Hedgehog 3
cartridge. In addition to new content, it let you play through the earlier game as Knuckles.
Both were well received.
Sega would fall on hard times after the launch of Sony’s PlayStation. Neither their Saturn
nor Dreamcast consoles came anywhere close to matching the success of the Genesis. Unlike
Mario, who made a seamless transition into 3D with Super Mario 64, Sonic just couldn’t
seem to catch up. After a “conspicuously long absence,” Sonic made his (pseudo) 3D debut in
Sonic 3D Blast (1996) (see Figure 31.6), which received mixed reviews. “Had this game been
more action oriented, with more enemies and much faster gameplay, it would have truly
lived up to the Sonic name,” wrote Jeff Gerstmann for GameSpot.12 Sonic Adventure (1998) for
the Dreamcast fared better, but not enough to save Sega’s flagging console line.
Fortunately, Sonic survived Sega’s transition out of the hardware business intact. To
date, he’s been in more than 60 titles for other consoles and computers, including some
with his former archrival Mario (Mario & Sonic). There’s Sonic Heroes (2003), Sonic Rush
(2005), Sonic Unleashed (2008), and Sonic the Hedgehog 4: Episode 1 (2010), just to name a
few. The last title was an homage to the hedgehog’s origins on the Genesis and was pub-
lished for just about every viable system.
10 Harris, Blake. Console Wars: Sega, Nintendo, and the Battle that Defined a Generation. New York: HarperCollins, 2014.
11 Boutros, Daniel. “A Detailed Cross-Examination of Yesterday and Today’s Best-Selling Platform Games.” Gamasutra.
12 Gerstmann, Jeff. “Sonic 3D Blast Review.” GameSpot. December 12, 1996. http://www.gamespot.com/reviews/sonic-3d
Figure 31.6 Sonic 3D Blast had potential, but it was no Super Mario 64.
a NES or SNES. Sonic cartridges are also plentiful and cheap. If you’d rather have a new
machine, there are several retro consoles and handhelds available with built-in Sonic
games. If you prefer playing on a modern system, try SEGA Classics: Sonic the Hedgehog
on Steam, or check your console’s virtual store. The game is also available for smart-
phones and tablets.
Chapter 32
EA shipped us a few copies of the game nearly two weeks ago, and we’ve kept playing
and playing them until someone had to physically pull the disks out of our hands. The
game isn’t just addictive; it’s downright dangerous. Whether you loved playing with a
dollhouse as a kid, or blowing up that dollhouse with M-80s, I feel safe in saying that
you may have just found yourself a new religion.4
In his review for the New York Times, J.C. Herz waxed philosophically about how the
game’s simulation of modern life was at once “crude” and “disturbing in its accuracy”:
Where does the metaphor break down? The Sims asks that question in an elegant and
provocative way. And to that degree, it succeeds as art … By building a window into
Sims’ souls, it prompts us to consider our own.5
1 Seabrook, John. “Game Master.” The New Yorker. November 6, 2006. http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2006/11/06
2 Frum, Larry. “New Game Celebrates 10 Years of The Sims.” CNN. October 28, 2010. http://www.cnn.com/2010/TECH
3 Skigen, Deidre. “Taking the Sand Tray High Tech.” In Popular Culture in Counseling, Psychotherapy, and Play-Based
Interventions, by Lawrence C. Rubin, 165–180. New York: Springer Publishing Company, 2008.
4 IGN Staff. “The Sims.” IGM. February 4, 2000. http://www.ign.com/articles/2000/02/05/the-sims-6 (accessed August 26, 2015).
5 Herz, J.C. “The Sims Who Die With the Most Toys Win.” New York Times, February 10, 2000: G10.
243
244 Part IV: The Late Majority
Figure 32.1 The Sims was the best-selling PC game of all time.
prototype had only one functioning piece of equipment: a commode. Wright’s colleagues
at Maxis thought it was some kind of joke. “It was referred to as ‘The Toilet Game.’ It was
the game where you clean the toilet,” said Wright.7 Even he had his doubts. “I thought
the game would either do a million units … or fifty,” said Wright. “It would be a hit or a
total dog.”8
Fortunately for fans of The Sims, three of Electronic Arts’ (EA’s) executives, Bing
Gordon, Don Mattrick, and John Riccitiello rallied behind the product. “We thought The
Sims might be a killer app,” said Gordon, over the loud objections of Sam Nelson, who’d
produced a similar-sounding product for Activision called Little Computer People in
1985. Designed by David Crane of Pitfall! fame, Little Computer People never managed to
rise above niche status despite glowing reviews from critics. To Nelson, Wright’s “toilet
game” sounded suspiciously like Crane’s “house-on-a-disk” and feared it would fare no
better.9
6 Buckleitner, Warren. “Dust or Magic 2009: Jeff Braun on the Early Days of Maxis, Will Wright, and SimCity.” YouTube.
7 Whitehead, Dan. “The History of The Sims.” Eurogamer. March 19, 2008. http://www.eurogamer.net/articles/the-history
-of-the-sims-article (accessed August 25, 2015).
8 Gillen, Kieron. “Making of The Sims.” Rock Paper Shotgun. January 18, 2008. http://www.rockpapershotgun
.com/2008/01/18/making-of-the-sims/ (accessed August 26, 2015).
9 Sheffield, Brandon. “Bing There, Done That.” Gamasutra. May 23, 2007. http://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/129855
/bing_there_done_that_eas_cco_.php (accessed August 26, 2015).
Chapter 32: The Sims: The World’s Most Profitable Ant Farm 245
An avid reader, Wright has cited many academic inspirations for his game.1 A quick
glance at the titles of four of these works is quite revealing:
• Time for Life: The Surprising Ways Americans Use Their Time by John Robinson
and Geoffrey Godbey
• Maps of the Mind: Charts and Concepts of the Mind and Its Labyrinths by Charles
Hampden-Turner
To my mind, each item on this list is a “must-read” for serious game designers, but The Sims
was not just a synthesis of Wright’s reading material. In 1991, he lost his house in Oakland
Hills to a massive fire. Fortunately, no one was injured in the blaze, but Wright and his
family now faced the necessity of replacing all of their lost belongings. Luckily, Wright had
just finished coding his game Sim Ant, and had moved the source code from his house to
his office just a few weeks before. When he returned to view the ashes of his former home,
he was pleased to find survivors—a colony of ants who had burrowed deeply enough into
the soil to avoid the searing heat. “I watched as they came up and carried off the dead ants
on the surface,” said Wright. “They were feeding off their comrades.”10
Wright might well have envied the ants their breakfast, especially since he now faced
an even less palatable task. “I hate to shop,” said Wright, “and I was forced to buy all
these things, from toothpaste, utensils, and socks up to furniture.”1 “All these objects end
up sucking up your time, when they had been promising to save you time.” Wright also
points to his earlier work on the SimAnt we discussed in Chapter 23. “I began wondering
whether there was a way we could simulate human behavior in a more distributed sense
in the way the ants do.”8
The final design incorporated two distinctive types of gameplay: caring for your
Sims and decorating their house. The first is comparable to a “virtual pet” game like
Aki Maita’s Tamagotchi toy. Each Sim had five adjustable personality attributes: neat,
outgoing, active, playful, and nice (see Figure 32.2). The aggregate of these attributes was
calculated as a sign of the zodiac. You could also choose their skin tone, sex, and age, and
customize their appearance with different heads and outfits. Caring for your Sims meant
satisfying their many needs or “motives.” These were hunger, comfort, hygiene, bladder,
energy, fun, social, and room. While some of these needs were straightforward (charac-
ters who don’t get to a bathroom will soil their clothes), others were more complex and
affected by the personality traits. For instance, a very playful character had more fun
playing a game than reading a book.
10 Taylor, Tracey. “Inspired to Make the Sims After Losing a Home.” Berkeleyside. October 17, 2011. http://www.berkeleyside
.com/2011/10/17/will-wright-inspired-to-make-the-sims-after-iosing-a-home/ (accessed August 26, 2015).
246 Part IV: The Late Majority
11 Mutsuko, Murakami. “Just Another Day’s Work.” Mimitchi. February 25, 1998. http://www.mimitchi.com/html/aki.htm
remarkable success with its Second Life MMO. It quickly became the most successful of
all social-based MMOs, winning many awards and substantial investment from busi-
nesses and universities. Second Life’s developers emphasized “user-generated content,”
which ranged from custom objects to new gestures and animations for characters.
Players could buy and sell all manner of things from other players (users retained copy-
right of the objects they created). The media was full of reports of people earning their liv-
ing simply by playing Second Life, exchanging their in-game money for real-life dollars.
Meanwhile, the demise of The Sims Online didn’t diminish enthusiasm for the stand-
alone versions or their many expansions and spin-offs. EA Games released The Sims
2 in September of 2004 (see Figure 32.4). The key additions were a 3D engine, lifetime
aspirations, and genetic inheritance. Now, the Sims had memories as well as genes to
pass on to subsequent generations. The aspiration system was for players who disliked
the open-ended nature of the first game. Now, players could spend their time fulfill-
ing specificgoals. The Sims 2 was a rousing success. The Sims 3 followed in 2009, selling
more than 10 million copies, and a fourth
iteration debuted on September 2, 2014. It
met with mostly lukewarm reviews, espe-
cially when critics compared it to a fully
expanded version of the third install-
ment. Of particular note was the omission
of a toddler stage for Sims and swimming
pools. Many longtime supporters of the
series were disappointed or even out-
raged, and, at least for the moment, the
future of the franchise is uncertain.
As for Wright, his next big idea—
Spore—was one of the most anticipated
Figure 32.4 The Sims 2 was another smash hit for the franchise.
248 Part IV: The Late Majority
games of the decade by the time it finally arrived in 2008. Critics praised it and sales
were brisk at first, but it soon became obvious that it was not the next Sims franchise.
Wright parted ways with Maxis a year later to form Stupid Fun Club, a self-described
“innovative think-tank” that merges the video, toy, and game industries. One of their
first products, appropriately enough, is the Ant Farm Revolution, a futuristic ant farm
with transparent “tunneling gel” instead of soil, LEDs, and a projecting lens. I’m not sure
if Wright wrote the accompanying “Ant Watcher’s Manual,” but the following passage
seems a fitting way to end this chapter:
As you study your ants, you’ll find that they plan their world very much as we plan
ours. They engineer their homes and highways carefully. They seem to consider artis-
tic form as well as function in their building. The highways and tunnels in the ants’
world are always arranged in smooth curves, and their hills are well balanced …
If you treat your ants properly, they’ll let you in their secret world and keep you
fascinated.
249
250 Part IV: The Late Majority
Figure 33.1 Ultima Underworld was a groundbreaking three-dimensional CRPG from 1992.
Brevick’s company was eventually bought out by Blizzard Entertainment and renamed
Blizzard North. The new bosses liked Brevick’s idea except for one thing—the turn-based
combat. “We actually took a vote,” said Duane Stinnett, an artist at Blizzard. “Raise your
hand if you would buy this game if it were turn-based. I think two people raised their
hands … Allen [Adham] went in and called Dave Brevick and said, ‘Look, you’ve got to
make this real-time.’”1 Initially skeptical of this executive decision, Brevick changed his
mind after he implemented the change. “The light from heaven shone through the office
down onto the keyboard,” said Brevick. “I remember very vividly: I clicked on the mon-
ster, the guy walked over, and he smashed this skeleton, and it fell apart onto the ground …
I said, ‘Oh my God, this is so amazing.’ It was the defining moment of my career.”
Much like Romero and Carmack had done with Wolfenstein 3D—avoiding any game-
play elements that distracted from the action—Brevick and his team avoided complex
RPG mechanics. The difference was obvious from the start. Instead of having characters
create a whole party of adventurers, or allocate attribute points, Diablo simply offered a
choice between warrior, rogue, and sorcerer (see Figure 33.4). Once in the game, players
1 Craddock, David. Stay Awhile and Listen: How Two Blizzards Unleashed Diablo and Forged a Video-Game Empire. Canton, OH:
Digital Monument Press, 2013.
Chapter 33: Diablo: Click Click Boom 251
Figure 33.4 Unlike many CRPGs, which started with a lengthy character creation process,
Diablo got you into the action quickly.
Figure 33.5 One more pile of bodies, one more pile of loot.
252 Part IV: The Late Majority
Figure 33.6 The town of Tristram offered some welcome respite from the dungeons. Matt
Uelmen’s haunting guitar melody played in the background.
After publishing a lackluster expansion called Diablo: Hellfire in 1997, Blizzard North
released the long-awaited Diablo II in 2000. It was a smash hit, selling more than a mil-
lion copies in just 2 weeks. It improved on the gameplay of its predecessor and is still
widely played by fans today. Blizzard Entertainment released a third sequel in 2012, but
without Brevick’s involvement.
More significantly, Diablo inspired a host of imitators whose productions culmi-
nated in a new genre: the “action role-playing game.” Some of the better known of these
are Larian Studios’ Divine Divinity (2002), Gas Powered Games’ Dungeon Siege (2002),
Ascaron’s Sacred (2004), Marvel: Ultimate Alliance (2006), and Iron Lore Entertainment’s
Titan Quest (2006), but there are many more. More recently, Runic Games’ Torchlight
II (2012), Grinding Gear Games’ Path of Exile (2013), Crate Entertainment’s Grim Dawn
(2013), and Larian Studios’ Divinity: Original Sin (2014) proved there’s still a healthy
market for these games.
Not all fans of CRPGs traded their D20s for Diablo’s “secret sauce,” and BioWare
restored much of the older games’ complexity with Baldur’s Gate just a few years later.
Still, Diablo showed how the mechanics of these games could be distilled into some-
thing far more accessible.
1 Schiesel, Seth. “The Land of the Video Geek: Are Online Gaming Champions the Rock Stars of the 21st Century?” New York
Times, October 8, 2006: A1.
253
254 Part IV: The Late Majority
licensing deals. Two million dollars, by the way, was the average NFL salary in 2013 accord-
ing to Forbes.2 DOTA 2 and League of Legends are the dominant esports as of this writing, but
StarCraft II (2010) and the comparatively ancient StarCraft: Brood War (1998) aren’t far behind.
This level of professional competition seemed inevitable given the massive size and
profits enjoyed by the video game industry. What was less obvious was that a game
once derisively dismissed as “orcs in space” would be the catalyst that sparked that
phenomenon.
Two years before Diablo, Blizzard published a real-time strategy (RTS) game called
Warcraft: Orcs & Humans (see Figure 34.2), the first title released under its new Blizzard
Entertainment label. It was hardly the first such game; Westwood Studios’ Dune II: The
Building of a Dynasty had been out for 2 years (see Figure 34.3). With a few notable excep-
tions, most strategy games before Dune II were “turn-based.”
Turn-based computer games were like chess or checkers, in which a player must
wait as her opponent contemplates his next move. If we wanted to play chess as a real-
time game, the players would not sit idle as the other player strategized but would move
their pieces as frequently as they could. However, the difference between RTS and turn-
based strategy (TBS) games are a bit more profound than this analogy suggests. A set
of real-time rules for chess would probably include penalties for moving across certain
squares, or a “cooling off” period for certain pieces or abilities. For instance, whereas in
2 Patra, Kevin. “Odell Beckham: NFL Players Should Get Paid More.” NFL.com. May 18, 2015. http://www.nfl.com/news/story
Figure 34.2 Warcraft: Orcs & Humans was Blizzard’s take on the genre established by
Westwood’s Dune II.
Figure 34.3 Dune II was the first of what became known as RTS games.
small amount of dexterity with the mouse, but fans certainly didn’t mind. Indeed, it took
“one more turn” to the next level; the pace was so frenetic that hours felt like minutes!
Westwood was slow to follow up their groundbreaking title, so Blizzard stepped
in to fill the gap with Warcraft: Orcs and Humans. Chris Lombardi summed it up
as a “pretty good game set in the Tolkienesque mythos,” but then outright accused
Blizzard of “creative larceny”: “Replace the overhead graphics of orcs and humans
with Atreides and Harkonnen, substitute timber and gold with Spice, and rename the
various buildings … and you have Westwood Studio’s Dune 2.”3 Lombardi praised the
multiplayer, but bashed the AI and “carpal calisthenics” required to play the game
3 Lombardi, Chris. “War Crime in Real Time.” Computer Gaming World, January 1995: 228–232.
256 Part IV: The Late Majority
effectively. Despite these and other perceived flaws with the game, it nevertheless
filled Blizzard’s coffers, and everyone agreed that the head-to-head multiplayer option
was an essential feature.
Westwood, meanwhile, had been working on its next RTS, Command & Conquer,
which was finally released on the final day of August in 1995. This epic title sold mil-
lions of copies and wowed critics. Chris Hudak of GameSpot called it “one of the finest,
most brilliantly-designed computer games I have ever seen,” praising the keen attention
to detail and riveting cut scenes.4 With such stiff competition on the market, Blizzard’s
designers knew they’d need something special.
They achieved it with Warcraft II, which sold more than 2 million copies and was the
best-selling PC game of 1996.5 They not only managed to address the issues that plagued
the first game—including the bad AI, and added a great fog-of-war system and improved
online multiplayer options. Blizzard’s success with this game and Diablo established its
reputation as a premier developer.
Warcraft II was unquestionably a great game, but rather than start work on a third
iteration, the team decided to try something different—a sci-fi RTS. Early screenshots
were less than impressive, and skeptics began referring to it as “orcs in space.” The aes-
thetics were eventually worked out to everyone’s satisfaction, but what really set it apart
was an extra playable race. Furthermore, each of the three races (Terrans, Zerg, and
Protoss) were quite distinctive, with different types of units and strategic considerations.
StarCraft at last debuted on March 31, 1998 (see Figure 34.4). Once again, critics and RTS
fans were enamored, but 7 months later, Blizzard released the Brood War expansion. It
added new missions, multiplayer maps, and units, but, more importantly, rebalanced
the gameplay. It was a must for any serious fan of StarCraft.
Meanwhile, something very interesting was happening in South Korea. Fifty per-
cent of Korean households had high-speed broadband Internet access, compared with
a dismal 10% in the United States.6 More importantly, though, a phenomenon called the
“PC Bang” was raging across the country; hordes of people would crowd into dedicated
game rooms to play StarCraft. The reasons were mainly cultural. Unlike most American
gamers, who don’t mind playing alone at home, their Korean counterparts preferred
being with their friends, and the game rooms were a comparatively cheap form of enter-
tainment. Kim Gi Beum, who owned one of those game rooms, stressed another factor:
Korean parents were obsessive about their kids’ grades; gaming at home was often for-
bidden. Naturally, Korean gamers traveling to the game rooms would want to play what-
ever their friends were playing, and that, more often than not, was StarCraft.
4 Hudak, Chris. “Command & Conquer Review.” GameSpot. May 1, 1996. http://www.gamespot.com/reviews/command
6 French, Howard W. “Korea’s Real Rage for Virtual Games.” New York Times, October 9, 2002: A8.
Chapter 34: Starcraft: The ESport Zerg Rush 257
Figure 34.4 StarCraft traded the fantasy setting of the earlier Warcraft series for sci-fi.
The term actions per minute, or APM, was invented to measure a player’s performance.
Proficient players can easily make a hundred or more, and it’s a dazzling, perhaps even
terrifying spectacle to behold.
Blizzard acknowledged the South Korean’s love of their game by announcing the
development of the first sequel at a special event hosted in Seoul in 2007. The game wasn’t
released, however, until the summer of 2010. There was much speculation about whether
it would catch on like the first, especially after Warcraft 3 failed to gain much traction
there. After investing so many hard hours into practicing and training for a game, skilled
StarCraft players were naturally reluctant to jump into a new game.
As of this writing, StarCraft II has still not eclipsed the original in Korea. Beyond the
factors mentioned above, some experts claim it has more to do with Blizzard’s crackdown
on pirated copies. This came at a time when enormously popular alternatives like Riot
Games’ League of Legends were free to play (see Figure 34.5). Finally, Blizzard cut ties with
the Korean e-Sports Player’s Association (KeSPA) after failing to agree on fees for broad-
casts. Meanwhile, a high-profile match fixing scandal certainly didn’t help matters.
StarCraft II’s failure to replace StarCraft: Brood War in the hearts and minds of so
many Koreans does raise some questions about esports versus other kinds of video
games. In 2011, Dustin Browder, director of StarCraft II, spoke for an hour at GDC on the
difficulties of designing a sequel for an esport, comparing it to making “Basketball 2.”
The metaphor was apt, though probably not how Browder intended. Basketball, like
any well-established sport, wouldn’t last long if officials kept monkeying with the rules.
Indeed, even relatively “common sense” changes, like the NCAA’s decision to allow ref-
erees to use instant replay to review fouls, are not made lightly.
Another problem with esports is that sequels may not only fail to replace their pre-
decessor, but destroy whatever support it had left. Patrick Howell O’Neill summed the
situation up quite aptly: “In esports, sequels can kill.” “It takes a dynamic competitive
7 Ashcraft, Brian. “Why Is Starcraft So Popular in Korea?” Kotaku. July 24, 2010. http://kotaku.com/5595262/why-is-starcraft
for access to certain characters or “skins” to modify their appearance. League of Legends is
frequently updated, and not always without controversy, but Riot Games’ Brent Critchfield
insists “there will never be a League of Legends 2 … I want my great grand-children playing
this game.”9
Blizzard may not have done everything right with StarCraft II, and their success with
the first might well be more a product of good timing than anything else. Still, regardless
of its continued popularity as a Korean esport, there’s no denying StarCraft’s status as a
masterpiece of real-time strategy.
O’Neill, Patrick Howell. “StarCraft: Brood War Proves the Best Esports are Timeless.” The Daily Dot. January 30, 2014. http://
8
9 Gera, Emily. “There Will Never Be a League of Legends 2, says Riot Games.” Polygon. June 11, 2014. http://www.polygon
.com/e3-2014/2014/6/11/5799166/league-of-legends-2-riot-games-pc (accessed August 29, 2015).
Chapter 35
1 Cunningham, Andrew. “Aren’t You a Little Too Old for That?” Ars Technica. October 19, 2013. http://arstechnica.com
/gaming/2013/10/arent-you-a-little-too-old-for-that-14-years-of-playing-pokemon/1/ (accessed September 11, 2015).
259
260 Part IV: The Late Majority
2 Larimer, Tim. “The Ultimate Game Freak.” Time Asia. November 22, 1999. http://www.cnn.com/ASIANOW/time/magazine
Figure 35.3 The original Game Boy version. At the start of the game, your character
doesn’t have a Pokémon to protect him.
five of his employees quit when they learned of the dire financial situation. Meanwhile,
the Game Boy was marched steadily toward obsolescence. “When I finished Pokémon,
I thought Nintendo would reject it,” said Tajiri. “I was like a baseball player sliding into
second base knowing he’s going to be out.”3
Published in Japan in 1996 and 2 years later in America, the game came in two fla-
vors, each with a different assortment of Pokémon creatures. The player’s task was to
travel around the game world catching and training wild Pokémon, eventually assem-
bling enough to take on an organized crime group using the creatures for evil. To catch
a Pokémon, players first had to defeat it in turn-based combat, using a variety of moves
unique to each species. During the battle, players can try throwing a Poke Ball at the
opponent in an attempt to catch it. The player’s Pokémon gains experience in combat
and eventually levels up—an element derived from role-playing games.
Naturally, fans wanted to have both cartridges and thus access to more of the ador-
able little creatures, a rather obvious tactic to double sales. But Tajiri had another
card up his sleeve: Mew, a secret creature. You couldn’t purchase him; the only way to
catch him—and thus complete your collection—was to trade with your friends using
the Game Link Cable. Once word of his existence got out, everyone wanted to catch
him—so they convinced their friends to buy the game, too. Sales began to soar (see
Figure 35.4a and b).
When Nintendo finally realized it had a genuine hit on its hands, they moved quickly
to capitalize on its popularity. A Pokémon anime series began airing on April 1, 1997,
and has remained in production to this day. There’s also a popular trading card game
3 Chua-Eoan, Howard, and Tim Larimer. “Beware of the Pokemania.” Time. November 14, 1999. http://content.time.com
Figure 35.4 Your first Pokémon is a hand-me-down from Dr. Oak. Once you’ve taken con-
trol of him (a), it’s time to test him out in battle (b).
Nintendo’s handheld library, even if the original inspiration for the game—the Game
Link Cable—is a distant memory in the age of Wi-Fi.
Ultima Online:
Persistence Pays Off
Richard Garriott’s Ultima series practically defined the computer role-playing game
(CRPG) of the 1980s, and many aficionados still consider Ultima VII: The Black Gate
(1997) as the greatest triumph of the genre. But “Lord British” was more than just a gifted
designer. As a developer and publisher, his admittedly risky tendency to embrace the
latest graphics and sound standards spurred innovation in gaming hardware, and his
(in)famous insistence on quality packaging and inserts helped lift the profile of video
games as a medium. Anyone who loathes the modern industry’s reliance on incremental
sequels, skimpy manuals, and me-too productions would find a staunch ally in Garriott.
He wanted each new Ultima game to represent nothing short of a paradigm shift for
computer games.
As we saw in Chapter 17, Garriott’s sterling reputation nosedived with Ultima VII:
Pagan (1994). It wasn’t all his fault; the early 1990s were a tumultuous time for the PC
industry. His publishing and development company, Origin, suffered extreme growing
pains as they struggled with swelling team sizes, escalating floppy disk costs, and the
rapid disintegration of the Apple and Commodore 64 markets. When he applied for a
loan to save his company, the application was promptly rejected—a real-estate bubble
had burst in Texas, where their headquarters were located.
Out of sheer desperation, Garriott turned to Electronic Arts (EA), which acquired
his company in 1992 in a stock-exchange deal. There was bad blood between the two
industry giants; EA had sued Origin in a dispute over a distribution agreement they’d
made back in 1984. EA argued that it had exclusive rights, and Origin “violated it in
a very big and costly way,” said EA founder Trip Hawkins.1 Apparently, the furor was
over a game called Deathlord, a 1987 CRPG that Garriott felt was a rip-off of his Ultima
series. Garriott made good on his threat to leave EA’s affiliate program if the pub-
lisher didn’t pull it. EA refused, and Origin apparently paid a high price for it later
1 Hawkins, Trip. “Escapist.” To the Editor. 2007. http://www.escapistmagazine.com/forums/read/6.0 (accessed April 24,
2007).
263
264 Part IV: The Late Majority
Figure 36.1 Ultima Online was the first truly massive online role-playing game. (Scan cour-
tesy of James Dunn.)
strict deadlines. This resulted in several rushed games, including the aforementioned
Ultima VII. Vicious infighting became the norm, and several promising projects were
canceled as key personnel either quit or were fired.
EA was mainly interested in the Ultima series, and for obvious reasons: it still enjoyed
a great reputation, and hordes of fans could be counted on to buy whatever product
carried the label. As always, Garriott was uninterested in the type of quick “cash-in”
sequels the publisher demanded, and instead went to work on a bold new venture that
once again promised to revolutionize the industry: a massively multiplayer online role-
playing game, or MMORPG (see Figure 36.1).
Now that we’re so accustomed to MMORPGs, it’s hard to imagine a time when the
very idea seemed preposterous. True, multi-user dungeons (MUDs) had been around
since the late 1970s, but their reliance on humble character set graphics—which made
2 CGW. “Electronic Arts and Origin Pool Resources in ‘Ultimate’ Acquisition.” Computer Gaming World, November 1992: 176.
I was unable to find more about this lawsuit or the amount of the settlement. On a side note, “Scorpia” of Computer
3
Gaming World wrote a very harsh review of the “mediocre” Deathlord, prompting an angry and indignant rebuttal in the
October 1988 issue from its designer, Al Escudero.
4 Verney, Allen. “The Conquest of Origin.” The Escapist. October 11, 2005. http://www.escapistmagazine.com/articles/view
them suitable even for slow, dial-up modems—was a fatal flaw in the eyes of PC gam-
ers of the 90s. A logical workaround to this problem was a client program, which would
contain the fancy audiovisuals and could be installed on an individual’s PC. As with
the early MUD technology, only tiny packets of information (such as player coordinates)
would need to be routinely sent back and forth across the network.
One of the earliest examples of such a game is Habitat, which debuted in 1987 exclu-
sively for the Commodore 64. Designed by Lucasfilm Games, it ran for a brief period on
Quantum Link, the service that later became AOL. It offered third-person perspective
in a two-dimensional (2D) world and focused on social activities. Players could write
books, visit theaters, or even get married. The developers watched how the players per-
formed and expanded the game accordingly, grafting on new features as they saw fit. It
didn’t offer RPG elements such as leveling or skills, and access was limited to off-peak
hours, but it did pioneer many key innovations. The license changed hands a few times
after the project shut down in 1988, reappearing on Japanese and American networks in
various incarnations.
A more successful effort was Beyond Software’s Neverwinter Nights, a game hosted
on AOL between 1991 and 1997. This popular online RPG was based on SSI’s Gold
Box engine of Pool of Radiance (see Chapter 25). The addictive gameplay kept cus-
tomers online, who had to pay by the hour for access. The game ended shortly after
AOL switched to a flat-fee rate in 1996, turning games like Neverwinter Nights from
money makers into money pits. AOL’s ideal customer was now someone who made
only minimal use of the service, logging on once in a while to check e-mail, not play-
ing Neverwinter Nights from dusk to dawn. The game was taken down soon after (see
Figure 36.2).
By the late 1990s, it was obvious to most that the Internet was the future of online
gaming. The key advantage it offered gamers and publishers was independence from
for-profit corporations like AOL, Genie, or CompuServe.
It’s here that Archetype Interactive’s Meridian 59 enters the picture, a pioneering
MMORPG developed by Archetype Interactive. Recognizing its potential, Trip Hawkins
acquired it for his new 3DO venture in
1996, which he’d formed after leaving EA.
Meridian 59 was billed as the “first-ever
Internet-based 3D MUD,” and lived up to
the hype. Here, we have all the features
that are now a staple of the genre: three-
dimensional (3D) graphics, RPG-style
combat, player guilds, mail systems, and
regular “expansions,” or updates to the
content or interface. Developed mainly
Figure 36.2 Neverwinter Nights (not to be confused with BioWare’s title) was a pioneering
game hosted on AOL.
266 Part IV: The Late Majority
Figure 36.3 Meridian 59 had great graphics. It was never as successful as Ultima Online, but
retains a small but dedicated group of players.
Though Meridian had many predecessors, such as Scepter of Goth, Legends of Kesmai,
Neverwinter Nights, and Internet MUDs, it was the first Internet game from a major
publisher, the first time that a massively multiplayer RPG was considered a “real”
game and covered in the major game magazines. It was published over a year before
Ultima Online; apparently the appearance of the Meridian alpha test is one of the
factors that caused Origin to shift its attention and staff from Ultima IX to Ultima
Online.5
Despite their bold innovations, none of these games was the killer app their devel-
opers hoped for. Most PC gamers simply lacked the awareness, interest, or money
to play them. Thus, Garriott’s decision to risk his Ultima franchise was a bold gam-
ble indeed. The executives at EA were not at all enthusiastic. Even with the might of
Garriott’s Ultima franchise behind it, could it possibly succeed where so many others
had failed? “Ultima Online was kind of a red-headed stepchild during its development,”
said Garriott. “Nobody at EA really understood what Ultima Online was all about.”6 EA
demanded that Garriott focus his attention on developing yet another single-player
Ultima.
Raph Koster filled the gap as the lead designer of Ultima Online (UO). Koster was
no stranger to online game development; he’d implemented the award-winning
LegendMUD a few years earlier. That game’s celebrated attention to historical detail and
its innovative character development system made Koster a natural fit for the position.
Much like Garriott, Koster had bold ambitions and was not content merely to replicate
5 Kirsme, Andrew. “History of Meridian 59.” Meridian59.com. May 2000. http://meridian59.com (accessed September 3, 2015).
what had been done before. In particular, Koster wanted to find a way to capture the
franchise’s emphasis on virtue:
We wanted to challenge players to act ethically, in the spirit of the Ultimas previous,
without making it a set of quests that would be “gamed” and up on a cheat website
within a couple of weeks—and we didn’t want that to happen not because it meant
extra work making new quests all the time, but because it meant that ethics them-
selves were being “gamed” and were therefore meaningless.7
Koster also wanted to do away with leveling, and didn’t like the idea of “safe zones,”
where players would be immune from attacks by other players. These last two design
decisions would have drastic consequences.
Less controversial innovations came by way of Ultima VII: The Black Gate, particu-
larly its highly interactive game world. As with that game, UO players could do much
more than just kill monsters. New players could opt for two basic templates for their
characters: adventurer and merchant. The former of these was made up of the traditional
RPG classes, such as warriors and mages. The latter was concerned with the economy
and trades, such as tailors and fishermen. More advanced players could distribute
their points as they saw fit. It was an impressively flexible system. An inflation mechanic
for items determined the prices the in-game merchants charged for items, encourag-
ing distant trade. Skills were improved by a brute force approach, improving with each
successful use. UO had the 2D, isometric perspective of Ultima VII, albeit with better
audiovisuals.
EA’s attitude toward UO flipped from cold to hot after the game’s first beta test on
August 9, 1997. Origin’s budget was so low at this point that they had to charge volun-
teer beta testers $5 for the privilege. “Within two days we had fifty thousand people,”
said UO’s director Starr Long, who directed the game. “They paid for the beta.”8 The beta
wasn’t without its problems. Most notorious of all was the assassination of Lord British
himself by “Rainz,” a 23-year-old software consultant from Indianapolis. Here’s the
story according to Rainz:
The servers had just been taken down to prepare for the huge influx of players for the
speech Lord British and Lord Blackthorne were giving throughout Britannia. When
the servers came back up … LB, Blackthorne, and their jesters were up on a bridge
orating to the masses … Luckily my character was a good thief who had high “steal-
ing” skill. I desperately searched the backpacks of those around me and eventually
came upon a fire field scroll. After that it was pretty simple, I just cast the scroll on
the bridge and waited to see what would happen. Either LB or Blackthorne made
7 Koster, Raph. “Ultima Online Postmortem.” Raph Koster’s Website. June 2000. http://www.raphkoster.com/gaming/post
Koster, Raph, Rich Vogel, and Starr M. Long. “Classic Game Postmortem: Ultima Online.” GDC Vault. October 2012. http://
8
the comment “hehe nice try,” can’t recall exactly who. It was a humorous sight and
I expected to be struck down by lightning or have some other evil fate befall me.
Instead I heard a loud death grunt as British slumped to his death. After that it was
just pure mayhem.9
Rainz was banned for his efforts, but he was just one of thousands of malicious play-
ers, whose malevolent antics earned them the name “pkillers” (or “griefers” in mod-
ern parlance). While some (and obviously the pkillers themselves) enjoyed this type of
gameplay, it turned away players of a less hostile disposition. Origin tried various tactics,
including a “karma” system and bounties, but eventually created a mirror world where
players could explore unmolested.
Regardless of the “pkiller” phenomenon, UO became the first truly “massive” online
RPG (see Figure 36.4). Richard Bartle, the creator of MUD we met in Chapter 5, wrote
about the game’s success in his book Designing Virtual Worlds:
When Ultima Online garnered 50,000 subscribers within 3 months, people took
notice. When it broke 100,000 within a year, jaws dropped. Nevermind the substan-
tial income from retail sales: 100,000 people were each paying $9.95 per month having
already bought the game—and none of that money was going to retailers! OSI was
directly taking 12 million dollars a year from that one virtual world!10
This sudden success broke more than records—it broke the servers the game was run-
ning on. According to Koster, they had designed the game with 300 players in mind,
going by Meridian 59’s figures. “We expected to do better,” said Koster, “but not by an
order of magnitude.”7 Normally, soaring demand that exceeded a developer’s expecta-
tions would’ve been a cause for celebration; for Koster and the UO team, it caused con-
sternation. The unexpected influx led to massive lag and server shutdowns, and early
reviews bashed it on this account.
Eventually, UO was able to overcome these growing pains, and when the dust settled,
players found that it lived up to the hype—this was no mere game, but a world you could
live in. Advanced features kept players invested in the long term. Players could build
their own houses once they had accumulated sufficient capital for a deed. Houses were
primarily places to store one’s possessions but also served as stores for selling crafted
items. Unfortunately, abandoned houses tended to get routinely deleted by the system,
so it was important to log in every few days to “refresh” one’s house.
Players could also join 1 of 13 professional guilds, arranged by profession (Thieves’
Guild, Fellowship of Blacksmiths, etc.), as well as player-run guilds. Occasionally, these
player guilds would engage in “guild wars,” which allowed members to kill certain other
players without fear of losing karma.
9 Bannister, Paul. “Ultima Online: Interview with Rainz, The Man Who Killed Lord British.” Noctalis. August 19, 1997. http://
10 Bartle, Richard A. Designing Virtual Worlds. Indianapolis: New Riders Publishing, 2004: 21.
Chapter 36: Ultima Online: Persistence Pays Off 269
Figure 36.5 The land of Trammel was a controversial addition to the game.
270 Part IV: The Late Majority
level up and work on skills and crafts, since they didn’t have to worry about pkills. With
the risk factor reduced if not eliminated, the markets were soon saturated with product
and inflation soared.
Despite these and later expansions, UO lost a large chunk of its player base to 989
Studios’ EverQuest, which went online in 1999. EverQuest had several advantages over
its rival. For one, it offered 3D-accelerated graphics, which made UO look antiquated
in comparison. Player-versus-player (PVP) combat was limited to a designated server
from the start, which made it easier (and less frustrating) for less aggressive players
to flourish on the main servers—the emphasis there was on cooperating rather than
competing directly with other players. There were several means in place to ensure
cooperation, most notably monsters that were difficult if not impossible to beat alone.
It was also less prone to lag than UO, even with dial-up modems. It did, however, pun-
ish death more severely: dying costs experience points as well as a tedious run to one’s
corpse. EverQuest surpassed UO’s userbase in 6 months, reaching more than 400,000
users in 2004.10
UO’s legacy is important for the game industry, and its designers’ “mistakes” are
just as enlightening as their successes. As both Garriott and Koster have pointed out,
UO boasted a far more interactive and intriguing game world than most MMOs even
today, and its emphasis on varied gameplay styles and character diversity was ahead
of its time. Perhaps this was its downfall. As Koster noted cynically, “More people are
willing to do the same repetitive activity over and over again for the sake of getting
a red polka dotted item to replace the green striped one, than are willing to engage
in a broader range of activity.”7 The sheer range of possibilities was, on the one hand,
empowering, but, on the other, intimidating to new players. When a new game came
along with a much smoother learning curve, it not only was easier to play but also
was intended for players to recruit their friends into the game. EverQuest would
receive similar treatment after Blizzard’s World of Warcraft, but I’ll save that story for
Chapter 47.
Garriott returned to the scene in 2007 with Tabula Rasa, a shooter/MMORPG hybrid
with a sci-fi setting. Garriott’s name and a series of interviews caught the attention of the
media, and anticipation built to a fever pitch going into its release date on November 2,
2007. Despite some intriguing ideas such as “morality quests” and the ability to clone
one’s character to try out new professions, the game failed miserably, and closed down
for good on February 28, 2009. Garriott placed the blame on NCSoft:
There’s really two games that I have shipped that shipped as less than I could have
hoped or, I believe, less than I could have done: Ultima 8 and Tabula Rasa. In both of
those games it was immediately after selling a company to a larger company who had
very strong opinions about how and why I should do the games that I was working on
in a particular way.11
11 Purchese, Robert. “Garriott: What Went Wrong with Tabula Rasa.” Eurogamer.net. December 12, 2011. http://www
Garriott now has a chance to prove this was the case with his Shroud of the Avatar game,
whose Kickstarter fund drive raised nearly $2 million in 2013. It promises to offer the best
of the single-player as well as the online experience, and will certainly be an impressive
achievement if the team is able to deliver on all it has promised. In a nice symmetry with
UO, future players of Shroud of the Avatar are also being asked to pay to help them beta
test it—but this time in the form of an “Early Access” game on Steam. As of this writing,
the expected release date of “Episode 1” is July 2016.
36.1 Playing UO Today
Playing UO is as simple as going to http://uo.com and setting up an account. You can
choose from two clients: Enhanced or Classic. As their names suggest, the former offers
an updated interface with better graphics, but many still prefer the Classic interface.
There are usually free trials available. Alternatively, you can go to http://www.uoforever
.com and play the classic game for free. This is the best option for fans of PVP, since
there’s no safe zone (“Trammel”). Keep in mind that this project is supported by dona-
tions, so be sure to chip in if you intend to stay awhile.
Chapter 37
273
274 Part IV: The Late Majority
Figure 37.1 Nintendo’s decision to release another cartridge-based console was unpopular
with third-party developers. Super Mario 64 and other exquisite first-party titles compen-
sated for the lack of external support.
1 Satoru, Iwata. “Iwata Asks: Super Mario Galaxy.” Nintendo.com. 2007. http://iwataasks.nintendo.com/interviews/#/wii
2 Perry, Doug. “The Greatest 3D World Ever Created.” IGN. September 25, 1996. http://www.ign.com/articles/1996/09/26
Figure 37.4 The Lakitu Bros. serve as camera operators in Super Mario 64. It’s a nice way to
connect the gameplay mechanics to the storyline.
3 Buchanan, Levi. “Nintendo 64 Week: Day One.” IGN. September 29, 2008. http://www.ign.com/articles/2008/09/29/nintendo
Tomb Raider: A 3D
Platformer with Legs
As Miyamoto and his team at Nintendo were hard at work on Super Mario 64, Core
Design, based in Britain, was taking the concept of three-dimensional (3D) platform-
ing in a very different direction. Core Design had been founded back in 1988 by former
members of Gremlin Graphics.
They’d done a two-dimensional platformer called Rick Dangerous in 1989, whose
titular character and level design were inspired by the film Raiders of the Lost Ark. In
addition to the “Guulu” natives Rick could dispatch with his six-shooter, dynamite, or
his “big stick,” there were plenty of clever puzzles to challenge the brain as well as the
fingers. A year later, the company moved into publishing, and were the earliest British
team to make hit platform games for the Sega Genesis, Sega CD, and Sega 32X.1 These
titles included Chuck Rock (1991), Bubba ‘N’ Stix (1994), and Asterix and the Great Rescue
(1994).
When Core began work on a 3D platformer, the original design called for another
Rick Dangerous–like character in the lead role, and artist Toby Gard created another
Indiana Jones–inspired character. However, Core’s cofounder, Jeremy Heath-Smith, was
wary of lawsuits and bored with male characters. Why not make the lead character a girl,
instead? The idea might sound perfectly natural today, but it was a bold move at the time.
Would male gamers be comfortable playing as a woman?
Gard’s inspirations for Lara Croft—or Laura Cruz, as he originally wanted to call
her—are not altogether clear (see Figure 38.1). Some sources claim it was Gard’s younger
sister, Frances. It’s not hard to imagine. Like Lara, Frances had a long braided ponytail
and chased after adventure—although she preferred shooting cameras to pistols. Gard
remained adamant that his creation would not be a “page 3” girl, that is, a scantily clad
pin-up like the ones featured in The Sun, a British tabloid.2 According to Gard, “Lara was
based on elements of Indiana Jones, Tank Girl, and … my sister. Maybe subconsciously
she was my sister. Anyway, she was supposed to be this strong woman, this upper-class
1 Moss, Richard. “It Felt Like Robbery: Tomb Raider and the Fall of Core Design.” Ars Technica. March 31, 2015. http://
arstechnica.com/gaming/2015/03/it-felt-like-robbery-tomb-raider-and-the-fall-of-core-design/ (accessed September 7, 2015).
2 Davis, Johnny. “Toby Gard: Let the Battle Begin.” The Independent. September 7, 2015. http://www.independent.co.uk/news
277
278 Part IV: The Late Majority
Figure 38.1 Tomb Raider introduced the world to Lara Croft, one of the industry’s most
celebrated characters.
Figure 38.2 The impressive opening cinematics establish Lara as a highly skilled acrobat,
climber, and markswoman.
“mascot” who could distinguish its platform from the likes of Mario and Sonic. She cer-
tainly caught the eye of the mainstream media, who plastered her image on the cover of
both Time and Newsweek. It was clear that Lara Croft was no “safe” character intended
for young children; she represented both danger and sex appeal. She earned hundreds of
millions for Core Design, in sales as well as lucrative licensing deals.
Many critics expected a backlash. IGN’s review of the game read, “Tomb Raider is
bound to stir up lots of trouble with the feminists. Lara Croft’s unrealistic proportions
can only lead to further gender stereotyping and objectification of women.”4 With these
3 McLaughlin, Rus. “IGN Presents: The History of Tomb Raider.” IGN. February 29, 2008. http://www.ign.com/articles
4 IGN Staff. “Tomb Raider.” IGN. December 13, 1996. http://www.ign.com/articles/1996/12/14/tomb-raider-5 (accessed
September 7, 2015).
Chapter 38: Tomb Raider: A 3D Platformer with Legs 279
disclaimers out of the way, the staff went on to call it “one of the best games of 1996.” A
review in The Economist began with the question, “WHAT man could resist a creature
like Lara Croft? This ravishing British heiress divides her time between acrobatic work-
outs in her stately home and dangerous expeditions to exotic ruins. She wears shorts
everywhere, which show off her sprinter’s legs, and a tiny waist draws attention to her
gravity-defying bust. Then there is the small matter of the twin automatic pistols she
straps to her bare thighs.”5
Was Lara Croft merely a sex object? Some argued that she did more to dispel sexist
stereotypes than reinforce them. In an interview with Forbes magazine, Eidos spokes-
man Gary Keith argued that “it used to be that when we played videogames, it wasn’t
cool to be a girl,” and gave Lara credit for successfully challenging this assumption.6
Although the game was ostensibly targeted at 18- to 35-year-old males, plenty of women
enjoyed the game as well. “There was something refreshing about looking at the screen
and seeing myself as a woman,” said “Game Grrl” Nikki Douglas.7
Games scholar Espen Aarseth claimed it was all much ado about nothing: “When I
play, I don’t even see her body, but see through it and past it … The dimensions of Lara
Croft’s body, already analyzed to death by film theorists, are irrelevant to me as a player,
because a different-looking body would not make me play any differently.”8
One man who would’ve vehemently disagreed with Aarseth was Lara’s creator, Gard.
He quit the company just 2 months after the game’s publication. He was disgusted with
the way Core’s parent company, Eidos, was exploiting his creation with racy market-
ing images. The trend continued, however, and by 1999 Lara was “posing” for Playboy
Magazine and her in-game avatar became increasingly sexualized.
Although the game was better known on the Sony PlayStation and PC (see Figure
38.3a and b), it actually debuted on the short-lived Sega Saturn, where it was one of the
system’s bestsellers. The later versions had superior audiovisuals, but all had third-
person perspective and a camera that followed along behind Lara (or over her shoulder).
While the game had its share of precision jumping sequences, Lara’s ability to grip onto
ledges with her fingers made them easier to master, and more visually impressive. Lara
used her pistols to shoot beasts or human enemies, but most of the gameplay was focused
on avoiding traps and solving puzzles. Lara could push or pull objects, throw switches,
and collect various items to use later. The game was a great deal more violent than Super
Mario 64, with several grisly ways for Lara to meet her end, including falling onto spikes.
Perhaps the most important feature was superb control and response. There was no
free roaming camera, but players could force the camera immediately behind Lara and
then use the direction buttons to look around. This feature came in handy whenever the
5 Staff. “Babes with Guns: Britain’s Videogame Industry.” The Economist, February 22, 1997: 74.
7 Kennedy, Helen W. “Lara Croft: Feminist Icon or Cyberbimbo?” Game Studies, 2002.
8 Wardrip-Fruin, Noah, and Pat Harrigan. First Person: New Media as Story, Performance, and Game. Boston: MIT Press, 2006.
280 Part IV: The Late Majority
many years, it was commonly assumed Lara’s best days were behind her. However,
Crystal Dynamics’ Tomb Raider (2012) and Rise of the Tomb Raider (2015) have returned
her to the front page of the gaming press.
Lara’s celebrity status ensured a future for the franchise, and to date, she’s starred in
dozens of games and two movies—Lara Croft: Tomb Raider (2001) and Lara Croft Tomb
Raider: The Cradle of Life (2003), with Angelina Jolie in the titular role. To say that Lara
made better Hollywood material than Mario is an understatement. Even Roger Ebert,
well known for his curmudgeonly attitude toward video games, awarded it three stars—
“Only a churl could find fault,” wrote the dazzled critic.9 When the question of whether
she adequately filled Lara’s bra came up, Jolie responded candidly: “We didn’t want to
make them as big as in the game, but at the same time we didn’t want to take away from
her the things that are, you know, her trademarks”10 (see Figure 38.4).
9 Ebert, Roger. “Lara Croft: Tomb Raider.” Roger Ebert.com. June 15, 2001. http://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/lara-croft
10 Miller, Prarie. “Angelina Jolie on Filling Lara Croft’s Shoes and D-Size Cups.” NY Rock. June 2001. http://www.nyrock.com
38.1 Playing Tomb
Raider Today
The first (and probably roughest) version
of Tomb Raider you can play is the one for
Figure 38.4 Angelina Jolie was chosen to play Lara Croft in the Tomb Raider movies.
the Sega Saturn. Finding a working Saturn for a cheap price may not be easy, however,
since their run was very limited. If you’d rather try emulation, Yabause and SSF are both
viable options. You might prefer the more popular PlayStation incarnation, though. Used
PlayStations are cheap and plentiful, and you shouldn’t have any issues finding a used
Tomb Raider disc for it. The PC version is the easiest to acquire; simply go to Steam and
look for Tomb Raider I. If you’re not up for “retro” graphics, try Tomb Raider: Anniversary,
which updates the original in a number of significant ways.
Chapter 39
1 Maragos, Nich. “38. Final Fantasy VII.” 1up.com. n.d. http://www.1up.com/features/essential-50-final-fantasy-vii (accessed
September 8, 2015).
283
284 Part IV: The Late Majority
Figure 39.2 There was nothing at all subtle about this infamous magazine advertisement.
their way to America. Before Final Fantasy VII, the last import had been the sixth game in
Japan, released here as Final Fantasy III for the SNES in 1994. Despite Nintendo’s heavy-
handed censorship policies for the American localization, it received rave reviews and
was a modest bestseller. However, the series still hadn’t caught on like it had in Japan,
a situation that Square and Sony were determined to rectify. To that end, Sony created
three 30-s television spots showing off the game’s CGI cinematics, airing them on all the
major American networks.
In a move reminiscent of Sega’s “Nintendon’t” campaign, Sony published a series of brutal
magazine ads designed to promote both the game and the PlayStation at Nintendo’s expense.
One infamous ad read, “Someone please get the guys who make cartridge games a cigarette
and a blindfold” above a compelling still from one of the game’s cut scenes (see Figure 39.2).
Just in case anyone missed the ad campaign, Sony bundled a demo of the game with its con-
sole. Most of the game’s marketing focused on the enormous size and cost of the production.
2 McLaughlin, Rus. “IGN Presents: The History of Final Fantasy VII.” IGN. April 30, 2008. http://www.ign.com/articles
/2008/05/01/ign-presents-the-history-of-final-fantasy-vii (accessed September 8, 2015).
Chapter 39: Final Fantasy VII: The Legend of the Square Disc 285
3 Business Editors, a. H. “Square soft’s Final Fantasy VII joins top-selling videogames in PlayStation’s ‘greatest hits’ series…”
Business Wire, June 29, 1999: 1.
286 Part IV: The Late Majority
4 PlayStation Underground. “Hironobu Sakaguchi Interview.” The Final Fantasy VII Citadel. 1997. http://www.ff7citadel.com
1 Konami. “Konami to Exhibit at World’s Premier Game Show.” Konami Digital Entertainment. June 15, 2015. http://www
.konami-digital-entertainment.co.jp/en/news/release/2015/0615/ (accessed September 9, 2015).
2 Field, Damian. “Top 50 Video Game Characters of All Time Announced.” Gamasutra. February 16, 2011. http://www
This ranking put him just behind Halo’s Master Chief and just above Final Fantasy’s Cloud Strife in terms of popularity.
3
4 Parkin, Simon. “Hideo Kojima: Video Game Drop-Out Interview.” The Guardian. May 23, 2012. http://www.theguardian
287
288 Part IV: The Late Majority
Figure 40.1 The cover of Metal Gear Solid, much like its protagonist, was inconspicuous.
Figure 40.2 Hideo Kojima at the 2010 Japan Expo. (Photo courtesy of Georges Seguin.)
on the Famicom.”4 Indeed, when Konami ported the game to that system, they made
some glaring omissions—including the titular Metal Gear end boss!
The title did well enough, however, that Konami ordered a sequel—this time exclu-
sively for the Famicom. Since Kojima was still assigned to the MSX division, though, he
didn’t know anything about it until after the fact. “I was quite new at the company and
had no influence,” said Kojima.4 The resulting game, Snake’s Revenge (1990), was by most
accounts a shoddy and shameless cash-grab and is not considered part of the Metal Gear
canon. Kojima, meanwhile, did his own proper sequel called Metal Gear 2: Solid Snake
for the MSX2.
The Metal Gear series stayed in the shadows throughout the 16-bit era as Kojima
worked on two intriguing graphic adventure games, Snatcher in 1988 (released in
1994 for the Sega CD) and Policenauts in 1994, which sadly never left Japan. Some
sources claim that around this time Kojima was planning a third Metal Gear for
the 3DO, though support for that system dried up before he finalized them. In any
event, around 1995, news and hype began to build about a new Metal Gear game
in the works for Sony’s PlayStation. Two years later, Konami showed off a video of
Chapter 40: Metal Gear Solid: Lights, Camera, Inaction! 289
Figure 40.3 The game opens with a fantastic cinematic worthy of a Tom Clancy film.
The “tactical espionage action” game viewers saw that day promised a vastly different
experience from Final Fantasy VII or pretty much any other game, for that matter. For
one thing, the weapons were as accurate as the designers could make them; Konami had
them dress up in military fatigues and even had them train with a real-life American
SWAT team.6
By this point, Kojima had risen up the ranks at Konami to the point where he could do
things his way—and work with people of his choosing. One of his best people was a young
artist named Yoji Shinkawa, who sculpted models of vehicles and other components out
of plastic and clay. “He used so many chemicals he had to work from home,” said Kojima.
“I would visit his apartment every day to check that he was okay.”4
Kojima chose to add the word solid to the title not only to acknowledge the charac-
ter Solid Snake but also to emphasize the power of the game’s three-dimensional (3D)
engine. Unlike Final Fantasy VII, which used prerendered backgrounds, everything in
Metal Gear Solid was rendered in 3D—“right down to the littlest details, like items resid-
ing on desks and maggots festering on rotting corpses … There’s no 2D trickery here,”
wrote GameSpot’s Jeff Gerstmann.7 Another major improvement was using real voice
actors, not just text. Solid Snake was voiced by David Hayter, who continued to lend
his talents to the role until the fifth game, where he was replaced by Keifer Sutherland.
“English voice work in Metal Gear Solid is surprisingly good,” wrote Gerstmann. “What
they’re actually saying may be a bit hokey and clichéd at times, but at least they deliver
the dialogue with the right amount of conviction.”
The story concerned a retired soldier, Solid Snake, who is called back to duty to stop
FOX HOUND, a group of terrorists who have taken over a nuclear missiles facility on
6 Bartholow, Peter. “Metal Gear Solid Casts Its Spell.” GameSpot. September 6, 1997. http://www.gamespot.com/articles/metal
-gear-solid-casts-its-spell/1100-2467579/ (accessed September 9, 2015).
7 Gerstmann, Jeff. “Metal Gear Solid Review.” GameSpot. September 25, 1998. http://www.gamespot.com/reviews/metal
8 Makuch, Eddie. “Kojima Didn’t Think Metal Gear Solid Would Be a Hit.” GameSpot. March 14, 2014. http://www.gamespot
.com/articles/kojima-didn-t-think-metal-gear-solid-would-be-a-hit/1100-6418318/ (accessed September 9, 2015).
Chapter 40: Metal Gear Solid: Lights, Camera, Inaction! 291
Figure 40.5 When Snake is backed against a wall, the camera zooms back to give you a
look down the corridor.
struggling culture.”10 No levelheaded critic could dismiss the occasional mangled trans-
lation, inappropriate gag, or self-indulgent cut scene. Yet even Homer nodded, and there
are plenty of profound moments in each game to compensate for Kojima’s faults. My
favorite quote from Snake is “building the future and keeping the past alive are one and
the same thing,” from Metal Gear Solid 2.
Others have more tolerance or even an appreciation for Kojima’s awkward humor or
outright zaniness, such as the recurring diarrhea jokes, ogling of female characters, or
the conversation Snake has with a talking cat in Metal Gear Solid: Peace Walker (2010).
A trademark gag is the cardboard box “disguise,” which Snake dons to sneak around …
in plain sight of enemies.
If there’s one thing that fans can agree on, it’s the meticulous attention to detail, the
epic boss fights, Snake’s cool devices, and, above all, the willingness of its designers to
push the boundaries of the medium.
9 Plunkett, Luke. “A Concise Guide to Metal Gear’s Overblown Story.” Kotaku. March 11, 2014. http://kotaku.com/a-concise
10 Smith, Edward. “Metal Gear Solid 5: It Is Time to Admit Hideo Kojima Is a Terrible Writer.” International Business Times.
Ocarina of Time:
Miyamoto’s Finest Hour
The 1998 holiday season was a tough time for Nintendo. Their Nintendo 64 console had
taken a beating in the gaming press for its outmoded cartridge technology, and Sony’s
PlayStation was rocking the charts thanks to groundbreaking hits like Tomb Raider,
Final Fantasy VII, and Metal Gear Solid. However, the Nintendo 64 had its share of hits,
too. Besides Super Mario 64, which we covered in Chapter 37, there was Rare’s GoldenEye
007 (1997), an undisputed masterpiece that introduced millions of console gamers to
the first-person shooter genre. Nintendo had also updated its Star Fox and Mario Kart
series to support the console. Despite the success of these titles, Nintendo was still los-
ing ground to Sony, whose lower royalties and CD-ROM support gave them an edge with
third-party developers. In September of 1997, the PlayStation had more than 300 games,
and the Nintendo 64 only had 45. It appeared as though the Nintendo 64 might soon be
joining the Sega Saturn in the “Where are they now?” file.
Nintendo’s lack of third-party support was a dire matter, even if their in-house devel-
opment team was second to none. If anyone knew how dangerous it was to go alone, it
was Miyamoto. If The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time was anything short of flawless,
the Nintendo 64 was done, and most likely Nintendo’s future as a console maker.
If The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time was not without flaw, it was without peer. It
was the greatest game of Shigeru Miyamoto’s career, if not of all time (see Figure 41.1).
Its arrival on November 21, 1998, just in time for the vital Christmas season, received
an immaculate critical reception by all the major game sites. “To call it anything else
[than perfect] would be a bald-faced lie,” wrote Gerstmann for GameSpot.1 IGN’s Peer
Schneider called it “the biggest game of the decade” and gave it his highest recommen-
dation. “If you’re making games and you haven’t played this game, then you’re like a
director who has never seen Citizen Kane or a musician who has never heard of Mozart.”2
Gaming magazines weren’t the only sources of such veneration. After playing it for
4 hours, Time magazine’s Joshua Quittner declared that it would change the world:
1 Gerstmann, Jeff. “The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time, Reviews” GameSpot. November 23, 1998. http://www.gamespot
.com/reviews/legend-of-zelda-ocarina-of-time-the-review/1900-2543677/ (accessed September 10, 2015).
2 Schneider, Peer. “The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time, Reviews” IGN. November 25, 1998. http://www.ign.com/articles
293
294 Part IV: The Late Majority
Figure 41.2 Even without the luxury of discs for storage, Ocarina of Time managed impres-
sive, even beautiful cinematics.
A 2009 retrospective by IGN concluded that Ocarina of Time “is the only game made in
the last 20 years that genuinely deserves to be called a masterwork,” arguing that it “sur-
vives the march of time in ways that other landmark games such as Tomb Raider do not
because of the way its pieces fit together—even the pieces that are not revolutionary.”5
But you get the idea; almost everyone who played the game cherished the experience
(see Figure 41.2). It eventually sold nearly 8 million units and is still a top seller on
Nintendo’s virtual console. Needless to say, it was exactly the shot in the arm the strug-
gling Nintendo 64 console needed to fend off Sony.
4 King, Sharon. “Can You Play ‘Feelings’ on the Ocarina?” New York Times, February 15, 1999: C4.
5 Buchanan, Levi. “Is Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time Overrated?” IGN. February 11, 2009. http://www.ign.com/articles
/2009/02/12/is-legend-of-zelda-ocarina-of-time-overrated (accessed September 10, 2015).
Chapter 41: Ocarina of Time: Miyamoto’s Finest Hour 295
of the perceived faults of the Nintendo 64, especially the limited storage capacity of its
cartridges. However, Nintendo canceled it shortly after a repeatedly delayed and ulti-
mately lackluster launch in 1999.
Miyamoto must have had his own doubts about the 64DD, but he kept them to him-
self. He did, however, prepare for a worst-case scenario in which memory constraints
would force him into a design similar to Super Mario 64, with separated zones instead
of the open-world environment the game became known for.7 Fortunately, Nintendo
allowed him to publish it on a 32-megabyte cartridge.
Ocarina of Time adapted the series for the three-dimensional (3D) era, adopting many
of the techniques worked out for Super Mario 64. However, it introduced “Z-Targeting,”
which let Link lock on to a target and perform strafing and other maneuvers without hav-
ing to wrestle with the camera (see Figure 41.3). Another nice feature was that the function
of the controller’s buttons, which were always displayed on screen, changed depending
on the context—a versatile but intuitive control scheme. It also incorporated many clever
puzzles, with several based on the titular musical instrument. The boss battles were more
than just audiovisual spectacles; each required a unique strategy and granted a special
boon if defeated.
Perhaps the most impressive aspect of the game was its vivid, picturesque game
world. There was so much to do and explore that players quickly forgot about the sup-
posed crippling limitations of the cartridge format. An exquisite soundtrack by Koji
Kondo added to the already considerable ambience. Instead of hours of prerendered
footage, the game relied on real-time rendered cut scenes to advance the story. Text was
used instead of digitized recordings of voice actors, but characters generally had sound
effects, such as a grunt, sigh, or yawn, to lend them personality (see Figure 41.4). It’s easy
to forget that the characters aren’t actually talking; your imagination fills the void.
7 Watts, Martin. “Translated 1997 Interview with Miyamoto Reveals Nintendo 64 Insights.” Nintendo Life. April 13, 2013.
http://www.nintendolife.com/news/2013/04/translated_1997_interview_with_miyamoto_and_itoi_reveals_nintendo_64
_insights (accessed September 10, 2015).
296 Part IV: The Late Majority
Figure 41.4 The artists did a good job conveying emotion on the character’s faces.
hundred musicians to move the soul. The same can be said of a boy and his 12-hole ocarina
(see Figure 41.5). If Miyamoto has taught us anything with his great masterpiece, Ocarina
of Time, it’s that skill, talent, and soul will always be a match for pomp and circumstance.
There have been several hit Zelda
games after Ocarina of Time, and while
several are certainly noteworthy, so far
none have managed to eclipse it. Accord
ing to Miyamoto, a new Zelda game is cur-
rently in the works for the Wii U, apparently
scheduled for release some time in 2016.
Miyamoto’s role seems to be limited at
the moment to consulting on the proj-
ect. Much like the Nintendo 64, the Wii U is
currently struggling for recognition, and
Figure 41.5 One of the game’s many oca- a bold new Zelda title might be just the
rina sequences. thing to revitalize the platform.
insatiable demand for “apps” drove much of this development, but there’s also a grow-
ing demand for lean indie titles on consoles and PCs. Each of the major consoles has its
version of an online store where such games are available, and the number of new indie
titles appearing on Steam each month is staggering. Admittedly, many of these games
are mediocre or downright awful, but there’s never been a better time for a talented and
dedicated developer to get her work noticed. Furthermore, crowdfunding options like
Kickstarter, Indiegogo, and the upcoming Gambitious let gamers, not executives, decide
which projects get funded.
I’m usually reticent to predict the future. After all, we’ve seen time and time again
in this book how disruptive real innovations can be—they tend to come out of nowhere,
and often to the surprise and dismay of so-called expert analysts. As of this writ-
ing, much ink (or, at least e-ink) is being spilled concerning the impending revolution
of Augmented Reality Gaming (ARG) and VR headsets like the Oculus Rift or Project
Morpheus. It’s easy to imagine some truly wonderful potential applications for both, but,
as they say, seeing is believing. I wouldn’t be surprised if some hopelessly brilliant, “Why
didn’t I think of that?” application for a smart watch takes off instead.
One thing I can say with confidence is that video games are here to stay, even if they
evolve far beyond what is imaginable today.
Chapter 42
1 Unless, of course, the band in question is Kraftwerk. Then it’s super cool.
299
300 Part V: The Laggards
Usually they were with a group of friends, and one of them would finally work up
the courage to play. She (as it usually was) would have to persuade one of her friends
to join her, and they would laugh at themselves throughout the entire song. One
time, the friends took a picture of the two players while they posed. Dance Dance
Revolution was clearly not a typical arcade experience.2
DDR was already a hit in Japan by the time it hit America in 1999, but few expected
the $15,000 machines to sell in the triple digits.3 But soon, communities were forming
around the game, and expert players spent hours each week (and often a sizable portion
of their income) practicing and incorporating their own impressive flourishes.
Details concerning DDR’s design and development at Konami are not easy to come
by. It seems likely the team was inspired by earlier music-themed games, including
SCEI’s PaRappa the Rapper (1996), their own Beatmania rhythm game in 1997, and Metro
Graphics’ Bust a Groove (aka Bust-A-Move) in 1998. Each of these games was more pop-
ular in Japan than elsewhere, probably because they lacked the exhibitionist qualities
2 Balauag, Michael. “Dance Dance Revolution: A True Revolution.” How They Got Game. 2004. http://web.stanford.edu
3 Tran, Khanh T.L. “‘Karaoke for Feet’—In the Latest Arcade Craze, Players Show a Machine Their Fanciest Footwork.” Wall
Street Journal, Eastern Edition, August 16, 2000: B1.
Chapter 42: Dance Dance Revolution: Konami Shakes Its Money Maker 301
Figure 42.2 A couple of cosplay dancers enjoying a later version of the game at
FanimeCon 2014. (Photo courtesy of Michael Ocampo.)
and fun way to exercise, however—an aspect that touched off a wave of “exergames”
designed precisely for that purpose. DDR and similar games were soon showing up for
P.E. classes around the country.
The music for DDR is mostly licensed from other artists, though some are produced
by composers working for Konami. Naturally, the soundtrack has varied over the years,
and the constant demand for new tunes led to a lucrative aftermarket for new songs—
which could be installed in arcade machines with a new mix kit. To date, Konami has
developed 14 iterations and three different “generations” of arcade machines, the latest
introduced in 2013.
DDR’s success led to a surge of similarly inspired products, most notably
RedOctane’s Guitar Hero (2005) and MTV Games’ Rock Band (2007). These games
focused on making players feel like rock or pop stars and were more appealing to
players who’d rather play guitar or play the drums than dance. Ubisoft’s Rocksmith
evolved the concept into a set of music lesson, promising a fun and easy way to learn
to play an actual guitar.
Whether to use DDR or these later games to learn, show off, exercise, or simply goof
around is up to you. But please, don’t do it from the couch.
302 Part V: The Laggards
1 Donovan, Tristan. “The Replay Interviews: Gary Penn.” Gamastura. January 31, 2011. http://www.gamasutra.com/view
2 McLaughlin, Rus. “IGN PRESENTS: THE HISTORY OF GRAND THEFT AUTO.” IGN. March 28, 2008. http://www.ign.com
303
304 Part V: The Laggards
Figure 43.1 The third Grand Theft Auto was as controversial as it was innovative. It easily
outsold its predecessors and remains one of the industry’s best-selling franchises.
“It crashed all the fucking time,” said Penn, “and the car handling was appalling … It was
awful.”1 Indeed, the 2D engine was actually a concession to the programmers’ inability
to do it in 3D, which they attempted four times before giving up.
Even in 2D, the code was so messy that one day when Penn sat down to play, he
noticed the police had gone psycho. Their pathfinding routines had gone berserk, and
they seemed to be trying to drive right through his car. It was crap. It was madness. But
for the first time since he’d started working on the damn thing, he was actually having
fun.
Just to make sure he wasn’t losing his mind, Penn consulted his fellow designers.
“Everybody went, ‘Hey, this is actually pretty cool. There’s something in this; this is
working.’”1 Instead of toning down the craziness, Penn and the team tried their best to
ratchet it up.
Despite their best efforts, the published game was by no means free of bugs. Critics
also complained about the sloppy camera and wonky controls. However, the premise of
role playing a low-level thug was interesting, if grim. Players marveled at the “freedom”
to run over pedestrians, maim or kill Hare Krishnas, pimp prostitutes, steal cars, and, in
general, live out their most violent anarchic fantasies (see Figure 43.4).
3 Ransom-Wiley. “Race’n’Chase: Original GTA Design Docs Posted.” Engadget. March 22, 2011. http://www.engadget
.com/2011/03/22/race-n-chase-original-gta-design-docs-posted/ (accessed September 13, 2015).
Chapter 43: Grand Theft Auto III: The Industry’s Bad Boy 305
Figure 43.2 Who would’ve thought the makers of the adorable Lemmings game would
turn to a life of crime?
Figure 43.3 Body Harvest was a bit too bloody for Nintendo. (Photo courtesy of David Fuchs.)
tastic job. I particularly liked the theme song, “Da Shootaz,” the lyrics of which described
the gameplay and set the tone for the rest of the game—fight the power (of the police).
The game became a cult classic, and a sequel appeared in 1999 for Dreamcast,
PlayStation, and Windows. It was really just more of the same, with slightly improved
graphics and controls.
Meanwhile, other employees at DMA were finishing up Space Station Silicon Valley
(SSSV), a 3D platformer game for the Nintendo 64. Leslie Benzies, lead programmer on
that project, took over as producer for GTA III.
306 Part V: The Laggards
Figure 43.4 The first two Grand Theft Auto games were top-down 2D games.
Figure 43.5 An official screenshot from the PlayStation 2 version of the game.
of people in the studio said we couldn’t do it.” It was one thing to make a standard first-
person shooter with linear levels; a game with a sprawling open world was a different
matter entirely (see Figure 43.5).
The transition from 2D to 3D was far from a straightforward process. Dan Houser,
cofounder of Rockstar Games (who bought out DMA Design in 1999), said that there were
“vast numbers of problems we had not really thought about,” such as recording 8000
lines of dialog for the people walking on the streets, and figuring out motion capture
routines for the cut scenes. “So many things about the game technically and design-wise
had never been done before,” said Houser.6
4 Mudgal, Kartik. “Developer explains what it’s like developing for each console: PS3 being the hardest.” Gaming Bolt.
5 French, Michael. “Inside Rockstar North—Part 3: The Tech.” Develop-Online. October 5, 2013. http://www.develop-online
6 Miller, Greg. “DAN HOUSER TALKS GRAND THEFT AUTO III.” IGN. October 11, 2011. http://www.ign.com/articles/2011/10/18
/dan-houser-talks-grand-theft-auto-iii (accessed September 13, 2015).
Chapter 43: Grand Theft Auto III: The Industry’s Bad Boy 307
The player is again cast as an anonymous thug trying to move up the mob ladder.
The setting was Liberty City, “the worst place in America” according to the manual. It
was one of the three cities from the first game, and based on New York City. The plot
was more involved this time, though, with double crosses, revenge, and love triangles,
all told through copious cut scenes and forming the basis of the missions. Players chose
how involved they wanted to get in these machinations, if at all. Indeed, you could make
your living driving a taxi, ambulance, or fire truck.
Like the previous games, GTA III had plenty of driving sequences, but it took a lot of
practice to avoid wrecking the vehicles. It took much more skill (and patience) to stay
within the law, stopping at traffic signals, and obeying the speed limit, than to drive like
a maniac—no doubt part of the design (see Figure 43.6).
GTA III sold more than 13 million copies,8 a figure that made sequels and spin-offs all
but inevitable. Accordingly, there are now 11 stand-alone games and four expansions in
the series. The latest was Grand Theft Auto V, released in 2013, which was accompanied
2 weeks later by Grand Theft Auto Online, which supported up to 30 people in multi-
player mode. The former received rave reviews, while the latter was panned for its many
glitches and server issues.
Each game in the series has been controversial. Much was made of picking up pros-
titutes in GTA III, especially the fact that players could murder them afterward to take
back their money. However, that was nothing compared to the ire over “Hot Coffee,”
7 Perry, Doug. “Grand Theft Auto III.” IGN. October 22, 2001. http://www.ign.com/articles/2001/10/22/grand-theft-auto-iii-3
(accessed September 13, 2015).
an unauthorized mod for GTA: San Andreas that enabled an otherwise inaccessible
sequence. It was widely and wrongly believed that this mod showed graphic sexual inter-
course. The reality was much less titillating—the characters didn’t even remove their
clothes—but it was still certainly in very poor taste. With or without this mod, the GTA
series is clearly not for everyone; it is often crude and obscene, and all but the crassest
players will encounter situations they find morally objectionable in these games.
According to Benzies, his team never intentionally went for shock value, insisting
instead that they merely wished to show what life was really like in “the Old West or the
criminal underworld or cocaine-flooded Miami.” He attributed the media furor to a ploy
to sell more newspapers, and that now “people know that games are no longer all about
eating dots or blowing up spaceships; that they can be dark and edgy and challenging.”9
Whether one considers GTA “dark and edgy and challenging” or simply “disgusting” is
a matter of taste, but there’s no denying its role in establishing (and defending) a market
for “mature” games.
GTA III’s success inspired many other developers to make a sandbox game. Examples
include Sony’s The Getaway (2002) for the PS2, which painstakingly modeled a por-
tion of the city of London for its gangster-themed setting. Then there’s Electronic Arts’
The Godfather: The Game (2006), THQ’s Saints Row series (2006–), Realtime Worlds’
Crackdown (2007), and Electronic Arts’ Mercenaries 2: World in Flames (2008), a third-
person shooter set in Venezuela with destructible environments. GTA III’s influence is
also evident in games as diverse as the later Far Cry games, the Batman: Arkham series,
Fallout 3, and even BioWare’s Dragon Age series.
9 Rosenberg, Adam. “Exploring Grand Theft Auto: Vice City’s lasting impact on society with Rockstar’s Leslie Benzies.”
Digital Trends. December 13, 2012. http://www.digitaltrends.com/gaming/exploring-grand-theft-auto-vice-citys-lasting
-impact-on-gamer-culture-with-rockstars-leslie-benzies/(accessed September 13, 2015).
Chapter 44
2 Mahin, Bill. “Monsters in a Box.” Chicago Reader. March 23, 2000. http://www.chicagoreader.com/chicago/monsters-in-a
3 Deniz, Tuncer. “IMG’s The Making of Pathways into Darkness.” Pathways Into Darkness. December 1993. https://halo
.bungie.net/inside/history.aspx?link=HistoryOfBungie_p1 (accessed September 13, 2015).
309
310 Part V: The Laggards
great graphics, and, according to Guinness World Records, the “first commercial FPS to
allow players to use the mouse to freely look around a 3D environment.”4 “It’s an opti-
cal illusion,” admitted Jones later. “All the characters are bitmaps; you could only draw
trapezoids. When you look up and down in Marathon, it’s actually just distorting the
geometry.” Trick or not, Marathon was the game that “changed Bungie from boutique
developer to leading Mac publisher, almost overnight.”1
The new funds helped Bungie to expand into multiplatform publishing. Their first
PC offering was a port of Marathon 2 in 1996. Their next project, Myth, was a real-time
“tactics” game, which omitted the resource management aspects of games like Warcraft:
Orcs & Humans. Both Myth and its first sequel, published in 1998, were well-received,
award-winning productions.
At the MacWorld Expo in the summer of 1999, the consummate showman, Steve
Jobs, made a stunning announcement. “We’re starting to see some great games come
back to the Mac, but this is one of the coolest I’ve ever seen: Halo.”5 After assuring
the audience that everything was running on a real Mac, Jones gave the audience
the world’s first glimpse of Halo, opening with the now-iconic theme music. This
4 Guinness World Records. “First Use of Freelook in a FPS.” Guiness World Records. 2015. http://www.guinnessworldrecords
5 Forum Extreme. “Halo Macworld 1999: First Halo Announcement & Trailer.” YouTube. November 20, 2008. https://www
.youtube.com/watch?v=y2obYHzJ3n8 (accessed September 13, 2015).
Chapter 44: Halo: Combat Evolved: Spartans Never Die 311
6 Morris, Daniel. “PC Gamer Halo Scoop.” PC Gamer, October 1999: 40.
7 IGN Staff. “Rumors, Rumors, Everwhere, But None to Drink.” IGN. June 15, 2000. http://www.ign.com/articles/2000/06/16
/rumors-rumors-everywhere-but-none-to-drink (accessed September 13, 2015).
312 Part V: The Laggards
Figure 44.3 Master Chief’s first mission was to calibrate his suit, which was a nice pretext
for a tutorial.
every minute of every day since its launch on November 15, 2001,” reported Microsoft.9
Major game sites awarded it their highest scores. IGN’s Aaron Boulding called it a “can’t
miss, no-brainer, sure thing, five star, triple A game,” adding that “Microsoft created the
Xbox so we could have games like Halo.”10
According to Joe Fielder for GameSpot, “Not only is this easily the best of the Xbox
launch games, but it’s easily one of the best shooters ever, on any platform,” which
must’ve struck many FPS fans as sheer blasphemy.11 FPS had been born on PCs, and with
the lone exception of Rare’s splendid GoldenEye (1997) for the Nintendo 64, hadn’t done
well on consoles. The main problem was the controls. FPS gamers were long accustomed
to moving with the left hand on the keyboard (WASD) and aiming and firing with the
mouse in their right hand. It was hard to imagine achieving a similar level of precision
and comfort with a game controller. The Xbox’s controller featured two analog sticks,
one for each thumb, and trigger buttons for firing. While the debate still rages about
whether keyboard and mouse is preferable, most players found this solution adequate if
not superior (see Figure 44.3).
Halo: Combat Evolved was exactly the killer app that Microsoft needed to get its Xbox
taken seriously. The first sequel, Halo 2, appeared in 2004, and was easily one of the most
highly anticipated titles in Xbox history. More than a million and a half copies were pre-
ordered, and major news stations covered the immense lines of eager gamers desperate
8 Tyoama, Kevin. “Holy Halo.” Next Generation Magazine, May 2001: 60–64.
9 Microsoft. “Halo: Combat Evolved” for Xbox Tops 1 Million Mark in Record Time.” Microsoft News Center. April 8,
2002. http://news.microsoft.com/2002/04/08/halo-combat-evolved-for-xbox-tops-1-million-mark-in-record-time/
(accessed September 13, 2015).
(a)
(b)
Figure 44.4 Shown here is the Halo: Master Chief Collection: (a) the “Classic Mode” and
(b) the remastered version of the same scene.
to be among the first to buy it. From that point on, no one ever questioned whether con-
sole gamers could appreciate FPSs.
To date, there have been five official Halo games and four spin-off games. Halo 3,
published in 2007 for the Xbox 360, was the last made solely by Bungie. The franchise
was handed over to 343 Industries, named after the 343 Guilty Spark character. A few
314 Part V: The Laggards
Bungie employees left to join their ranks, including Frank O’Connor, who assumed the
title of Franchise Director.
The latest in the main series is Halo 5: Guardians, slated for release on October 27,
2015. It will be exclusive to the Xbox One. As of this writing, there is concern about the
game’s lack of support for local multiplayer, but otherwise seems all but certain to be
another best-selling entry in the venerable franchise.
1 Business Wire. “Call of Duty: Advanced Warfare Is the Biggest Entertainment Launch of the Year.” BusinessWire.
2 Stuart, Keith. “Call of Duty World Championship 2015: Denial claims victory in thrilling finale.” The Guardian. March 29,
2015. http://www.theguardian.com/technology/2015/mar/30/call-of-duty-world-championship-2015-denial-claims-victory
-in-thrilling-finale (accessed September 14, 2015).
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316 Part V: The Laggards
Unlike most of the FPS games on the market at that time, Medal of Honor eschewed
fantasy and sci-fi for modern history, incorporating actual World War II weapons like
the M1 Garand and Mark II Frag Grenade. It was quickly recognized as one of the best
FPS available for the PlayStation, and more than a match for Rare’s GoldenEye on the
Nintendo 64. The ambience, well-designed gameplay, and intuitive control scheme were
the talk of the industry. A grand new series had begun.
Eager to expand Medal of Honor into a multiplatform franchise, EA tapped id Software
to make one for the PC, who in turn sent them to an Oklahoma-based team called 2015,
Inc., who made games with id’s proprietary 3D engine. They’d only released one product:
an expansion pack for Ritual Entertainment’s SiN game called Wages of Sin (1999).
2015 proved up to the challenge; Medal of Honor: Allied Assault (2002) was a criti-
cally acclaimed masterpiece. Reviewers raved about its portrayal of the storming of
Normandy beach, calling it “the most intense and well-executed set piece in shooter
history.”5
In a move reminiscent of David Crane and company’s exodus from Atari to form
Activision, Grant Collier and Vince Zampella decided that they’d be better off on their
own. They called their new studio Infinity Ward and moved from Tulsa to Santa Monica.
Their colleague Jason West joined soon after, and then most of the rest of the Allied
Assault team followed.
3 Campbell, Colin. “HOW STEVEN SPIELBERG INSPIRED TODAY’S TOP SHOOTERS.” IGN. May 29, 2012. http://www.ign.com
4 French, Michael. “Spielberg: Selling to EA was ‘the smartest and dumbest thing I ever did’.” Develop. May 14, 2009.
http://www.develop-online.net/news/spielberg-selling-to-ea-was-the-smartest-and-dumbest-thing-i-ever-did/0104595
(accessed September 14, 2015).
5 Wolpaw, Erik. “Medal of Honor: Allied Assault Review.” GameSpot. January 23, 2002. http://www.gamespot.com/reviews
Figure 45.2 There are plenty of great narrative moments in the game. These Russian sol-
diers can either fight or be shot dead by their own countrymen!
same three-dimensional engine they’d used for Allied Assault, but this time pushed it to
its limit.
Call of Duty was released in 2003, and reviewers lavished it with praise, especially
for the way the player’s characters cohered with AI-controlled characters as a unit.
Not only was this more realistic from a historical point of view, it also made the game
feel immersive. Another nod to realism was the need for cover; players who foolishly
rushed out onto the battlefield, guns blazing, quickly learned better. There was even a
“shellshock” feature; getting too near an explosion temporarily distorted the character’s
vision, sound, and movement. The expansiveness of the campaign was also noteworthy.
Instead of just showing the war from one side, the game had separate campaigns for the
Americans, the British, and the Soviets. It sold more than 4.5 million copies and solidi-
fied Infinity Ward’s reputation as a triple-A developer (see Figure 45.2).
Meanwhile, Microsoft had a problem. It was set to launch its next-generation console,
the Xbox 360, but its flagship developer, Bungie, was nowhere near finished with their
next Halo game. When an offer came down to have Infinity Ward add a Call of Duty game
to support the launch, Collier was “ecstatic.”7 They only had 2 years to make it happen,
so they hired 50 new employees and scrambled to learn what they could about the new
console.
Their efforts paid off. Call of Duty 2 was easily the best of the Xbox 360’s launch titles—
indeed, 85% of new Xbox owners picked up a copy.7 Critics marveled at the meticulous
detail of the environments, the special effects, and the almost visceral feeling of immer-
sion one experienced playing it. Once you were done with the epic campaign, it was time
to head to Xbox Live and try out the multiplayer (or up to four players in split-screen mode).
6 Fahs, Travis. “IGN PRESENTS: THE HISTORY OF CALL OF DUTY.” IGN. November 6, 2009. http://www.ign.com/articles
7 Takahashi, Dean. “The Making and Unmaking of Infinity Ward.” Venturebeat. Marcy 7, 2010. http://venturebeat.com
Figure 45.3 This eerie scene is an effective reminder of the terrible destruction of war.
time founding a new company, Respawn Entertainment, which released its first game,
Titanfall, in 2014.
The Call of Duty series has seen its ups and downs over the years, and much like the
Madden series, longtime fans like to complain of a lack of innovation or originality in the
newer entries (while continuing to buy them). The term brand fatigue seems to describe
it well. Many fans who lived for Call of Duty’s multiplayer have long since migrated to
Digital Illusion CE’s Battlefield series. Still, both series have much to offer, and there are
still plenty of us who prefer the cinematic campaigns of Call of Duty to multiplayer may-
hem (see Figure 45.3).
Half-Life 2
Half-Life 2 (Figure 46.1) is widely regarded as the finest first-person shooter (FPS) ever
made and deserves a spot near the top of any credible “best ever” list of video games.
It’s been over a decade since its publication on November 16, 2004, and I’ve played many
hundreds of games since my first journey with Dr. Gordon Freeman. Yet, none of them
has managed to surpass the enjoyment of that first hoverboat ride, the thrill of using the
Gravity Gun, or the terror I felt at Ravenholm. From its iconic opening scenes at City 17 to
the epic confrontation at the Citadel, I was hooked.
Half-Life 2 was widely celebrated at the time for its story, a fact made all the more
remarkable for a game without cut scenes. Instead, players experienced that story
through Gordon’s eyes and ears, seeing events unfold or hearing about them from other
characters. Identifying with Gordon was easy—he was no super soldier, after all, but a
bespectacled physicist; more Walter White than Dwayne Johnson.
The game sold more than 12 million copies and helped make Valve’s Steam service
a bastion of PC gaming.1 In an industry in which even mediocre games have sequels in
the double digits, fans have longed for a Half-Life 3 so long that the phrase “Half-Life 3
Confirmed” has become a meme.
Valve Corporation was founded on August 24, 1996, by two millionaires who had
earned their fortunes at Microsoft: Gabe Newell and Mike Harrington. Their debut
game was the original Half-Life, which was published by Sierra On-Line on November
8, 1998. Built with a modified version of id’s Quake engine, Half-Life became an instant
classic. All reviewers praised the AI, which was leaps and bounds ahead of most games.
The enemies would split up to attempt to flank you, and would even yell “fire in the hole!”
at their comrades as they scurried away from your grenades.
The game also did away with discrete levels, a convention born of necessity that had
hung on despite advances in technology. Gone also were the intrusive cut scenes that
other designers relied on so heavily for exposition (see Figure 46.2).
It wasn’t perfect; the loading times between areas turned off some, and some parts of
the game were more frustrating than challenging. But these nitpicks didn’t stop promi-
nent reviewers from declaring it “the best shooter since the original Doom.”2
1 Chiang, Oliver. “The Master of Online Mayhem.” Forbes. February 9, 2011. http://www.forbes.com/forbes/2011/0228
2 Green, Jeff. “Half-Life.” Comptuer Gaming World, April 14, 2010: 168, 169.
319
320 Part V: The Laggards
Figure 46.1 Half-Life 2, a solid contender for the best game ever made.
Instead of rushing a sequel into production, Newell told his team to take as much time
and money as they needed to make a truly revolutionary title. “There’s going to be no pro-
ducer making bad decisions about what has to happen on this project,” Newell assured
them. “The only pressure we have is to build a worthy sequel to Half-Life.”3 As the develop-
ment dragged on, Newell’s friend and Valve’s cofounder, Harrington, left the company.
A company named GearBox Software was assigned to pick up the slack with two expan-
sions for Half-Life. Valve also fostered an active modding community by releasing Half-
Life’s software development kit and lending their support to the more promising projects.
Far and away the most successful was one called Counter-Strike. Valve hired its develop-
ers, Minh Le and Jess Cliffe, and released it as a stand-alone commercial version in 2000.
At the Game Developers Conference in 2002, Valve had a major announcement, but
it wasn’t a new game. Instead it was Steam, a digital distribution service. Presented as
a benign way to expedite patches, gamers soon learned of a corporate agenda: Steam
was an online authentication service—a scheme to thwart pirates and cheaters. Gamers
would have no choice but to use it if they wanted to play Valve’s games. Many feared that
a shutdown or glitch with Steam’s servers would mean they wouldn’t be able to play their
legitimate copies, and others had concerns about privacy.
3 Keighley, Geoff. “The Final Hours of Half-Life 2.” GameSpot. November 12, 2004. http://www.gamespot.com/articles/the
Figure 46.2 The first Half-Life opens with a terrifying long descent into a secret base. If you
stay alert, you’ll notice signs of trouble.
It wasn’t until November of 2004 that Half-Life fans finally got the full-fledged sequel
they’d been waiting for (see Figures 46.3 and 46.4). Valve had promised it would be
out a year earlier, but got bogged down in a legal battle with their publisher, Vivendi
Universal, over Steam. As if that weren’t bad enough, Newell realized Valve’s servers had
been hacked, and confidential information—including source code and a playable ver-
sion of the game—had been leaked. This situation certainly didn’t inspire confidence
among those already worried about privacy.4 “It just felt like each day was getting worse,”
said Newell. “First the source code. Then the game. And then people started using the
game to compose … screenshots of Dr. Kleiner performing oral sex on Alyx. It’s basically
your worst nightmare.”3
When the game finally shipped, reviewers were ecstatic about the game, but not nearly as
excited about having to register it on Steam. Jeff Green of Computer Gaming World deducted a
half point from his review on account of it, calling it an “obtrusive, user-hostile abomination”:5
4 Dunn, Jeff. “Full Steam Ahead: The History of Valve.” Games Radar. October 4, 2013. http://www.gamesradar.com/history
5 Green, Jeff. “Half-Life 2.” Computer Gaming World, February, 2005: 78–79.
322 Part V: The Laggards
Figure 46.3 Gordon will find many willing allies along the way. But can he really trust them?
Figure 46.4 The Gravity Gun is one of the coolest weapons of any FPS game.
burned. Like most PC gamers, though, I eventually warmed up to the service, especially after
it began offering its extremely popular sales program, achievements, and other nifty features.
Half-Life 2 was built using Source, an engine Valve had developed in 2004. It allowed
for better audiovisuals and physics than the earlier GoldSrc engine. Five months earlier,
Valve used it to remake the first game (Half-Life: Source).
Valve released two “episodes,” or expansions to Half-Life 2, the first in 2006 and the
second in 2007. These continued the story, added some enhancements, and were gener-
ally well received. A long-awaited third episode has yet to materialize and the source of
almost as much rumor and speculation as Half-Life 3.
I’ll end this chapter with Portal, a fiendishly clever puzzle platform game Valve
released in 2007. Instead of a gun or crowbar, the player’s character (Chell) wields a por-
tal gun, which when fired at an appropriate surface becomes an orange or blue portal.
Objects that enter one of these portals exit out the other. From this basic mechanic, the
developers derive a fascinating series of puzzles. A sinister AI called GLaDOS monitors
the action and taunts the player. Portal 2, released in 2011, greatly expanded and refined
these concepts into what is truly a masterpiece of the genre.
World of Warcraft:
An MMORPG for the Masses
World of Warcraft (WoW) MMORPG’s servers were opened to the public on November 23,
2004, and over a decade later, it’s still the #1 game in its category. As of this writing, the
game has 5.6 million subscribers,1 down from its peak of 12 million in October of 2010.2
Even after this precipitous drop, WoW is still one of Activision’s biggest sources of rev-
enue, and an upcoming expansion called Legion will, if history is any indication, send at
least a few millions of those former subscribers back to Azeroth (Figure 47.1) (assuming
they can still remember their passwords!).
That WoW has maintained its dominance in the field despite competition from so-
called WoW Killers like Funcom’s Age of Conan: Hyborian Adventures (2008), BioWare
Austin’s Star Wars: The Old Republic (2011), and ArenaNet’s Guild Wars 2 (2012) says some-
thing about its staying power. Modern gamers have a wealth of MMORPGs to choose
from, including one based on such hallowed properties as J.R.R. Tolkien and Dungeons &
Dragons. What keeps people and so many gamers of every walk of life logged in every
week (if not every day) just to “do their dailies,” run a raid with their guild, or level up yet
another “alt” character?
Back in 2004, WoW’s rise to prominence was hardly a done deal. Sony’s EverQuest
had handily pushed Ultima Online off the throne in 1999, mostly by making life easier for
novices and updating the graphics. Of course, 5 years later, those graphics weren’t nearly
as impressive, so Sony released EverQuest II on November 8, most likely hoping to stem
the flow of emigration from Norrath to Azeroth.
As we saw in Chapters 33 and 34, Blizzard was already a major player in the online
gaming world thanks to their Battle.net server. They’d been the first company to really
generate profits with an online model, and their hugely successful games earned them
the respect, if not the veneration, of the rest of the industry. Much as EverQuest (Figure
47.2) had done back in 1999, WoW soon became the MMORPG, rapidly seizing market
share but also swelling that market to unprecedented numbers: By September 19, 2008,
1 Tassi, Paul. “’World of Warcraft’ Has Lost 44% of Its Subscribers in Six Months, But That’s Okay.” Forbes. August 2, 2015.
http://www.forbes.com/sites/insertcoin/2015/08/05/world-of-warcraft-has-lost-44-of-its-subscribers-in-six-months-but
-thats-okay/ (accessed September 15, 2015).
2 Peckham, Matt. “The Inexorable Decline of World of Warcraft.” Time. May 9, 2013. http://techland.time.com/2013/05/09
323
324 Part V: The Laggards
Figure 47.1 I’m not sure whether to call this one a game or a “lifestyle.” I’ve certainly spent
a good portion of my life questing and adventuring in Azeroth!
Figure 47.2 Before there was World of Warcraft, there was EverQuest. Some gamers still
prefer it, but many abandoned their accounts, never to return.
had already been a full year in development, and that beta testing might take another. In
reality, it’d be another 3 years, but the wait was worth it.
Sam Didier, Blizzard’s art director, said that the inspiration for WoW came during
the development of Warcraft III. “At one time, we had a behind-the-character camera
in Warcraft III, much like you see in WoW now. We were thinking of a slightly differ-
ent, RTS-slash-RPG vibe for the game.”5 Many of Blizzard’s designers were avid fans of
EverQuest, including Rob Pardo, vice president of game design. In fact, his role as leader
of a prominent guild on that game helped get him the job. There were many ideas floating
about possible settings for the game, but the team eventually settled on their already-
established Warcraft universe.
3 Bartle, Richard A. “From MUDs to MMORPGs: The History of Virtual Worlds.” In International Handbook of Internet Research,
by Jeremy Hunsinger, Lisbeth Klastrup, and Matthew M. Allen, 23–39. New York: Springer Science & Business Media, 2010.
4 Parker, Sam. “ECTS 2001: World of Warcraft Announced.” GameSpot. September 2, 2001. http://www.gamespot.com
5 Fahey, Rob. “The Making of World of Warcraft.” Eurogamer.net. Nomber 8, 2009. http://www.eurogamer.net/articles/the
One of the game’s most distinctive features is its cartoonish aesthetic, which was
chosen largely as a concession to the game engine. “Any game will age,” said Chris
Metzen, vice president of creative development, “but there’s something timeliness and
Disney-ish about WoW’s look.”5 A more realistic-looking game would have aged much
less gracefully.
Besides impressive audiovisuals and an intuitive interface, the developers had clearly
benefited from a careful study of the competition. Although there are many aspects
of the game we could talk about, perhaps the most significant is its careful balance
between PVP (player versus player) and PVE (player versus environment). Although, like
EverQuest, WoW offered dedicated servers for PVP, the rules for PVP on regular servers
were relaxed. Players who wanted to fight other players had several options at their dis-
posal, from harmless duels to battlegrounds, where members of the two opposing fac-
tions (allies and hordes) clashed in battle. However, at any time, players could flag their
characters for PVP, making it possible for any other flagged character to attack them. The
game encouraged PVP mostly in the battlegrounds, where players could compete for
special titles and equipment (see Figure 47.3).
PVE is probably where WoW shines the most, however, ensuring that even the most
antisocial player has plenty of fun things to do (see Figure 47.4). This is most evident in
the quest structure; there were hundreds of possible quests to fulfill, many of which were
easy enough for a solo player to complete. Indeed, I’ve known many players who never
joined a guild or even a group; they only played alone, and liked it just fine that way.
According to Metzen, WoW’s focus on quests was a response to the problem of getting
lost in other MMOs. “You would simply head out, and if you found yourself in a place that
Figure 47.3 There are many races and classes to choose from, and each combination offers
a unique experience.
326 Part V: The Laggards
Figure 47.4 Loot, loot, and more loot. The quest for a higher item level never ends.
was above your level, you got clobbered.”5 Quest givers were identified with gold excla-
mation points over their heads, an effective (if comical) design.
There were also quests for groups, which usually involved entering an “instance.”
This concept of “instances” is particularly important, since the problem it solved was
one of the main complaints about EverQuest. The nature of MMORPGs makes it hard for
one person or even one group to complete certain objectives, such as defeating a par-
ticularly powerful foe. By the time the group arrives on the scene, another group has
already killed the beast. To make matters worse, some players may opt to “kill steal” or
“boss camp,” meaning to either swoop in at the last minute to finish off and loot a mon-
ster (and thus gaining the treasure and experience), or simply hanging around where the
monster reappears after death, selfishly killing it again and again before anyone else can
respond. This type of malignant player, called a “griefer,” is too common on MMOs and is
the reason many otherwise satisfied players cancel their subscriptions.
The “instance” solved many of these problems by making certain areas of the game
unique to an individual player or group. When a group entered an instance together, a
special version of that instance was created just for them; no other players were allowed
inside. Blizzard later added a “looking for group” tool to help players find groups for
instances, and eventually a “looking for raid” tool for bringing together larger groups for
“raiding,” or larger, 10- to 40-person instances with much tougher bosses and better loot.
Not many would claim WoW was perfect then or now, but for many, it had just the
right balance of complexity. It was remarkably easy to create a character and get started
in the game, and new abilities were added gradually, smoothing out the learning curve.
Expansions were much less frequent than we’ve seen in past MMORPGs, which made
Chapter 47: World of Warcraft: An MMORPG for the Masses 327
Figure 47.5 The Mists of Pandaria expansion added an Asian-themed land, a panda race, and a
monk class. Apparently, someone at Blizzard had watched Kung Fu Panda a few too many times.
their eventual releases into major events that brought in new players as well as encour-
age old ones to return. To date, there have been five of these: The Burning Crusade (2007),
Wrath of the Lich King (2008), Cataclysm (2010), Mists of Pandaria (2012) (Figure 47.5), and
Warlords of Draenor (2014). In addition to these commercial expansions, Blizzard has
regularly issued mandatory patches, which added content and tweaked or made major
revisions to the game mechanics.
The future of WoW seems bright, especially now that the next expansion, Legion, is
just around the corner. Even if it’s half the size it was at its peak, WoW’s player base is still
large enough to make it easy to find and join a group for instancing or raids, and there
are always plenty of solo-player activities to do whenever you log in. For longtime players
such as myself, WoW is not so much a game as a favorite destination—a splendid vaca-
tion from reality that’s always just a few clicks away.
1 Thorsen, Tor, and Tim Surette. “Nintendo’s Revolution Is Nigh.” GameSpot. May 17, 2005. http://www.gamespot.com
329
330 Part V: The Laggards
2 MacDonald, Mark. “Revolution Controller Revealed.” 1up.com. September 15, 2005. http://www.1up.com/news/revolution
3 Cole, Vladimir. “Nintendo ‘Revolution’ Now Called Wii.” Endgaget. April 27, 2006. http://www.engadget.com/2006/04/27
4 Casamassina, Matt. “Wii Sports Review.” IGN. November 13, 2006. http://www.ign.com/articles/2006/11/14/wii-sports
-review (accessed September 15, 2015).
Chapter 48: Wii Sports: Let Grandpa Teach You 331
Figure 48.2 These players are enjoying a bout of boxing. (Photo courtesy of David Murphy.)
Wii Sports was produced by Katsuya Eguchi (Figure 48.3), a 41-year-old who’d joined
the company back in 1986. He’d helped design some of their biggest titles, including
Super Mario Bros. 3, Star Fox, Super Mario World, and Animal Crossing. His basic design
philosophy for Wii Sports was to keep it simple: “Not every game has to be like an ency-
clopedia. There is nothing wrong with magazines and comics.” He also wanted to make
a game that people would enjoy watching others play as much as playing themselves.7
Clearly, he and his team succeeded on both counts (see Figure 48.4).
The Wii was the right system, with the right game, at the right time. A year later,
Apple would launch the first incarnation of its iPhone, popularizing the “smartphone”
and “apps” for every conceivable purpose, including, of course, all the casual games you
5 IR Information. “Top Selling Software Sales Units.” Nintendo.co.jp. March 31, 2015. http://www.nintendo.co.jp/ir/en/sales
6 Yam, Marcus. “Wii Invades Retirement Homes.” Daily Tech. February 22, 2007. http://www.dailytech.com/Wii+Invades
Figure 48.4 The bowling game was by far my favorite part of Wii Sports. All the fun of
bowling with no fear of athlete’s foot!
Still, I wouldn’t rule Nintendo out yet. As of this writing, the rumor mill is churn-
ing with speculations about the “Nintendo NX,” apparently a hybrid console/handheld
device that might also have smartphone capabilities. It’s hard to imagine what a killer
app for such a contraption might look like, but if anybody does, I’m betting it’s Nintendo.
There is little about Angry Birds that one might call original or technologically impressive.
Indeed, “artillery games” have been around at least since the 1970s. These games had play-
ers in tanks, cannons, or catapults lobbing projectiles at each other, taking turns adjust-
ing their angle and initial velocity until one of them connected with the other. Indeed, the
Flash game Crush the Castle employed a similar flinging mechanic just a few months ear-
lier. Angry Birds (Figure 49.1) was no technological breakthrough, either. As a bootleg car-
tridge demonstrated, it even runs smoothly on a Nintendo Entertainment System (NES).
But what Angry Birds had going for it was the “different package of attributes”
Christensen was talking about. It was perfectly suited for its target platform, iOS, and
took advantage of its touch screen to provide a wonderfully intuitive and tactile control
scheme. Many iOS games then and now were still designed with console or PC para-
digms; they were thus not optimized for the unique affordances provided by the iPhone
or iPad. Angry Birds was built specifically for touch devices.
Furthermore, Angry Birds (Figure 49.2) was bursting with personality. Each type of bird
had its own color, shape, and ability. The blue bird, for instance, split up into three birds
when you tapped it. The white bird dropped exploding eggs, and the green bird would
1 Christensen, Clayton M. The Innovator’s Dilemma. Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1997.
333
334 Part V: The Laggards
Figure 49.2 Angry Birds made excellent use of the iPhone’s touch screen. Pulling back the
slingshot feels natural, and shooting the birds through the air is terrific fun.
The answer came from an unlikely source—the newspaper. At the time, the swine flu
pandemic was making headlines, and someone thought sickly green pigs would make
great opponents for the birds.4 It didn’t make much sense, but neither do most cartoons.
2 Gaudiosi, John. “Rovio Execs Explain What Angry Birds Toons Channel Opens Up To Its 1.7 Billion Gamers.” Forbes. March 11,
3 Rigney, Ryan. “The Origins of Angry Birds.” PC World. October 2, 2010. http://www.pcworld.com/article/206831/the
4 Mundy, Jon. “Interview: Rovio on the origin of Angry Birds, being inspired by swine flu, and why you may never see
an Angry Birds 2.” Pocket Gamer. October 13, 2010. http://www.pocketgamer.co.uk/r/Multiformat/Angry+Birds/news.asp
?c=24243 (accessed September 15, 2015).
Chapter 49: Angry Birds: Slingshot to the Top 335
Figure 49.3 The designers were careful not to make the pigs look too scary or menacing.
In the context of Angry Birds, success is bound up in slowing down that which could
be fast, erasing that which is easily renewable, and making visual that which is mys-
terious and memorable.5
Mauro pointed out that although the game’s design is only deceptively simple, it’s actu-
ally quite clever. For instance, at several points, the action seems to lag; a pig might tee-
ter for several seconds on an edge before falling off. This would get boring in most games,
but Mauro claims (and I agree) that in Angry Birds, such moments are necessary—they
give you time to relax as well as think about your strategy. Mauro makes several other
cogent points; I highly recommend his essay.
To date, there have been 12 games in the Angry Birds series and three spin-off games.
The latest, Angry Birds 2, was released in 2015. While its improved audiovisuals were well
received, the “freemium” model of payment it introduced was not. The game was free to
download, but after losing five lives, you had to wait half an hour for each bird to regen-
erate. Naturally, you could spend real money to speed up this process, but there were no
options to simply buy the game outright.
The unprecedented success of Angry Birds ignited a gold rush of casual games for iOS
and Android, but few achieved anywhere near the success of Rovio. Flappy Bird (2013)
was an odd exception; its Vietnamese developer, Dong Nguyen, actually removed his
game after its sudden international success made him an instant celebrity.6 For every
Angry Birds or Flappy Bird, of course, there are hundreds, if not thousands, of seemingly
equally compelling games that are lucky to receive a dozen downloads. A 2012 study by
App Promo found that 59% of apps don’t even break even on their development costs.7
5 Mauro, Charles L. “Why Angry Birds is so successful and popular: A cognitive teardown of the user experience.” PulseUX
Blog. February 6, 2011. http://www.mauronewmedia.com/blog/why-angry-birds-is-so-successful-a-cognitive-teardown
-of-the-user-experience/ (accessed September 15, 2015).
6 Russell, Brandon. “Flappy Bird Creator Says He’s Pulling the Game for Good Tomorrow.” Techno Buffalo. February 8, 2014.
http://www.technobuffalo.com/2014/02/08/flappy-bird-getting-pulled-ios-google-play/ (accessed September 15, 2015).
7 App Promo. “Wake Up Call—If You Spend It, They Will Come.” App Promo. May 2, 2012. http://app-promo.com/wake-up
One can attribute the enviable success of Angry Birds to meticulous design, colorful
characters, lucky timing, or some ineffable quality like personality or soul. I suspect it’s
some combination of each.
1 Handy, Alex. “Interview: Markus ‘Notch’ Persson Talks Making Minecraft.” Gamasutra. March 23, 2010. http://www
2 Ewing, Adam, and Marie Mawad. “Minecraft founder Markus Persson: From ‘indie’ tech champion to potential billionaire
337
338 Part V: The Laggards
Figure 50.1 Markus “Notch” Persson’s Minecraft made him a billionaire, but not a happy man.
fun, but there wasn’t enough variation, and the [aesthetics] were horrible. I thought
a fantasy game in that style would work really well.”4 It was also riddled with bugs.
Persson’s new look was charming and more inviting, and, best yet, ran smoothly in a
browser (see Figure 50.2).
As interest built in his project, Persson continued to add new features, including the
all-important multiplayer and survival mode. This latter mode had zombies and skeletons
who would come out at night; players had to work quickly to build an adequate shelter to
defend against them. These additions made the game even more popular—so popular,
in fact, they crashed Persson’s server. Videos began appearing on YouTube, showing off
4 Persson, Markus. “The Origins of Minecraft.” The Word of Notch. October 30, 2009. http://notch.tumblr.com/post
Figure 50.3 Time to get crafty! You can make all manner of things by combining the
appropriate items.
elaborate structures people had built in the game, such as a replica of the Enterprise from
Star Trek.5 By 2010, Persson had thousands of players, including 6000 dedicated enough to
pay his $13 early-bird fee to access the/indev/alpha, which featured the aforementioned
survival mode.6 Persson continued to graft on more features as the game moved from
alpha into beta (see Figure 50.3). By January of 2011, he’d sold nearly a million copies, and
was able to found his own company, Mojang, and hire his first employees.
The game was officially released on November 18, 2011, and won a number of presti-
gious awards. Persson then handed the reigns over to Jens Bergensten and went off to
pursue other projects. Persson’s departure didn’t keep the game from receiving a steady
flow of improvements and influxes of new fans.
5 Mojang. “A Longer History.” Minecraft. 2015. https://minecraft.net/game (accessed September 15, 2015).
6 Handy, Alex. “Interview: Markus ‘Notch’ Persson Talks about Making Minecraft.” Gamasutra. March 23, 2010. http://www
.gamasutra.com/view/news/27719/Interview_Markus_Notch_Persson_Talks_Making_Minecraft.php (accessed September
15, 2015).
340 Part V: The Laggards
Persson made headlines again on September 15, 2014, when he sold Mojang to
Microsoft for $2.5 billion.7 Some figured Persson had simply sold out to the same sort of
corporate influences he’d railed against earlier in his career. However, Persson blamed
it on his discomfort with being a symbol. “I’m not an entrepreneur. I’m not a CEO. I’m
a nerdy computer programmer who likes to have opinions on Twitter,” said Persson. “I
don’t want to be … responsible for something huge that I don’t understand, that I don’t
want to work on that keeps coming back to me.”8
Fortunately for fans of the game, Microsoft opted for a mostly hands-off approach
with Mojang and the Minecraft community. Minecraft: Xbox One Edition debuted on
September 5, 2014, and a Windows 10 Edition beta was released on July 28, 2015. An
education-themed version called MinecraftEDU has already been adopted by more than
2100 schools to teach “every subject from history to art to science.”9 So far, so good, but
Microsoft will long remain a benevolent overlord.
As for Persson, the freshly minted billionaire seems miserable. He’s often taken to
Twitter to express his suffering: “Hanging out in Ibiza with a bunch of friends and party-
ing with famous people, able to do whatever I want … I’ve never felt more isolated.”10 If
the replies these Tweets have received are any indication, many find it hard to sympa-
thize with his plight.
7 Peckham, Matt. “Minecraft Is Now Part of Microsoft, and It Only Cost $2.5 Billion.” Time. September 15, 2014. http://time
.com/3377886/microsoft-buys-mojang/ (accessed September 15, 2015).
8 Karmali, Luke. “NOTCH ON LEAVING MOJANG: ‘IT’S ABOUT MY SANITY’.” IGN. September 15, 2014. http://www.ign.com
/articles/2014/09/15/notch-on-leaving-mojang-its-about-my-sanity (accessed September 15, 2015).
9 Gaudiosi, John. “The new way to learn? Brick by brick.” Fortune. August 1, 2014. http://fortune.com/2014/08/01/minecraft
10 Matyszczyk, Chris. “Billionaire who sold Minecraft to Microsoft is sad and lonely.” CNET. August 30, 2015. http://www
.cnet.com/news/billionaire-who-sold-minecraft-to-microsoft-is-sad-and-lonely/ (accessed September 15, 2015).
Afterword
I hope that you’ve enjoyed this whirlwind tour through 50 of the greatest and most influ-
ential video games of all time. I encourage you to try them all, even the ones you think
you won’t like. You’d be surprised how fast these games can grow on you.
I’d like to take a moment to reflect on some things I’ve learned in the course of
researching and writing this book—some insights, I think, into what it takes to make a
great game.
First, every great game gets made because somebody wants to play it badly enough
to make it. I frequently encounter people who assume that a “good idea” is their ticket
to glory in the games industry, but the reality is that every professional game designer
already has a drawer full of them. If you take it upon yourself to learn how to make your
idea into a working game, no matter how crude (Minecraft!), you’re already far, far ahead
of the pack.
Second, if just being able to play the game you envision isn’t reward enough—in other
words, if you’re in it for the money, fame, or status, don’t quit your day job. Sid Meier, Will
Wright, Richard Garriott, and John Romero did not get to where they are today because
they wanted to get rich and famous. Indeed, in many cases, they seemed hell-bent on
ruining themselves and their companies! They set out to make the games they wanted to
play, even if everyone else thought they were stupid.
Finally, “originality” is overrated. Some designers may pride themselves on doing
something wonderful that’s never been done before, but they’re misguided for three
reasons. For one, as I was writing this book, I came to the painful realization that the old
saying is true—there’s nothing new under the sun. You’re never “first,” but only early—
and you don’t want to be the schmuck that rings the doorbell when the hosts are still
setting up for the party. If you want to make a better impression, try being “fashionably
late,” which brings me to my second point: Time spent polishing and playtesting a game
is never wasted. Many are the games that flopped because they had too many bugs. How
many games do you know that failed for the lack of them? Finally, no matter how much
sense it makes to sell out, do not sell out. If the money didn’t bring you into this business,
don’t let it take you out of it.
I end each of my “Matt Chat” episodes with a relevant quotation. Perhaps it would
not be a bad way to end now, either. I leave you, then, with the words of the great Shigeru
Miyamoto, words that I think aptly sum up my afterword, this entire book, and perhaps
our very lives: “A delayed game is eventually good, but a rushed game, forever bad.”
341
Index
A Angband, 44
Angry Birds, 2, 333–336
Aarseth, Espen, 279
attributes, 333–334
Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences, 106
cognitive analysis of, 335
Actions per minute (APM), 257
as disruptive innovation, 333
Active Time Battle system, 129
series games, 335
Activision, 34
spin-off games, 335
Dragster, 79
Ant Farm Revolution, 248
Fishing Derby, 79
Antonick, Robin, 228
Pitfall!, 77–84
The Ants (Wilson), 176
Activision Blizzard, 315
AOL, 265
Call of Duty, 315–318
APM, see Actions per minute (APM)
Call of Duty: Classic, 318
Apple, 331
Adams, Douglas, 31
iPhone, 331–332
Adams, Scott, 35
Apple Invader, see Space Invaders
ADOM, see Ancient Domains of Mystery (ADOM)
Applesoft BASIC, 126
Advent, see Colossal Cave Adventure
AppleWin, 107
Adventure, see Colossal Cave Adventure
App Promo, 335
Adventure Construction Set (ACS), 106
Arakawa, Minoru, 63–64, 67
Adventure International, 35
Arcade games, 8, 136
Age of Conan: Hyborian Adventures, 323
racing games, 71–76
A.I. Design, 43
Archaeologists, 1
Air Fight, 87
Archetype Interactive
Akalabeth: World of Doom, 126
Meridian 59, 265
Albaugh, Mike, 79
ArenaNet, 323
Alcorn, Allan, 1–2, 13–14
Arnold, Ken, 41, 42, 43, 127
Alexander, Christopher, 245
Arora, Saahill, 253
Alex Kidd in Miracle World, 236
ARPANET, 48
Allied Assault, 317
Artillery games, 333
Alone in the Dark, 274
Artwick, Bruce, 85–86
The Alternate Source, 88
education, 86
Alto systems of Xerox, 48
Flight Simulator, 85–91
Ames Research Center, NASA, 47
Ascension, 131
Amiga 1000, 47
ASCII (American Standard Code for Information
AMPLITUDE Studios, 44
Interchange), 42
Ancient Domains of Mystery (ADOM), 44
ASCII Corporation, 288
Anderson, Tim, 32
Aspnes, James, 39
Andre, Ken St., 191
343
344 Index
Z
X
Zachthronics, 338
Xbox 360 Zampella, Vince, 316
Call of Duty 2, 317 ZIL, 33
Call of Duty: Classic, 318 Z-Machine, 33
Metal Gear Solid HD Collection, 291 Z-Machine Interpreter, 33
Pac-Man Champion Edition, 62 Zork, 29–36, 41
Xbox Live Arcade, 62 descriptions, 30
Xbox One design, 30
Halo 5: Guardians, 314 parser, 30
Halo: The Master Chief Collection, 314 setup, 30
X-COM: UFO Defense, 249 story of development, 31
Xerox Zorkmid coins, 33
Alto systems, 48 Z-Targeting, 295