Guidelines and Specifications for High-Reliability

Fossil Power Plants, 2nd Edition

Best Practice Guideline for Manufacturing and Construction of
Grade 91 Steel Components

2015 TECHNICAL REPORT

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10392249
 Guidelines and
Specifications for High-
Reliability Fossil Power
Plants, 2nd Edition
Best Practice Guideline for Manufacturing
and Construction of Grade 91 Steel
Components

All or a portion of the requirements of the EPRI Nuclear

Quality Assurance Program apply to this product.

EPRI Project Managers

J. Parker
J. Seifert

3420 Hillview Avenue

Palo Alto, CA 94304-1338
USA

PO Box 10412
Palo Alto, CA 94303-0813
USA

800.313.3774
650.855.2121

[email protected] 3002006390
www.epri.com Final Report, June 2015
10392249
DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTIES AND LIMITATION OF LIABILITIES

THIS DOCUMENT WAS PREPARED BY THE ORGANIZATION NAMED BELOW AS AN ACCOUNT OF

WORK SPONSORED OR COSPONSORED BY THE ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH INSTITUTE, INC. (EPRI).
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PERSON ACTING ON BEHALF OF ANY OF THEM:

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Copyright © 2015 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved.

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 Acknowledgments The Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) prepared this report.

Principal Investigators
J. D. Parker
J. A. Siefert

This report describes research sponsored by EPRI. This report

replaces the 2011 report, Guidelines and Specifications for High-
Reliability Fossil Power Plants: Best Practice Guideline for
Manufacturing and Construction of Grade 91 Steel Components
(1023199). Although the bulk of the information remains as
originally published, key updates have been included in this report
and this report should be used.

This publication is a corporate

document that should be cited in the
literature in the following manner:

Guidelines and Specifications for

High-Reliability Fossil Power Plants,
2nd Edition: Best Practice Guideline
for Manufacturing and Construction
of Grade 91 Steel Components.
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2015.
3002006390.
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Abstract
The steel alloy known as Grade 91 has achieved broad acceptance
within the modern industry for use in fabricating a variety of critical
pressure part components, including tubing, piping, and headers. As
is true for all of the creep-strength-enhanced ferritic (CSEF) steels,
designers favor Grade 91 because, within a specific temperature
range and when properly processed, it provides a superior elevated
temperature strength at a substantially lower cost than the austenitic
stainless steels, while maintaining the advantageous thermal-physical
properties of a ferritic alloy.
Recent service experience has confirmed that early failures can occur
in components fabricated from the CSEF steels unless the required
condition of the microstructure is developed and maintained during
processing. EPRI reports 1018151, Service Experience with Grade 91
Components, and 3002005089, Service Experience with Creep Strength
Enhanced Ferritic Steels in Power Plants in the Asia-Pacific Region,
review service experience with Grade 91 steel. Fabrication irregularities
can result in components entering service with substantially deficient
elevated temperature properties. These issues have caused serious
concern as a result of the obvious implications for the safety of plant
personnel and the reliability of equipment.
This report provides the information necessary to resolve issues that
pertain to how the material is ordered, how it is processed, how
quality control is maintained during processing, and how the material
is inspected in the shop and the field to determine its condition
before or soon after installation. In combination with other EPRI
reports, this report should enable suppliers to control the quality of
the material at every stage of its implementation. The intent is to
ensure that deficient material is never installed. This report
establishes requirements for optimizing manufacturing and
construction practices for Grade 91 components based on the best
available information. Revisions to this report will be prepared as
required by improved knowledge and understanding.

Keywords
Creep-strength-enhanced ferritic (CSEF) steels
Grade 91 alloy
Grade 91 component failures
Manufacturing practices
Quality control practices

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Foreword
This report has been created to address issues associated with the
manufacture of components with Grade 91 steel.

Following the introduction, there is a section that provides specific

details associated with the purchase of Grade 91 steel components.
Every attempt has been made to ensure that the details of the
specification are consistent with industry best practices. These best
practices have been modified as required by research from the Electric
Power Research Institute Life Assessment of Creep-Strength-
Enhanced Ferritic Steels project. As far as possible, the appendices
provide summaries of the technical background linked to specific
points within the best practices section. These summaries should
allow a rapid referral to key information. It should be recognized,
however, that the metallurgy and performance of Grade 91 steel are
complex and that a full review of references is recommended to
provide a complete understanding. In addition, work is still in
progress to provide additional details in key areas. Therefore, the
appendices will be updated and supplemented as necessary.

The key differences between the 2011 EPRI report, Guidelines and
Specifications for High-Reliability Fossil Power Plants: Best Practice
Guideline for Manufacturing and Construction of Grade 91 Steel
Components (1023199), and this report are as follows:
 Although the need for measurement and control of trace
elements is confirmed, there have been changes made to the
target composition levels.
 It is emphasized that problems that result from poor practice
early in the steel making and component fabrication process
cannot be mitigated by a final heat treatment.
 All heat treatments are important and should be performed and
monitored to recommended ranges.
 Experience with manufacturing Grade 91 steel components and
validated procedures for all stages of manufacture are important
factors in establishing quality.
 Clarifications have been made to details regarding welding
procedures, consumables, and best practices.

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 The information contained in this report has been produced by
synthesis of more than 30 years of experience with Grade 91 material
in the laboratory, in the shop, and in the field. In addition, the analysis
and comments provided by the members of several projects have
proved invaluable to the organization and the content of this report.

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Table of Contents

Section 1: Introduction ....................................... 1-1

1.1 Summary of Experience ........................................ 1-2
1.2 Objective ............................................................ 1-3
1.3 Design Considerations .......................................... 1-3
1.3.1 Design by Analysis ...................................... 1-4
1.3.2 Design by Rule ............................................ 1-5
1.4 Report Organization ............................................ 1-6

Section 2: Purchasing Instructions ...................... 2-1

2.1 Introduction ......................................................... 2-1
2.2 Chemical Composition.......................................... 2-2
2.3 Heat Treatment of Grade 91 Steel at the Mill .......... 2-4
2.4 Hardness ............................................................ 2-6
2.4.1 Cold-Formed Components ............................ 2-7
2.5 Mechanical Properties .......................................... 2-7
2.6 Welding Practices ................................................ 2-8
2.6.1 Preheat and Interpass Temperature ................ 2-8
2.6.2 Hydrogen Bake ........................................... 2-9
2.6.3 Post-Weld Heat Treatment ............................. 2-9
2.6.4 Filler Materials .......................................... 2-10
2.7 Forging and Forming .......................................... 2-14
2.7.1 Hot Pressing (Squeezing and Sizing) and
Hot Bending ................................................. 2-14
2.7.2 Hot Adjustments to Shape ........................... 2-14
2.7.3 Cold Press (Swaging, Pointing, Squeezing,
and Sizing) ................................................... 2-14

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 2.7.4 Cold Bending ............................................ 2-15
2.7.5 Hot Forming of Fitting and Special Products .. 2-15
2.8 Surface Condition .............................................. 2-15

Section 3: References......................................... 3-1

Appendix A: Background on Composition............ A-1

A.1 Introduction ......................................................... A-1
A.2 Restriction on Aluminum Content (N/Al Ratio) ......... A-5
A.3 Chromium Content ............................................... A-6
A.4 Delta Ferrite ........................................................ A-7
A.5 The Influence of Nickel ....................................... A-11
A.6 Trace Elements .................................................. A-12

Appendix B: Transformation Behavior ................. B-1

B.1 Lower Critical (A1) Temperature.............................. B-1

Appendix C: Background on Heat Treatment ....... C-1

C.1 Introduction ......................................................... C-1
C.2 Calibration and Control of Instrumentation.............. C-1
C.3 Normalizing ....................................................... C-2
C.4 Tempering .......................................................... C-3
C.5 Control of Heating and Cooling Rate ..................... C-3
C.6 Excessive Oxidation ............................................. C-4
C.7 Carburization and Decarburization ....................... C-4

Appendix D: Background on Hardness

Measurements ................................ D-1
D.1 Introduction ......................................................... D-1
D.2 Measurements for Piping and Headers ................... D-1

Appendix E: Background on Cold Work .............. E-1

Appendix F: Stress Corrosion Cracking ................ F-1

Appendix G: Background on Welding ..................G-1

G.1 Introduction ........................................................ G-1

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 Appendix H: Reference Documents ...................... H-1
H.1. EPRI Documents .................................................. H-1
H.1.1 Service Experience ...................................... H-1
H.1.2 Composition ............................................... H-1
H.1.3 Welding and PWHT .................................... H-1
H.1.4 Performance and Life Management of
Grade 91 Steel ............................................... H-2
H.1.5 Performance of Grade 91 Cross Welds ......... H-2
H.1.6 Forming, Fabrication, and Normalization ...... H-3
H.1.7 Hardness Testing and Metallurgical
Characterization ............................................. H-3
H.1.8 Relevant Conferences................................... H-3
H.2 International Specifications and Codes ................... H-4
H.3 Comparison of Information ................................... H-5
H.4 Supporting Documents and Standards .................... H-7

Appendix I: Illustration of a Component

Purchasing Document ....................... I-1

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List of Figures

Figure A-1 Typical microstructures of tempered martensite

in Grade 91 steel ....................................................... A-4
Figure A-2 Influence of cooling rate on the transformation
behavior and hardness of Grade 91 steel .................... A-5
Figure A-3 Relationship between aluminum levels measured
by three analysis methods ........................................... A-6
Figure A-4 Modified Newhouse diagram illustrating zones
where Ni equivalent and Cr equivalent values are
expected to result in the presence of ferrite in selected
steels that aim to be martensitic ................................... A-9
Figure A-5 Modified Shaeffler diagram showing how the
expected presence of martensite, ferrite, and austenite
changes with Ni equivalent and Cr equivalent for
selected CSEF steels ................................................. A-10
Figure A-6 Results showing that no delta ferrite was formed
in Grade 91 type compositions for C+N levels of
0.12 wt% ................................................................ A-11
Figure A-7 The effect of nickel content on the 100,000 hour
creep rupture strength at 600°C (1112°F) of Grade 91
steel ....................................................................... A-12
Figure B-1 Definition of lower critical transformation
temperatures for conventional carbon steel.................... B-2
Figure B-2 AC1 temperature approaches A1 as heating rate
decreases.................................................................. B-3
Figure B-3 Calculated A1 temperatures as a function of
Ni+Mn content for actual product heats ........................ B-4
Figure B-4 Variation of Ac1 temperatures as a function of
Ni+Mn content for Grade 91 weld metal ..................... B-5
Figure B-5 Fracture appearance transition temperatures for
Grade 91 weldments tempered at 1400°F/1 hour
followed by air cooling ............................................... B-6

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 Figure E-1 Effect of cold work on the creep rupture behavior
of Grade 91 material in comparison with the behavior
of the unstrained base metal .........................................E-1
Figure E-2 Creep life reduction as a function of hardness
increase induced by cold-work .....................................E-3
Figure E-3 Effect of a post-forming subcritical heat treatment
on the creep rupture behavior of the cold-worked
Grade 91 test material compared with the behavior of
the unstrained base metal and the cold-worked material
with no post-forming heat treatment ...............................E-4
Figure F-1 Typical optical metallographic and scanning
electron microscope fractographic features of SCC
where hydrogen embrittlement is the dominant
mechanism of damage ................................................ F-2
Figure F-2 Typical SEM fractographic features of SCC
where active path corrosion is the dominant mechanism
of damage ................................................................. F-2
Figure F-3 SCC behavior where hydrogen embrittlement is
the dominant damage mechanism ................................. F-3
Figure F-4 SCC behavior where active path corrosion is
the dominant damage ................................................. F-3

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List of Tables

Table 2-1 Recommended chemical composition

requirements for component base material (product
analysis); the requirements for selected ASME
specifications are tabulated in Table A-1 ...................... 2-2
Table 2-2 Recommended chemical composition
requirements for Grade 91 matching filler materials ..... 2-11
Table A-1 Chemical composition requirements for base
material for selected ASME documents ......................... A-2
Table A-2 Target composition for Grade 91 steel
recommended by ORNL.............................................. A-8
Table E-1 Creep life reduction as a function of cold work
and hardness..............................................................E-2
Table H-1 Summary of applicable ASTM materials
specifications for Grade 91 material ............................ H-4
Table H-2 Summary of selected information from ASME
materials specifications for Grade 91 Steel ................... H-5
Table H-3 Summary of differences between materials
specifications for Grade 91 steel ................................. H-6

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Section 1: Introduction
The steel alloy known as Grade 91 has achieved broad acceptance within the
industry for use in fabricating a variety of critical pressure part components,
including tubing, piping, and headers. As is true for all of the creep-strength-
enhanced ferritic (CSEF) steels, its attractiveness to designers is based on the fact
that within a specific temperature range and when properly processed, it provides
superior elevated temperature strength at substantially lower cost than the
austenitic stainless steels, all the while maintaining the advantageous thermal-
physical properties of a ferritic alloy.

Grade 91 was codeveloped by the Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) and
Combustion Engineering (currently named Alstom Power, Inc., and a part of
General Electric [GE]) at its Metallurgical and Materials Laboratory in
Chattanooga, Tennessee. Extensive study under Department of Energy
sponsorship in the 1975–1980 timeframe had demonstrated the alloy’s excellent
mechanical properties [1–3]. As a result, the alloy attracted the attention of
designers of boilers and pressure vessel fabricators, and, in 1983, Grade 91 gained
initial acceptance in the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
Boiler and Pressure Vessel (B&PV) Code as tubing for Section I construction in
Code Case 1943. The ensuing years have seen broad application of the material
in both the power and petrochemical industries. There has been a resurgence of
research into other advanced 9–12Cr ferritic steels, leading to the introduction of
a number of new alloys that claim at least modest strength advantages over
Grade 91 (for example, Grade 122 [HCM12A] in Code Case 2180, Grade 92
[NF616] in Code Case 2179, Grade 911 [E911] in Code Case 2327, VM12HC
in Code Case 2781, and a recent proposal for SAVE 12AD).

Grade 91 is a modification of the 9Cr-1Mo alloy identified as T9 in the

ASME/ASTM International SA-213 tubing specification. The modification to
the standard 9Cr-lMo alloy that resulted in Grade 91 involved, among other
things, a controlled addition of vanadium, niobium, and nitrogen. These
elements provide precipitation strengthening by the formation of M23C6
carbides and MX carbonitrides, which, in addition to modest solid solution
strengthening effects, produced an alloy with substantially greater creep strength
than traditional CrMo steels. Like Grade 9, Grade 91 is very hardenable and,
with an appropriate chemical composition, will transform to 100% martensite
upon air cooling.

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 The primary uses of Grade 91 have been for superheater and reheater tubes,
headers, and main steam or hot reheat steam line piping in fossil power plants.
Grade 91 offers distinct advantages with regard to elevated temperature strength
and creep performance, which makes it possible to reduce the thickness and,
therefore, the weight, of certain components significantly when compared with
conventional alloys, such as Grades 2, 5, 9, 11, 12, and 22.

1.1 Summary of Experience

Recent service experience has confirmed what theory had predicted: failures can
occur in components fabricated from the CSEF steels very early in life if the
required condition of microstructure is not developed and/or maintained during
processing. Several Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) documents review
and summarize service experience with Grade 91 steel [4, 5]. It is apparent that
irregularities during fabrication can result in components entering service with
elevated temperature properties that are substantially deficient when compared
with an average heat of material [6, 7]. These issues have caused serious concern
among users because of the obvious implications for the safety of plant personnel
and the reliability of equipment.

EPRI research involves a range of projects that address critical issues associated
with the use of these CSEF steels. These issues include the following:
 Material procurement
 Shop fabrication
 Field erection
 Quality assurance procedures to be applied during each phase of fabrication
 Assessment of the in-service behavior of base metal and weld metal, with a
particular emphasis on the provision of a comprehensive strategy for life
prediction and optimization of maintenance
 Strategies for well-engineered repairs

Efforts have concentrated on Grade 91 material, in large part because, to date,

more Grade 91 material has been specified and installed than any of the other
CSEF steels. It is the case that the bulk of the in-service problems encountered so
far involve Grade 91 material. However, because of the fundamental similarity in
metallurgy that exists between the various grades of the CSEF steels, it was
anticipated that much of the information obtained from the study of Grade 91
would also apply to similar steels that are approved for use by the ASME B&PV
Code, including Grade 92, 911, VM12SHC, and other CSEF steels currently
being developed (such as MARBN and SAVE 12AD). Research regarding key
factors linked to the behavior of Grade 92 steel is in progress. This will lead to the
development of a set of fabrication guidelines specific to Grade 92 steel in 2015.

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 1.2 Objective

The objective of the research performed was to resolve, to the extent possible
given the current state of knowledge, what might be called front-end issues—that
is, those issues that pertain to how the material is ordered, how it is processed,
how the quality control is maintained during processing, and how the material
should be inspected in the shop and the field to determine its condition prior to
or soon after installation. The 2011 EPRI report, Guidelines and Specifications for
High-Reliability Fossil Power Plants: Best Practice Guideline for Manufacturing and
Construction of Grade 91 Steel Components (1023199), developed necessary
specifications and procedural documents that enabled users to control the quality
of the material at every stage of its implementation, from original purchase of the
material through the manufacturing and construction phases. EPRI report
1023199 was intended to ensure that deficient material is never installed.
Therefore, it was a comprehensive guideline that provided information on critical
aspects of the ordering, manufacturing, and construction of components
fabricated from Grade 91 material. The updates in this revision are necessary
based on the following:
 Feedback from the original report
 The results of root cause analysis of components that cracked in service
 The results of additional work to research the factors affecting the
microstructure and performance of Grade 91 steels [8, 9]

This revised report, and the associated references, establish requirements for
optimizing manufacturing and construction practices of Grade 91 components
based on the best available information. Additional guidelines have been
published by EPRI. These provide information on specific test methods,
including hardness testing and other nondestructive evaluation methods, to verify
material properties, as well as a recommended life assessment strategy. A best
practice guideline has also been published to describe methods for the design and
fabrication of well-engineered repairs in Grade 91 steel components [10].

1.3 Design Considerations

The design basis for the various ASME B&PV Codes has two broad groupings:
design by analysis and design by rule. Although details can differ between the
ASME Code and codes from other countries, these two broad groupings
generally describe the prevailing approaches to design [11]. This section
illustrates the different approaches with particular reference to the methods
defined in the ASME Code.

The design-by-analysis approach typically involves performing detailed stress

analysis to categorize the stresses by type and directionality for specific
operational conditions. These multiple stress estimates are then checked against a
series of permissible limits. In design by rule, simplified design equations are used

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 to compute a single characteristic value for stress, usually at a single design
condition, and this stress is checked against a single allowable stress. Obviously,
the level of complexity in the stress analysis for design-by-analysis Codes far
exceeds that of the design-by-rule Codes.

1.3.1 Design by Analysis

In ASME, the design-by-analysis Codes include Section III (Nuclear Power),

Section VIII, Division 2 (Pressure Vessels—Alternative Rules), Section VIII,
Division 3 (Pressure Vessels—Alternative Rules for High Pressure Vessels), and
implicitly, because of its connection to Section III, Section XI (Nuclear Power—
In-Service Inspection). These Codes require detailed stress analyses by either
classical methods or numerical methods, such as finite elements. They classify
stresses into various categories and use the maximum shear stress strength theory,
also called the Tresca theory, to equate multiaxial stress states to single-valued
equivalent stresses. The three major stress categories are primary stress, secondary
stress, and peak stress. Primary stress is further divided into general primary
membrane stress, local primary membrane stress, and primary bending stress.
Each of these stresses has an associated stress limit and/or evaluation procedure.
As a consequence, there are formal evaluation procedures for fatigue life, fatigue
crack growth, and flaw tolerance to safeguard against fracture during the
hydrostatic test and during various stages of operation.

It is implicit that design by analysis gives more precise estimates of the spatial
and temporal values of stresses. Therefore, the margin of design (safety factor) is
typically lower when this approach is used, and there is a greater effort to relate
the calculated stresses to phenomenological material behavior.

Because the design-by-analysis approach more closely approximates reality, it is

reasonable to ask why it is not universally applied in pressure vessel design. The
answer is complex, but there are two fundamental reasons. First, the evolution of
pressure vessel design began with the simpler design-by-rule approach, and, for
the most part, that evolution has produced pressure parts having long life with a
high degree of safety. Therefore, there is minimal impetus for change. Second,
the complexity that has evolved in design-by-analysis Codes can be formidable,
and it seems reasonable to restrict it to a class of construction, such as nuclear
steam supply systems, that warrant such sophistication. However, as the
operating regimes of components become more complicated because baseload
operation is being replaced by flexible operation, the greater complexity of design
by analysis may be justified. Not least because in design by rule, uncertainty
requires that safety factors be applied, thereby making the components thicker.
In general, the philosophy is that a thicker component will reduce primary
pressure stresses, thereby making design safer. However, under conditions of
temperature cycling, thicker components can cause thermal stresses to be higher,
so that the desired conservatism is not achieved.

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 1.3.2 Design by Rule

The ASME design-by-rule Codes include Section I (Power Boilers), Section IV

(Heating Boilers), Section VIII, Division 1 (Pressure Vessels), and, most
recently, Section XII (Transport Tanks). In general, these Codes provide only
formal consideration of the general primary membrane stress, and they consider
only the first (maximum) principal stress for design purposes [12].

The design basis for pressure parts covered by Section I is to restrict the general
(average) primary membrane stress of the first (maximum) principal stress to a
level that will preclude the following:
 Gross distortion in short-term loading at temperatures below the creep range
 Substantial distortion at long times in the creep range
 Bursting at any temperature

In the case of a pressurized cylinder, the first principal stress is the hoop stress.

The safeguard against gross distortion in short-term loading is to limit the average
hoop stress, called the general primary membrane stress, in the design-by-analysis
approach, to two-thirds of the yield strength at temperature. In cases of highly
ductile alloys where some modest distortion is permissible, nine-tenths of the yield
strength at temperature is permitted. The safeguard against substantial distortion at
long time in the creep range is to limit the allowable stress to one that will produce
a secondary creep rate of 1%/100,000 hours for an average material. There are two
safeguards against bursting. First, the design stress at temperature is limited to
0.314 times the expected tensile strength at temperature (1.1/3.5); the factor was
formerly 0.275 (1.1/4.0). Second, at temperatures in the creep range, the design
stress is limited to the lowest of any of the following:
 The aforementioned creep rate
 0.67 of the average stress to cause rupture in 100,000 hours
 0.80 of the minimum stress to cause rupture in 100,000 hours

In effect, ASME Section I does not call for a detailed stress analysis but merely sets
the wall thickness necessary to keep the basic hoop stress below the tabulated
allowable stress. It is recognized that high localized and secondary bending stresses
can exist in pressure parts designed and fabricated in accordance with the Section I
rules, but these are not explicitly considered in the design. Therefore, ASME
Section I has no explicit rules to account for secondary stresses, which by definition
are displacement controlled, or for fatigue caused by localized cyclic stresses created
by stress concentrations. By providing generous design margins (safety factors) on
the average primary membrane stress, an adequate margin generally exists to
accommodate secondary stresses and cyclic stresses as validated by the usual long
component life. There are occasional exceptions in which the boiler designer has to
go beyond the rules of Section I to ensure long service life.

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 By steadfastly remaining in the design-by-rule category, ASME Section I has
opted for simplicity over complexity/exactness and has sought to cover areas of
inexactness through generous design margins—that is, safety factors. This
approach, although generally successful, has resulted in a notable number of
failures from mechanisms that are not included in the design process, some of
which were illustrated in a paper by Roberts [13]. Several problems were used to
illustrate some of the deficiencies in components that were constructed to Code
rules [13]. These deficiencies fall into the following major categories:
 Real-world failure modes that are not included in the Code design process
 Permissiveness for fabrication practices that render the material more
vulnerable to service failures
 Unfavorable metallurgical changes that occur during service exposure
 Operational modes that are more severe than anticipated
 In-service environmental degradation

It is incumbent upon the designer to recognize these limitations with the ASME
Code. In this sense, the ASME Code does not cover all of the details of design
and construction. Where complete details are not given, it is intended that the
manufacturer, subject to acceptance of an authorized inspector, shall provide
details of design and construction, which will be safe as otherwise provided by
the rules of the Code. As is stated explicitly in the ASME B&PV Code
documents, the Code is not a handbook and cannot replace education,
experience, and the use of engineering judgment.

1.4 Report Organization

This report contains specific guidance on technical issues that need to be

controlled, as far as is possible, to ensure that components manufactured from
Grade 91 steel meet the minimum expectations of performance when constructed
to ASME Codes. It is recognized that many of the factors will be open for
negotiation between the utility and suppliers. Therefore, in some cases the
information presented should be considered an aim for target rather than a
formal specification. It should be emphasized that the guidelines are in some
cases more stringent than current specifications and Codes. These more
stringent recommendations have been justified in detail in previous papers
(including [79]).

Information regarding the specific guidelines is provided in Section 2 of this

report. Where possible, further technical detail related to key issues is provided in
the references and in appropriate appendices. These technical appendices
represent the most recent information available at the time of publication. This
may be subject to change based on new research and, in particular, the pending
completion of the EPRI CSEF program.

In the final appendix, a typical purchasing document is outlined showing how

the guidelines can be interpreted to aid component purchase. This document is
provided for illustration only.

 1-6 

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Section 2: Purchasing Instructions
2.1 Introduction

This report represents requirements for Grade 91 steel. These requirements are
considered necessary to ensure the satisfactory serviceability of any component
fabricated using this grade of material. In general, the component should exhibit
a uniform microstructure of tempered martensite. A typical photomicrograph
showing a tempered martensitic microstructure is presented in Appendix A-1.

The foreword of all ASME Code sections states that the “objective of the rules is
to afford reasonably certain protection of life and property and to provide a
margin for deterioration in service so as to give a reasonably long, safe period of
usefulness” [14]. This statement is an acknowledgment of the fact that no
equipment lasts forever and that boilers do have a finite life. However, Section I
disavows an intent for a specific design life and contents itself with construction
that gives a “reasonably long, safe period of usefulness.”

Section I’s method of achieving safe boiler design is a relatively simple one and
rests on four foundations, as follows:
 Requires all those features considered necessary for safety (for example, water
gage glass, pressure gage, check valve, and drain)
 Provides detailed rules governing the construction of the various components
that make up the boiler, such as tubes, piping, headers, shells, and heads
 Generally limits the materials to those contained in the specifications in
Section II, Parts A and B, with the design allowable stresses as tabulated in
Section II, Part D
 Requires certain tests and inspections with the involvement and approval of a
third-party authorized inspector

Another factor that has had a direct bearing on the need for the present report is
the fact that the purchase of materials for use in ASME Code construction is
controlled by material specifications that, for the most part, are contained in
Section II, Parts A and B (base metals) and C (weld metals). These specifications
are developed not by ASME but by ASTM International and the American
Welding Society (AWS). ASME then adopts the ASTM or AWS specifications
for its own use, making any modifications considered to be essential for safe
operation of the equipment. By the nature of the consensus process, in which
decisions are made by volunteers representing a number of different interests,

 2-1 

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 including the end user, the fabricator, and the material producer, it often is
difficult to incorporate into the material specification all of the requirements that
would reflect the primary engineering interest of the end user, which is to
optimize the performance of the material. As such, it should be understood that,
although adherence to all Code requirements governing the use of a particular
material will in most cases ensure adequate performance of the material relative
to the Code’s objective of affording “reasonably certain protection of life and
property and to provide a margin for deterioration in service so as to give a
reasonably long, safe period of usefulness,” it is unlikely that the requirements
contained in the ASME B&PV Code ever will be sufficiently comprehensive to
ensure optimum engineering performance of a material for a given application.

The following sections provide basic information that should be considered when
purchasing Grade 91 material for Code-related construction. A final summary
section is provided in the form of a checklist of issues.

2.2 Chemical Composition

The chemical composition should fall within the elemental restrictions specified
in Table 2-1 to the extent that commercial conditions permit. Background
information outlining the effects of individual elements on microstructure and
properties is provided in the position papers [8, 9] and in Appendix A. A
summary of transformation behavior is presented in Appendix B.

Table 2-1
Recommended chemical composition requirements for component base material
(product analysis); the requirements for selected ASME specifications are tabulated
in Table A-1

Elements Composition Pipe (wt%)

D
Carbon 0.08–0.12
Manganese 0.30–0.50
B
Phosphorus 0.015 (maximum)
SulfurB 0.005 (maximum)
B
Silicon 0.20–0.40
C
Chromium 8.00–9.50
Molybdenum 0.85–1.05
Vanadium 0.18–0.25
Columbium 0.06–0.10
D
Nitrogen 0.035–0.070
B
Nickel 0.20 (maximum)
B
Aluminum 0.020 (maximum)
Titanium 0.01 (maximum)

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 Table 2-1 (continued)
Recommended chemical composition requirements for component base material
(product analysis); the requirements for selected ASME specifications are tabulated
in Appendix A, Table A-1

Elements Composition Pipe (wt%)

Zirconium 0.01 (maximum)
A
Copper 0.10 (maximum)
A
Arsenic 0.010 (maximum)
A
Tin 0.010 (maximum)
AntimonyA 0.003 (maximum)
A
Lead 0.001 (maximum)
N/Al ratio 4.0 minimum
Notes:
A
These elements are not required to be controlled by current ASME/ASTM specifications for
base material product forms, but the preceding values should be considered target levels. In all cases
as a minimum, the content of these elements should be reported on the material test report (MTR)
supplied with each heat of material. If not on the actual MTR, the elements should be reported in
an accompanying document. In addition to consideration of the levels of individual elements, it is
good practice [16] to ensure that the following relationship holds: sum of As+Sn+Sb+Pb<0.015.
B
Different from ASME (see Section A.1.2).
C
For tubing, the minimum Cr level should be 8.5% (see Section A.1.3).
D
Carbon+nitrogen> 0.12 (see Section A.1.4).

Note: EPRI review of MTRs for Grade 91 steels has demonstrated that high-
quality steel suppliers can provide, and indeed have been providing, steel
components that comply with these recommendations for some time.

The supplier must provide the actual Mill’s MTR with the results of chemical
analysis for each specific heat of steel to verify that the elemental composition of
the heat is within the required range.

It is recommended that all raw Grade 91 heats be validated at fabricator’s site

using positive material identification (PMI) testing. An excellent background
summary concerned with this form of testing is provided in [15]. The primary
basis for PMI is application of portable X-ray fluorescence (XRF). These XRF
instruments are not capable of quantitative measurements for elements with an
atomic number less than 22 (titanium). For example, portable XRF equipment
will not measure carbon, nitrogen, or aluminum content; therefore, they cannot
be used to calculate or even estimate N/Al ratio. When measurement of elements
with a relatively low atomic number is required, optical emission spectrometers
(OESs) may be applied. OES instruments produce an electrical arc between the
device and the work piece; therefore, the area for examination should be selected
to minimize damage to critical surfaces.

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 In all cases, PMI should be performed by trained staff using an approved
procedure. This procedure should define factors such as the method of testing,
acceptance criteria, calibration requirements, sampling plan, documentation, and
surface preparation.

It should be recognized that although PMI testing is sensitive enough to reliably

identify material type, it does not provide sufficient accuracy to determine the full
chemical composition for the purpose of confirming full compliance with the
specification requirements. Furthermore, it must be emphasized that PMI does
not ensure that the steel has been processed correctly and provides no
information on properties.

It should be noted that, because of commercial conditions at the time the

material is ordered, requirements imposed that are more restrictive than those
contained in the ASME/ASTM material specification can prompt the producer
to impose additional charges on the base material price or can cause the producer
to decline to bid on the order. In those cases, the additional costs should be
weighed against the likely impact of a failure to meet the more restrictive
compositional requirement on the long-term serviceability of the material.
However, it should be emphasized that if a supplier will provide no
measurements of the composition of trace elements (for example, copper, tin,
arsenic, or antimony) nor assurances regarding the levels of these elements,
purchasers are in a buyer beware position.

It is apparent that Grade 91 steel components with excessive levels of trace

elements have developed cracks in service and have been replaced within
80,000 hours of operation. In contrast, failure to meet the minimum chromium
content might have no more than a minor effect on serviceability for relatively
thick-walled piping, but for tubing designed to operate near the limit of Grade
91’s oxidation capability, the effect could be significant. It also should be noted
that in some cases producers for commercial reasons will be reluctant to accept
more restrictive compositional requirements, even though in their normal
practice they satisfy the requirements. For that reason, it is useful to ask the
producer for comprehensive information regarding typical production chemistries
to determine whether it is necessary to commercially enforce the more restrictive
requirements for that producer. In the minimum, the end user should request
that tramp elements such as As, Cu, Pb, Sb, and Sn be reported on the MTR or
other formal document.

2.3 Heat Treatment of Grade 91 Steel at the Mill

All forms of Grade 91 product, including plate, tubing, and piping, should be
normalized within the temperature range of 1920°F–2012°F (1049°C–1100°C)
and should be tempered within the temperature range of 1350°F–1440°F
(732°C–782°C). Because of the link between reductions in properties and lack of
control during heat treatment, it is important that the upper limits specified must
not be exceeded—that is, these limits should include any measurement tolerance.
Background on heat treatment is provided in Appendix C.

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 For normalizing, when the full thickness of the product has reached the target
normalizing temperature, the time at temperature should be a minimum of
10 minutes. Care must be taken to ensure that whole volume of product is allowed
to cool uniformly. Cooling shall be continuous down to at least 200°F (93°C) or
lower throughout the material thickness before tempering. The rate of cooling
through the temperature range 1650°F–900°F (899°C–482°C) shall be controlled
to be no slower than 9°F/minute (5°C/minute) (see cooling rate diagrams in
Appendix A). For product with a thickness greater than 3 in. (76 mm), forced air
cooling or oil quenching or the equivalent from the normalizing temperature to an
internal work piece temperature below 200°F (93°C) may be necessary to achieve a
fully martensitic structure.

For tempering, the temperature selected and the time at the tempering temperature
shall be sufficient to satisfy the specified hardness requirement. The product can be
cooled in still air from the tempering temperature, as long as excessive distortion or
excessive thermal stress is avoided, or, as an alternative, where expedient, furnace
cooling is acceptable, provided that the cooling rate exceeds 100°F/hour
(56°C/hour) until the internal temperature is below 1200°F (650°C).

Heat-treatment equipment must be properly calibrated, and the producer must

furnish evidence of the calibration for review prior to the beginning of any heat
treatment on Grade 91 steel. Furnaces should be regularly surveyed for
temperature uniformity throughout the work zone. The purchaser should request
to see and review documentation of equipment calibration and temperature
surveys prior to any heat-treatment operations on Grade 91 steel.

For furnaces, including gas-fired furnaces, the heat-treatment supplier should

demonstrate that the thermocouples that are used to control the temperature can
be maintained within ±5°F (±3°C) of the target temperature and that the largest
variation in temperature between any two points in the work zone of the furnace
(the volume holding the components) does not exceed 40°F (22°C) above the
intended temperature. This shall be demonstrated by placing thermocouples on
metal samples that are placed in the furnace so that the temperatures in the work
zone are accurately indicated.

For resistance-type heaters, the heat-treatment supplier should demonstrate that

the temperature at the control thermocouple can be maintained within ±5°F
(±3°C) of the target temperature. The heat-treatment supplier should
demonstrate that for a given component the temperature is controlled within the
specified temperature range through placement of properly installed
thermocouples at a sufficient number of locations along the length and around
the circumference of tubular-shaped components or along the length and across
the width of flat components [17]. For piping, the pattern of thermocouple
placement recommended in AWS D10.221 is a useful guide and should be
followed as a minimum standard wherever possible. For other types of heating,

1
As of June 2015, AWS D10.22 was undergoing drafting and approval. It was anticipated that this
document would be adopted by the end of 2015 to address the issues associated with field PWHT
using electric resistance heating for CSEF steel Grade 91.

 2-5 

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 such as induction heating, the heat-treatment supplier must demonstrate the
ability to maintain the temperature at all points on the component that is being
heat-treated within the required temperature range for the appropriate amount of
time. The device and parameters for induction heating must be established in
such a way to ensure that the components can be heated uniformly through the
thickness of all parts and be held at the target temperature for a sufficient length
of time.

If multiple components are to be processed as part of a single heat-treatment

cycle, all pieces must be properly separated to avoid nonuniform heating and
cooling, particularly during the normalizing heat treatment. Suppliers shall
provide a detailed heat-treatment procedure and record for each product
purchased, if required.

2.4 Hardness

It should be emphasized that although measurement of hardness does not provide a

single unambiguous indication of long-term creep strength, hardness measurements
are an important tool in checking the quality of Grade 91 steel. In all cases, care
should be taken to use testing equipment and methods that give a meaningful result
for the actual hardness of the component. Background information regarding
measurement of component hardness is given in Appendix D.

It should also be appreciated that component properties can be modified following

all thermal treatments. Therefore, checking hardness at each stage of fabrication
and installation is considered an essential good practice.

The final (that is, after all fabrication and heat treatment but prior to service)
hardness values of a component base metal should be above 190 Hardness Brinell
(HBW)/200 Hardness Vickers (HV) (93.4 Hardness Rockwell B [HRB]). For
components subject to multiple post-weld heat treatment (PWHT) or tempering
treatments, it is typically the case that hardness will be reduced following each
heat treatment. Therefore, to achieve the desired minimum level of hardness
after all fabrication stages have been completed, the initial component hardness
will need to be higher than 190 HBW (200 HV).

It should further be appreciated that in most cases the hardness of Grade 91

components will decrease during service. The changes that occur will be related
to the initial composition and heat treatment, as well as in-service operation.
Therefore, the preceding guidelines should not be applied to a component after a
period of operation.

Weldments that are normalized and tempered should meet the same hardness
requirement specified in this paragraph for the base material. For weldments that
receive only a subcritical PWHT, it has been established [18] that weld metal
hardness is not a reliable indicator of weld metal toughness. Therefore, the
maximum permissible hardness in the weld metal should be agreed upon by the
end user and supplier using good engineering judgment. Local regions in the
heat-affected zone (HAZ) of a weldment following subcritical PWHT can show

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 hardness values below the recommended minimum because of the positioning of
the indenter or the hardness test probe within the fine-grained/intercritical
region of the HAZ. This level of hardness in the so-called Type IV region of the
HAZ occurs because of the local thermal effects from welding and is
unavoidable—therefore, it should not be a basis for rejection of the weldment.

It should be noted that standard hardness conversion tables are available in

ASTM E140. However, the hardness conversion tables that show the Brinell and
Vickers hardness numbers to be identical within the range of 180–250 should not
be used. Conversion should be performed using the equation developed in the
EPRI life management project [19].

In all cases, the hardness measuring equipment shall be properly calibrated before
testing, and the test surface shall be prepared to a finish that will optimize test
accuracy for the particular instrument being used. It should be recognized that
even with well-trained operators, properly calibrated equipment, and an
established procedure, there will be some scatter in the data recorded. EPRI has
published a report detailing issues associated with hardness measurements and
data calibration [19].

2.4.1 Cold-Formed Components

In cases where Grade 91 material will be cold-formed (defined as strain introduced

at a temperature of below 1300°F [705°C]) to levels of strain exceeding 15%, the
maximum acceptable as-supplied hardness of the T91 material should be reduced
to 230 HBW/242 HV (20.8 HRC/98.4HRB). This level of hardness is necessary
to minimize the risk of low-ductility fracture during forming.

Background information regarding issues associated with cold bending is

presented in ASME Section 1, PG-20, with a summary of the issues presented
in Appendix E. Information on stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is described in
Appendix F.

2.5 Mechanical Properties

The room temperature mechanical properties of the as-supplied base material

shall meet the following limit: tensile strength: 90–120 ksi (620–830 MPa).

For materials that will be used to manufacture cold-formed bends, the upper
strength limit should be reduced; therefore, the strength range for cold forming is
90–109 ksi (620–751 MPa).

All other mechanical properties shall be as indicated in the applicable material

specification of Section II, Part A, of the ASME B&PV Code.

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 2.6 Welding Practices

Background information regarding welding and associated temperature control of

Grade 91 steel is given in Appendix G and the 2015 EPRI report, A Perspective
on the Selection of Preheat, Interpass and Post-Weld Cool Temperatures Using Grade
91 Steel as an Example (3002005351) [20]. It must be strongly recommended that
qualification and use of solid wire gas metal arc welding (GMAW) should be
approached with caution. The current Grade 91 (-B9) composition is lean on
deoxidizing elements (such as Mn and Si). These elements are important to
proper operation and results with GMAW. Because of this, wetting action is
reduced and the preponderance for lack of fusion type defects and oxide inclusion
content affect the ability to perform successful welding. A few fabricators have
qualified GMAW but under very controlled conditions and in some cases with
compositions that provide adequate deoxidizers. Few organizations have properly
and effectively implemented the solid-wire GMAW process for field installation
or repairs.

2.6.1 Preheat and Interpass Temperature

A variety of methods are available, and it is mandatory to control the minimum

preheat temperature, as follows:
 For welds made using the flux-cored arc welding (FCAW) process or the
submerged arc welding (SAW) process or in a highly restrained component,
a minimum preheat temperature of 400°F (205°C) shall be maintained.
 For welds made using the shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) process, a
minimum preheat temperature of 300°F (150°C) shall be maintained until
the welding is complete.
 For welds made using either the GMAW process or the gas tungsten arc
welding (GTAW) process with a solid wire filler metal, a minimum preheat
temperature of 300°F (150°C) shall be maintained until the welding is
complete.
 For welds made using either GMAW or GTAW with a filler metal other
than solid wire (that is, metal-cored or flux-cored), a minimum preheat
temperature of 300°F (150°C) shall be maintained. An exception to this rule
shall apply for welds that effectively are self-preheating—that is, welds
involving a relatively small heat sink in comparison with the magnitude of
the arc energy or heat input and that are continuously deposited so that the
entire weld nugget and base metal HAZ remain above the specified
minimum preheat level throughout the weld cycle.

If welding is interrupted, preheat temperature must be maintained. Although not

a recommended practice, if the joint temperature drops below the preheat
temperature, the interrupted welds must be as follows:
 At least one-third of the final through-wall thickness of the component
 Given a hydrogen bake before slow cooling to room temperature
 Kept dry until the welding is re-started with the proper preheat
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 These precautions are necessary because, in the as-welded condition, the joint
can be vulnerable to SCC. Appendix F details additional information on stress
corrosion susceptibility in Grade 91.

The maximum interpass temperature during welding shall be 660°F (350°C).

2.6.2 Hydrogen Bake

Following welding, if there is a need for the temperature of the weld to be

dropped to room temperature prior to the implementation of the PWHT, to
control the amount of diffusible hydrogen present in the weldments, a hydrogen
bake should be performed. The hydrogen bake involves holding in the
temperature range of 500°F–660°F (260°C–350°C) for 1 hour minimum for
thicknesses of 1 in. (25.4 mm) or less and 2 hours for thicknesses greater than
1 in. (25.4 mm). If it is certain that low hydrogen practices have been successful
in limiting the amount of hydrogen in the weldment, a hydrogen bake is not
necessary, but this is still considered good practice.

2.6.3 Post-Weld Heat Treatment

Following completion of welding, the temperature of the component should be

allowed to cool to at the least the specified preheat temperature, provided that
this value is ≤400°F (205°C). Where there is specific concern of temperature
inhomogeneity through the thickness of the weldment, lower post-weld cool
temperatures should be considered according to the information provided in
EPRI report 3002005351 [20].

The component should be post-weld heat-treated within 8 hours of the

completion of welding. If this is not possible, either the component should be
maintained at a minimum temperature of 175°F (80°C) or the humidity of the
environment in which the weld is stored should be controlled to guarantee that
no condensation can occur at any time (for example, because of changes in
temperature) on either the outer diameter (OD) or inner diameter (ID) surfaces
of the joint until the PWHT can be initiated.

An agreement between client and contractor should be established on the best

practice to minimize the risk of SCC occurring on any Grade 91 components
(see Appendix F for more information).

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 The PWHT should be performed within the range of 1247°F–1418°F (675°C–
770°C). The maximum temperature at any point in the PWHT process should
not exceed 1418°F (770°C). The minimum temperature is recommended based
on EPRI research [18]. The maximum temperature differs from the
requirements stated in ASME Section I for P15E materials where the stated
maximum is dependent on composition, as follows:
 If Ni+Mn is ≤1.0 wt%, the maximum is 1470°F (800°C).
 If Ni+Mn is >1.0 but <1.2 wt%, the maximum is 1445°F (785°C).
 If the Ni+Mn content of the filler material is not known, the maximum
PWHT temperature is 1445°F (785°C).

The reduced maximum PWHT temperature of 1418°F (770°C) provides a buffer

during PWHT to minimize the risk of undesirable metallurgical transformations.
Information on control of the PWHT within the defined limits is provided in
Appendix C. The temperature and time at temperature for the PWHT should be
selected to ensure that the hardness at all locations in the area heated is within
the specified range.

No additional limits on the rate of heat-up or cooldown are specified for PWHT.
However, for thick-walled components, or for assemblies of complex shape, an
appropriate rate of heat-up or cooldown, as determined by experienced engineering
judgment, should be adopted to minimize distortion and residual stresses.

Note: Prior to the application of the PWHT to Grade 91 welds, the weld metal and
portions of the HAZ are vulnerable to brittle fracture if subjected to abnormally
high mechanical loads during handling. Care shall be taken, therefore, in the
handling of Grade 91 weldments in the as-welded condition to minimize the risk.

2.6.4 Filler Materials

2.6.4.1 Matching Filler Metal

Matching filler materials that have similar chemistry and strength to the base
metal should be used for all joints between Grade 91 materials. Insofar as it is
possible, the chemical composition of the matching filler metal shall conform to
the elemental restrictions specified in Table 2-2.

 2-10 

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Table 2-2
Recommended chemical composition requirements for Grade 91 matching filler materials

ASME ASME ASME ASME

SFA 5.5:2010 SFA 5.28:2010 SFA 5.23:2011 SFA 5.29:2010
1,2,3
Elements E901X-B9 ER90S-B9 EB91 E91T1-B9
GMAW/GTAW Bare, SAW (Weld Deposit
SMAW Electrodes FCAW Electrodes
Solid Electrodes/Rods Wire/Flux Combination)
C 0.08–0.13 0.07–0.13 0.07–0.13 0.08–0.13
1.20 1.20 1.25 1.20
Mn4
(0.40–1.20) (0.40–1.20) (0.40–1.20) (0.40–1.20)
Si 0.30 0.15–0.50 0.50 0.50
0.020
P5 0.010 0.010 0.010
(0.10)
S4, 5 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.015
Ni 0.80 0.80 1.00 0.80
8.0–10.5 8.0–10.5 8.5–10.5 8.0–10.5
Cr6
(8.5–9.5) (8.5–9.5) (8.5–9.5) (8.5–9.5)
Mo 0.85–1.20 0.85–1.20 0.85–1.15 0.85–1.20
V 0.15–0.30 0.15–0.30 0.15–0.25 0.15–0.30
Cu 0.25 0.20 0.10 0.25
0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04
Al7
(0.02) (0.02) (0.02) (0.02)
Cb 0.02–0.10 0.02–0.10 0.02–0.10 0.02–0.10
0.02–0.07 0.03–0.07 0.02–0.07
N7 (0.04–0.07)
(0.04–0.07) (0.04–0.07) (0.04–0.07)

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 Table 2-2 (continued)
Recommended chemical composition requirements for Grade 91 matching filler materials

ASME ASME ASME ASME

SFA 5.5:2010 SFA 5.28:2010 SFA 5.23:2011 SFA 5.29:2010
Elements1,2,3 E901X-B9 ER90S-B9 EB91 E91T1-B9
GMAW/GTAW Bare, SAW (Weld Deposit
SMAW Electrodes FCAW Electrodes
Solid Electrodes/Rods Wire/Flux Combination)
1.50 1.50 1.50
Mn+Ni 1.50
(1.00) (1.00) (1.00)
As5 (0.010) (0.010) (0.010) (0.010)
Sn5 (0.010) (0.010) (0.010) (0.010)
5
Sb (0.003) (0.003) (0.003) (0.003)
Notes:
1. Element ranges are provided in weight percent.
2. Elements expressed as a single value represent the maximum allowed content with no lower minimum limit.
3. Ranges or limits expressed without parenthetical ( ) references are the ranges/limits specified by the applicable ASME SFA specification. Ranges or limits within parenthesis are
recommended ranges/limits.
Restrictions on the following elements are recommended for the following reasons:
4. Mn lower limit: Specifying a minimum limit will help ensure that adequate strength and toughness can be achieved in the weld deposit. In lieu of meeting the stated minimum
value of 0.70 wt%, the Mn/S ratio should be greater than 50 to prevent crater cracking.
5. Control of P, S, and trace elements is prudent to avoid temper embrittlement [16]. It is desirable that the cumulative influence of these elements as indicated by the X factor BE
controlled as follows:
10P + 5Sb + 4Sn + As = X <15
6. Cr limits: Specifying a higher minimum content than the SFA specification may be desirable in tubing products where fire-side corrosion or steam-side oxidation can be a
concern. Specifying a lower maximum content than called for by the SFA specification can be desirable to help minimize the potential for formation of delta ferrite during weld
metal solidification.
7. If it is not possible to obtain filler material that meets the indicated compositional limits for a particular application, as a minimum, the ratio of nitrogen to aluminum (N/Al)
should be at least 4.

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 2.6.4.2 Alternative Fe-Base Filler Metals

Undermatching filler materials are those that have weaker tensile and/or creep
strength than Grade 91 steel base metal. Examples areE8015-B8, ER80S-B8,
E9018-B3, and ER90S-B3. These fillers may be used for transition joints
between Grade 91 and lower-alloy steel materials when sufficient thickness of the
filler metal and a proper joint design accommodate issues associated with
the design allowable stresses at the joint. Proper guidance and additional
background on selection of filler material for dissimilar ferritic welds are
provided in EPRI reports 3002003472, The Benefits of Improved Control of
Composition of Creep-Strength-Enhanced Ferritic Steel Grade 91 (2014) [8],
and 1026584, Creep Strength-Enhanced Ferritic (CSEF) Steel Welding Guide
(2013) [21].

2.6.4.3 Ni-Base Filler Metals

Nickel-based filler metals may be used for welding dissimilar metal joints in
Grade 91 steels—for example, when transitioning from Grade 91 steel to
austenitic stainless steels. Examples of nickel-based filler materials are Weld Alloy
82 (ERNiCr-3), Weld Alloy 182 (ENiCrFe-3), Weld Alloy A (ENiCrFe-2), and
EPRI P87 (ENiFeCr-4, ERNiFeCr-4, and ASME Code Cases 2733 and 2734).

These fillers are generally considered inappropriate for welding Grade 91 to

Grade 91 because of increased filler metal cost and inspection difficulty.

It should be noted that these specifications represent compositions (which, in

certain respects, are more stringent than ASME and AWS specifications). The
purpose of the more restrictive requirements is to optimize the elevated
temperature strength and performance of the weld metal, and these requirements
should be followed where the suppliers are willing to provide them at no
significant increase in cost. If it is not possible to obtain filler material that meets
the indicated compositional limits for a particular application, as a minimum, the
(Ni+Mn) content should not exceed 1.2 and the ratio of nitrogen to aluminum
(N/Al) should be at least 4.

2.6.4.4 Precautions with Usage of Electrodes

The following precautions should be implemented to minimize the risk of weld-

related cracking and defects resulting from improper handling and/or storage of
weld filler materials:
 All SMAW electrodes to be used in the welding of Grade 91 components
should be issued from a heated master storage bin to field ovens, where they
will be maintained until they are removed for immediate usage. Unused
electrodes left outside of the rod ovens for more than 4 hours either should
be rebaked in accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations to
minimize any moisture absorbed into the coating during the period of
exposure or should be discarded. Discarding suspect filler material is
desirable and normally the most cost-effective solution.

 2-13 

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  All SMAW electrodes should be certified to the H4 designation.
 Welding wires, most notably cored wires, should not be removed from the
packing material until ready for use. If welding is interrupted for more than
24 hours, the reel should be either stored in a container heated to a minimum
temperature of 175°F (80°C) or discarded.

2.7 Forging and Forming

Grade 91 steel attains the required elevated temperature strength through control
of composition and fabrication. All processes or actions that involve working or
heating can potentially have an adverse effect on the properties of the material.
Hot- and cold-forming practices must be carefully controlled.

For all products made from a solid forging, the cross-sectional area of the solid
forging shall have a reduction by forging from that of the ingot in the ratio of not
less than 3:1.

2.7.1 Hot Pressing (Squeezing and Sizing) and Hot Bending

After all hot pressing or hot bending operations, the entire component shall be
normalized and tempered in accordance with Section 2.3 of this report, “Heat
Treatment of Grade 91 Steel at the Mill.”

2.7.2 Hot Adjustments to Shape

Hot drawing or hot adjustment is carried out for short periods of time at
temperatures between 1300°F (705°C) and 1450°F (790°C). No heat treatment is
required after these operations. If the 1450°F (790°C) limit is exceeded during
the forming operation, a full normalization and temper of the entire component
should be performed in order to restore the full serviceability of the overheated
zone. In the event that the size of the component is such that a complete
renormalization is not possible, the affected material should be removed and
should either be renormalized and tempered to restore properties or be replaced.

Note: There have been numerous service failures associated with the improper
application of these hot adjustment techniques. It is this experience that
underscores the fact that precise control of the peak temperature is necessary if
these methods are to be applied successfully. Therefore, these procedures should
be allowed only where an approved procedure is followed.

2.7.3 Cold Press (Swaging, Pointing, Squeezing, and Sizing)

Any component subjected to cold forming, such as swaging, pointing, squeezing,

or sizing, that is designed to operate at a metal temperature greater than 1050°F
(565°C) should be given a full normalization and temper in accordance with
Section 2.3 of this report.

 2-14 

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 2.7.4 Cold Bending

If the ratio of the radius of the bend (R) to the OD of the tubing (D), R/D, is
greater than or equal to 4, no post-forming heat treatment is required. If R/D is
greater than or equal to 2.5 but less than 4, the bend region can be heat-treated
within the temperature range of 1350°F–1418°F (730°C–770°C) for 30 minutes
minimum to reduce the hardness of the cold-formed region and thereby
minimize the risk of SCC. If R/D is less than 2.5, the entire component should
be normalized and tempered in accordance with Section 2.3 of this report.

2.7.5 Hot Forming of Fitting and Special Products

After hot forming of any fittings or special products, a normalizing and

tempering treatment of the entire component should be performed in accordance
with Section 2.3 of this report.

2.8 Surface Condition

During fabrication of components from Grade 91 steel, when weld repair of

surface imperfections, such as grinding marks or arc strikes, is conducted, as
permitted in the applicable engineering Code, a PWHT must be applied in
accordance with the provisions of Section 2.6 of this report, “Welding Practices.”

Note that with respect to repair welds, it is recommended that instructions be

included in the purchasing requirements that specify that the weld filler metal
used by the producer for repair welding conform to the requirements of
Section 2.6.4.1 of this report.

 2-15 

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10392249
Section 3: References
1. J. R. DiStefano and V. K. Sikka, “Summary of Modified 9Cr-1Mo Steel
Development Program, 1975–1985,” Oak Ridge National Laboratory,
October 1986. ORNL-6303.
2. J. F. King, V. K. Sikka, M. L. Santella, J. F. Turner, and E. W. Pickering,
“Weldability of Modified 9Cr-1Mo Steel,” Oak Ridge National Laboratory,
September 1986. ORNL-6299.
3. C. R. Brinkmann, V. K. Sikka, J. A. Horak, and M. L. Santella, “Long
Term Creep Rupture Behavior of Modified 9Cr-1Mo Steel Base and
Weldment Behavior,” Oak Ridge National Laboratory, November 1987.
ORNL/TM-10504.
4. Service Experience with Grade 91 Components. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2009.
1018151.
5. Service Experience with Creep Strength Enhanced Ferritic Steels in Power Plants
in the Asia-Pacific Region. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2015. 3002005089.
6. Evaluation of Grade 91 Creep Rupture Strength as a Result of Heat Treatment
Around the Intercritical Zone. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2008. 1015818.
7. J. D. Parker and J. Henry, “The Performance of Creep-Strengthened Ferritic
Steels in Power Generating Plant,” Proceedings of CREEP8, Eighth
International Conference on Creep and Fatigue at Elevated Temperatures,
ASME, San Antonio, TX (July 22–26, 2007). Paper 26368.
8. The Benefits of Improved Control of Composition of Creep-Strength-Enhanced
Ferritic Steel Grade 91. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2014. 3002003472.
9. The Influence of Steel Making and Processing Variables on the Microstructure and
Properties of Creep Strength Enhanced Ferritic (CSEF) Steel Grade 91. EPRI,
Palo Alto, CA: 2014. 3002004370.
10. Best Practice Guideline for Well-Engineered Weld Repair of Grade 91 Steel.
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2014. 3002003833.
11. Metallurgical Guidebook for Fossil Power Plants Boilers. EPRI, Palo Alto,
CA: 2008. 1014183.
12. M. D. Bernstein and L. W. Yoder, Power Boilers: A Guide to Section I of the
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. ASME Press, New York: 1998.

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 13. B. W. Roberts, “Is Construction to the Code Good Enough?” Sixth Annual
EPRI Conference on Welding and Repair Technology for Power Plants.
Sandestin, FL (June 2004).
14. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section I, Rules for Construction
of Power Boilers. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York,
2011.
15. Positive Material Identification Practice, ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel
Code, Nonmandatory Appendix B, Section I, Rules for Construction of
Power Boilers. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, 2011.
16. Embrittlement of Power Plant Steels. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2013.
3002001474.
17. Evaluation of Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Field Post-Weld Heat Treatment.
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2012. 1024722.
18. A Well-Engineered Approach for Establishing the Minimum Allowable Post-Weld
Heat Treatment for Power Generation Applications of Grade 91 Steel. EPRI,
Palo Alto, CA: 2015. 3002005350.
19. The Use of Portable Hardness Testing in Field Applications for Grade 91 Steel.
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2012. 1024695.
20. A Perspective on the Selection of Preheat, Interpass and Post-Weld Cool
Temperatures Using Grade 91 Steel as an Example. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA:
2015. 3002005351.
21. Creep Strength-Enhanced Ferritic (CSEF) Steel Welding Guide. EPRI, Palo
Alto, CA: 2013. 1026584.
22. The T91/P91 Book, Vallourec & Mannesmann Tubes, Houston, TX: 1999.
23. S. J. Brett, “Early Type IV Cracking on Retrofit Grade 91 Steel Headers.”
Safety and Reliability of Welded Components in Energy and Processing Industry.
Graz University of Technology: 2008, pp. 225–231.
24. D. L. Newhouse, C. J. Boyle, and R. M. Curran, “A Modified 12-Perecent
Chromium Steel for Large High Temperature Steam Turbine Rotors.” Paper
presented at ASTM 68th Annual Meeting, Purdue University, Lafayette,
IN, 1965.
25. EPRI Conference on 9Cr Materials Fabrication and Joining Technologies. EPRI,
Palo Alto, CA: 2001. 1006299.
26. A. L. Schaeffler, “Constitution Diagram for Stainless Steel Weld Metal,
Metal Progress 56(11): 680–680B, 1949.
27. H. Schneider, “Investment Casting of High-Hot Strength 12% Chrome
Steel,” Foundry Trade Journal, Vol. 108, 1960, pp. 562–3.

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 28. J. P. Shingledecker and M. L. Santella, “Chemical Composition
Recommendations for ASME TG-CSEF Steels,” Presentation to ASME
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Meeting, based on Research at ORNL
supported by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), Office of Fossil
Energy, Advanced Research Materials Program, under Contract DE-AC05-
00OR22725 with UT-Battelle, LLC, 2009.
29. F. Masuyama, Summary of Analysis Results of Creep Strength for Modified
9Cr-1Mo Steel, Committee Correspondence,ASME committees SC-II,
SG-SFA, 1993.
30. Advances in Materials Technology for Fossil Power Plants: Proceedings from the
Sixth International Conference. EPRI Palo Alto, CA: 2011. 1022300. 2010.
31. R. Bruscato, “Temper Embrittlement and Creep Embrittlement of
21/4Cr1Mo Shielded Metal Arc Weld Deposits,” Welding Research
Supplement, April 1970, pp. 148s–156s.
32. S. H. Lalam, H. K. D. H. Bhadheshia, and D. J. C. MacKay, “Bruscato
Factor in Temper Embrittlement of Welds,” Science and Technology of
Welding and Joining, Vol. 5, No. 5, pp. 338–340 (2000).
33. S. A. Kumar, Physical Metallurgy Handbook, McGraw-Hill, New York: 2003.
34. M. Santella and J. Shingledecker, “Prediction of A1 & Ms Critical
Transformation Temperatures for 9 & 12 Cr Steels,” Presentation in ASME
Code Week, Las Vegas, NV (August 2006).
35. M. Santella and J. Shingledecker, “Analysis of Transformation Temperatures
for Commercially Produced Advanced Ferritic Steels,” Presentation in
ASME Code Meeting—TG Advanced Ferritic Steels, Atlanta, GA
(January 28, 2007).
36. Metrode Welding Consumables, “Welding Consumables for P91 Steels for
the Power Generation Industry,” Issue 6, July 2006, www.metrode.com.
37. G. C. Bodine, B. Chakravarti, C. M. Owens, B. W. Roberts, D. M.
Vandergriff, and C. T., Ward, “A Program for the Development of Advance
Ferritic Alloys for LMFBR Structural Application,” Oak Ridge, TN
(September 1977), pp. 71–155. TR-MCD-015.
38. J. H. Holloman and L. D. Jaffe, “Time-Temperature Relations in
Tempering of Steel,” AIME, Vol. 162, pp. 223–249 (1945).
39. The Effect of Variables on the Results of Field Hardness Testing of Grade 91 Steel.
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2011. 1024694.
40. The Use of Portable Hardness Testing in Field Applications for Grade 91 Steel.
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2012. 1024695.
41. Effects of Cold-Work and Heat Treatment on the Stress-Rupture Behavior of
Grade 91 Material. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2005. 1011352.
42. Stress Corrosion Cracking of Grade 91 Material. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2007.
1013360.

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10392249
Appendix A: Background on Composition
A.1 Introduction

The ASME and international Codes differ in some of the detail regarding
specified chemical composition. These differences are illustrated with reference
to ASME Codes in Table A-1. This table also illustrates the fact that there can
be differences in specification between the heat analysis and the actual
component composition.

 A-1 

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 Table A-1
Chemical composition requirements for base material for selected ASME documents

ASME ASME ASME ASME ASME ASME

ASME SA-387 1,2
SA-182 SA-213 SA-217 SA-234 SA-335 SA-336
Product
Plate
Form
Forging Tubing Casting Fittings Piping Forging Heat Product
Analysis Analysis
Marking
F91 T91 C12A WP91 P91 F91 Grade 91 Grade 91
Symbol
Carbon 0.08–0.12 0.07–0.14 0.08–0.12 0.08–0.12 0.08–0.12 0.08–0.12 0.08–0.12 0.06–0.15
Manganese 0.30–0.60 0.30–0.60 0.30–0.60 0.30–0.60 0.30–0.60 0.30–0.60 0.30–0.60 0.25–0.66
Phosphorus 0.020 (max) 0.020 (max) 0.030 (max) 0.020 (max) 0.020 (max) 0.025 (max) 0.020 (max) 0.025 (max)
Sulfur 0.010 (max) 0.010 (max) 0.010 (max) 0.010 (max) 0.010 (max) 0.025 (max) 0.010 (max) 0.012 (max)
Silicon 0.20–0.50 0.20–0.50 0.20–0.50 0.20–0.50 0.20–0.50 0.20–0.50 0.20–0.50 0.18–0.56
Chromium 8.0–9.5 8.0–9.5 8.0–9.50 8.0–9.5 8.0–9.5 8.0–9.5 8.0–9.5 7.90–9.6
Molybdenum 0.85–1.05 0.85–1.05 0.85–1.05 0.85–1.05 0.85–1.05 0.85–1.05 0.85–1.05 0.80–1.10
Vanadium 0.18–0.25 0.18–0.25 0.18–0.25 0.18–0.25 0.18–0.25 0.18–0.25 0.18–0.25 0.16–0.27
Niobium 0.06–0.10 0.06–0.10 0.06–0.10 0.06–0.10 0.06–0.10 0.06–0.10 0.06–0.10 0.05–0.11
Nitrogen 0.03–0.07 0.030–0.070 0.030–0.070 0.03–0.07 0.030–0.070 0.030–0.070 0.030–0.070 0.025–0.080
Nickel 0.40 (max) 0.40 (max) 0.40 (max) 0.40 (max) 0.40 (max) 0.40 (max) 0.40 (max) 0.43 (max)
Aluminum 0.02 (max) 0.02 (max) 0.02 (max) 0.02 (max) 0.02 (max) 0.02 (max) 0.02 (max) 0.02 (max)
Titanium 0.01 (max) 0.01 (max) 0.01 (max) 0.01 (max) 0.01 (max) 0.01 (max) 0.01 (max) 0.01 (max)
Zirconium 0.01 (max) 0.01 (max) 0.01 (max) 0.01 (max) 0.01 (max) 0.01 (max) 0.01 (max) 0.01 (max)
max = maximum
1
The specification for seam-welded pipe SA-691 requires that the plate used be produced to SA-387 with a maximum hardness of 241HBW.
2
The original SA-387 specification limited Al to 0.04% max in the heat but 0.05% max in the component.

 A-2 

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 The composition range for the major elements within the specification is
intended to give a homogeneous martensitic microstructure on cooling from
normalization temperature. Because martensite is relatively hard and brittle, the
tempering heat treatment that is essential for Grade 91 material acts to improve
the ductility of the material and reduce residual stresses present prior to service.
Equally important, however, is the fact that during the tempering heat treatment
the temper-resistant carbides and carbonitrides that stabilize the alloy during
high-temperature service are formed. The desired microstructure for Grade 91
components, therefore, is tempered martensite with a fully developed network of
M23C6 carbides and MX-type carbonitrides that precipitate on lath boundaries
and other defect sites in the substructure [1]. Typical photomicrographs of a
properly processed tempered martensitic microstructure are shown in Figure A-1;
note, however, that, at the magnifications shown, the precipitate network that is
essential to the development of the superior creep strength of Grade 91 material
cannot be seen.

 A-3 

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 Figure A-1
Typical microstructures of tempered martensite in Grade 91 steel

 A-4 

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 Background on composition and cooling rate conditions required to produce
martensite is summarized in a cooling rate diagram. A typical diagram is shown
in Figure A-2.

Figure A-2
Influence of cooling rate on the transformation behavior and hardness of
Grade 91 steel [21]

A.2 Restriction on Aluminum Content (N/Al Ratio)

The modifications that were made to the standard 9Cr-1Mo steel to create
Grade 91 included controlled additions of vanadium, columbium (niobium),
and nitrogen. The mechanism of enhanced creep strength for Grade 91 is the
precipitation of vanadium/columbium-rich carbonitrides of type MX (where
M = Cb or V and X = C or N) at defect sites and lath boundaries in the
martensitic base structure. Deoxidizers, particularly aluminum, are commonly
added during the melting process to remove oxygen from the melt. Because
aluminum also has a stronger tendency to combine with nitrogen than do
vanadium and columbium, high levels of aluminum will reduce the amount of
free nitrogen available to form the carbonitrides’ precipitates that support the
long-term creep strength of the alloy. Because it is difficult to increase the
amount of nitrogen in the molten alloy, the primary option to ensure adequate
free nitrogen is to limit the amount of aluminum and other deoxidizers that can
be added to melt. The target ratio for nitrogen to aluminum (N/Al) should be 4
or greater, and under no circumstances should a ratio of less than 2.0 be accepted.
 A-5 

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 Because the levels of Al and N are critical, it is recommended that particular care
be exercised in measuring these elements. For example, it is recommended that
aluminum content be analyzed using OES and that nitrogen content be
determined using a LECO oxygen and nitrogen determinator. However, other
analysis methodologies, such as standard solution method or microwave digestion
method, are acceptable, as long as accurate calibration of the procedure is
maintained and sufficient accuracy can be demonstrated. Brett [22] studied the
soluble Al content of a number of heats of Grade 91 material using three analysis
techniques: a standard solution method (soluble), a microwave digestion method,
and OES; the results are shown in Figure A-3. As can be seen, the measured Al
contents are in good agreement when comparing the standard soluble method
and the OES method. It appears that OES, as the most convenient way of
measuring Al content, gives near soluble Al levels as measured by the standard
solution technique.

Figure A-3
Relationship between aluminum levels measured by three analysis methods [22]

A.3 Chromium Content

The ASTM/ASME specifications for Grade 91 steel typically allow a range in

chromium content of between 8.0% and 9.5% (see Table A-1). Because of the
cost of chromium, suppliers generally select chromium content at the lower end
of the specification. Some tubing has been found in the field with chromium
content below the specification limit. Although more of a concern for tubing and
other thin-walled components than for thicker-walled headers and piping, the
effects of fire-side corrosion and steam-side oxidation can be influenced by the
chromium content within the specification range. Additionally, scale growth
during normalization can be reduced with higher levels of chromium. The lower
transformation temperature is also affected by chromium content. Higher levels

 A-6 

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 of chromium will raise the lower transformation temperature (A1) and provide
additional margin for PWHT without adverse microstructural changes. Until
there is a better understanding of the sensitivity of the alloy’s oxidation behavior
to chromium content, the minimum chromium content for Grade 91 material,
and particularly Grade 91 tubing, should be set at approximately 8.5%. It should
be recognized that this will require some producers to modify their formulations
for the alloy in order to avoid the formation of delta () ferrite, which can reduce
creep rupture strength. Elevated levels of chromium can have an adverse effect on
delta ferrite, which is covered in the following section.

A.4 Delta Ferrite

Elevated levels of chromium and other elements can increase the likelihood of
the formation of delta ferrite. The presence of delta ferrite in Grade 91 can lower
the material’s creep rupture strength. All Grade 91 products should, therefore,
exhibit a fully tempered martensite microstructure that is free of delta ferrite [1].

The likelihood of delta ferrite formation can be estimated using the chromium-
nickel balance (CNB) formula using an equation developed by Combustion
Engineering based on a modification to the work of Newhouse et al. [23], as
follows:

CNB = (Cr + 6Si + 4Mo + 1.5W + 11V + 5Cb + 9Ti + l2Al) - (40C +
30N + 4Ni + 2Mn + 1Cu)

To avoid the formation of delta ferrite, the CNB value of Grade 91 heats should
be less than 10; above 12, delta ferrite is usually present; and between 10 and 12,
the outcome is dependent on the specific composition. Recognizing that the
composition in commercial specifications does not necessarily ensure a single-
phase martensitic microstructure, it is prudent for the alloy producer to work to a
more restrictive range. One such range was suggested by ORNL [1], and a slight
modification to its recommendation is contained in Table A-2. The current
EPRI-recommended procurement specifications for Grade 91 places restrictions
similar to those suggested by ORNL to control the CNB and residual element
content. The target composition will result in a CNB between 9.4 and 10.2.

 A-7 

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 Table A-2
Target composition for Grade 91 steel recommended by ORNL [24]

Element ORNL Target

Carbon 0.10
Manganese 0.40
Silicon 0.20
Phosphors <0.10
Sulfur <0.10
Chromium 8.5
Molybdenum 0.95
Vanadium 0.21
Nickel <0.10
Niobium (columbium) 0.08
Nitrogen 0.05
Aluminum <0.02
Copper <0.10
Titanium <0.005
Boron <0.001
Tungsten <0.01
Zirconium <0.01
Oxygen <0.01
Antimony <0.001
Tin <0.001

A graphical representation of the preceding CNB equation is shown in

Figure A-4, where the elements that favor ferrite, called the chromium equivalent,
are shown on the abscissa (x) and the elements that reduce the risk of ferrite,
called the nickel equivalent, are shown on the ordinate (y). Several of the 9–12Cr
alloys, including Grade 91, are represented by rectangular boxes. The two
diagonal lines identified as No Ferrite and Significant Ferrite are for a CNB of
10 and 12, respectively.

 A-8 

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 Figure A-4
Modified Newhouse diagram illustrating zones where Ni equivalent and Cr
equivalent values are expected to result in the presence of ferrite in selected steels
that aim to be martensitic

A limitation of the modified Newhouse diagram in Figure A-4 is that the full
expanse of possible phases is not encompassed; notably, austenite plus martensite
and austenite plus martensite plus ferrite are not represented. This limitation is
overcome in the Schaeffler diagram [25], as modified by Schneider [26], and
represented in Figure A-5. Again the need to control alloy composition to
achieve a fully martensitic structure is emphasized. Creep testing has shown
that when nonmartensitic microstructure is present, the creep strength is
significantly reduced.

 A-9 

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 Figure A-5
Modified Shaeffler diagram showing how the expected presence of martensite,
ferrite, and austenite changes with Ni equivalent and Cr equivalent for selected
CSEF steels

Based on review of a large numbers of heats, it has been suggested that, in the
absence of a comprehensive analysis, it appears that the steel should be free of
delta ferrite when the sum of (C+N)>0.12. Data developed by ORNL are shown
in Figure A-6.

 A-10 

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 Figure A-6
Results showing that no delta ferrite was formed in Grade 91 type compositions
for C+N levels of 0.12 wt% [27]

A.5 The Influence of Nickel

There is a general belief that nickel in Grade 91 steel is required to improve the
toughness of the alloy. There does not appear to be definitive evidence for this
influence. Indeed, the majority of the development work that was performed
examining compositional effects on the performance of 91 type steel was
evaluated for steel with compositions where the Ni level was less than 0.2%. The
nickel content was deliberately controlled to this low level because of concern
regarding nickel’s demonstrated influence on the acceleration of the coarsening of
precipitates. Therefore, it was recommended that the level of Ni in commercial
steel should be minimized at least below the level of 0.2%.

Interestingly, in a separate study, it was shown that, as the Ni level increased, the
creep strength decreased. A review distributed in 1993 [28] demonstrated this
effect when considering the creep rupture strength in laboratory tests at 1202°F
(650°C). Recently, this trend has been reinforced when considering the reduction
in creep rupture strength at 600°C (1112°F), as shown in Figure A-7.

 A-11 

10392249
 Figure A-7
The effect of nickel content on the 100,000 hour creep rupture strength at 600°C
(1112°F) of Grade 91 steel [29]

In summary, there appear to be several reasons why the level of Ni in Grade 91-
type steel should be below 0.20 wt.%. These are because of the following:
 The influence of Ni on transformation behavior. Increased Ni results in a
decrease in the lower transformation temperature (A1).
 The influence on carbonitride stability. Increased Ni results in a decrease
in the carbonitride stability, reducing the tempering resistance and leading to
a reduction in long-term creep strength.

A.6 Trace Elements

The influence of trace elements has been widely studied on many of the steels
used in power boiler and turbine components. Indeed, clear evidence that
elements such as As, Sb, Sn, Pb, and Cu can be deleterious to properties has been
documented in many of the steels used today. Because of the potential problems
from trace elements, the steels examined during the development of Grade 91
and other CSEF steels were almost exclusively manufactured from specialist pure
steel. Therefore, there is presently no direct evidence linking trace elements to
reductions in creep strength or toughness. Because direct evidence has not been
presented, many of the specifications do not require that these elements be
reported. It is apparent that the lack of identifying specific values is a result of the
lack of direct data rather than the belief that the so-called trace elements do not
cause problems.

 A-12 

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 Because steel making typically involves the remelting of scrap, there is the very
real risk that steel can be produced with high levels of what are considered to be
contaminants. For example, tin is used for corrosion protection on the inner
surface of steel cans; if this tin is not removed prior to steel making, the tin will
enter the alloy and it is not removed during conventional refining. As greater
amounts of steel are recycled, it follows that the risk of finding trace elements in
engineering alloys increases. It is recommended that, even though the
specifications do not presently define safe levels of these elements, the purchase
of Grade 91 be linked to the target compositional values provided in Table 2-1.

The embrittlement resulting from trace elements [30, 31] can also be linked to
some of the primary alloying elements, notably Mn, Si, and Ni. This influence has
been studied in several low-alloy piping and rotor steels, and the effects can be
illustrated by the following relationships shown in Equations A-1 and A-2 [16].
Following exposure at elevated temperatures, it was shown that the increase in
embrittlement as measured by Charpy tests could be rationalized when the levels
of Mn+Si present were plotted against an X factor. This factor was given by the
expression
10P  5Sb  4Sn  As
X Eq. A-1
100

where the value for each element is the composition expressed as parts per million.

Therefore, this work identified the fact that embrittlement was influenced by
alloying and impurity elements. A further expression for an embrittlement factor
that attempts to use the X parameter in combination with the influences of
alloying elements has been suggested. The embrittlement factor, EF, has been
described as [16]

EF  %Si  %Mn  %Cu  % Ni  X Eq. A-2

EPRI research to provide quantitative expression for ranking the metallurgical

risk factors for ductility in Grade 91 steels is ongoing. However, it is apparent
[8, 9] that steel that is well made with controlled composition and heat treatment
will provide at least the minimum performance expected by Codes.

 A-13 

10392249
10392249
Appendix B: Transformation Behavior
B.1 Lower Critical (A1) Temperature

One of the major issues related to improper heat treatment of Grade 91 material
is an accurate determination of the lower critical transformation temperature.
There has been extensive discussion of this issue in the technical literature related
to Grade 91, and, for the purposes of controlling heat-treatment processes, it is
important to understand which of the transformation temperatures actually is of
concern. As indicated in the nomenclature, in discussions of the transformation
responses of steels during any type of thermal processing, a distinction is made
between a theoretical transformation temperature that would apply under
conditions of perfect equilibrium (that is, an infinitely slow rate of heating or
cooling) and the transformation temperatures that apply for specific rates of
heating and cooling. Because the transformation on heating behavior is governed
by diffusion-controlled processes, the beginning of transformation on heating
will be delayed by some increment of temperature that is directly proportional to
a specific rate of heating, and on cooling the beginning of transformation also
will be delayed by some increment of temperature that is directly proportional to
a specific rate of cooling. However, where prolonged hold times are imposed for
a given heat-treatment process, in determining at what temperature
transformation will begin, it is the pseudoequilibrium temperature (that is, a
temperature close to, but not precisely equal to, the true equilibrium value, which
is a theoretical number) that is of interest.

Nomenclature: The following lower critical transformation temperatures are

illustrated in Figure B-1:
 A1. Lower critical transformation temperature under equilibrium condition
 AC1. On-heating lower critical transformation temperature (Chauffage = heating)
 Ar1. On-cooling lower critical transformation temperature (Refroidissement
= cooling)

 B-1 

10392249
 Figure B-1
Definition of lower critical transformation temperatures for conventional carbon
steel [32]

It has been well-established that AC1 is a function of heating rate and that the
AC1 temperature approaches A1 as the heating rate decreases. A typical example
for the effect of heating rate on AC1 temperature is presented in Figure B-2 for
CSEF steel that is similar to Grade 91 [33].

 B-2 

10392249
 Figure B-2
AC1 temperature approaches A1 as heating rate decreases [33]

The measured A1 temperature determined from experiments on different

Grade 91 steels with compositions within the specification range has been seen
to vary from 1488°F (809°C) to 1516°F (824°C).

The A1 temperature of Grade 91 material has been evaluated [33] by ORNL

through development of a computational program, which predicts the A1
temperature based on the chemical composition of the Grade 91 material. This
model was developed following review of approximately 2000 compositions
meeting the specification for Grade 91 material (base metals and weld deposits),
involving 93 product heats from nine different suppliers. The results of the study
revealed that the A1 temperature of Grade 91 material is a strong function of
(Ni+Mn) content, as shown in Figure B-3.

 B-3 

10392249
 Figure B-3
Calculated A1 temperatures as a function of Ni+Mn content for actual product
heats [33]

The results showed that, the higher the (Ni+Mn) content, the lower the A1
temperature. When (Ni+Mn) content is less than 0.6, A1 temperature always is
greater than 1472°F (800°C). Santella and Shingledecker [34] summarized that
the lowest A1 temperature possible is calculated to be 1400°F (760°C) for
material satisfying the Grade 91 material specifications but 1436°F (780°C)
for Grade 91 material representing typical commercial melting practice
recommendations.

For many Grade 91 weld deposits, the calculated A1 temperatures are

significantly lower than those of the associated base metals because of the higher
content of nickel (up to 1.0 wt%) and manganese (up to 1.25 wt%). Santella and
Shingledecker’s results [34] showed that the A1 temperature for Grade 91 weld
deposits could be calculated to be as low as 1250°F (676°C) based on the
specification established by ASME for SFA 5.23 B9. An example of A1
temperature as a function of (Ni+Mn) content is presented in Figure B-4 for
Grade 91 weld metal [35]. From Figure B-4, it is apparent that, at a (Ni+Mn)
value less than 1.5, the A1 temperature for Grade 91 weld metal will be above
1400°F (760°C).

 B-4 

10392249
 Figure B-4
Variation of Ac1 temperatures as a function of Ni+Mn content for Grade 91
weld metal [35]

Proposed rule changes are currently being considered by ASTM and ASME
B&PV Code committees that will limit the maximum Ni+Mn to 1.0 wt% in
Grade 91 base (pipe, fittings, and so forth) and weld metal specifications. Many
owner-users are already specifying a maximum Ni+Mn content for weld metal of
1.0 wt%. This limitation is a further step to prevent an excursion over the A1
temperature during PWHT. Many filler metal manufacturers are, therefore,
offering lower Ni+Mn levels in consumables for use with all welding processes.
This limitation in Ni+Mn is not believed to cause any detrimental effects during
welding, and it is not believed to significantly reduce the impact toughness of
these weldments (see Figure B-5).

 B-5 

10392249
 Figure B-5
Fracture appearance transition temperatures for Grade 91 weldments tempered at
1400°F/1 hour followed by air cooling [36]

 B-6 

10392249
Appendix C: Background on Heat
Treatment
C.1 Introduction

The following sections outline good practices regarding heat treatment. This
advice is included in this report because experience suggests that heat treatment is
often performed in a less than ideal manner. Common problems found with heat
treatments include the following:
 Normalizing or tempering above specified range
 Normalizing or tempering below specified range
 Lack of uniformity in temperature during heating or holding so that
different parts of a component experience different peak temperatures for
different times
 Lack of knowledge regarding specific temperatures reached because
inadequate or inaccurate monitoring is involved
 Variability in cooling rate so that some parts of a component cool at
significantly faster rates than others

The majority of these issues have also been identified associated with PWHT.

Therefore, the background given here is aimed at ensuring that sufficient

measurements are made using accurate, properly installed instrumentation
to demonstrate that all heat treatments are performed according to requirements.
Further information is provided in a 2013 EPRI report related to field
PWHT [17].

In all cases, if the heat-treatment processes will result in surface scale formation
or other surface modification that could compromise the required wall thickness,
the heat treatment should take place in a suitable controlled environment.

C.2 Calibration and Control of Instrumentation

Heat-treatment equipment must be properly calibrated, and the producer must

furnish evidence of the calibration for review prior to the beginning of any heat-
treatment operation. For furnaces, the heat-treatment supplier must demonstrate
that the largest variation in temperature between any two points in the furnace

 C-1 

10392249
 does not exceed 40°F (22°C). This should be demonstrated by placing
thermocouples on metal samples that are placed in the furnace so that the
temperatures along the length and across the width of the furnace are accurately
indicated. For resistance-type heaters, the heat-treatment supplier must
demonstrate that the temperature at the control thermocouple can be maintained
within ±5°F (±3°C) of the target temperature. The heat-treatment supplier
should demonstrate that for a given component the temperature is controlled
within the specified temperature range through placement of properly shielded
thermocouples at a sufficient number of locations along the length and around
the circumference of tubular-shaped components or along the length and across
the width of flat components. For piping, the pattern of thermocouple placement
recommended in AWS D10.22 is a useful guide and should be followed as a
minimum standard wherever possible. In all cases, thermocouples should be
directly connected to the components by either mechanical peening or electric
discharge, and the metal temperature of the components must be measured to
control the heat-treatment process.

For other types of heating, such as induction heating, the heat-treatment supplier
must demonstrate the ability to maintain the temperature at all points on the
component being heat-treated within the required temperature range. The device
and parameters for induction heating must be established in such a way to ensure
that the components can be heated uniformly through the thickness of all parts
and be held at the target temperature for sufficient time.

If multiple components are to be processed as part of a single heat-treatment

cycle, all pieces must be properly separated to avoid nonuniform heating and
cooling, particularly during the normalizing heat treatment. Suppliers must
provide a detailed heat-treatment procedure and record for each product
purchased, if required. For heating methods that cannot easily be calibrated,
such as torch heating, their use shall be prohibited for the heat treating of
Grade 91 components except where a special procedure is approved prior to
implementation. That procedure will include as a minimum provision for
accurate monitoring of the temperature of the component at all locations
affected by the heating.

C.3 Normalizing

Normalizing of all product forms is to be performed within the range of 1920°F–

2012°F (1050°C–1100°C). When the full thickness of the component has
reached the target normalizing temperature, the time at temperature should be a
minimum of 10 minutes. If the heating is performed in a furnace, the product
should be air cooled outside of the furnace and away from any source of heat that
would retard the rate of cooling. If the heating is performed using resistance
heating pads or induction heating, the heat source or any insulating material
should be removed as soon as is practicable upon the completion of the heating
so that the component can undergo uniform cooling in air. Care must be taken to

 C-2 

10392249
 ensure that all areas of the component are allowed to cool uniformly. Cooling
shall be continuous down to at least 200°F (95°C) at the center location before
tempering. The rate of cooling through the temperature range 1650°F–900°F
(899°C–482°C) should be controlled to be no slower than 9°F/minute (5°C/min).

The key to properly normalizing Grade 91 steel is to accurately control the

normalizing temperature and the subsequent rate of cooling. The normalizing
temperature must be adequate to ensure that a sufficient amount of the critical
precipitate-forming elements are dissolved. The dissolution of these elements is
diffusion controlled and, therefore, requires a certain minimum amount of time
at a given temperature to achieve the required reaction.

C.4 Tempering

Tempering for all product forms is to be performed within the temperature range
of 1350°F–1440°F (732°C–782°C). Time at the tempering temperature shall be
sufficient to satisfy the specified hardness requirement. The product may be
cooled in still air from the tempering temperature, as long as excessive distortion
or excessive thermal stress is avoided.

All subcritical thermal processing steps (tempering and PWHT), regardless of

their specific function, will alter the material’s structure in ways that will
influence the final properties of the material. A total tempering effect should be
considered to ensure that, in the final heat-treated condition, the structure of a
component fabricated from this material is in an optimum condition with regard
to the material’s elevated temperature strength. The most effective way to control
the subcritical heat treatment of Grade 91 material is to use a tempering
parameter. One of the most common tempering parameters currently in use is
the Holloman-Jaffe parameter (HJP) [37], as expressed in the following
equation:

HJP = (T + 460) x (C + log10 t)/1000

where T is tempering temperature in °F, t is holding time in hours, and C is the

HJP constant. A common default value for Grade 91 is C = 22; however, limited
analysis for Grade 91 material has suggested that the constant C could have a
value in the range of 19–23.

C.5 Control of Heating and Cooling Rate

With the exception of the minimum recommended cooling rate of 5°C/min

following the normalizing portion of the heat treatment, no additional limits on
the rate of heat-up or cooldown are specified for either the normalizing or the
tempering processes. However, for thick-walled components or for assemblies of
complex shape, an appropriate rate of heat-up or cooldown, as determined by
experienced engineering judgment, shall be adopted to minimize distortion and
residual stresses. With specific regard to the cooldown practice, it is emphasized
that a sufficiently rapid rate of cooling must be maintained by accelerated cooling
from the austenitizing temperature down to a temperature of less than 1000°F

 C-3 

10392249
 (540°C) at the center of the work piece to ensure avoidance of detrimental
precipitation of carbides or other nonmartensitic transformation products. Below
1000°F (540°C), for thick-walled components or components of complex shape,
it is recommended that the cooling be performed in still air or the equivalent
down to below 200°F (95°C).

Note: For components greater in thickness than 3 in. (76 mm), forced air cooling
or oil quenching or the equivalent from the normalizing temperature to an
internal work piece temperature below 1000°F (540°C) may be necessary to
achieve the required metallurgical structure and mechanical properties.

C.6 Excessive Oxidation

Precautions shall be taken to avoid excessive material loss resulting from oxide
scaling during all heat-treatment operations. This requirement is particularly
important for tubing and other thin-walled components in those cases where the
original heat treatment, or heat treatments, applied by the fabricator are nullified
by misapplication, requiring the repetition of the normalizing heat treatment,
which in the absence of a controlled and protective atmosphere in contact with
all heated surfaces can cause rapid and excessive scaling. Oxide scale on the ID
surface of tubing intended for heat transfer service in a boiler either must be
minimized during the heat treatment or must be removed following the heat
treatment, because the presence of the oxide can result in unacceptable
overheating of the tubing in service.

C.7 Carburization and Decarburization

For tubular products, or other thin-walled products, the vendor must verify that
the total thickness of material decarburized during processing (that is, OD
decarburized layer plus ID decarburized layer) does not exceed 7% of the
minimum wall thickness value specified for the product. The vendor must
determine the total thickness of decarburized material by performing
microstructural analysis of a representative polished and etched cross section of
the product at a magnification of 100X from each heat-treatment lot.
Carburization, defined as a visible increase in the surface carbon content as a
result of processing, should be determined by similar microstructural analysis.

Note: If hardness testing is required during or after processing and, if the

hardness measurement will be made on the surface of the component, the
material supplier must verify that the test specimen is free of the effects of
decarburization or carburization at the point of test.

For plate-formed or piping-related components, it might be considered

appropriate in certain circumstances to negotiate with the manufacturer to design
these components with additional thickness (approximately 8% of the minimum
wall thickness value) to compensate for any decarburized layer, which then will
facilitate any subsequent metallographic assessment (both hardness testing and
metallographic replication) of the components.

 C-4 

10392249
Appendix D: Background on Hardness
Measurements
D.1 Introduction

Because of risks of brittle failure of untempered martensite, specifications initially

included a requirement not to exceed a maximum hardness. Therefore, even from
the earliest applications of Grade 91, hardness has been used as a method of
quality checking. More recently, experience has shown that components can
experience incorrect heat treatment, which results in incorrect ferrite-type
microstructure. These structures are typically relatively soft; so, there has been
wide use of hardness testing as a method of screening.

In view of the importance of this screening, there have been several investigations
regarding the use of field hardness techniques to monitor component hardness
[19, 38]. These should be referred to as reference information. The information
in this appendix outlines application of hardness as a means of tracking quality
through a fabrication procedure.

D.2 Measurements for Piping and Headers

Assessment of component hardness should always be carried out using qualified

procedures and controlled surface preparation, trained staff, and calibrated
equipment. In most pressure part component applications, hardness should be
measured at four locations equally spaced around the circumference, unless the
diameter of the component is ≥24 in. (600 mm), in which case the hardness
should be measured at eight locations equally spaced around the circumference on
both sides of the joint. The following points should be taken into consideration:
 The hardness should be measured using established portable testing
methods, such as the rebound method (for example, the Proceq Equotip
testers or the GE DynaMIC testers), the ultrasonic contact impedance
(UCI) method (for example, the GE MIC10 or MIC20 testers), or the
manual Brinell methods (for example, the Telebrineller or the Pin Brinell
Tester). However, the rebound method should not be used on any
component with an actual wall thickness less than 0.75 in. (19 mm).

 D-1 

10392249
  In all cases the hardness measuring instrument must be properly calibrated
before testing, and the test surface shall be prepared to a finish that will
optimize test accuracy for the particular instrument being used. For the
rebound- and UCI-type testers, the surface shall be ground to at least a
smooth 240-grit finish. For the manual Brinell-type testers, a surface finish
of 80 grit or its equivalent is satisfactory.
 Measurements should be made using personnel who have been properly trained.
 One hundred percent inspection is recommended; however, for cost savings
or low-risk components, the following strategy can be considered:
1. Initially, 10% of the total components should be evaluated.
2. If problems are found in the initial 10% evaluation, the number of
components to be inspected should increase to 25.
3. If additional problems are found, the number of components inspected
should increase to 100%.

Although Section 2.4 of this report recommends a minimum hardness of

190 HBW, due to the variability of hardness testing and the potential for
material damage, if at any location the measured hardness of the component is
below 195 HBW, additional testing should be performed. Typically, the
additional hardness testing will be carried out after grinding to remove surface
decarburized material. Care must be taken during grinding not to encroach on
the minimum wall thickness requirements of the component. If, following the
additional testing, the hardness still is below 195 HBW, further testing should be
conducted to accurately characterize the material condition. This further testing
typically includes the taking of metallographic replicas or the direct examination
of sample material removed from the component. If the component is found to
be in an unacceptable condition, the effected section can be renormalized and
tempered. A final alternative is component replacement.

If the measured hardness of the piping is between 195 HBW and 200 HBW,
the PWHT operation should be controlled to a low-tempering parameter value
within the specified range of PWHT temperature—that is, 1247°F–1400°F
(675°C–760°C).

Prior to the beginning of welding, the hardness of the component base metal
adjacent to the weld—specifically, that portion of the piping that will be
subjected to the full heat of the PWHT operation—should be assessed.
Following completion of the PWHT, the hardness of both the base metal
adjacent to the weld—specifically, that portion of the component that was
subjected to the full heat of the PWHT operation—and the weld metal itself
shall be measured at four locations equally spaced around the circumference of
the joint. For the base metal, measurements shall be made on the component on
both sides of the joint. If the measured hardness of the base metal or weld metal
at any location is below 195 HBW, additional testing shall be performed to verify

 D-2 

10392249
 the serviceability of the material. If, following the additional testing, the
measured hardness of any portion of the weld metal or the base metal is below
190 HBW, the weld and the affected piping either shall be replaced or shall be
removed, renormalized, tempered, and hardness-tested to ensure the
metallurgical condition of the piping prior to rewelding.

 D-3 

10392249
10392249
Appendix E: Background on Cold Work
Cold forming, such as cold bending of boiler tubes, is a common practice in
boiler manufacture. Recent research and development (R&D) efforts [39] have
revealed the following:
 Cold work induced during all cold-forming processes does have an adverse
effect on the creep rupture strength of Grade 91 material, as shown in
Figure E-1. Results to date indicate that there is no obvious threshold value
below which the effect is absent but that the magnitude of the effect increases
with the level of cold strain induced.

Figure E-1
Effect of cold work on the creep rupture behavior of Grade 91 material in
comparison with the behavior of the unstrained base metal [39]

 E-1 

10392249
  The magnitude of the creep life reduction is proportional to the increase in
the amount of cold work and, therefore, to the increase in hardness caused by
the cold-work, as documented in Table E-1 and Figure E-2.

Table E-1
Creep life reduction as a function of cold work and hardness

Life Reduction (%)

Hardness
Hardness Difference Relative
Sample ID Relative to
to
(HBW) (HBW- Imputed
Base
HBW0) Mean
Metal
Grade 91 BM (0%)
218 0 0 -16~+144%
(HBW0)
Grade 91 (30% CW) 240 +22 -(59~80)% -(62~75)%
Grade 91
(25%CW+1350°F/ 225 +7 -65% -56%
30 min)
Grade 91
(25%CW+1425°F/ 210 -8 -60% -50%
60 min)
Grade 91 (20% CW) 228 +10 -(46~54)% -(42~50)%
Grade 91
(20%CW+1350°F/ 224 +6 -36% -20%
30 min)
Grade 91
(20%CW+1425°F/ 212 -6 -25% -7%
60 min)
Grade 91
(15%CW+1350°F/ 223 +5 -5% +18%
30 min)
Grade 91
(15%CW+1425°F/ 206 -12 -25% -6%
60 min)
Grade 91 (10% CW) 220 +2 -49~0% -(7~18)%
1°F = (°C x 9/5) + 32
BM = base metal
CW = cold work
min = minutes

 E-2 

10392249
 Figure E-2
Creep life reduction as a function of hardness increase induced by cold-work [39]
 If the full strength of the Grade 91 material is required to ensure satisfactory
service life, when the amount of tensile strain induced during cold bending
exceeds approximately 20%, the full length of the tubing should be
renormalized and tempered.
 Based on limited test results, a post-forming subcritical heat treatment
conducted at tempering parameters commonly used in the fabrication of
Grade 91 tubular components provided no significant benefit with regard to
restoration of the creep rupture strength of cold-worked Grade 91 material,
as illustrated in Figure E-3. However, such a subcritical heat treatment can
reduce susceptibility to other damage mechanisms, such as SCC.

 E-3 

10392249
 Figure E-3
Effect of a post-forming subcritical heat treatment on the creep rupture behavior of
the cold-worked Grade 91 test material compared with the behavior of the
unstrained base metal and the cold-worked material with no post-forming heat
treatment [39]

 E-4 

10392249
Appendix F: Stress Corrosion Cracking
Higher-chromium martensitic steels can be susceptible to SCC when left for
prolonged periods in a fully hardened or undertempered condition. This potential
danger was recognized in the past, because the susceptibility to SCC was well
established for many of the early high-chromium alloys. For example, in the
1930s, the susceptibility of the 400-series stainless steels to SCC in the as-welded
or hardened condition necessitated the implementation of special rules for
fabrication to avoid cracking.

Recent experience has shown that the higher-chromium CSEF steels, when left in
the untempered or undertempered condition, can be susceptible to SCC in what
would otherwise be considered benign environments. Review of cases of unexpected
cracking in Grade 91 tubing found no common factors with regard to fabrication or
service history, other than the fact that in each case the components had been left in
a fully hardened condition for an extended period of time before the final tempering
post-fabrication heat-treatment was applied. For other boiler components, the
observations were not definitive regarding root cause.

In general, there are three metallurgical factors responsible for SCC: the
metallurgical condition of the material, the level of stress, and the environment.
Among these factors, metallurgical condition and stress level can be managed
through design and/or manufacturing procedure. However, the environmental
factor typically is more difficult to control, and it often is necessary to implement
indirect control factors, such as the maintenance of a minimum temperature on
the component to eliminate the chance of moisture forming on the component
surface.

The R&D results [40] demonstrated that hydrogen embrittlement and active
path corrosion are potential damage mechanisms involved in the SCC behavior
of Grade 91 material. With both mechanisms, SCC will be intergranular.
Typical SCC is shown in Figures F-1 and F-2.

 F-1 

10392249
 Figure F-1
Typical optical metallographic and scanning electron microscope (SEM)
fractographic features of SCC where hydrogen embrittlement is the dominant
mechanism of damage [40]

Figure F-2
Typical SEM fractographic features of SCC where active path corrosion is the
dominant mechanism of damage [40]

The SCC fracture behavior where hydrogen embrittlement is involved is

accurately reflected by a Charpy-type transition curve, as shown in Figure F-3.
Hydrogen embrittlement involves a poisoned cathode reaction, and the fracture
behavior is closely linked to the material’s toughness. On the other hand, the SCC
fracture behavior under active path corrosion is more accurately characterized by a

 F-2 

10392249
 C-curve type behavior, as presented in Figure F-4. Active path corrosion involves
an anodic reaction in which a chromium-depleted zone immediately adjacent to
the grain boundaries is rapidly corroded. The sensitizing temperature range where
this chromium depletion occurs extends from approximately 600°F to 1130°F
(315°C to 610°C), based on the limited test data that are available at this time.

Figure F-3
SCC behavior where hydrogen embrittlement is the dominant damage
mechanism [40]

Figure F-4
SCC behavior where active path corrosion is the dominant damage [40]

 F-3 

10392249
 Test results have demonstrated that tempering of Grade 91 material eliminates
susceptibility to SCC. Similarly, tempering after welding will be effective in
minimizing susceptibility to SCC. In view of the practical realities involved in
manufacturing or construction, it is not always possible to apply the PWHT
immediately after completion of welding. In that case, protection of the weld
areas from exposure to any potential corrosive agents is the key to avoiding SCC.
Because the SCC only can occur if there is moisture present, and because, in
most cases, the only source of moisture is condensation caused by changes in
ambient temperature, all Grade 91 weld joints should be maintained at
temperatures above the dew point (such as maintaining preheat temperature) or
kept in a humidity-controlled environment or properly protected from moisture
accumulating on the surface of the component. These precautions should be
specified until the required PWHT can be performed.

 F-4 

10392249
Appendix G: Background on Welding
G.1 Introduction

It is clear that the welding process introduces additional complexities associated

with the thermal cycles involved and the variations in composition between filler
and parent. It is apparent that welding needs to be carried out carefully using
qualified staff and appropriate procedures; further background is provided in
EPRI reports 3002003472 [8] and 1026584 [21]. Information and guidelines
regarding these issues are as follows:
 The use of filler materials with (nickel+manganese) contents exceeding 1.2%
may require that the component be cooled to temperatures below 200°F
(95°C) to ensure an acceptable degree of austenite transformation to
martensite prior to PWHT. It should be noted that for field welds subject to
high applied loads, this requirement can involve a significant risk of fracture
of the weld.
 Manufacturing and field experience have demonstrated that, under certain
specific conditions, preheat can be removed after welding and the component
returned to ambient temperature for a period of time prior to the application
of the PWHT. The essential conditions under which this can be done
successfully include at least the following:
- The amount of diffusible hydrogen present in the weld is carefully
controlled during welding. For highly stressed components, a hydrogen
bake should be performed before allowing the temperature of the
material to drop to room temperature (see Section 2.6.2 of this report for
details—also note that the solubility of hydrogen is substantially greater
in austenite than in martensite; therefore, as complete a transformation
as possible should be made prior to the hydrogen bake).
- The component is kept in a clean, dry environment until the PWHT is
completed.
- The joint is not subjected to significant thermal reaction or other applied
loads in the as-welded condition.
 Particular care should also be exercised prior to moving or transportation of
components. In addition to all of the preceding precautions associated with
good fabrication practice, it is important that no incidental welding or
harmful heat treatment is associated with transportation.

 G-1 

10392249
10392249
Appendix H: Reference Documents
This section provides a listing of selected relevant documents.

H.1 EPRI Documents

H.1.1 Service Experience

1. Service Experience with Creep Strength Enhanced Ferritic Steels in Power Plants
in the Asia-Pacific Region. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2015. 3002005089.
2. Review of Fabrication and In-Service Performance of a Grade 91 Header. EPRI,
Palo Alto, CA: 2013. 3002001831.
3. Service Experience with Grade 91 Components. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2009.
1018151.

H.1.2 Composition
4. The Benefits of Improved Control of Composition of Creep-Strength-Enhanced
Ferritic Steel Grade 91. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2014. 3002003472.
5. The Influence of Steel Making and Processing Variables on the Microstructure
and Properties of Creep Strength Enhanced Ferritic (CSEF) Steel Grade 91.
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2014. 3002004370.

H.1.3 Welding and PWHT

6. A Perspective on the Selection of Preheat, Interpass and Post-weld Cool
Temperatures Using Grade 91 Steel as an Example. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA:
2015. 3002005351.
7. A Well-Engineered Approach for Establishing the Minimum Allowable Post-Weld
Heat Treatment for Power Generation Applications of Grade 91 Steel. EPRI,
Palo Alto, CA: 2015. 3002005350.
8. Best Practice Guideline for Well-Engineered Weld Repair of Grade 91 Steel.
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2014. 3002003833.
9. Thick-Section Welding of Modified 9Cr-1Mo (P91) Steel. EPRI, Palo Alto,
CA: 1992. TR-101394.

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 10. Evaluation of Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Field Post-Weld Heat Treatment.
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2012. 1024722.
11. Improved Guidance for Field Post Weld Heat Treatment. EPRI, Palo Alto,
CA: 2014. 3002004823.

H.1.4 Performance and Life Management of Grade 91 Steel

12. Life Management of Creep Strength Enhanced Ferritic Steels Solutions for the
Performance of Grade 91 Steel Overview. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2014.
3002000083.
13. Life Management of Creep-Strength-Enhanced Grade 91 Steels—Atlas of
Microstructures: Base Metal. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2013. 3002000080.
14. Life Management of Creep Strength Enhanced Grade 91 Steel: Damage
Calculator. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2013. 3002000082.
15. The Grade 91 Steel Handbook. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2013. 3002001465.
16. Investigation of the Creep Fatigue Behavior of P91 Steel. EPRI, Palo Alto,
CA: 2012. 1024718.
17. Data Analysis of Grade 91 Steel Creep Tests. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2011.
1023201.
18. Instrumentation and Data Analysis for Creep Monitoring of P91 Material at
Tampa Electric Company's Bayside Station. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2011.
1023200.
19. Effect of Soft-Zone Size on the Creep Performance of Grade 91 Piping
Components. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2011. 1022562.
20. Properties of Modified 9Cr-1Mo Cast Steel. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1996.
TR-106856.
21. P91 Steel for Retrofit Headers—Materials Properties. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA:
1995. TR-103617.
22. Creep Behavior of Modified 9% CrMo Cast Steel for Application in Coal-Fired
Steam Power Plants. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1995. TR-104845.

H.1.5 Performance of Grade 91 Cross Welds

23. Life Management of Creep Strength Enhanced Grade 91 Steels—Atlas of
Microstructures and Welds. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2013. 3002000081.
24. Creep Strength-Enhanced Ferritic (CSEF) Steel Welding Guide. EPRI, Palo
Alto, CA: 2013. 1026584.
25. Recommendations on Weld Strength Reduction Factors. EPRI, Palo Alto,
CA: 2010. 1019791.
26. Evaluation of Ex-service Grade 91 Material. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2009.
1019575.
27. Review of Type IV Cracking in Piping Welds. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1997.
TR-108971.

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 H.1.6 Forming, Fabrication, and Normalization
28. Review of Fabrication Information and Recommendations for Future Actions for
Seam-Welded P91 Hot Reheat Piping Components at Genesee Unit 3. EPRI,
Palo Alto, CA: 2011. 1023276.
29. Effect of Cold-Work and Heat Treatment on the Elevated Temperature Rupture
Properties of Grade 91 Material. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2005. 1011352.
30. Effect of Normalization and Temper Heat Treatment on P91 Weldment
Properties. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2003. 1004915.

H.1.7 Hardness Testing and Metallurgical Characterization

31. The Use of Portable Hardness Testing in Field Applications for Grade 91 Steel.
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2012. 1024695.
32. Advanced Metallurgical Characterization of Grade 91 Steel Samples. EPRI,
Palo Alto, CA: 2012. 1024721.

H.1.8 Relevant Conferences

33. Materials for Ultra Supercritical Fossil Power Plants. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA:
2000. TR-114750.
34. EPRI Conference on 9Cr Materials Fabrication and Joining Technologies. EPRI,
Palo Alto, CA: 2001. 1006299.
35. Advances in Material Technology for Fossil Power Plants: Proceedings from the
Third International Conference. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2001. 1001462.
36. Advances in Material Technology for Fossil Power Plants: Proceedings from the
Fourth International Conference. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2004. 1011381.
37. Advances in Material Technology for Fossil Power Plants: Proceedings from the
Fifth International Conference. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2007. 1016250.
38. Advances in Material Technology for Fossil Power Plants: Proceedings from the
Sixth International Conference. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2011. 1022300.
39. Advances in Material Technology for Fossil Power Plants: Proceedings from the
Seventh International Conference. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2013. 3002002375.

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 H.2 International Specifications and Codes

Applicable ASTM materials designations for Grade 91 material are provided in

Table H-1.

Table H-1
Summary of applicable ASTM materials specifications for Grade 91 material

Specification
Country Description
and Grade
Forged or rolled alloy-steel pipe flanges;
SA-182, F91 United States forged fittings, valves, and parts for high-
temperature service
Seamless ferritic and austenitic alloy-steel
SA-213, T91 United States boiler, superheater, and heat exchanger
tubes
Specification for Steel Castings, Martensitic
SA-217 United States Stainless and Alloy, for Pressure Containing
Parts, Suitable for High Temperature Service
Piping fitting of wrought carbon steel and
SA-234, WP91 United States
alloy for moderate and elevated temperature
Seamless ferritic alloy-steel pipe for high-
SA-335, P91 United States
temperature Service
Alloy steel forgings for pressure and high-
SA-336, F91 United States
temperature parts
Carbon and ferritic steel forged and bored
SA-369, FP91 United States
pipe for high-temperature service
Steel forgings, alloy for pressure and high-
SA-366, F91 United States
temperature parts
SA-387, Pressure vessel plates, alloy steels, chromium-
United States
Grade 91 molybdenum
Carbon and alloy steel pipe, electric-fusion-
SA-691 United States welded for high-pressure service at high
temperatures
Specification for Low Alloy Steel Electrodes
SFA-5.5* United States
for Shielded metal Arc Welding*
Specification for Low Alloy Steel Electrodes
SFA-5.23* United States
and Fluxes for Submerged Arc Welding*
Specification for Low Alloy Steel Electrodes
SFA-5.28* United States
and Rods for Gas Shielded Arc Welding*
Specification for Low Alloy Steel Electrodes
SFA-5.29* United States
for Flux-Cored Arc Welding*
* These specifications include B9 welds.

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 A summary of selected international materials specifications for Grade 91 steel is
presented in Table H-2. Specifications in Japan are KA-SCMV28, KA-STPA28,
and KA-SFVA28 for plate pipe and forgings respectively. The details of these
specifications mirror those of ASME.

Table H-2
Summary of selected information from ASME materials specifications for Grade 91
Steel

Specification Country Description

and Grade
DIN 17 175 Seamless tubes made from heat-resistant
VdTUV511/2 Germany steels
X10CrMoVNb9-1
BS 3604-2, Steel pipe and tubes for pressure
United
Grade 91 purpose, ferritic alloy steel with specified
Kingdom
(now withdrawn) elevated temperature properties
Steel boiler and superheater tubes; Part 2
BS 3059-2,
United specification for carbon alloy and
Grade 91
Kingdom austenitic stainless steel tubes with
(now withdrawn)
specified elevated temperature properties
Seamless steel tubes for pressure
EN 10 216-2
purposes technical conditions of delivery;
X10CrMoVNb9-1 Europe
Part 2 ferritic and martensitic steels with
Steel No 1.4903
specified elevated temperature properties
EN 10 222-1:1998 Steel forgings for pressure purposes—
X10CrMoVNb9-1 Europe Part 1: general requirements for open die
Steel No 1.4903 forgings
EN 10 222-2:2000 Steel forgings for pressure purposes—
X10CrMoVNb9-1 Europe Part 2: ferritic and martensitic steels with
Steel No 1.4903 specified elevated temperature properties

H.3 Comparison of Information

Although much of the information is included in the various Codes and

standards, it is noteworthy that in some cases the specifications are different.
Selected differences are summarized in Table H-3.

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 Table H-3
Summary of differences between materials specifications for Grade 91 steel

Normalization Cooling Tempering

Specification P% S% Yield Tensile Hardness
Temp Rate Temp
1900°F–1975°F Air 1350°F–1470°F 60 ksi 85 ksi 248 HBW
SA-182 0.02 0.01
1040°C–1080°C cooled 730°C–800°C 415 MPa 585 MPa max

1900°F–1975°F 1350°F–1470°F 60 ksi 85 ksi 250 HBW,

SA-335 0.020 0.010 NS 265 HV,
1040°C–1080°C 730°C–800°C 415 MPa 585 MPa 25 HRC
1900°F–1975°F 1350°F–1470°F 60 ksi 85–110 ksi
SA-336 0.025 0.025 NS NS
1040°C–1080°C 730°C–800°C 415 MPa 585–760 MPa

0.020 HA– 0.010 HA– 1900°F–1975°F 1350°F–1470°F 60 ksi 85–110 ksi

SA-387 NS NS
0.025 PA 0.012 PA
1040°C–1080°C 730°C–800°C 415 MPa 585–760 MPa
See See 1900°F–2000°F 1350°F–1440°F 60 ksi 90 ksi
SA-691 NS 241 HBW
SA-387 SA-387 1040°C–1095°C 730°C–780°C 415 MPa 585 MPa
NS = not specified
HA = heat analysis
PA = product analysis
max = maximum

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 H.4 Supporting Documents and Standards

The following documents form a part of this report to the extent specified herein
(unless approved otherwise, the latest edition shall apply):
 ASTM A450/A450M: Specifications for General Requirements for Carbon
Ferritic Alloy and Austenitic Alloy Steel Tube
 ASTM A530/A530M: Specification for General Requirements for
Specialized Carbon and Alloy Steel Pipe
 ASTM E8: Standard Test Methods for Tension Testing of Metallic
Materials
 ASTM E18: Standard Test Methods for Rockwell Hardness and Rockwell
Superficial Hardness of Metallic Materials
 ASTM E21: Standard Test Methods for Elevated Temperature Tension
Tests of Metallic Materials
 ASTM E94: Standard Guide for Radiographic Examination
 ASTM E112: Standard Test Methods for Determining Average Grain
Size
 ASTM E139: Standard Test Methods for Conducting Creep, Creep-
Rupture, and Stress Rupture Tests of Metallic Materials
 ASTM E165: Standard Test Method for Liquid Penetrant Examination
 ASTM E213: Practice for Ultrasonic Examination of Metal Pipe and
Tubing
 ASTM E309: Practice for Eddy Current Examination of Steel Tubular
Products Using Magnetic Saturation
 ASTM E381: Method of Macroetch Testing, Inspection, and Rating Steel
Products, Comprising Bars, Billets, Blooms, and Forgings
 ASTM E527: Practice for Numbering Alloys and Metals
 ASTM E570: Practice for Flux Leakage Examination of Ferromagnetic Steel
Tubular Products
 ASTM E1417: Standard Practice for Liquid Penetrant Examination
 ASTM E1742: Standard Practice for Radiographic Examination

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10392249
Appendix I: Illustration of a Component
Purchasing Document
Contents
1 Introduction .......................................................................... I-3

2 Scope of Work....................................................................... I-3

2.1 Separable Portions ....................................................... I-4

2.2 Terminal Points ........................................................... I-4

2.3 Design of Replacement Components……………… I-4

2.4 Quality Assurance ........................................................ I-5

2.5 Inspection During Installation .................................... I-6

2.6 Delivery ........................................................................ I-6

2.7 Codes and Standards ................................................... I-6

3 Materials and Manufacturing Requirements ........................ I-6

3.1 Chemical Composition of Parent Metal ..................... I-7

3.2 Heat Treatment ........................................................... I-8

3.3 Microstructure ........................................................... I-10

3.4 Steel Hardness ........................................................... I-10

3.5 Mechanical Properties ............................................... I-11

3.6 Forming Processes ..................................................... I-11

3.7 General Welding Practice.......................................... I-12

4 Surface Protection and Painting.......................................... I-16

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5 Work to be Performed by the Principal .............................. I-16

6 Transportation Requirements ............................................. I-16

7 Site Storage Requirements .................................................. I-16

8 Delivery Schedule ................................................................ I-16

9 Warranty ............................................................................. I-16

10 Principal Supplied Documents .......................................... I-17

11 Technical Schedules .......................................................... I-17

12 Right of Access.................................................................. I-17

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 Contract No. XXX/XXX

Technical Specification for the Design, Manufacture, Supply, and Delivery of

Replacement Components in Grade 91 Steel2

1 Introduction

The Principal is seeking to replace selected welded components on the Main Steam Pipe of XXXX units
comprising a Wye and Tees. The reason for replacement is due to Type IV cracking of the original
branch weld after X0,000 hrs of operation. It is understood that the design of the original branch welded
components resulted in high surface stresses greater than the maximum allowable design stress for Grade
91 steel. Other branch welds are also expected to experience cracking and will require replacement.

[Utility to modify above paragraph separately to suit individual circumstances]

It is important to emphasize that the technical requirements contained within this document represent
controls on the production of Grade 91 material that supplement those contained in the ASME Boiler &
Pressure Vessel Code. They are considered mandatory to ensure the satisfactory long-term serviceability
of any component fabricated using this grade of material. It is understood that the requirements
contained in the ASME Code represent a set of minimum requirements considered essential, but not
guaranteed to be sufficient, to provide for the overall safety and reliability of components constructed
from Grade 91 material.

2 Scope of Work

The scope of work involves the Design, Manufacture, Quality Assurance, Testing, and Delivery to XXX
Power Station of new components to replace the existing main steam pipe Wye and Tees as shown on
drawings XXX and XXX using either:
1. Forged and machined Grade 91 components
2. Welded components fabricated using seamless P91 pipe with a full renormalization and temper
(N&T) heat treatment following fabrication

Respondents may submit offers for either (1) or (2) or both. The Principal shall nominate the selected
method of manufacture to be utilized. Further requirements are detailed in the following sections.

The following fabrication methods are not permitted:

1. Use of seam-welded pipe
2. Welded components fabricated using seamless P91 pipe without carrying out a full renormalization
and temper (N&T) heat treatment following fabrication
3. Use of any materials other than Grade 91 steel

2
This technical specification is an illustration and it must be reviewed and modified by individual companies before using it.

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2.1 Separable Portions

The scope of work consists of the following separable portions:

Separable Portion 1

Separable Portion 2

Separable Portion 3

Separable Portion 4

Separable Portion 5

[Utility to complete this section separately regarding ordering conditions]

2.2 Terminal Points

The terminal points for each of the components shall be as specified on drawings XXX and XXX. The
Respondent may submit alternative offers based on alternative terminal points, if it can be demonstrated
that the total cost of component supply and installation is minimized.

2.3 Design of Replacement Components (Separable Portion 1)

This section describes the scope of work for Separable Portion 1. The Respondent shall provide a stand-
alone detailed design for all components for approval by the Principal prior to ordering and fabrication of
the remaining separable portions. The design shall be jointly owned by the Principal and the Respondent.
The components shall be designed according to the following requirements:
1. Designed in accordance with ASME code for Power Piping B31.1 and ASME Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Code.
2. Finite element modeling shall be used to determine the maximum stresses at the design temperature
and pressure and including piping system loads.
3. Branch reinforcement shall be shared between the main pipe and nozzle in order to reduce the
maximum stress and reduce stress concentration.
4. The current (cold and hot) main steam piping system hanger loadings shall be reviewed, and any
changes to hanger loadings (cold and hot) following the installation of the new piping components
shall be determined. If any modifications or changes to settings are required, these shall be identified
by the Respondent.
5. The design shall specifically mitigate the historical mode of failure by Type IV cracking.
6. The design shall consider combined creep-fatigue loading.
7. Design pressure and temperature shall be as per the existing piping design [Utility to double-check
and then provide the design versus operating temperature and pressure].
8. Ends of piping components shall be designed and supplied machined in preparation for manual butt
welding.
9. The design shall be verified and approved by a Registered Professional Engineer.

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The Respondent shall provide the following deliverables at the completion of the design phase for
approval by the Principal:
1. General arrangement drawings
2. Detailed fabrication drawings
3. Erection drawings
4. Design calculations
5. Heat treatment procedure including details of any transportation of components in as-welded state
6. Engineering report detailing the expected service life, possible failure modes of the new components,
and results of finite element modeling
7. Installation procedure including details of all welds and spool pieces (if required), weld procedures,
support points, cold pull, fit-up tolerances, procedures, hanger settings and loadings, and any other
information relevant to installation of the components

The Principal will provide the documents listed as input to the design phase.

2.4 Quality Assurance

The Supplier’s Quality Assurance System shall be certified to ISO 9001. The new piping components
shall be supplied stamped with ASME S stamp. The Respondent shall also supply the following
documentation for approval by the Principal prior to start of fabrication of each Separable Portion:

[Utility to modify above paragraph separately to suit individual circumstances]

1. Inspection and Test Plan (ITP)
2. All procurement records showing traceability of supplied materials for piping and welding
consumables
3. Material certificates for base materials and welding consumables
4. Nondestructive testing (NDT) procedures
5. Heat treatment procedures and equipment calibration records
6. Welding documentation (that is, WPS, WQR, welder qualifications)
7. Hydrostatic test procedure

The Respondent shall provide full manufacturing data records (MDRs) with the completed components
as follows:
1. Completed Inspection and Test Plan (ITP) signed off for each activity
2. All procurement records showing traceability of supplied materials for piping and welding
consumables
3. Material certificates for base materials and welding consumables
4. Nondestructive testing results and equipment calibration records
5. All heat treatment charts and equipment calibration records
6. Welding records

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7. Hydrostatic test records and equipment calibration records
8. Records of dimensional checks
9. Records of any nonconformances experienced during any stage of the manufacturing/fabrication
process
10. As-built drawings

Acceptance of the equipment shall be subject to inspection by the Principal and/or the Principal’s
authorized representative. The Principal shall nominate hold and witness points for its own inspections
in the Inspection and Test Plan (ITP) supplied by the Respondent. The Principal shall have the option to
inspect the works at the Supplier’s factory. The Respondent shall provide a minimum of seven (7) days’
notice prior to any witness or hold points being reached.

The above information is essential in demonstrating to the Principal that all critical aspects of the
manufacturing process have been satisfied in accordance with design requirements prior to accepting the
completed piping assembly.

2.5 Inspection During Installation

During the course of the installation works, the Respondent shall conduct periodic inspections of the
installation and testing process to ensure that all work is proceeding to the satisfaction of the Respondent.
Any nonconformances identified during the course of works shall be immediately brought to the attention
of the Principal. On completion of component installation and testing, and prior to the plant returning to
service, the Respondent shall verify in writing that the main steam pipe components have been installed
to the approved procedure. Failure by the Respondent to highlight issues during the installation shall be
deemed as acceptance of the installation process.

2.6 Delivery

[To be specified according to individual requirements]

2.7 Codes and Standards

The components shall conform to the following codes and standards:

1. Designed and fabricated to the ASME code for Power Piping B31.1 and ASME Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Code.
2. All welds shall also be nondestructively examined and compliant to [Utility to specify] and addenda.

3 Materials and Manufacturing Requirements

This section provides specific requirements for the materials and manufacturing processes to be used in
the manufacture of the components for all separable portions 2 to X. [Utility to specify depending on
number of separable portions]

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10392249
3.1 Chemical Composition of Parent Metal

The chemical composition of all Grade 91 parent steel shall be measured during steel making and from
the final component sections. The composition of the components in weight percent shall conform to the
following elemental restrictions.

Composition (Wt%):

Carbon 0.08–0.12

Manganese 0.30–0.50

Phosphorus 0.015 (max)

Sulphur 0.005 (max)

Silicon 0.20–0.40

Chromium 8.20–9.50

Molybdenum 0.85–1.05

Vanadium 0.18–0.25

Nitrogen1 0.035–0.070

Nickel 0.20 (max)

Aluminum1 0.020 (max)

Columbium (niobium) 0.06–0.10

Titanium 0.01 (max)

Zirconium 0.01 (max)

Copper2 0.10 (max)

Arsenic2 0.010 (max)

Tin2 0.010 (max)

Antimony2 0.003 (max)

Lead2 0.001 (max)

 I-7 

10392249
Notes:
1. The ratio of nitrogen to aluminum shall be a minimum of 4; however, higher values of this ratio
are preferable.
2. The limits identified for these elements, which currently are not controlled by the ASTM/ASME
material specifications, are target values only at this time; the content of these elements must be
reported on the Material Test Report (MTR) supplied with each heat of material.

The Respondent shall provide the producing mill’s material test report (MTR) with the results of the
chemical analyses for each individual heat of steel to verify compliance with the requirements of this
specification. Upon receipt of the Grade 91 steel by the Respondent, the Respondent shall verify that
each parent steel section complies with the specified compositional requirements. This verification shall
be reported to the Principal prior to beginning final fabrication.

Any material supplied outside of the above specification requirements shall be deemed as nonconforming
and shall be rectified by the Respondent at its own expense.

3.2 Heat Treatment

The Respondent shall provide all details of heat-treatment procedures, including the type of equipment to
be used for heat treatment of Grade 91 components, method(s) of monitoring temperature during the
heat treatment (for example, number and placement of thermocouples for each heat treatment lot,
procedure for attaching thermocouples to the work pieces, and so on), prior to the beginning of any heat
treatment on those components. These procedures shall be approved by the Principal’s representative
prior to the commencement of works.

During heat treatment of Grade 91 material, precautions shall be taken to avoid excessive material loss
due to oxide scaling during all heat-treatment operations. The Respondent shall inform the Principal in
writing of the steps that will be taken to minimize oxidation of the product prior to the beginning of heat
treatment of the Grade 91 components.

3.2.1 Normalizing

For all product forms, normalizing is to be carried out using a suitable furnace within the temperature
range of 1920°F–2012°F (1050°C–1100°C) to produce a fully martensitic microstructure. Once the full
thickness of the component has reached the target normalizing temperature, the time at temperature shall
be a minimum of 10 minutes. The product shall be air cooled outside of the furnace and away from any
source of heat that would retard the rate of cooling.

Care must be taken to ensure that all areas of the component are allowed to cool uniformly. In cases
where multiple components are processed as part of a single heat-treatment cycle, the individual pieces
must be separated in such a way that each piece will cool without interference from an adjoining piece.

Cooling shall be continuous down to at least 200°F (95°C) at the center location before tempering. Note
that for components greater in thickness than 3 in. (76 mm), forced air cooling or oil quenching or the
equivalent from the normalizing temperature to an internal work piece temperature below 1000°F (540°C)
may be necessary to achieve the required mechanical properties.

Heating using resistance heating pads or induction heating is not permitted for normalizing.

 I-8 

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3.2.2 Tempering

For all product forms, tempering is to be performed within the temperature range of 1350°F–1440°F
(730°C–780°C). Note that because of the risk of stress corrosion cracking that exists when Grade 91
material is in the fully hardened condition, once the normalizing heat treatment has been completed, the
material shall not be allowed to remain at a temperature below 175°F (80°C) for more than eight (8)
hours before the tempering heat treatment is begun unless precautions are taken to keep the material dry
on both the inner and outer surfaces.

The tempering temperature selected and the time at the tempering temperature shall be controlled to
satisfy the specified hardness requirement. The product may be cooled in still air from the tempering
temperature, as long as excessive distortion or excessive thermal stress is avoided, or, as an alternative,
where expedient, furnace cooling is acceptable provided that the cooling rate exceeds 100°F/hour
(55°C/hour) until the internal temperature is below 1200°F (650°C).

Cautionary note: No additional limits on the rate of heat-up or cooldown are specified for either the
normalizing or tempering processes. However, for thick-walled components, or for assemblies of complex
shape, an appropriate rate of heat-up or cooldown, as determined by experienced engineering judgment,
shall be adopted to minimize distortion and residual stresses. With specific regard to the cooldown
practice, it is emphasized that a sufficiently rapid rate of cooling must be maintained by accelerated
cooling from the austenitizing temperature down to a temperature of less than 200°F (93°C) at the center
of the work piece to ensure avoidance of detrimental precipitation of carbides or other nonmartensitic
transformation products. Below 1000°F (540°C), for thick-walled components or components of complex
shape, it is recommended that the cooling be performed in still air or the equivalent down to below
200°F (93°C).

3.2.3 Equipment

Equipment used for heat treating Grade 91 steel must be properly calibrated, and the Respondent shall
furnish evidence of the calibration for review by the Principal prior to the beginning of any heat treatment
operation. In particular, for furnace heat treatments, the Respondent shall provide evidence that the
controlling thermocouple or thermocouples can be maintained within ±5°F (±3°C) of the target
temperature during a heat-treatment cycle and that the largest variation in temperature between any two
points in the working zone of the furnace does not exceed 40°F (22°C). This can be demonstrated by
placing thermocouples on metal samples positioned within the furnace so that the temperatures in the
furnace’s working zone are accurately recorded.

For resistance-type heaters, the Respondent shall provide evidence that the controlling thermocouple or
thermocouples can be maintained within ±5°F (±3°C) of the target temperature during a heat-treatment
cycle. Further, the Respondent shall demonstrate that for a given cylindrical component the temperature
can be controlled at all locations on the component within the specified temperature range through the
placement of properly shielded thermocouples at a sufficient number of locations along the length and
around the circumference of the component. For piping, the recommendations for thermocouple
placement provided in AWS D10.22 shall be followed as a minimum standard.

 I-9 

10392249
For other types of heating, such as induction heating, the Respondent shall demonstrate the ability to
maintain the temperature at all points on the component being heat treated within the required
temperature range for the entire duration of the heat treatment cycle. This specifically includes a
requirement that it be demonstrated that the induction heating equipment can achieve the necessary
temperature uniformity through the thickness of components that exceed 1 in. (25 mm) in thickness for
the entire duration of the heat-treatment cycle.

Heating using resistance heating pads or induction heating is permitted for post-weld heat treatment only
and shall not be used for final normalizing and tempering of the components.

3.2.4 Documentation

Upon completion of the heat treatment of all Grade 91 steel, the Respondent shall provide a certified
temperature/time record for each Grade 91 component or lot of components processed as a single batch.
Heat-treatment equipment test and calibration certificates shall also be provided.

3.3 Microstructure

Metallurgical replication shall be carried out on the completed components to validate that the correct
microstructure consisting of tempered martensite has been achieved. A sufficient number of locations
shall be tested to ensure that the whole component has the correct microstructure.

3.4 Steel Hardness

All Grade 91 components produced for the Principal shall be evaluated by hardness testing following each
thermal processing step as detailed in the following sections.

3.4.1 Procedure

Prior to the beginning of any hardness testing, the Respondent shall submit to the Principal a detailed
written test procedure that identifies the type of hardness tester that will be used, calibration procedure,
equipment calibration records/certificates, nature of the surface preparation for the hardness testing, level
of operator training required, and the method for obtaining a hardness reading at a particular location (for
example, the number of individual readings at a test spot, method of averaging, procedure followed if any
single reading is outside of the specified range, and so on). The Principal will review and comment on the
acceptability of this information. Only a procedure which has been approved by the Principal shall be
used to document the hardness of Grade 91 steel components.

With respect to the base materials supplied from the mill for subsequent fabrication, the hardness of the
Grade 91 material shall be a minimum of 200 HBW/210 HV (93.4 HRB). It is noted that standard
hardness conversion tables are available in ASTM E 140. However, the hardness conversion tables that
show the Brinell and Vickers hardness numbers to be identical within the range of 180–250 shall not
be used.

Note that any surface decarburization will influence the results of hardness testing performed on the outer
diameter of a section of piping and shall be removed in order to obtain an accurate measurement of the
material hardness.

 I-10 

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The component wall thickness after removal of any nonrepresentative surface layer shall be greater than
the design minimum wall thickness.

The material hardness of every piece shall be tested in the following manner:
1. The hardness shall be measured at both ends of each piece and at intervals along the length of the
piece no greater than 8 ft. All measurement methods and the number of locations will be agreed with
the purchaser. The hardness measurements at the ends of the piece may be made on the outer
diameter or on the cross section.
2. At each test plane a minimum of four measurements shall be made equally spaced around the
circumference of the piece. All measurements performed on welds shall include the parent material,
weld material, and HAZ.
3. If the measured hardness at any location on the piece fails to meet the minimum or maximum
hardness requirement, then that piece shall be rejected. The Principal shall be notified promptly in
writing if pieces are rejected because of failure to meet the minimum hardness requirement and
provided with details of the recovery plan.
4. Pieces that do not meet the minimum hardness requirement shall only be accepted if approved in
writing by the Principal. In this case the Principal may request proof that the material exhibits the
desired microstructure of tempered martensite

3.4.2 Data Recording

All hardness test results for all components tested shall be recorded and submitted to the Principal for
review prior to final acceptance of the material.

3.5 Mechanical Properties

The room temperature mechanical properties of the as-supplied base material shall meet the following
limits:
1. Tensile Strength: 90–110 ksi (620–760 MPa).
2. All other mechanical properties shall be as indicated in the applicable material specification of SCII
of the ASME B&PV Code.
3. All results of mechanical properties testing shall be recorded on the Certified Material Test Report.

3.6 Forming Processes

All working or heating of Grade 91 material has the potential to compromise the microstructure and
thereby compromise the material’s long-term elevated temperature strength. All hot- and cold-forming
operations shall be carefully controlled as detailed in the following sections.

3.6.1 Forgings

For all products produced from a solid forging, the cross-sectional area of the forging shall have been
subjected to a minimum reduction relative to that of the original ingot in the ratio of 3:1.

 I-11 

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3.6.2 Hot Pressing (Squeezing and Sizing) and Hot Bending

After all hot pressing or hot bending operations, the entire component shall be normalized and tempered
in accordance with Section 3.2.

3.6.3 Hot Adjustments to Shape

By definition, hot drawing or hot adjusting is carried out for short periods of time at temperatures
between 1300°F (705°C) and 1450°F (790°C). Provided that the upper temperature limit is observed, no
post-adjustment heat treatment is required. However, if the 1450°F (790°C) limit is exceeded during the
operation, then a full normalize and temper of the entire component shall be performed in accordance
with Section 2.4. An alternative corrective action would be to remove the overheated zone and either
renormalize and retemper the piece containing the overheated zone before reinsertion in the component,
or to replace the overheated zone with new material.

3.6.4 Cold Pressing (Swaging, Pointing, Squeezing and Sizing)

Any component subjected to cold pressing shall be given a full normalizing and tempering heat treatment
in accordance with Section 3.2.

3.6.5 Hot Forming of Fittings and Special Products

After the hot forming of any fittings or special products, a full normalizing and tempering heat treatment
of the entire component shall be performed in accordance with Section 3.2.

3.7 General Welding Practice

Where welding will be performed on Grade 91 steel as part of the component production process, the
following requirements shall be satisfied.

3.7.1 Preheat

Prior to the beginning of any welding on Grade 91 material, the preheating method including the
procedure for control of the preheat temperature, shall be described in detail and submitted to the
Principal for approval. This method will normally involve electrical heating only with continuous
monitoring and recording of temperature.
1. For any welds made on Grade 91 material using the shielded metal arc process (SMAW) or the
submerged-arc process (SAW), a minimum preheat temperature of 300°F (150°C) shall be
maintained for the duration of the welding.
2. For welds on Grade 91 material made using either the gas metal arc process (GMAW) or the gas
tungsten arc process (GTAW) with a solid wire filler metal, a preheat temperature of 300°F (150°C)
shall be maintained.
3. For welds made using either the GMAW or GTAW processes with a filler metal other than solid
wire (that is, metal core), a minimum preheat temperature of 400°F (205°C) shall be maintained.
4. In order to avoid stress corrosion cracking, if welding is interrupted, preheat temperature shall be
maintained, or if the joint temperature drops below preheat temperature, the interrupted weld shall
be kept dry until the welding is resumed with the proper preheat.

 I-12 

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3.7.2 Interpass Temperature

The maximum interpass temperature during welding shall be 660°F (350°C).

3.7.3 Hydrogen Bake

A hydrogen bake is best practice and should be considered for all joints. The bake should be performed in
the temperature range of 500°F–660°F (260°C–350°C) for a minimum of two hours for all welds.

Prior to the beginning of the hydrogen bake, the temperature throughout the weld zone should be
reduced to 350°F (175°C) or agreed upon post-weld cooling temperature between the end-user and
fabricator/constructor.

3.7.4 Post-Weld Heat Treatment

Following completion of welding, the temperature of the component shall be reduced below 350°F
(175°C) at its center to ensure an acceptable degree of austenite transformation. If there is concern
regarding potential thermal gradients through the thickness, this post-weld cool temperature may be
further reduced to 300°F (150°C). The component then shall be post-weld heat-treated within 8 hours of
the completion of welding. If for any reason this is not possible, a hydrogen bake should be performed
and one of the following steps shall be taken:
 The component should be maintained at a minimum temperature of 175°F (80°C). The component
should be stored in a humidity-controlled environment to ensure that no condensation can occur at
any time on either the OD or ID surfaces prior to the post-weld heat treatment.

The Principal shall be notified in writing of which of the above two options shall be followed, with
specific details of how the selected option will be implemented.

If the welded component is to be renormalized and tempered immediately after welding, then the
detailed specification given in Section 2.3 for component heat treatment must be followed. The whole
component containing the branch welds must be renormalized and tempered using appropriate heat-
treatment facilities.

If the welded component is to be renormalized and tempered at a later date following the completion of
welding, an immediate post-weld heat treatment should be performed in the subcritical range of
temperature—that is, within the range of 1247°F–1418°F (675°C–770°C).

The temperature control requires the use of appropriately located and installed thermocouples. The
arrangement for thermocouple installation for both control and monitoring of PWHT temperature must
comply with the requirements of Section 3.2.

Prior to the application of the PWHT to welds in Grade 91 components, the weld metal and portions of
the heat-affected zones are vulnerable to brittle fracture if subjected to unusually high mechanical loads
during handling. Care shall be taken, therefore, in the handling of Grade 91 components containing
welds that are in the as-welded condition to minimize the risk of brittle fracture.

 I-13 

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3.7.5 Weld Filler Metals

The chemical composition of the filler materials used shall conform to the limits specified in Table 3-1
below and the following requirements:
1. The sum of the Mn plus the Ni contents shall not exceed 1.0%.
2. The ratio of N to Al shall be a minimum of 4.

Good practice in the usage of weld filler materials shall be followed at all times to minimize the risk of
weld-related cracking and defects. Accordingly the following precautions shall be observed:
1. All SMAW electrodes to be used in the welding of Grade 91 product shall be issued directly from the
sealed container or from a heated master storage bin. Unused electrodes left outside of rod ovens for
more than four (4) hours shall be discarded.
2. All SMAW electrodes shall be certified to the H4 designation.
3. Cored welding wires shall not be removed from the packing container until ready for use. If welding
is interrupted for more than twelve (12) hours, the reel either shall be stored in a container heated to a
minimum temperature of 175°F (80°C) or it shall be discarded.

3.7.6 Weld Repair

Any repairs to parent or weld metal by welding shall be preapproved by the Principal in writing, and, if
approved, full details should be provided in the support data package.

Table 3-1
Chemical Composition Requirements for Grade 91 Steel Matching Weld Filler Materials

Composition (Weight %)

SAW Weld
GMAW/GTAW
Deposit
SMAW Electrodes Bare Solid FCAW Electrodes
(Wire/Flux
Elements 1,2,3
SFA 5.5:2008 Electrodes/Rods SFA 5.29:2008
Combination)
E901X-B9 SFA 5.28:2008 E91T1-B9
SFA 5.23:2011
ER90S-B9
EB91
C 0.08–0.13 0.07–0.13 0.08–0.13 0.08–-0.13
Mn4 0.70–1.20 0.70–1.20 0.70–1.20 0.70–1.20
Si 0.30 (max) 0.15–0.30 0.08 (max) 0.30 (max)
5
P (max) 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.020
S (max)4,5 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.015
Ni (max) 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.40
Cr6 8.5–9.5 8.30–9.50 8.0–9.50 8.5–9.5

 I-14 

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 Table 3-1 (continued)
Chemical Composition Requirements for Grade 91 Steel Matching Weld Filler Materials

Composition (Weight %)

SAW Weld
GMAW/GTAW
Deposit
SMAW Electrodes Bare Solid FCAW Electrodes
(Wire/Flux
Elements 1,2,3
SFA 5.5:2008 Electrodes/Rods SFA 5.29:2008
Combination)
E901X-B9 SFA 5.28:2008 E91T1-B9
SFA 5.23:2011
ER90S-B9
EB91
Mo 0.85–1.20 0.85–1.20 0.85–1.20 0.85–1.20
V 0.15–0.30 0.15–0.23 0.15–0.25 0.15–0.30
Cu (max) 0.25 0.20 0.25 0.25
Al (max) 7 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02
Cb (Nb) 0.02–0.10 0.02–0.10 0.02–0.10 0.02–0.10
N7 0.03–0.07 0.03–0.07 0.03–0.07 0.03–0.07
5
As (max) 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010
5
Sn (max) 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010
5
Sb (max) 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003
Notes:
1. Element ranges are provided in weight percent.
2. Elements expressed as a single value represent the maximum allowed content with no lower minimum limit.
3. Ranges or limits expressed without parenthetical ( ) references are the ranges/limits specified by the applicable ASME SFA
specification. Ranges or limits within parenthesis are recommended ranges/limits.
Restrictions on the following elements are recommended for the following reasons:
4. Mn lower limit: Specifying a minimum limit will help ensure adequate strength and toughness can be achieved in the weld
deposit. In lieu of meeting the stated minimum value of 0.70 wt%, the Mn to S ratio should be greater than 50 to prevent crater
cracking.
5. Control of P, S, and trace elements is prudent to avoid temper embrittlement [16]. It is desirable that the cumulative influence
of these elements as indicated by the X factor is controlled as follows:
10P + 5Sb + 4Sn + As = X < 15
6. Cr limits: Specifying a higher minimum content than the SFA specification may be desirable in tubing products where fire-side
corrosion or steam-side oxidation may be a concern. Specifying a lower maximum content than called for by the SFA specification
may be desirable to help minimize the potential for formation of delta ferrite during weld metal solidification.
7. If it is not possible to obtain filler material that meets the indicated compositional limits for a particular application, then, as a
minimum, the ratio of nitrogen to aluminum (N/Al) should be at least 4.

 I-15 

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4 Surface Protection and Painting

External surfaces shall have red oxide surface protection suitable to prevent corrosion during transport
and storage. Weld preparation surfaces shall be coated with aluminum oxide or equivalent to a distance of
50 mm both internal and external back from the weld preparation. Ends shall be capped and tightly sealed,
and internal surfaces shall be protected from corrosion by use of vapor phase inhibitor (VPI) powder or
equivalent.

5 Work to be Performed by the Principal

The Work to be performed by the Principal shall be as follows:

1. Perform quality assurance inspections during manufacture and packing.
2. Arrange unloading of the components at the place of delivery.
3. Carry out all installation works including rigging, cutting, welding, post-weld heat treatment,
nondestructive testing, removal and installation of insulation, and cladding and adjustment of
piping supports.

[Utility to modify above paragraph separately to suit individual circumstances]

6 Transportation Requirements

The Respondent shall provide details of packing for shipping and short-term storage to prevent any
mechanical damage or corrosion.

Handling of Grade 91 components should be carried out without using attachments welded to the
components.

Components shall be packed to facilitate unloading by overhead crane using slinging or lifting points.

7 Site Storage Requirements

The Respondent shall provide details of short-term and long-term site storage requirements prior
to installation.

8 Delivery Schedule

[To be completed separately by Utility]

9 Warranty

The Respondent shall warrant that the supplied components are free from defects in design, manufacturing,
and workmanship that may prevent the component from achieving the designed service life or cause the
component to not comply with the design codes.

The warranty period (defects liability period) shall be fifty-four (54) months from the time of installation
in the plant.

 I-16 

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The Respondent shall make allowance in its tender to witness and verify in writing that the installation of
the components is to its satisfaction as per Section X.

[Utility to modify above paragraph separately to suit individual circumstances]

10 Principal Supplied Documents

Documents and drawings relevant to the tender.

[To be completed separately by Utility]

11 Technical Schedules

The Respondent shall complete the following schedules.

Item Description Response

11.1 Manufacturing method: forged and machined, or welded

11.2 Design phase (Separable Portion 1) duration (weeks)

11.3 Lead time for delivery of each Separable Portion (months)

11.4 Country of manufacture

11.5 Country of origin for all raw materials

Details of design to prevent early failure by Type IV cracking or other
11.6 mechanisms (Their methodology utilized to complete this process—that is,
use of FEA (Program Utilized), Standards, Experience, and so on
Inspection schedule and associated NDT procedures and processes to be
11.7 undertaken in the warranty period. Power Station [Utility insert name
here] unit outage scheduled dates shall be taken into consideration.
11.8 Warranty period (months)
11.9 Delivery method
11.10 Packing and storage method
Provide details of manufacturing facility and equipment utilized in the
11.11
manufacturing processes
Provide details of experience in completion of projects of a similar nature
11.12
(Include at least five references). (DD: Separate schedule in CSE RFP)
Provide details of the key personnel in the design and manufacture process
11.13 and their experience in projects of a similar nature. (DD: Separate
schedule in CSE RFP)
11.14 Short-term storage requirements

12 Right of Access

[To be completed by Utility]

 I-17 

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10392249
10392249
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