Advanced Chemistry I Learning Guide Pagadian City Science High School

MODULE 1 THE NATURE

OF CHEMISTRY

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
 Trace the origin of chemistry;
 Cite some branches of chemistry;
 Discuss the steps of scientific methods;
 Differentiate fact, scientific hypothesis, scientific theory and scientific law;
 Discuss variables to consider in conducting scientific investigation;
 Explain why a knowledge of chemistry is central to many human activities;
 Explain the different tasks of a chemist;
 Cite the relevance of chemistry in a variety of careers and opportunities; and
 Discuss recent technological applications of chemistry.

1.1 CHEMISTRY: THE CENTRAL SCIENCE

Chemistry is the study of the composition of matter, its properties, and the
changes it undergoes. It is part of a body of knowledge called science. It is considered a
practical science because it makes us understand our environment and how it works.
Chemistry is called the central science because it plays a role in almost all professions;
It overlaps with many other sciences.
All sciences borrow information and methods from each other. Whether your
interest is in engineering, public service, research, or some other occupation, you need
knowledge of chemistry. Environmentalists who solve problems like chemical
contamination of the
environment need some
knowledge of chemistry,
geology, zoology, and
botany. Biologists learn
chemistry to understand the
processes that go in living
things. Weightlifters must
know the food sources that
provide the most chemical
energy in body cells.
Archeologists use carbon
dating, an important
method in determining the
age of artifacts. Pharmacists
must know the chemistry of
the medicine they dispense
to the public. Salespersons
should know the
composition of the products they sell.

1.2 CHEMISTRY: ITS BEGINNING AND IMPORTANCE TO HUMAN LIFE

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The Origins of Chemistry: Where It All Began

The earliest attempts to explain natural phenomena led to fanciful inventions – to

myths and fantasies – but not to understanding. Around 600 B.C., a group of Greek
philosophers became dissatisfied with these myths. Stimulated by social and cultural
changes as well as curiosity, they began to ask questions about the world around them.
They were able to discover basic truths of nature by thinking things through
experiments. The years between 600 B.C. and 400 B.C. are called the “Golden Age of
Philosophy”.
Some of the Greek philosophers believed they could find a single substance from
which everything else was made. Thales believed that it was water and Anaximenes
thought it was air. Empedocles’ idea was that the universe is made of four elements
namely earth, air, fire and water.
The period from 440 B.C and 420 B.C. was known as the age of atomism when
Leucippus and Democritus believed that matter was made of smallest particle which
they called atom, a particle that could not be seen. Two thousand years later scientists
proved that this idea was true.

Chemistry Today

The Greek philosophers continued to search for truth and while they were
studying philosophy and mathematics, the Egyptians were practicing the art of
chemistry. They were mining and purifying the metals gold, silver and copper. They
were making embalming fluids and dyes. They called this art khemia. This Egyptian
word became the Arabic word alkhemia and then the English word alchemy.
Alchemists tried to find the “philosopher’s stone”, a supposed cure for all diseases, and
the “elixir of life” which would prolong life indefinitely. They failed in both attempts but
along the way, they were able to discover acetic acid, nitric acid, ethyl alcohol and
other substances used by chemists today.

Robert Boyle, the Forerunner of Modern Chemistry

The modern age of Chemistry dawned in 1661 when Robert Boyle,

an English chemist, published his book The Sceptical Chymist. His idea
opposed the alchemists’ belief. Instead he proposed that scientists must
start from basic principles and that theories about the world have to be
proven by a series of experiment. He formulated the law relating volume
and pressure. If Robert Boyle laid down the basic definition of an element,
a French chemist Antoine Laurent Lavoisier laid down the basic definition
for testing whether a substance fitted its definition.

Antoine Lavosier, The Father of Modern Chemistry

Innovative and scientific approaches paved the way for the rapid
development of chemistry. In 1770, Antoine Lavoisier gained wide
recognition when he refuted the then prevalent belief that water
is converted into earth by repeated distillation. By carefully
weighing both the earthy residue and the distilling apparatus, he
demonstrated that the solid matter came from the glass vessels
and not from the water. Speculating on the nature of the
traditional four elements—earth, water, air, and fire, he began to investigate the role of
air in combustion. On November 1, 1772, he stated that when burned sulfur and
phosphorus increased in weight because they absorbed “air”. On the other hand, the
metallic lead formed when litharge was heated with charcoal weighed less than the
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original litharge because it had lost “air.” He gave phlogisticated air the name oxygen,
or “acid producer” He explained phlogiston theory as the result of the combination of
the burning substance with oxygen. This theory was later revised and now known as the
theory of combustion. On June 25, 1783, he also explained that water was the
product formed by the combination of hydrogen and oxygen. An English chemist named
Henry Cavendish opposed this idea and later was able to produce quantities of
hydrogen, called “inflammable air,” by decomposing water into its constituent gases.
Because of Lavoisier’s findings, chemists tasted the first sound understanding of the
nature of chemical reactions. His experiments paved the way for the flourishing of
modern chemistry. Thus, he became known as the Father of modern chemistry.

Time Line in Chemistry

Date Person Event

600 B.C. Thales Idea that water is the main form of matter
546 B.C Anaximenes Idea that air is the main form of matter
450 B.C. Empedocles Idea that the four elements – earth, air, fire
and water combine in different proportions
420 B.C. Leucippus and Idea of the atom or the Age of Atomism
Democritus
1661 Robert Boyle The Sceptical Chymist
1766 H. Cavendish Discovery of hydrogen
1775 A. Lavoisier Discovery of the composition of air
1800 John Dalton Proposed the Atomic Theory
1820 John Jacob Berzelius Devised the modern symbols of elements
1869 Dmitri Mendeleev Periodic Law and designed the Modern
Periodic Table of Elements
1886 Eugene Goldstein Naming of cathode rays and discovery of
proton
1897 J.J. Thomson Proposed the structure of the atom;
discovery of electron
1911 E. Rutherford Proposed the nuclear atom; discovery of a
nucleus
1913 Niels Bohr Proposed the energy levels in atoms;

Soon after, chemists like Joseph Priestly, John Dalton, Niels Bohr, Ernest
Rutherford, the Curies and other scientists made new advancements in chemistry.
These advancements led to many distinct branches of chemistry.

Branches of Chemistry

During the 1700s and early 1800s, most chemists believed that there were two
main branches of chemistry: organic and inorganic. These two branches still exist today;
however, the rules governing their classification have changed.

 Organic Chemistry is the study of the compounds of carbon. This branch of

chemistry is important to the petrochemical, pharmaceutical and textile
industries. All living organisms have traces of carbon.
 Inorganic Chemistry is the study of chemical elements and their compounds
except carbon.
 Physical Chemistry deals with the relations between the physical properties of
substances and their chemical formations along with their changes.

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 Biochemistry is a science that fused biology and chemistry. It is concerned with
the composition and chemical reactions that occur in the formation of living
species.
 Analytical Chemistry deals mostly with the composition of substances. It seeks
to improve means of measuring chemical composition of natural and artificial
materials. In medicine, this is the basis for clinical laboratory tests for disease
diagnosis. The nutritional value of the food we eat is determined through
chemical analysis. Analytical chemists analyze many household products.
 Nuclear Chemistry involves the study of subatomic particles and nuclear
reaction.

Importance of Chemistry

Chemistry plays a very important role in different areas of life. Some people view
chemistry as a very technical subject that deals with formulas and mind-boggling
computations. This may be true, but if you will try to look at things around you, you will
begin to appreciate its importance. The products of chemistry and technology are highly
useful. For example, when you go to a beauty salon and ask the hair stylist to straighten
or curl your hair, she/he needs to use a correct solution, or else it will not come out
right. Chemistry also plays a very important role in medicine, engineering, agriculture,
photography and other related fields.

1.3 SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen, 965-1039), a pioneer of scientific method, and the

emphasis has been on seeking truth: “Truth is sought for its own sake. And those who
are engaged upon the quest for anything for its own sake are not interested in other
things. Finding the truth is difficult, and the road to it is rough.”
Scientific Method refers to the body of techniques for investigating phenomena,
acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge. It is based
on gathering observable, empirical and measurable evidence subject to specific
principles of reasoning.
The scientific method consists of a series of steps that can be summarized as
follows:

1. STATING THE PROBLEM – identifying or knowing what you want to investigate

or study
2. GATHERING INFORMATION ON THE PROBLEM – jotting down important data
or information gathered through observations
3. FORMING HYPOTHESIS – hypothesis is an educated guess. Forming this
would help you find out what the answer to your problem might be.
4. PERFORMING EXPERIMENTS TO TEST HYPOTHESIS – design and carry out
an experiment to test your hypothesis. Observe everything you can. The smallest
detail can sometimes be the most significant.
5. RECORDING AND ANALYZING DATA – interpret and evaluate the information
gathered. Do calculations if needed to come up with your conclusion
6. STATING A CONCLUSION – this answers the problem stated. If the problem is
still unsolved, try a new approach or perform another experiment. Repeat the
steps from the beginning until a solution may become clear.

1.4 FACT, SCIENTIFIC HYPOTHESIS, SCIENTIFIC THEORY, AND

SCIENTIFIC LAW

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A fact is generally a close agreement by competent observers who make a series
of observations about the same phenomenon.
A scientific hypothesis is an educated guess that is only presumed to be
factual until supported by experiment. When a hypothesis has been tested over and
over again and has not been contradicted, it may become known as a law or principle.
If a scientist finds evidence that contradicts a hypothesis, law, or principle, then,
in the scientific spirit, it must be changed or abandoned-regardless of the reputation or
authority of the persons advocating it (unless the contradicting evidence, upon testing,
turns out to be wrong which sometimes happens).
A scientific law is a general hypothesis or statement about the relationship of
natural quantities that has been tested over and over again and has not been
contradicted. Also known as a principle.
.
A scientific theory is a synthesis of a large body of information that
encompasses well-tested and verified hypotheses about certain aspects of the natural
world.
The theories of science are not fixed; rather, they undergo change. Scientific
theories evolve as they go through stages of redefinition and refinement. During the
past hundred years, for example, the theory of the atom has been repeatedly refined as
new evidence on atomic behavior has been gathered. Similarly, chemists have refined
their view of the way molecules bond together, and biologists have refined the cell
theory. The refinement of theories is strength of science, not a weakness. Many people
feel that it is a sign of weakness to change their minds. Competent scientists must be
experts at changing their minds. They change their minds, however, only when
confronted with solid experimental evidence or when a conceptually simpler hypothesis
forces them to a new point of view. More important than defending beliefs is improving
them. Better hypotheses are made by those who are honest in the face of experimental
evidence.

1.5 VARIABLE

Scientists use an experiment to search for cause and effect relationships in

nature. In other words, they design an experiment so that changes to one item cause
something else to vary in a predictable way.
These changing quantities are called variables. A variable is any factor, trait, or
condition that can exist in differing amounts or types. An experiment usually has three
kinds of variables: independent, dependent, and controlled.
The independent variable is the one that is changed by the scientist. To insure
a fair test, a good experiment has only one independent variable. As the scientist
changes the independent variable, he or she observes what happens.
The scientist focuses his or her observations on the dependent variable to see
how it responds to the change made to the independent variable. The new value of the
dependent variable is caused by and depends on the value of the independent variable.
For example, if you open a faucet (the independent variable), the quantity of
water flowing (dependent variable) changes in response--you observe that the water
flow increases. The number of dependent variables in an experiment varies, but there is
often more than one.
Experiments also have controlled variables. Controlled variables are quantities
that a scientist wants to remain constant, and he must observe them as carefully as the
dependent variables. For example, if we want to measure how much water flow
increases when we open a faucet, it is important to make sure that the water pressure
(the controlled variable) is held constant. That's because both the water pressure and
the opening of a faucet have an impact on how much water flows. If we change both of

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them at the same time, we can't be sure how much of the change in water flow is
because of the faucet opening and how much because of the water pressure. In other
words, it would not be a fair test. Most experiments have more than one controlled
variable. Some people refer to controlled variables as "constant variables."
In a good experiment, the scientist must be able to measure the values for each
variable. Weight or mass is an example of a variable that is very easy to measure.
However, imagine trying to do an experiment where one of the variables is love. There
is no such thing as a "love-meter." You might have a belief that someone is in love, but
you cannot really be sure, and you would probably have friends that don't agree with
you. So, love is not measurable in a scientific sense; therefore, it would be a poor
variable to use in an experiment.

Examples of Variables

Question Independent Dependent Controlled Variables

Variable Variables (What I keep the same)
(What I change) (What I observe)
How much Water faucet Amount of water The Faucet
water flows opening (closed, flowing Water pressure, or how much the
through a half open, fully measured in water is "pushing"
faucet at open) liters per minute "Different water pressure might also
different cause different amounts of water to
openings? flow and different faucets may
behave differently, so to insure a fair
test I want to keep the water
pressure and the faucet the same for
each faucet opening that I test."
Does heating a Temperature of Amount of sugar Stirring
cup of water the water that dissolves Type of sugar
allow it to measured in completely "More stirring might also increase
dissolve more degrees measured in the amount of sugar that dissolves
sugar? Centigrade grams and different sugars might dissolve
in different amounts, so to insure a
fair test I want to keep these
variables the same for each cup of
water."
Does fertilizer Amount of Growth of the Same type of fertilizer
make a plant fertilizer plant measured Same size pot for each plant
grow bigger? measured in by its height Same type of plant in each pot
grams Growth of the Same type and amount of soil in
plant measured each pot
by the number Same amount of water and light
of leaves Make measurements of growth for
See Measuring each plant at the same time
Plant Growth for "The many variables above can each
more ways to change how fast a plant grows, so to
measure plant insure a fair test of the fertilizer,
growth each of them must be kept the same
for every pot."

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Does an Voltage of the Speed of Same motor for every test
electric motor electricity rotation The motor should be doing the same
turn faster if measured in measured in work for each test (turning the same
you increase volts revolutions per wheel, propeller or whatever)
the voltage? minute (RPMs) "The work that a motor performs has
a big impact on its speed, so to
insure a fair test I must keep that
variable the same."

For Good Variables, You

What Makes for Good Variables? Should Answer "Yes" to
Every Question

Is the independent variable measurable? Yes / No

Can you change the independent variable during the
Yes / No
experiment?
Have you identified all relevant dependent variables, and are Yes / No
they all caused by and dependent on the independent
variable?
Are all dependent variable(s) measurable? Yes / No
Have you identified all relevant controlled variables? Yes / No
Can all controlled variables be held at a steady value during
Yes / No
the experiment?

1.6 CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

Chemistry is central in our lives that we read about it in news every day.

Technology is the application of science to improve the quality of human life.

Cell phones, compacts discs, a variety of processed food, and the internet are some
products of technology. Technology can bring about even a change in one’s physical
appearance. Our country actually benefits from medical tourism program mainly for
cosmetic procedure launched some years ago.
1.8 CAREER OPPORTUNITIES IN CHEMISTRY

Chemist Profile: Job Profile and Career Information about Chemists

By Anne Marie Helmenstine, Ph.D., About.com Guide

Here's a look at what a chemist is,

what a chemist does, and what type of
salary and career opportunities you can
expect as a chemist.

What Is a Chemist?

A chemist is a scientist who studies

the composition and properties of
chemicals and the way chemicals interact
with each other. Chemists search for new
information about matter and ways this
IN THE LAB Chemists at work at Synthonix’
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information can be applied. Chemists also design and develop instruments to study
matter.

What Do Chemists Do?

There are a lot of different employments opportunities open to chemists. Some

chemists work in a lab, in a research environment, asking questions and testing
hypotheses with experiments. Other chemists may work on a computer developing
theories or models or predicting reactions. Some chemists do field work. Others
contribute advice on chemistry for projects. Some chemists write. Some chemists teach.
The career options are extensive.

Job Outlook for Chemists

In 2006 there were 84,000 chemists in the United

States. Through 2016 the employment rate for chemists is
expected to grow at the same rate as the average for all
occupations. The fastest growth is expected in
biotechnology and the pharmaceuticals industry, with good
opportunities in food science, materials science, and
analytical chemistry.

Chemist Working Conditions

Most chemists work regular hours in well-equipped

COMPOUND BUILDER labs, offices, or classrooms. Some chemists engage in field
Enamine chemists work, which takes them outdoors. Although some of the
work in three buildings chemicals and processes chemists deal with may be
in Kiev, Ukraine. inherently hazardous, the actual risk to a chemist is very
low, both because of safety precautions and training.

Types of Chemists

Chemists usually pick areas of specialization.

 Organic Chemists - work with carbon and carbon-compounds, many of which
come from plants or animals. Organic chemists develop drug, petrochemicals,
fertilizers, and plastics.
 Inorganic Chemists - deal primarily with non-carbon chemistry involving metals,
minerals, and electronics.
 Analytical Chemists - examine substances. Analytical chemists identify materials,
measure quantities, and evaluate properties of elements and compounds.
 Physical Chemists - work primarily in the field of energy research. Physical
chemists look at chemical and physical changes and examine the relationships
between matter and energy.

There are many other types of chemists, such as biochemists, materials chemists,
geochemists, and medical chemists.

Chemist Educational Requirements

You need a college education to become a chemist. High school students

interested in a career in chemistry should take science and math courses. Trigonometry

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and computer experience is helpful. A bachelor's degree is the minimum requirement to
get a job in chemistry, but realistically, you need a master's degree to obtain a good
position in research or teaching. A doctorate is required to teach college at most four-
year colleges and universities and is desirable for research.

Advancement as a Chemist

To some extent, chemists are promoted based on experience, training, and

responsibility. However, the best opportunities for advancement are associated with
advanced degrees. A chemist with a master's degree qualifies for research positions
and teaching positions at two-year colleges. A chemist with a doctorate can conduct
research, teach at the college and graduate level, and is more likely to be selected for
supervisory or management positions.

Some Higher Education Institution Offering degree in Chemistry in the

Philippines

Here are lists of some HEIs offering Chemistry degree with Centers of Excellence
(COEs) status, as confirmed by the Commission on Higher Education (CHED), which
have demonstrated the highest degree or level of standards along the areas of
instruction, research and extension.

 University of the Philippines-Diliman Campus

 University of the Philippines-Los Baños
 De La Salle University-Manila
 Ateneo de Manila University-Quezon City
 University of Santo Tomas-Manila
 Mindanao State University-Iligan Institute of Technology-Iligan

SELF ASSESSMENT

Multiple Choice: Choose the letter of the best answer. Encircle the chosen letter.

1. The science that tackles the study of matter, its structure and the changes in
composition that matter undergoes is
a. Astrology b. Ecology c. Chemistry d. Physics
2. When a chemist performs an experiment, the quantity that is being tested is the
a. control b. theory c. law d. variable
3. Juan is comparing how many kilos of rice can be contained in a sack. What
process is he doing? a. counting d. measurement c. interpolation
d. testing
4. After making an observation and proposing a hypothesis, the next step that a
scientist should do is to
a. form a conclusion c. analyze the data gathered
b. perform an experiment d. state the conclusion
5. Jack and Rose gather information using their five senses. What are they doing?
a. stating their conclusion b. gathering data through observation
c. formulating hypothesis based on the gathered data
d. measuring the exact quantity compared to the other quantities
6. The statement “Mercury is denser than water” is a ___________.
a. law b. theory c. fact d. problem

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7. During an experiment, one tries to form his/her theory as quickly as possible. This
process is called _____________.
a. data-gathering b. hypothesizing c. generalizing d. observing
8. Which of the following statements is CORRECT?
a. A scientist’s good characteristics include open-mindedness, honest,
perseverance and curiosity.
b. Only the most brilliant people like scientists can make discoveries
c. Scientists must follow a strict plan in order to make a successful result
d. All of the above
9. In what manner is chemistry of immediate use to an agriculturist?
a. in soil preparation c. in the use of soil fertilizer
b. in the sowing technique d. in selecting what seed to plant
10. A doctor performed several laboratory tests like X-ray, complete blood
count, urinalysis and stool test on a patient. Which of the following steps in the
scientific method did the doctor do?
a. making a generalization c. testing the hypothesis
b. formulating a hypothesis d. identifying a problem
11. Basically, chemistry deals with the study of the following EXCEPT:
a. changes that matter undergoes c. properties of matter
b. composition of matter d. forces
12. The scientific method of solving a problem follows the sequence:
a. hypothesize, conclude, experiment c. conclude, hypothesize,
experiment
b. hypothesize, experiment , conclude d. experiment, hypothesize, conclude
13. Which of the following statements is TRUE about a scientific method?
a. When results of an experiment do not fit the hypothesis, a scientist may
ethically
discard the results and repeat the experiment.
b. The scientific method is a continuous process by which people learn about the
physical universe.
c. Scientists report the experimental results, but not the experimental design.
d. People structure their lives on the principles of scientific method.
14. The branch of science that deals with the study of matter, its structure and
the changes in its composition is
a. life science b. earth science c. chemistry d. physics
15. The chemistry of the real world is mostly the chemistry of __________.

a. elements b. pure substances c. compounds d. mixtures

16. Chemists who study the chemistry of living organisms work in the field of
______________. a. analytical chemistry b. physical chemistry
c. organic chemistry d. biochemistry
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17. What is the name given to a set of controlled observations that test a
proposed explanation? a. hypothesis b. experiment c. theory d.
conclusion
18. Suppose that you experimentally determine the mass of nylon formed as a
result of each of several similar chemical processes. What are the measurements
of mass called? a. qualitative data b. independent variables
c. controls d. quantitative data
19. Almost every situation you can imagine involves a chemist, because
_______.
a chemists are inquisitive b. everything is made of matter
c. chemists are well-paid d. ozone depletion is a problem
20. The general term for a systematic approach used in scientific study is ___.

a. the scientific method b. qualitative analysis

c. quantitative analysis d. the scientific controversy

MY REFLECTION 101

After finishing this module you are now going to share your insights about all the
things that you have learned and encountered in this module and during the class
discussions. Complete each statement below as honest as you can.

I have learned that___________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

However, I am still confused about

___________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

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I have realized that___________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

I feel that ____________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

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