Introducing new series for computer diploma courses

DCA/ADCA
(Diploma in Computer Application)
&
(Advanced Diploma in Computer Application)
Bi-lingual English- Hindi

This title includes Computer awareness essentials, Data representartion & Computer Organization
Operating system, Microsoft Office suite application (Word, Excel, and PowerPoint), Internet
awareness, Web programming (HTML, Dynamic HTML, CSS, and some PHP & ASP), Hosting
Websites, Databasemanagement system (SQL Quries, Microsoft Access) & ‘C’ Programming.

by

T BALAJI PUBLICATION
Triloki Complex, Infront of A.N. Jha Hostel, Allahabad- 211002
Uttar Pradesh
 Table of Contents
1. Introduction to Computers .............................................................................................................. 18
Introduction......................................................................................................................................................... 18
History of Computers .......................................................................................................................................... 18
Generation of Computer...................................................................................................................................... 19
Characteristics of Computers .............................................................................................................................. 19
Computer System ................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Input .................................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Input Devices ...................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Keyboard............................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Mouse ................................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Joystick ............................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Scanner ............................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Web Camera ....................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Output ................................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Output Devices ................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Monitors.............................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Speakers .............................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Printers ................................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Dot Matrix .......................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Inkjet Printer ....................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
LaserPrinter......................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
CPU (Central Processing Unit) ........................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) ............................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Control Unit ........................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Memory Unit....................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Processor Speed .................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Cache .................................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Memory............................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
RAM(Random Access Memory) ........................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
ROM(Read Only Memory) ................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Booting ............................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Storage Units....................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Secondary Storage Devices ................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Floppy & Hard disks ........................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Optical Disk CD ROM........................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
DVD (Digital Video Disk) .................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Mass Storage Devices ......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
USB Thumb drive ............................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Computer Software ............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
System Software ................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Application Software .......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Compiler ............................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Interpreter ........................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Assembler ........................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
High level languages ........................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Managing Disk Partitions.................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
File System ......................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
What is Multimedia? ........................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Text ..................................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Graphics .............................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Animation ........................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Audio .................................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Images ................................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Video .................................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Multimedia Application inEducation .................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Multimedia Application inEntertainment ............................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
 Multimedia Application inMarketing.................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Multimedia File formats...................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Multiple Choice Questions.................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
2. Data Representation & Computer Organization .................................................................................. 20
Introduction......................................................................................................................................................... 20
Signal .................................................................................................................................................................. 20
Analog Signal ..................................................................................................................................................... 20
Digital Signal ...................................................................................................................................................... 20
Digital Number System ....................................................................................................................................... 21
Binary Number System ....................................................................................................................................... 21
Octal Number System ......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Decimal Number System .................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Hexadecimal Number System ............................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Number System Conversion ............................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Binary to Decimal ............................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Decimal to Binary ............................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Hexadecimal to Decimal ..................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Hexadecimal to Binary ....................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Binary to Hexadecimal ....................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Octal to Binary .................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Binary to Octal .................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Binary Codes....................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Weighted Codes .................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Non-Weighted Codes .......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Excess-3 Code..................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Gray Code ........................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) code.................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Alphanumeric codes............................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
ASCII Code ........................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
EBCDIC Code .................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Unicode ............................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Code Conversions ............................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Binary to BCD .................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
BCD to Binary .................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
BCD to Excess-3 ................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Excess-3 to BCD ................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Boolean algebra .................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Rule in Boolean algebra ...................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Boolean Laws ..................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Boolean Expression/Function ............................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Truth Table Formation ........................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Karnaugh-map or K-map .................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
SUM OF PRODUCTS (SOP) FORM ................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
PRODUCT OF SUMS (POS) FORM ................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
NAND gates Realization ..................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
De Morgan's Theorems ....................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Logic Gates ......................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
AND Gate ........................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
OR Gate .............................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
NOT Gate............................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
NAND Gate ........................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
NOR Gate ........................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
XOR Gate ........................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
XNOR Gate ........................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Combinational Circuits ....................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Half Adder .......................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Full Adder ........................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
N-Bit Parallel Adder ........................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
 4 Bit Parallel Adder ............................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
N-Bit Parallel Subtractor..................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
4 Bit Parallel Subtractor ...................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Multiplexers ........................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Demultiplexers .................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Decoder ............................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Encoder ............................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Sequential Circuits .............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Flip Flop.............................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
S-R Flip Flop ...................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Master Slave JK Flip Flop .................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Delay Flip Flop / D Flip Flop.............................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Toggle Flip Flop / T Flip Flop ............................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Multiple Choice Questions.................................................................................................................................. 22
3. Operating System ......................................................................................................................... 24
Microsoft Windows ............................................................................................................................................ 24
An Overview of Different Versions ofWindows ................................................................................................. 24
Windows 95 ........................................................................................................................................................ 24
Windows 98 ........................................................................................................................................................ 25
Windows XP ....................................................................................................................................................... 25
Windows Vista.................................................................................................................................................... 25
Windows 7 .......................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Windows 8 .......................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Basic Windows elements .................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Windows Explorer .............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Task Bar .............................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Quick Launch Toolbar ........................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Icons.................................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Start Menu .......................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Logoff and Switch User ...................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Shutdown, Restart, Standby and Hibernate Windows ......................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
File Management through Windows ................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
System tools ........................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Disk cleanup ....................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Disk Defragmenter .............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Entertainment ...................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Games ................................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Calculator............................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Fax ...................................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Notepad ............................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Paint .................................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
WordPad ............................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Command Prompt ............................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Path setting.......................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Creating and using Batch files ............................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Drives.................................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Files .................................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Directories........................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Directory Structure.............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Application Management .................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Installing ............................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Uninstalling......................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Multiple Choice Questions.................................................................................................................................. 26
4. Word Processing .......................................................................................................................... 29
Word Processing Concepts ................................................................................................................................. 29
Microsoft Word 2003 .......................................................................................................................................... 29
Microsoft Word 2007/2010 ................................................................................................................................. 29
Microsoft Office Word 2013 ............................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Opening Word Processing Package .................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Opening Word 2013............................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Introduction to Menu Bar(s) in Microsoft Word 2003 ........................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Tools Bar ............................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Word 2013 File tab ............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Introduction to Tab(s) of Microsoft Office Word 2007/2010.............................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Creating Document ............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Save & Save As (Saving a document) ................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Closing a document............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Opening an existing document ............................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Document Creation ............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Text Selection ..................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Editing Text ........................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Finding and Replacing text ................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Page Setting Up .................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Print Preview....................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Printing a document ............................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Creating and Printing Merged Documents .......................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Printing Mail Merge ............................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Character and Paragraph Formatting................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Cut, Copy & Paste .............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Font & Size Selection ......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Kerning ............................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Removing Character Formating .......................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Bold, Italic and Underline ................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Alignment of Text ............................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Paragraph Indenting ............................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Paragraph Marker ............................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Bullets & Numbering .......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Changing Case .................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Page Border ........................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Paragraph Border ................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Header & Footer ................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Configuring Header & Footer ............................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Inserting Page Number ....................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Formatting Page Number .................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Inserting FootNote& EndNote ............................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Inserting Symbol& Equations ............................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Page/Background Color ...................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Page Design and Layout ..................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Page Orientation ................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Paragraph Column .............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Section Break ...................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Page Break .......................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Tab Setting .......................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Checking and correcting spellings ...................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Research& Thesaurus ......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Translate ............................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Word count ......................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
AutoCorrect Options ........................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Handling Graphics .............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Inserting Picture in active document ................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Drawing Shapes .................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Insert Clip Art ..................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Insert SmartArt ................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Inserting Word Art .............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table Manipulation ............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Creating Table..................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Drawing and Erasing a Table .............................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
 Changing Cell height & width ............................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Alignment of Text in Cell ................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Inserting and Deleting Rows/Columns ............................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Charts .................................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Document Templates and Wizards ..................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Wizards ............................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Multiple Choice Questions.................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
5. Spreadsheet ................................................................................................................................. 30
Elements of Electronic Spreadsheet .................................................................................................................... 30
Microsoft Excel 2007/2010 ................................................................................................................................. 31
Microsoft Office Excel 2013 ............................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Opening Excel 2013............................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Introduction to Menu(s) in Microsoft Excel 2003 ............................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Intoduction to Tab(s) of Microsoft Office Excel 2007/2010 ............................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Home Tab- .......................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Insert Tab- ........................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Page Layout Tab- ................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Formula Tab- ...................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Data Tab- ............................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Review Tab-........................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
View Tab- ........................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Workbook ........................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Creating a Blank Workbook ............................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Create a Workbook through Templates .............................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Opening an Existing Workbook .......................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Saving a Workbook............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Saving a workbook in earlier versions ................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Editing a Workbook ............................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Worksheet ........................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Entering data in a Cell / Formula ........................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Clear tool ............................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Creating Series .................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Creating Text Series ............................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Creating Number Series ...................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Creating Date Series ........................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Auto Fill feature .................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Copying & Moving data from selected cells ....................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Find & Replace ................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Replacing a value ................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Go To Command ............................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Go To Special ..................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Data Validation ................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Sorting ................................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Filtering............................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Goal Seeking ....................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Handling operators in Formulae.......................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Functions............................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Mathematical Functions ...................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Statistical Functions ............................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Date and Time functions ..................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Using Function Wizard ....................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Formula Auditing ................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Name Manager .................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Formatting a Worksheet ...................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Inserting & Deleting Rows & Columns .............................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Changing Cell Height & Width........................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Formatting Cells ................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Font ..................................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
 Border ................................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Apply or Remove Cell Borders ........................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Fill color.............................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Changing Theme color ........................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Format Cell as Table ........................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Format Cell Styles .............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Protection ............................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Protect sheet ........................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Protect Workbook ............................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Share Workbook ................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Header & Footer ................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Page Setup .......................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Margin ................................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Header & Footer ................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Print Preview....................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Printing worksheets ............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Print along with Gridlines & Headings ............................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Charts and Graphs ............................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Over view of charts ............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Column Chart...................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Line Chart ........................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Pie Chart ............................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Bar Chart ............................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Area Chart ........................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Scatter Chart ....................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Stock Chart ......................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Surface Chart ...................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Doughnut Chart................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Bubble Chart ....................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Radar Chart ......................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Previewing Charts ............................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Moving the charts ............................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Modifying Charts ................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Changing the Chart type ..................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Changing Chart Style .......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Changing the Data source ................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Modifying the Axes ............................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Pivot Table & Charts .......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Use External Data for Pivot Table & Chart ........................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Object Linking & Embedding ............................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Integrating Web page file in Excel Sheet ............................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Using External Data ............................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Connectivity and importing data through MS Access ......................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Connectivity and importing data throughText file .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Use the existing connections ............................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Multiple Choice Questions.................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
6. Presentation ................................................................................................................................. 32
Introduction to Presentation Package .................................................................................................................. 32
Basics of Microsoft PowerPoint.......................................................................................................................... 32
Slides .................................................................................................................................................................. 32
Layout ................................................................................................................................................................. 32
View.................................................................................................................................................................... 33
SlideShow ........................................................................................................................................................... 33
Placeholder ......................................................................................................................................................... 33
Design Template ................................................................................................................................................. 33
Microsoft PowerPoint 2003 ................................................................................................................................ 33
Microsoft Office PowerPoint 2007/2010 ............................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Microsoft PowerPoint 2013 ................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Opening PowerPoint Presentation....................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Opening PowerPoint 2013 .................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Introduction to Menu Bar(s) in Microsoft PowerPoint 2003............................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Introduction to Tools and Tabs of Microsoft PowerPoint 2007/2010 ................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Home Tab ........................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Insert Tab ............................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Design Tab .......................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Transition Tab ..................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Animation Tab .................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Slide Show .......................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Review Tab ......................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
View Tab ............................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Creation of Presentation ...................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Creating a Presentation using a Template ........................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Creating a Blank Presentation ............................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Saving a Presentation .......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Opening a Presentation file ................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Creating the Look of Your Presentation ............................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Using Layouts ..................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Working in Different Views ............................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Normal view ....................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Slide Sorter View ................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Notes Page View ................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Slide Show View ................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Set a View as deault ............................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Working with Slides ........................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Working with Texts ............................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Adding Text in Placeholder ................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Adding text to Text box ...................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Formatting text .................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Changing the Font type & Size ........................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Changing the Font color...................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Character Spacing ............................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Change Case ....................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Clear all Formatting ............................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Formatting Paragraphs ........................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Bullets & Numbering .......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Setting Alignment ............................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Paragraph Indenting& Line Spacing ................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Line Spacing ....................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Setting Tab stops ................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Paragraph Column .............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Convert Text to SmartArt ................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Checking Spelling Mistakes................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Notes Pages ......................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Creating Notes Pages .......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Print the Notes Pages .......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Handouts ............................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Arrange the Content in Handouts ........................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Print Handouts- ................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Drawing and Working with Objects.................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Insert Objects ...................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Inserting & Drawing Bitmap ............................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Insert Excel Sheet ............................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Insert Word document......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Insert Shapes ....................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Drawing a line..................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Drawing a Rectangle ........................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Drawing an Oval ................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
 Fill Color............................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Fill Gradient and Texture .................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Fill the Outline .................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Adding Sounds to Slides ..................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Add a Movie ....................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Adding Clip Art and other pictures ..................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Insert Picture ....................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Insert SmartArt ................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Charts .................................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Inserting Chart .................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Insert Photo Album ............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Insert Table ......................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Draw the table on the Slide ................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Configuring Table design................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Designing Slide Shows ....................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Changing/Setting Theme Color........................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Background Style ................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Slide Orientation ................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Adding Headers & Footers ................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Add Headers and Footers to Notes, Handouts and the Printed outline ................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Adding Transitions and Animations to the slides................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Running and Controlling a Slide Show ............................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Automating a Slide Show ................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Setup Slide Show ................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Rehearse Timings ............................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Printing Presentations ......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Page Setup .......................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Print Preview....................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Printing Slides ..................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Printing the Presentation in Outline view............................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Multiple Choice Questions.................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
7. Internet ....................................................................................................................................... 34
Introduction......................................................................................................................................................... 34
History of Internet ............................................................................................................................................... 34
Concept of Internet ............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Basics of Internet Architecture............................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Content Delivery Network .................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Domain Name System ........................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Internet Protocols ................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Network Address Translation ............................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Proxy Servers ...................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Services on Internet............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Electronic Mail ................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
World Wide Web ................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Websites .............................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Web Portals ......................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Web Address ....................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Protocols ............................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Web servers ........................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Domain name ...................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Communication on Internet ................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Email ................................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Email Addressing ................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Internet Telephony .............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Chat ..................................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
News Group or Message Board .......................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
ISP (Internet Service Provider) ........................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Internet Connections ........................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
 Broadband ........................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) ...................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Leased lines ........................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Cable Internet access........................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Digital Subscriber Line ....................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Dialup Connection .............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Wi-Fi ................................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
8. Web Programming ........................................................................................................................ 35
URL (Uniform Resource Locator) ...................................................................................................................... 35
HTML (Hyper Text Markup Language) ............................................................................................................. 35
PHP ..................................................................................................................................................................... 36
ASP (Active Server Pages) ................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Dynamic vs. Static Web pages ............................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
HTML Basics ...................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
HTML Tags ........................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
<Title> Tag ......................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
<Head> Tag ........................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
<Body> Tag ........................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Attributes of BODY Tag ..................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
bgcolor ................................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
align .................................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
HTML Attributes ................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
HTML Formatting Tags ...................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Whitespace and Flow: ......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
The <hn> tags ..................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
The <p> Element: ............................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
The <br /> Element: ............................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
The <Center> element......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
The<hr /> element ............................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Presentational Tags ............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
The <b> Element ................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
The <i> Element ................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
The <u> Element ................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
The <strike> element .......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
The <tt> element ................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
The <sup> element.............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
The <sub> element.............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
The <big> element .............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
The <small> element .......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
The <div> and <span> elements ......................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
HTML Comments ............................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Web Page Aestheticism ...................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
HTML Fonts ....................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Font Size ............................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Font Face ............................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Font Color: .......................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
The <basefont> element:..................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
HTML Images..................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
The <img> element: ............................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Wrapping text around images ............................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
HTML Text Links ............................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
The <a> element: ................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Linking to a Page Section: .................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Create Download Links: ..................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
HTML Image Links ............................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
HTML List .......................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Unordered List – The<ul> element ..................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Ordered List – The<ol> element ......................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
 The <marquee> element ..................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
HTML Colors ..................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
HTML Color Coding Methods: .......................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Color Names: ...................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
HTML Tables ..................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
The <th> Element ............................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table Cellpadding and Cellspacing: ................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Colspan and Rowspan Attributes ........................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Tables Backgrounds ............................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Using Table Caption: .......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Using a Header, Body, and Footer: ..................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
HTML Frames .................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Advantages ......................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Limitations .......................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Creating Frame ................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
<frameset> Attributes ......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Frameset rows Attribute ...................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Frameset cols Attribute ....................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Frame name Attribute ......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Frame src Attribute ............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Framing Rows and Columns together ................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
HTML Forms ...................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Text Input Controls ............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Single-line text input controls ............................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Password input controls ...................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Multiple-Line Text Input Controls: ..................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Creating Button ................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Checkboxes Control ............................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Radio box Control ............................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Select box Control............................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
File Select Boxes ................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Hidden Controls: ................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Submit and Reset Button..................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Dynamic HTML ........................................................................................................................... 37
Advantages of DHTML ...................................................................................................................................... 37
Browser Compatibility ........................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Components of DHTML ..................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
DOM (Document Object Model) ........................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Components of DOM .......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
DHTML Tags ..................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Embedded tags .................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Component tags .................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Action tags .......................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
DOM API Overview ........................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
DOM Tree Nodes................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
HTMLDocument ................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
HTMLElement .................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Attr ...................................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Text ..................................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Event Handling ................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Java Script ........................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Getting Started .................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Event Functions .................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
onclick: ............................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
onload: ................................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
onmouseover: ...................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
CSS(Cascading Style Sheets) .......................................................................................................... 38
Internal Stylesheet ............................................................................................................................................... 38
 External Stylesheet.............................................................................................................................................. 38
Inline Styles ........................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Adding Multimedia files to Web page ................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Playing Multimedia ............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Embedding Videos .............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
CSS Classes ........................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
CSS IDs .............................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
CSS Divisions ..................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Divisions ............................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
CSS Spans........................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
CSS Margins ....................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
CSS Text Properties ............................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
CSS Font Properties ............................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
CSS Backgrounds ............................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
CSS Borders........................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
CSS Ordered & Unordered Lists......................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Multiple Choice Questions.................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
9. Hosting Websites .......................................................................................................................... 39
Hosting your own Web site ................................................................................................................................. 39
Web Hosting Domain Names.............................................................................................................................. 40
Web Hosting Capacities ...................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Web Hosting E-mail Services ............................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Web Hosting Technologies ................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Web Hosting Database Technologies ................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Web Hosting Types............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
10. Database Management System ......................................................................................................... 41
Introduction......................................................................................................................................................... 41
Datebase .............................................................................................................................................................. 41
Database Management System ........................................................................................................................... 41
Schema ................................................................................................................................................................ 42
Sub Schema ........................................................................................................................................................ 42
Database Models ................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Conceptual database models ............................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
The Entity-Relationship Model ........................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Entity .................................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Attributes ............................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Relationships....................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Keys .................................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
(i) Primary Key ................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
(ii) Candidate Key ............................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
(iii) Super Key .................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
(iv) Concatenated or Composite Key .................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
(v) Foreign Keys ................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
(vi) Secondary or Alternate Keys ........................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Relationship between Tables............................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Entity-Relation Diagram ..................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Physical Database Models .................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Logical Database Models .................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Hierarchical Data Model ..................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Network Data Model........................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Network Database Management System (NDBMS) ........................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Object Oriented Database Management System (OODBMS) ............................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Relational Data Model ........................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
What is a relation? .............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Terminolgies of RDBMS .................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Data Sharing ....................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Data Independence .............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Data Redundancy ................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
 Cardinality .......................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Relation ............................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Normalization ..................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Degree ................................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Attributes ............................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Tuples ................................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Entity .................................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Instance ............................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Integrity (Data) ................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Integrity (Referential) ......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Cartesian Product ................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Union .................................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Intersection ......................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Difference ........................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Codd's Rule ......................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Data Manipulation Concept ................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
SQL (Structured Query Language) ..................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
SQL Process........................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
SQL in various RDBMSs.................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
MySQL ............................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Microsoft SQL Server ......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
ORACLE ............................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Microsoft Access ................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
SQL Commands .................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
DDL(Data Definition Language) ........................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
DML(Data Manipulation Language) .................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
DCL (Data Control Language)............................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Microsoft Access .......................................................................................................................... 43
Database .............................................................................................................................................................. 43
DBMS (Database Management System) ............................................................................................................. 43
Microsoft Access 2003 ....................................................................................................................................... 43
Microsoft Office Access 2007 ............................................................................................................................ 43
Microsoft Office Access 2010 ............................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Opening Microsoft Access .................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Menu/Tabs of Microsoft Office Access application............................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Home Tab ........................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Create Tab ........................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
External Data Tab ............................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Database Tools Tab............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Creating Database in Microsoft Access .............................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Creating Blank Database ..................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Creating Database using templates ..................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Opening an Existing Database file of Microsoft Access 2003/2007/2010 .......... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Navigation Pane .................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Datasheet View ................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Design View ....................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Switching the views ............................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Creating a Table .................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Creating Blank Table .......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Creating Table with Design View ....................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Data Types(Attributes)........................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Create Table using Templates ............................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Manipulating table structure ............................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Adding a field to existing table ........................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Saving the Table ................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Setting Primary Key in the Table ........................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Accessing another table using Primary Key ........................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Forms .................................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
 Creating form with Form tool ............................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Creating form with Form Design ........................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Configuring the form controls using Property sheet ........................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Creating form with Form Wizard ........................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Creating Blank Form........................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Query .................................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Queries through Query Wizard ........................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Query using the Design View ............................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Reports ................................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Creating Report with Report Tool....................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Formatting Report ............................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Creating Reports with Design View.................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Creating Blank Report ........................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Creating Report using Report Wizard ................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Switch views in Reports...................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Print Reports ....................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Multiple Choice Questions.................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
11. Introduction to ‘C’ Programming ..................................................................................................... 44
The Basic Model of Computation ....................................................................................................................... 44
Program Concepts ............................................................................................................................................... 44
Algorithms .......................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Characteristics of Algorithm ............................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Flow-charts ......................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Characteristics of Flow chart .............................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Flowchart Symbols ............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Flow Chart examples .......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Advantages of Flow charts .................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Disadvantages of Flow charts ............................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Programming Languages .................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Machine Level Language .................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Assembly Level Language .................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
High Level Language .......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Program Life Cycle ............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
History of Programming Languages ................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
FORTRAN .......................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Algol60 ............................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
COBOL ............................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
LISP .................................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
PL/I ..................................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
BASIC ................................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Simula67 ............................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Pascal .................................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
C ......................................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Ada...................................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
C++ ..................................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Perl ...................................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Python ................................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Java ..................................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Compilation ........................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Assembler ........................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Compiler ............................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Interpreter ........................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Linking and Loading ........................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Testing and Debugging ....................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Syntax Error ........................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Runtime Error ..................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Linking Error ...................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Logical Error ....................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Documentation .................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Introduction to ‘C’ Language .............................................................................................................................. 46
Basic ideas about C ............................................................................................................................................. 46
Character set ....................................................................................................................................................... 46
Variables ............................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Variable declaration ............................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Naming Variables ............................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Mapping Variable ............................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Identifiers ............................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Keywords ............................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Built-in Data Types ............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Variable Definition ............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Operators............................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Unary Operator ................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Binary Operator .................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Ternary Operator ................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Arithmetic operators ........................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Precedence of Arithmetical operators ................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Relational Operator ............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Precedence of Relational operators ..................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Logical Operator ................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Precedence of Logical operators ......................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Assignment Operator .......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Special Operator ................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Comma Operator................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Sizeof() Operator ................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Conditional Operator .......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Parenthesis Operator ( )....................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Bitwise Operator ................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Precedence of Bitwise operators ......................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Pointer Operator .................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Precedence of operators ...................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Expressions ......................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Constant Expression............................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Integer Expression .............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Float Expression ................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Pointer Expression .............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Constants and Literals ......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Integer literals ..................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Floating point literals .......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Character constants ............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
String literals ....................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Defining Constants.............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
The #define Preprocessor .................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
The const Keyword ............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Simple assignment statement .............................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Basic input/output statement ............................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Types of I/O ........................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Console I/O Functions ........................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Formatted Console I/O Functions ....................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Format Specifications ......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
The printf ( ) and scanf( ) Statements .................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
sprintf( ) and sscanf( ) Functions ........................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Unformatted Console I/O Functions ................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
gets( ) and puts( ) ................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Conditional Statements and Loops ...................................................................................................................... 47
Introduction......................................................................................................................................................... 47
Decision making within a program ..................................................................................................................... 47
Conditions ........................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Relational Operators ........................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
if statement.......................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
if-else statement .................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Multiple if statement ........................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
else-if ladder ....................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Conditional Operator .......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Loops .................................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Exit Controlled loops .......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
while loop ........................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
for loop ............................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
do while .............................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Nested loops........................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Infinite loops ....................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Switch statement ................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
The break statement ............................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
The continue statement ....................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Arrays ................................................................................................................................................................. 48
Declaring an array ............................................................................................................................................... 48
Initializing array .................................................................................................................................................. 48
One dimensional arrays ....................................................................................................................................... 48
Two dimensional array ....................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Array manipulation ............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Searching ............................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Insertion .............................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Deletion of an element from an array.................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Sorting ................................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Selection Sorting ................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Bubble Sorting .................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Insertion Sorting ................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Finding the largest/smallest element in an array ................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Matrices Operations ............................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Addition Matrices ............................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Multiplication of matrices ................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Transpose of a square matrix .............................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Null terminated strings as array of characters ..................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
String variables ................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Standard library string functions ......................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Functions............................................................................................................................................................. 49
Top-down approach of problem solving ............................................................................................................. 49
Modular programming ........................................................................................................................................ 49
Functions............................................................................................................................................................. 49
Standard Library of C functions .......................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Prototype of a function........................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Definition of a function ....................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Accessing a function ........................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Return Type ........................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Formal parameter list .......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Block structure .................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Passing arguments to a Function ......................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Call by reference ................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Pointer ................................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Call by value ....................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Command line argument ..................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Recursive Functions ............................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Arrays as function arguments.............................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Storage Classes ................................................................................................................................................... 50
Scope and extent ................................................................................................................................................. 50
Storage Classes in a single source file ................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
auto ..................................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
extern .................................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Static ................................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
register ................................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Storage Classes in a multiple source files ........................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Automatic variables ............................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
extern and static .................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Structures and Unions ......................................................................................................................................... 51
Declaring a Structure .......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Structure variables .............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Accessing Structure Elements ............................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Structure Initialization ........................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
How Structure Elements are Stored .................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Structure assignment ........................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Nested structure .................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Structures and functions ...................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Passing structure to a function ............................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Structures and arrays ........................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Arrays of structures ............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Structures containing arrays ................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Pointers and structures ........................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
typedef keyword ................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Unions................................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Declaring union variables ................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
File handling ....................................................................................................................................................... 52
Introduction......................................................................................................................................................... 52
File Operations .................................................................................................................................................... 52
Opening a file...................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
File Opening Modes ............................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Reading from a File ............................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Closing the File ................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Writing to a File .................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
A File-copy Program........................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
String (line) I/O in Files ...................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Record I/O in Files .............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Multiple Choice Questions.................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
 Introduction to
Computers
Introduction
Computer is an electronic device which is capable of receiving information (data) in a particular form
and of performing a sequence of operations in accordance with a predetermined but variable set of
procedural instructions (program) to produce a result in the form of information or signals.
In general, a computer is a digital electronic device which
accepts data, processes it and gives information as output. It has
several components like Monitor, CPU, Mouse, Processor, Memory
etc.
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djukA vr% cksypky dh Hkk"kk esa bls ,d dSydqysfVax fMokbl ekuk tkrk gS tks
,sfjFkesfVd vkSj ykWftdy vkijs'kUk dks rsth ds lkFk dj ldrk gS ijUrq vkt
bldh ifjHkk’kk gh cny x;h gS D;ksafd vc dEI;wVj dk mi;ksx flQZ x.kuk rd
lhfer ugh gS] vkt bldk mi;ksx E;qftd] xzkfQDl] baVjusV vkkfn dbZ vU; {ks=
es Hkh gks jgk gSA vr% vc dg ldrs gS fd ;g ,d bysDVªkfud fMokbl gS tks
MkVk dks ,DlsIV djrk gS] vkSj ,d foLr`r LVsi&ckbZ&LVsi izkslfs alx
a ds ckn mls
bUQkeZs’ku es cnyrk gS vkSj vkmViqV fjtYV izLrqr djrk gSA ;g MkVk dks ,DlsIV] LVksj vkSj mUgsa eSuhiqysV djrk gSA
History of Computers
History of Computer can be considered from arise of human culture as person knew the calculation,
they used something for this purpose like, pebbles, stone etc. but as a device Roman’s abacus is first
device used in B.C for calculation. In A.D. various mechanical devices were invented for the
calculation like Pascaline by Blaise Pascal, Joseph Jacquard invented loom that is 'programmed” using
punched cards, Charles Babbage invented two machines Analytical engine and Difference engine and
Hollerith’s Census Machines (Tabulating machine). Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC) is a fully digital
electronic device used for linear equation. Howard Aiken (IBM) had designed Mark I, the first
operational general-purpose electro-mechanical Computer. John Mauchley and Presper Eckert make
the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC) First general purpose, digital electronic
Computer used to compute a ballistic firing. Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC I), was the first
commercially successful Computer. Two Era arises Mechanical Era (Before 1945) having mechanical
devices and the Electronic Era (From 1945) having electronic processing technology. Electronic Era
is divided into Four generations.
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dks igyk dEI;wVj dgk tkrk gSA ckn es ikLdy] ykWjasl] tSdc] ,VkWlkWQcsjh vkfn us dbZ fMokbls cuk;h ijUrq fdlh Hkh
fMokbl es eseksjh u Fkh rRi”pkr~ l=goha 'krkCnh esa pkYlZ cSost us ,ukfyfVdy vkSj fMQjsal e'khu dk vkfo"dkj fd;k
ftles eseksjh MkyhA mDr e’khu ds vkfo"dkj ls gh vk/kqfud ;qx dh 'kq#vkr gqbZ ckn esa vkt dh lHkh dEI;wVj essa eseksjh
lcls cM+h fos’ks"krk gSA blh ds dkj.k pkYlZ cSost dks dEI;wVj dk firkeg dgk tkrk gSA ENIAC izFke bysDVªkfud
dEI;wVj gSA ;gh ls bysDVªkfud dEI;wVlZ dk ;qx 'kq# gks x;kA
Data Representation & Computer Organization T Balaji 19
Generation of Computer
Computers are divided in these forms of generation. Here the generations have been described time
wise as well as technologies used.
First Generation¼1945-1954½
In this very first generation of computers, it had been used Vacuum tube technology which
makes a computer possible to do calculations.
bl çFke tujs'ku esa oSD;we V~;wc VsDuksykWth dk mi;ksxfd;k x;k Fkk ftlus daI;wVj dks lkdkj dj x.kuk,a djuk
laHko fd;k A
Second Generation¼1955-1964½
In this generation segment of computers, it had been used Transistors which made a computer a
little concise and faster to do the same.
daI;wVj ds f}rh; tujs'ku esa VªkaftLVj VsDuksykWth dk mi;ksxfd;k x;k Fkk ftlus rc daI;wVj ds vkdkj dks FkksMk
NksVk ,oa rst dj fn;k Fkk A
Third Generation¼1965-1974½
In the third generation of computers, it had been used Integrated circuits which made this faster
comparatively and reliable as well.
daI;wVj ds r`rh; tujs'ku esa baVhxzsVsM lfdZVl
~ ¼vkbZ0lh0½ VsDuksykWth dk mi;ksx fd;k x;k ftlls ;s rqyukRed
Hkjksles an rFkk rst le>k x;k A
Fourth Generation¼1975-Till Date½
In this generation of computers, there had been used micro processors inside to work far better
comparatively. This is the most reliable among and very concise in size to be portable anywhere
you want.
daI;wVj ds prqFkZ tujs'ku esa ekbØks izksll
s j VsDuksykWth dk mi;ksxfd;k x;k tks çFke] f}rh; rFkk r`rh; rhuksa gh
tujs'ku ls dkQh rst] Hkjkslsean rFkk lkbt esa NksVk ik;k x;k ftls vki vklkuh ls dgha Hkh b/kj&m/kj mBk ,oa
j[k ldrs gSa A
Fifth Generation (Present and Next)
This is the generation of computers where computers are assigned automatic intelligence; they
use artificial intelligence where they will use their own iQ too to solve a problem at end.
iape tujs'ku ds daI;wVj esa vkfVZQhfl;y baVsfytsl
a dk mi;ksx fd;k x;k tks bls daI;wVj VsDuksy‚th esa loksiZ fj
fl) djrk gS ftles ;g vius [kqn ds vkbZåD;wå dk Hkh bLrseky djrk gSA
Characteristics of Computers
Characteristics of Computers are likely to be defined or tell the capability of computers.
Speed: Computers can carry out instructions in less than a millionth of a second. As you know
computer can work very fast. It takes only few seconds for calculations that we take hours to
complete. You will be surprised to know that computer can perform millions (1,000,000) of
instructions and even more per second.
daI;wVj ,d cgqr gh rhoz dk;Z djus okyk bysDVª‚fud ;a= gS tks fdlh funs'Z k dks iy Hkj esa fØ;kfUor djrk gS A
;g fdlh dk;Z dks lsdM sa ds ,d Hkkx esa gh gy dj nsrk gS tcfd ml dk;Z dks ,d O;fä ?kaVksa rd dghagy dj
ik;sxkA vkidks ;g tkudj gSjkuh gks ldrh gS dh ,d daI;wVj ,d lsdsM a ds le; esa ,d fefy;u ;k mlls Hkh
vf/kd funsZ'kksa dks fØ;kfUor dj ldrk gS A
 Data Representation
& Computer
Organization
Introduction
In the modern world of electronic, the term Digital is generally associated with a computer because
the term Digital is derived from the way computers perform operation, by counting digits. For many
years, the application of digital electronics was only in the computer system. But now-a-days, the
digital electronic is used in many other applications. Following are some of the examples in which
Digital electronics is heavily used.
Industrial process control
Military system
Television
Communication system
Medical equipment
Radar
Navigation
Signal
Signal can be defined as a physical quantity, which contains some information. It is a function of one
or more than one independent variables. Signals are of two types.
 Analog Signal
 Digital Signal
Analog Signal
An analog signal is defined as the signal having continuous values. Analog signal can have infinite
number of different values. In real world scenario, most of the things observed in nature are analog.
Examples of the analog signals are following.
 Temperature
 Pressure
 Distance
 Sound
 Voltage
 Current
 Power
Digital Signal
A digital signal is defined as the signal which has only a finite number
of distinct values. Digital signal are not continuous signal. In the digital electronic calculator, the
 Data Representation & Computer Organization T Balaji 21
input is given with the help of switches. This input is converted into electrical
signal which having two discrete values or levels. One of these may be called
low level and another is called high level. The signal will always be one of the
two levels. This type of signal is called digital signal. Examples of the digital
signal are following.
 Binary Signal
 Octal Signal
 Hexadecimal Signal
The circuits that process that digital signal are called digital systems or digital
circuits. Examples of the digital systems are following.
• Registers
• Flip-flop
• Counters
• Microprocessors
Comparison of Analog and Digital Signal
Analog Signal Digital Signal
Analog signal has a infinite values. Digital signal has a finite number of the values.
Analog signal has a continuous nature. Digital signal has a discrete nature.
Analog signal is generate by transducers Digital signal is generate by A to D converter.
and signal generators.
Example of analog signal: sine wave, Example of digital signal: binary signal.
triangular waves.
Digital Number System
Adigital system can understand positional number system only where there are only a few symbols
called digits and these symbols represent different values depending on the position they occupy in
the number.
Number system is the key factor used in any mathematical or numeral representations to express the
presence of the numbers. It is also used to notify certain numeral values to represent and
demonstrate. There is number of Number Systems which that has its own number range and entities
for e.g. Binary Number System(0,1), Octal Number System(0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7), Decimal Number System
(0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9) and Hexadecimal Number System (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F). Here we see
these in details…
A value of each digit in a number can be determined using
 The digit
 The position of the digit in the number
 The base of the number system (where base is defined as the total number of digits available
in the number system).
Binary Number System
It is a number system which base or radix is only 2. As its name implies it supports only two numbers
namely 0 and 1. Any value in this number system is represented like this (1000) 2 . Here base 2 shows
that it is a Binary number system.
;g ,d uacj flLVe gksrk gS ftldk csl ;k jsfMDl 2 gksrk gSA tSlk dh blds uke ls çrhr gksrk gS dh ;g dsoy nks
uacj 0vkSj 1dks liksVZ djrk gSA fdlh ckbujh uacj dks dqN bl rjg n'kkZrs gSa (1000)2tgk¡ lcfLØIV oSY;w uacj
flLVe ds csl dks çnf'kZr dj jgk gSA
Multiple Choice Questions

1. The ______ format is usually used to store data b) Timing signals

a) BCD c) Transfer signals
b) Decimal d) Command Signals
c) Hecadecimal Answer:b
d) Octal
Answer:a 8. ______ are numbers and encoded characters,
generally used as operands .
2. The 8-bit encoding format used to store data a) Input
in a computer is ______ . b) Data
a) ASCII c) Information
b) EBCDIC d) Stored Values
c) ANCI Answer:b
d) USCII
Answer:b 9. The Input devices can send information to
the processor,
3. A source program is usually in _______ . a) When the SIN status flag is set
a) Assembly language b) When the data arrives regardless of the SIN
b) Machine level language flag
c) High-level language c) Neither of the cases
d) Natural language d) Either of the cases
Answer:c Answer:a

4. Which memory device is generally made of 10. ______ bus structure is usually used to
semi-conductors ? connect I/O devices .
a) RAM a) Single bus
b) Hard-disk b) Multiple bus
c) Floppy disk c) Star bus
d) Cd disk d) Rambus
Answer:a Answer:a

11. The I/O interface required to connect the

5. The small extremely fast, RAM’s are called as
I/O device to the bus consists of ______ .
_______ .
a) Address decoder and registers
a) Cache
b) Control circuits
b) Heaps
c) Both a and b
c) Accumulators
d) Only b
d) Stacks
Answer:c
Answer : a
12. To reduce the memory access time we
6. The ALU makes use of _______ to store the generally make use of ______ .
intermediate results . a) Heaps
a) Accumulators b) Higher capacity RAM’s
b) Registers c) SDRAM’s
c) Heap d) Cache’s
d) Stack Answer:d
Answer:a 13. ______ is generally used to increase the
apparent size of physical memory .
7. The control unit controls other units by a) Secondary memory
generating ____ . b) Virtual memory
a) Control signals c) Hard-disk
Data Representation & Computer Organization T Balaji 23
d) Disks b) MAR
Answer:b c) IR
d) Both a and b
14. MFC stands for, Answer:b
a) Memory Format Caches.
b) Memory Function Complete. 20. ISP stands for,
c) Memory Find Command. a) Instruction Set Processor
d) Mass Format Command. b) Information Standard Processing
Answer:b c) Interchange Standard Protocol
d) Interrupt Service Procedure
15. The time delay between two successive Answer:a
initiation of memory operation _______ .
a) Memory access time 21. The internal Components of the processor
b) Memory search time are connected by _______ .
c) Memory cycle time a) Processor intra-connectivity circuitry
d) Instruction delay b) Processor bus
Answer:c c) Memory bus
d) Rambus
16. The decoded instruction is stored in ______ . Answer:b
a) IR
b) PC 22. ______ is used to choose between
c) Registers incrementing the PC or performing ALU
d) MDR operations .
Answer:a a) Conditional codes
b) Multiplexer
17. Which registers can interact with the
c) Control unit
secondary storage ?
d) None of these
a) MAR
Answer:b
b) PC
c) IR 23. The registers,ALU and the interconnection
d) R0 between them are collectively called as _____ .
Answer:a a) Process route
b) Information trail
18. During the execution of a program which c) information path
gets initialized first ? d) data path
a) MDR Answer:d
b) IR
c) PC 24. _______ is used to store data in registers .
d) MAR a) D flip flop
Answer:c b) JK flip flop
c) RS flip flop
19. Which of the register/s of the processor d) none of these
is/are connected to Memory Bus ? Answer:a
a) PC
 Operating System
Introduction
An operating system plays an important role in the use of Computer. It prepares a bare Machine
usable for the user. In other words an operating system works as an interface between Computer and
user. The operating system enables the user to use the system resources and access several other
programs effectively. Windows operating system offer icons, Graphics based interface to the users
and they can use mouse to perform a number of operations.
An operating system is system software and is the most important program that runs on
your computer. It manages all other programs on the machine. Every PC has Operating System to run
other applications or programs. This recognizes input from the keyboard or mouse, Sending output
to the monitor, Operating System Keep track of files and directories on the disk and controlling
peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers.
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dk;Z djrk gSA lkFk gh ,Iyhds'ku lkW¶Vos;j ds fy, IysVQkEkZ iznku djrk gSA ftl ij ,Iyhds'ku lkW¶Vos;j pyrk gSA
tks Hkh u;s ,Iyhds'ku lkW¶Vos;j ;k Mªkboj bULVky fd;s tkrs gS lHkh vkijsfVax flLVe es tqM+rs tkrs gSA vkijsfVax
flLVe gh dEI;wVj dks ;wtscy cukrk gSA
Microsoft Windows
Microsoft Windows is a series of graphical interface operating systems developed by Microsoft.
Microsoft introduced an operating environment named Windows as a graphical operating system
shell for MS-DOS in response to the growing interest in graphical user interfaces.
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vkijsfVax flLVe gSA foUMkst ds dbZ otZu vk;s gS] loZj rFkk LVSUM vyksu nksuks ds fy, vyx vksijsfVax flLVe gSA ;g
Vh-lh-ih-@vkbZ-ih- izksVksdky dks liksVZ djrk gSA Qkby] QksYMj@Mk;jsDVªh eSut
s esUV ds lkFk gh eseksjh eSut
s esUV djrk
gSA
An Overview of Different Versions ofWindows
Operating systems relating to Windows family are based on Graphical User Interface (GUI) and can
be used on a desktop Computer / Network. Windows 9x refers to three operating systems like
Windows 95, Windows 98 and Windows ME. Windows 95 is now not in use. Windows 98 was released
in the year 1998. In was enhanced version of Windows 95. Another version of Windows called
Windows ME was released in the year 2000 and then After Windows XP, Windows Vista and then
Windows 7 and Now Winodws Family has released its latest version of Windows is Windows 8. These
latest versions of Windows have improved multimedia capabilities, video editing features and
enhanced Internet facilities and so on.
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liksVM
sZ vkijsfVax flLVe gSA foUMkst ds dbZ otZu vk;s gS] loZj rFkk LVSUM vyksu nksuks ds fy, vyx vkisfVax flLVe
gSA ;g Vh-lh-ih-@vkbZ-ih- izksVksdky dks liksVZ djrk gSA Qkby]
QksYMj@Mk;jsDVªh eSuts esUV ds lkFk gh eseksjh eSut
s esUV djrk gSA
Windows 95
It is introduced to 32-bit applications, plug and play
hardware, preemptive multitasking, long file names of up to
Operating System T Balaji 25
255 characters, and provided increased stability over its predecessors. Windows 95 also introduced
a redesigned, object oriented user interface, replacing the previous Program Manager with the Start
menu, taskbar, and Windows Explorer shell.
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ftles Iyx ,aM Iys gkMZos;j] lqjf{kr eYVhVkfLdax] yEcs Qkby uke 255v{kjksa rd vkSj ,d csgrjhu ;wtj baVjQsl
ftlls ,d ;wtj dks ml ij dksbZ Hkh dke djus esa dkQh ljyrk çkIr gqbZA bl otZu esa çksxzke eSut
s j ds LFkku ij
LVkVZ ehuw] VkLd ckj] foaMkst ,DLIyksjj 'ksy yk;k x;kA
Windows 98
Windows 98 has introduced the Windows Driver Model,
support for USB composite devices, support for ACPI,
hibernation, and support for multi-monitor configurations.
Windows 98 also included integration with Internet Explorer
4 through Active Desktop and other aspects of the Windows
Desktop Update.
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ykap fd;k tksUSB dEiksftV fMokbl dks liksVZ djrk gSA blds dqN
vU; Qhpj tSls ACPIdks liksVZ djuk] gkbcjusV dh lqfo/kk] ,d lkFk
dbZ fMLIys dk d‚fUQxjs'ku djuk bR;kfnA bUVjusV ,DLIyksjj 4 foaMkst ds blh otZu ls ykap gqvkA
Windows XP
Now you have windows-XP from 2001 the improved version
of Windows. It is 32-bit operating system that is quite
popular on personal computers and laptops. It is quite stable
product and is being continuously used till date. Many
variations of Windows XP are there. The Microsoft has
created 64-bit version of Windows-XP to run on them.
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ysdj vc rd iz;ksx fd;k tk jgk gSA vc rks bldk 32 fcV ,oe~ 64
fcV nksuksa gh otZu ekbØksl‚¶V us fodflr dj fn;k gSA
Windows Vista
Windows Vista contains a number of new features from a
redesigned shell and user interface to significant technical
changes, with a particular focus on security features. It was
available in a number of different editions, and has been
subject to some criticism.
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gqvk ftlus dqN rduhdh cnyko dj ,d u;k ;wtj baVjQsl çnku
fd;kA blesa flD;wfjVh Qhpj ij T;knk cy fn;k x;kA blds dqN eq[;
ifjorZu tSls LVkVZ esuw] VkLd ckj ij çksxzke xzqfiax] foaMkst ,DLIyksjj
,Mªls ckjA ;g Lo;a ds dbZ otZu esa miyC/k gS ysfdu ;g viuh dqN [kkfe;ksa dh otg ls vkykspukvksa dk f'kdkj gqvkA
Multiple Choice Questions

1.1 The main memory of the computer 1.8 I/O table are used
a. Controls the operations of computer. a. To assign I/O devices of computer
b. Performs data processing functions. b. To manage I/O devices of computer
c. Stores data and programs. system
d. None of these. c. A and B both true
1.2 Program counter (PC) contains d. A and B both false
a. Address of an instruction to be fetched 1.9 The operating system control tables
maintains file table, because
b. Instruction most recently fetched
a. These tables manage I/O devices and
c. Data to be written into memory
channels of the computer system.
d. Data to be read from memory
b. These tables provide information
1.3 MAR (memory address register) about the existence of files, their
a. Contains data to be written into location on secondary memory and
memory their current status.
b. Contains data to be read from memory c. These tables provide information to
c. Specifies location in memory for next manage process.
read/writer. d. None of these
d. Contains address of next instruction to 1.10 Processor in computer
be fetched. a. Control the operations of the
1.4 IR (Instruction register) computer/processes data functions.
a. Contains the address of an instruction b. Stores data and program
to be fetched. c. Moves data between computer and its
b. contains the instruction most recently external environment.
fetched. d. None of the above.
c. Specifies memory addresses. 1.11 Memory buffer register (MBR) contains
d. None of these a. Data that is to be written into memory
1.5 Which of the following is not an address b. A particular I/O device
register?
c. Exchange data between I/O module
a. Index register and the processor.
b. Segment pointer d. The instruction most recently fetched.
c. Stack pointer 1.12 I/O modules move data
d. Data register a. Between external environment and
1.6 Following is not the state of Five-State computer.
process model b. In the computer main memory
a. Ready b. Running c. In processors
c. Not Running d. New d. None of these
1.7 Memory table is used 1.13 I/O OBR (I/O Buffer register) is
a. To allocate main memory to processes a. Used for the exchange of data between
b. To allocate secondary memory to an I/O module and the processor.
processes b. Specifies particular I/O device.
c. To manage virtual memory c. A and B both true.
d. A, B and C are true d. A and B both false.
Operating System T Balaji 27
1.14 The operations of the processor are 1.15 User-visible register which of the
supervised by following do not support GUI (Graphical
a. Control and Status register User Interface)
b. Data register a. DOS b. Windows
c. Address register c. Linux d. None of the above
d. Address register

2. State whether the following statements are True or False

2.1 To use a computer, you need an operating system

2.2 Linux is quite suitable for priority oriented multitasking operations but not suitable for
multiuser tasks.
2.3 Deleted objects can be recovered from the Recycle Bin folder in Windows.
2.4 Dir and Directory are similar commands.
2.5 Formatting of all the partitions or mound points is a must for Linux installation.
2.6 Internal commands are stored on the disk in the form of a file.
2.7 When a folder in copied to another place, the subfolders in the folder also get copied.
2.8 The DATE command in DOS displays the current date as well as time.
2.9 Check boxes are used to present options requiring individual on/off decisions in Message
boxes.
2.10 The FILES command is used at command prompt.
2.11 MS-Word operating system developed by Microsoft to overcome the limitation in its MS-DOS
operating system.
2.12 The kernel performs the basic functions of an operating system.
2.13 Linux is a multi-user time-sharing system.
2.14 You can delete files by dragging them to Recycle Bin.

3. Match the following:

3.1 Screen background and main area of windows a. Multimedia

where you can open and manage files and
programs
3.2 A multipurpose windows used by Windows b. Copy file 1. txt + file 2txt file3.txt
Operating System to display everything
3.3 A generic term for such computer application c. Desktop
and files that combine standard computer
capabilities with other media such as video and
sound
3.4 To remove a directory with a large number of d. Copy file 1. txt + file 2txt file3.txt
files and subdirectories
3.5 A command to create a directory e. DELTREE mydir
3.6 To rename a file available on drive a to another f. rmdir
file name
 3.7 A switch that will display the name of the file g. rm -r
before being deleted
3.8 To copy several files into one file h. The act to hold down the mouse
button while moving the mouse
3.9 Embedded i. REN A:\oldfile A:\newfile
3.10 Drag j. This is to insert an object, which is
not linked on its originating
document, into a destination
document.
k. Window Explorer
l. MD mydir

4. Fill in the blanks

a. Edit b. Alt + Delete c. Move

d. Recycle Bin e. cls f. Desktop
g. Operating system h. Task bar i. Folder
j. Attrib k. My Computer l. Recover
m. My Document n. Icon o. Multi-Programming

4.1 The command………….. can be used to transfer files from one directory to another.
4.2 …………… is represented by a computer icon and it contains information regarding your
computer system.
4.3 The name of the text editor included in DOS is……………….
4.4 Device drivers control the interaction between the input/output devices and …………..
4.5 The ………………. command is normally used to recover readable information from bad or
defective disks.
4.6 A ………………. can contain files as well as sub-folders.
4.7 The…………… command clears the screen.
4.8 The screen that you see once Windows 2000 is loaded is called the ………………….
4.9 The ………….. command displays or changes the file attributes.
4.10 The…………… allows you to easily recover deleted files and folder in Windows.
4.11 In Windows you store all your files in a …………
4.12 A small graphic image that represents an application file command or a tool is called as
………………….
4.13 A general operating system related technique that allows two or more programs to execute
concurrently on the same computer is called……………… multi-programming.
 Word Processing
Word Processing Concepts
Word Processing is application software which is used to manipulate the text or words like letter
drafting, paragraph composing and so on. Here we will discuss about Microsoft Word, Word
processing software. Microsoft word is application software of Microsoft Office suite which has a
large number of earlier and latest versions. Here we will discuss about only Microsoft Word 2003,
2007 & 2010 versions.
oMZ izkslfa lx ,d rjg dk ,fIyds'ku lk¶Vos;j gS tks VsDlV iSjkxzkQ dks rS;kj djus vkSj ml ij
ekMhfQds'ku djus esa bLrseky gksrk gSA ;gk¡ ge ekbØkslk¶V oMZ tks fd ekbØkslk¶V vkfQl lwV dk ,d ,fIyds'ku gS
ds ckjs esa ftØ djsxAas ;gk¡ ge ekbØkslk¶V oMZ ds 2003] 2007 ,oa 2010 ds otZu ds ckjs esa ppkZ djsaxsA
Microsoft Word 2003
In Microsoft Word 2003, Operational Commands reside in Menu Bar. There are 9 Menu Bar(s)
namely File, Edit, View, Insert, Format, Tools, Table, Window and Help. Here's thebrief introduction
of all the Menu Bar in MS word 2003.

ekbdzkslkW¶V oMZ 2003 ,d oMZ izkslfs lax lk¶Vos;j gS tks MkD;wesaV] ysVj] Vscy ,oa fjiksVZ rS;kj djrk gSA ;g ehuw
vk/kkfjr lk¶Vos;j gsS ftlesa lHkh vkijs'kuy dekaM gksrs gSA buds ehuw fuEuor~ gS& tSls File, Edit, View, Insert,
Format, Tools, Table, Window and Help.
Microsoft Word 2007/2010
Microsoft Word 2007 helps you produce professional-looking documents by providing a
comprehensive set of tools for creating and formatting your document in a new interface. Rich
review, commenting, and comparison capabilities help you quickly gather and manage feedback from
colleagues. Advanced data integration ensures that documents stay connected to important sources
 Spreadsheet
Excel is an office package used for calculation and analysis of data. MS Excel provides a rich library in
formula for calculation and a list of commands for analysis of data. Excel file is known as a workbook;
a Workbook is collection of three Worksheetsby default. You can create new spreadsheet according
to your requirement.
LizsM'khV ,d dEI;wVj izksxzke gksrk gS orZeku le; esa bl ,Iyhds'ku dk iz;ksx izk;% dkQh vf/kd fd;k tkrk gSA ;g ,Iyhds'ku
vkidks ,d lkFk gtkjksa dSydqys'ku djus dh lqfo/kk iznku djrk gSA ,Dly Qkby dks vksisu djus ij ,d odZcd q iznf'kZr gksxk
ftlesa rhu odZ'khV ckbZ fMQkYV iznf'kZr gksrs gSaA vki viuh vko';drk ds vuqlkj ubZ odZ'khV dks vksius dj mUgsa uke ns ldrs
gSaA vkxs ge bysDVªkfud LizsM'khV dks vksius djus] lsy dks ,sMªsl djus] ,fDVo djus] fizaV djus] lso djus ,oa QkewZyk bR;kfn ds
fo’k; esa ppkZ djsaxsA
Elements of Electronic Spreadsheet
There are number of elements in Microsoft Excel Application which facilitates a user a user friendly
environment to fulfill the goal object, here are the elements Workbook, Worksheet, Row, Column,
Cell, Functions and Formulas
ekbØkslk¶V ,Dlsy ds dbZ ,yhesaV gksrs gS tks LiszM'khV lEcfU/kr dk;Z dks iw.kZ djus esa lgk;rk iznku djrs gS tks fuEuor~ gSA
Workbook: A Workbook is the collection of odZcqd-;s vusd odZ'khV dk dysD'ku gSA tc vki
worksheets where the user works. A workbook can ,Dly Qkby vksius djrs gSa rks Ldzhu ij ,d
contain maximum 225 sheets to work in. odZcqd iznf'kZr gksrh gSa ftlesa ckbZ fMQkYV rhu
Whenever a Workbook opens, it displayed three odZ'khV iznf'kZr gksrs gSaA ,d odZcqd esa vf/kdre
worksheets by default. 225 odZ'khV [kskys tk ldrs gSaA odZcqd esa usohxs'ku
Worksheet: AWorksheet is the place where the cVu ds ek/;e ls ,d odZ'khV ls nwljs odZ'khV ij
user works and performs arithmatical and tk ldrs gSaA odZcqd O;ofLFkr rjhds ls vkidks dk;Z
functional calculations. By default it is named as djus esa lqfo/kk miyC/k djkrk gSA
Sheet1, Sheet2, Sheet3….etc. A sheet can be odZ'khV-;s jks vkSj dkWye dks feykdj curh gSA ;g
renamed too. ,d vkWxZukbts'ku ds QkbusfUl;y odZ'khV izkstsDV
Row: A Row is the horizontal block of the fFkfll bR;kfn dh Iykfuax ds fy, iz;ksx dh tkrh
Worksheet or the Table which moves from left to gSA
right. A Row is named as the numbers 1, 2, 3..etc. jks-;s lsYl ls cuk gkWjhtk¡Vy Cykd gksrk gS tks
There are 65,536rows comes under Excel odZ'khV dh iwjh pkSM+kbZ esa ck, ls nk, dh vksj pyrk
Application. gSA jks es]a odZ'khV ds ck,Wa fdukjs ij] Åij ls uhps
Column: A Column is the vertically situated in the dh vksj uEcj Mkys tkrs gSaA ,sjks&dh ,oa ekml ds
worksheet or the table which flows from top to ek/;e ls vki ,d jks ls nwljs jks esa vklkuh ls tk
bottom. It is named as A, B, C… etc in Excel ldrs gSaA odZ'khV esa vf/kdre 65536 jkst gksrs gSaA
Application. There are 256 Columns in Excel dkye-;s lsYk dk ,d ofVZdy CykWd gksrk gS tks iwjh
Worksheet. odZ'khV esa pyrk gSA ,d dkye ls nwljs dkye esa
Cell: A Cell in the intersection of Row and Column. tkus gsrq ,sjk&dh ;k ekml dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA
It is a place where the user work and perform the ,d odZ'khV esa 256 dkWye gksrs gSaA
task. Whenever a user has to work in it, it has to be lsy-;s jkst vkSj dkWyEk dk baVjlsD'ku gksrk gSA lsy esa
activated by clicking. The Collection of Cells is fdlh izdkj dk baVªh djus ls iwoZ lsy dks ,fDVo djuk
known as Gridlines. vko';d gSA lsy dks ,sfDVo djus ds fy, lsy ij ekml
ls fDyd djuk gksxkA fDyd djus ij lsy lsysDV gks
Functions:Functions are the built in commands to
tkrk gS rRi'pkr~ vki mDr lsy esa dk;Z dj ldrs gSaA
perform a specific task. A function is system
defined reserve words with specific arguments to QaD'ku~-QaD'ku igys ls fu/kkZfjr Qkewy
Z k gksrs gSa ftudh
Spreadsheet T Balaji 31
perform a certain task. lgk;rk ls vki tfVy ls tfVy x.kuk;sa dj ldrs gSaA
blesa ,sls lSdM+ksa QD'ku gSa ftudh lgk;rk ls vki
Formulas: Formulas are the tricks with specific bathfu;fjax x.kuk;s]a lkaf[;dh; x.kuk;sa] foRrh; x.kuk;sa
procedures, yields the desiredresult. A formula is vkSj ikB~; lEcU/kh cgqr ls dk;Z dj ldrs gSaA
initiated with (=) Sign; it perform some operations
QkWeZy wZ k ges'kk ,d bZDoy Vw (=) fpUg~ ls
w k-,Dlsy esas QkWey
like mathematical calculations and Logical
izkjaHk gksrk gSA vki ,Dlsy esa QkewZyk dk iz;ksx gtkjks]a
operations and so on. yk[kksa MkVk esa ,d lkFk dj ldrs gSaA
Formula Bar: It is the bar where we write formulas QkWeZyw k ckj-QkWey
wZ k ckj ,d dkWULVsVa oSY;w ;k QkWewZyk] tks
and functions according to our requirement. We ,sfDVo lsy esa iz;ksx gksrk gS] iznf'kZr djrk gSA QkWey wZ k
can even edit formulas and functions in it. ckj dk iz;ksx] lsy daVVsa ~l dks ,fMV djus esa Hkh gksrk gSA
Name Box: It is the box on the formula bar that use ckDl-use ckDl] QkWeZwyk ckj ds ck,Wa fdukjs ij gksrk
gives the address of each cell. gSA ;g flysDVsM lsy] pkVZ vkbVe ;k Mªkbax vkWCtsDV dh
Scroll Bar: By using this button we move and scroll fLFkfr dks crkrk gS ;fn B6 ij dksbZ baVªh fd;k x;k gS
the view of the sheet quickly. rks ml lsy dks ,sfDVo djrs gh use ckDl esa B6 iznf'kZr
gksus yxsxkA
Active Worksheet: The worksheet on which we are
presently working. Ldzky ckj&Ldzky cVUl dk iz;ksx 'khV esa 'kh?kzrk ls ewo
djus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA
Sheet Tab: Whenever we open a workbook, we find
,sfDVo odZ'khV-orZeku esa ge ftl odZ'khV ij dke jgs gSa
three worksheets by default, by using Sheet tab we og odZ'khV ,sfDVo odZ'kkhV dgykrk gSA
can open any worksheet. Each worksheet is
'khV VSCl&,d VSc] ,d odZ cqd foaMks ds uhps dh vksj
identified by label given as Sheet1, Sheet2,
gksrk gS tks ,d odZ'khV dk uke iznf'kZr djrk gSA
Sheet3…etc. You can rename the sheet name usohxs'ku cVu dk iz;ksx dj vki ,d “khV ls nwljs “khV
according to your requirement. ij tk ldrs gSaA
Microsoft Excel 2003
It is earlier version of Microsoft Excel package, in Excel 2003 version, the operational and functional
commands are situated in Menus which that let the user to perform tasks on the Spreadsheet. It is
displayed in Gridlines means its working area is the collection of Rows & Columns and that is
formally known as Sheet. Microsoft Excel 2003 contains 9 menus of different kinds and moods like
File, Edit, View, Insert, Format, Tools, Data, Window and Help. Here we discuss about the Menus and
their operational commands in brief.
ekbØkslk¶V ,Dly 2003 ,d LisM z 'khV ,fIyds'ku gS ftlds dekaM ehuw vk/kkfjr gksrs gSA ;g ekbØkslk¶V ,Dly 2007
ds igys dk otZu gSA ;g xzhMykbu dh rjg iznf'kZr gksrk gS tks jks vkSj dkye ds dfEcus'ku ls curk gS ftls ge odZ'khV dgrs
gSA ekbØkslk¶V ,Dly 2003 esa ukS ehuw gksrs gS tks fuEuor~ gS&File, Edit, View, Insert, Format, Tools, Data, Window,oa
Help
Microsoft Excel 2007/2010
Microsoft Office Word 2007 helps you produce professional-looking documents by providing
a comprehensive set of tools for creating and formatting your document in a new interface. Rich
review, commenting, and comparison capabilities help you quickly gather and manage feedback from
colleagues. Advanced data integration ensures that documents stay connected to important sources
of business information
Microsoft Excel 2010 provides a rich library of functions and formulas which avail the user
to work in a user friendly environment. It contains a comprehensive tools and features with rich
contents to grasp the things faster. Unlike earlier version of Microsoft Excel 2003 & 2007, it has
changed its integrated environment with better look and concise group of tools.
 Presentation
Introduction to Presentation Package
PowerPoint a best presentation program of MicrosoftOffice and each page of presentation is called
slide. It is used for creating animations. The objective of this chapter is to make understand the
reader that how to create presentation using template, how to Open existing presentation slide, how
to Run a Slide Show during presentation, how to create table, insert clip Art, Pictures etc.
ekbØkslkW¶V ikWojikWbaV es]a tSlkfd vf/kdka'k vU; izstsUVs'ku lkW¶Vos;j esa gksrk gS] VsDLV] xzkfQDl] ewoht vkSj
vU; vkWCtsDV~l dks vyx&vyx istsl ;k LykbM~l ij j[kh tkrh gSaA ,d izstsUVs'ku dh vksojvkWy fMtkbu dks ,d
ekLVj LykbM ls daVªksy fd;k tk ldrk gSA izstsUVs'ku dks dbZ izdkj ds Qkby QkWeVsZ esa lso vkSj ju fd;k tk ldrk
gSA
Basics of Microsoft PowerPoint
There are few terms of Microsoft PowerPoint we will mention and discuss; here they are as
follows…
Presentation
A PowerPoint presentation is a presentation created using Microsoft PowerPoint software. The
presentation is a collection of individual slides that contain information on a topic. PowerPoint
presentations are commonly used in business meetings and for training and educational purposes.
çstsVa 's ku MkVk dks O;ofLFkr rjhds ls çnf'kZr djus dk ,d lqyHk rjhdk gS ftlds ek/;e ls vki fdlh fo"k; fo'ks"k ds
lqpuk dh çn'kZuh cukdj çLrqr dj ldrs gSaA ,d çstVsa 's ku <sj lkjs LykbM dk lewg gksrk gS tgk¡ ge çstVsa 's ku ds
fo"k; ls lEcaf/kr lqpuk dks best] VsDLV] v‚fM;ks ,oa fofM;ks ds ek/;e ls çnf'kZr djrs gSaA
Slides
Slide is a content page of the PowerPoint Presentation which completes a page to be printed along
with notes pages. It is the place using where you can type or insert the content about a presentation;
color it, assign a theme and style etc to make the presentation attractive
LykbM fdlh çstsVa 's ku esa ,d ist dh rjg gS tgk¡ ge çstVsa 's ku ds fo"k; ls lEcaf/kr lqpuk çnf'kZr djrs gSaA LykbM esa
dksbZ Hkh VsDLV Iysl gksYMj ds ek/;e ls bUlVZ djrs gSaA vkSj dyj ,oa Fkhe dk bLrseky dj çstsVa 's ku dks vkd"kZd
cukrs gSaA
Layout
Layout refers to the way things are arranged on a slide. A layout contains placeholders, which in turn
hold text such as titles and bulleted lists and slide content such as tables, charts, pictures, shapes,
and clip art.
ysvkmV fdlh Hkh çstsVa 's ku esa daVVsa ;k LykbM ds O;oLFkkiu ds fo"k; oLrq dks cksyrs gSaA çstVsa 's ku esa LykbM ds
ysvkmV esa Iysl gksYMj gksrs gSa tgk¡ ge VsDLV vkSj oSY;w bUlVZ djrs gSaA LykbM ds ysvkmV esa ge fiDpj] Vscy] pkVZ]
Hosting Websites T Balaji 33
VsDLV] v‚Vks 'ksi bR;knh bUlVZ dj ldrs gSaA çstsVa 's ku esa LykbM dbZ ysvkmV gksrs gSa ftUgsa ge vius t#jr ds fglkc
ls pqu ldrs gSaA
View
Microsoft PowerPoint provides several views in the presentation you can use and view and
demonstrate that as well. We have Normal view, Slide Sorter view, Notes Pages view, Slide Show
view, Slide Master View, Handouts Master, Notes Master view etc
ekbØksl‚¶V v‚fQl i‚oji‚baV çstsVa 's ku rS;kj djus ;k mls ns[kus vkSj çnf'kZr djus ds fy, dbZ rjg ds O;w çksokbM
djrh gS tSls ukeZy O;w] LykbM l‚VZj O;w] uksVl
~ istst O;w] gSaMvkmV ekLVj O;w] uksV~l ekLVj O;w bR;kfnA
SlideShow
The continuous display of images, text or shapes with a certain transition or animation either
sequentially or at random. Slide shows are created by stand-alone applications or a slide show
function within a photo editor. The interval between images is also selected by the user as well as an
audio file to provide background music.
LykbM 'kks çstsVa 's ku dk ,d O;w gksrk gS tks fdlh Hkh çstVsa 's ku ds ju eksM ¼çhO;w eksM½ dks n'kkZrk gSA bl O;w ds varxZr
çstsVa 's ku ds varxZr jfpr lHkh ,fyesVa dks muds lsfVax ,oa funs'Z ku ds fglkc ls çnf'kZr djrk gSA
Placeholder
In Microsoft PowerPoint, a placeholder is a box with a dotted outline, designed for the placement of
content on the slide. This placeholder is most commonly used for text. You will see a prompt within
the placeholder such as "Click to add text".
Iysl gksYMj LykbM ys ysvkmV ij fLFkr ,d ,fyesVa gksrk gS tks LykbM ij fdlh çdkj dk VsDLV buiqV djus ;k
bUlVZ djus ds fy, mi;ksx esa vkrk gSA ,d Iysl gksYMj esa ;fn vki daVVsa ;k VsDLV mlds fyfeV d ckgj bUlVZ
djrs gSa rc Iysl gksYMj VsDLV dks ldqfpr dj ¼Q‚UV lkbtNksVk dj½ mUgsa mlh Iysl gksYMj ds varxZr flfer j[krk
gSA
Design Template
A design template acts like a designer and decorator for the slides. You use a number of theme
templates, and colors and controls to do it possible. It is created so that even though different slide
types can have different layouts and graphics, the whole presentation goes together as an attractive
package.
çstsVa 's ku esa dbZ rjg ds VsEiysV miyC/k gSa ftUgsa vki bLrseky dj ,d fuf'pr rFkk fu;r dyj Fkhe dk bLrseky dj
vki VsEiysV bLrseky dj ldrs gSa ,oa fMtkbZu dj ldrs gSaA vki çstsVa 's ku ds LykbM esa vyx&vyx rjg ds dyj
,oa fMtkbZu lsV dj ldrs gSaA
Microsoft PowerPoint 2003
Microsoft PowerPoint 2003 is used to create Presentations typically have the file extension .ppt;
however, you can also save PowerPoint presentations as Adobe Acrobat documents with the file
extension .pdf. Finally, you can save your presentation as a web page, with the file extension .html or
.htm. The operational commands of MS PowerPoint 2003 reside in menus and sub-menus where we
can get those and execute them.
ekbØksl‚¶V i‚oji‚baV 2003 tks ,d çstsVa 's ku l‚¶Vosयj gS] çstsVa 's ku cukus ds fy, bLrseky gksrh gSA bldk
,DlVs'a ku .ppt gksrk gSA bl çstsVa 's ku dks vki ,Mc ,ØkscVs M‚D;weVsa esa dUoVZ dj ldrs gSa vkSj bls osc ist Qkby esa
Hkh lso dj ldrs gSaA ekbØksl‚¶V i‚oji‚baV ds v‚ijs'kuy dekaM~l ehuw ,oa lc&ehuw esa jgrs gSaA
 Internet
Introduction
It is a global system to interconnect computer network. You can connect your computer to any
computer anywhere either in India or abroad. Internet is wide area network which allows a user to
access the data or information stored on web and it provide number of facilities like email, web
portals, chat, social networking, blogging, online transactions and so on.
bUVjusV ,d usVodZ tky gksrk gS tks Xykscy Lrj ij lHkh daI;wVjdks baVjdusDV djrk gSA bUVjusV ,d
okbM ,fj;k usVodZ gksrk gS tks fdlh bUVjusV ;wtj dks osc ij LVksMZ ¼fLFkr½ fdlh Hkh MkVk ;k buQkesZ'ku dks ,Dlsl
djus dh lqfo/kk nsrk gSA blds }kjk çnÙk dbZ rjg dh lfoZlt s gSa tSls bZesy] osc iksVZYl] pSV] lks'ky usVofdax Z ]
Cy‚fxax] v‚uykbu VªktsDlu bR;kfnA
fo'o esa izfrfnu ,d djksM+ ls Hkh vf/kd yksxksa }kjk mi;ksx gksus okyk] gtkjksa rduhdksa vkSj ntZuksa lfoZlts
dk ,d cgqr gh dkWEIysDl dkWafEcus'ku gSaA baVjusV dscy ;k VsyhQksu ykbu ls tqM+s dEI;wVjksa dh ,d ,slh fo'oO;kih
vUrlZEcfU/kr J`a[kyk gS ftlds ek/;e ls dgha Hkh vkadM+ksa o dk;Zdzeksa dks rRdky izkIr ;k izsf"kr fd;k tk ldrk gSA
History of Internet
It began in 1970’s and 1980’s. The Internet as we know it today began as the ARPANET(Advanced
Research Projects Agency Network) built by a division of the Department of Defense. Many local area
networks connected to the ARPANET with TCP/IP. TCP-Transmission Control Protocol/IP-Internet
Protocol was developed in 1974. The ARPANET was shut down in 1990 due to newer network
technology and the need for greater bandwidth on the backbone. In the late ‘70’s the NSFNET, the
National Science Foundation Network was developed. This network relied on super computers in San
Diego; Boulder; Champaign; Pittsburgh; Ithaca; and Princeton. Each of these six super computers had
a microcomputer tied to it which spoke TCP/IP.
Further developments in networking lead to the design of the ANSNET -- Advanced
Networks and Services Network. ANSNET was a joint effort by MCI, Merit and IBM specifically for
commercial purposes. This large network was sold to AOL in 1995. The National Science Foundation
then awarded contracts to four major network access providers: Pacific Bell in San Francisco,
Ameritech in Chicago, MFS in Washington DC and Sprint in New York City. By the mid ‘80's the
collection of networks began to be known as the “Internet' in university circles. TCP/IP remains the
glue that holds it together. In January 1992 the Internet Society was formed – a misleading name
since the Internet is really a place of anarchy. It is controlled by those who have the fastest lines and
can give customers the greatest service today. The primary Internet-related applications used today
include: Email, News retrieval, Remote Login, File Transfer and World Wide Web access and
development.
baVjusV dh 'kq:okr 1970,oa 1980ds n'kd esa gqvk FkkA bUVjusV ARPANET ¼,Mokal fjlpZ çkstsDV~l
a h usVodZ½ ds uke ls fMQsUl fMikVZeVsa }kjk 'kq# fd;k x;k FkkA 1974esa dbZ yksdy ,fj;k usVodZ ARPANET ls
,tsl
TCP/IPdh enn ls dusDV fd;s tkrs FksA lwpukvksa ds vknku&iznku ds fy, ftl fu;e dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gS mls
Vªkalfe'ku dUVªksy izksVksdky ;k baVjusV izksVksdky dgrs gSaA Vªkalfe'ku dUVªksy izksVksdky esa MkVk dbZ NksVs&NksVs iSdsVksa esa
foHkkftr gksrk gS tcfd baVjusV izksVksdky dk dk;Z iSdsVksa ij xUrO; irksa dh lwpuk Mkyuk gksrk gSA fdlh Hkh dEI;wVj
dks baVjusV ls tksM+us ds fy, VsyhQksu ykbu dks baVjusV lfoZl izksokbMj ls tksM+uk iM+rk gSA Hkkjr esa baVjusV lsok dk
loZizFke mi;ksx 15 vxLr] 1995 dks fons'k lapkj fuxe fyfeVsM }kjk fd;k x;k Fkk rRi'pkr~ vU; dEifu;ksa }kjk Hkh
baVjusV dk mi;ksx eq[; #i ls fd;k tkus yxkA
Hosting Websites T Balaji 35

Web Programming
Web page is a document on internet written and constructed using HTML and are translated by your
Web browser. Web pages can either be static or dynamic. Static pages show the same content each
time they are viewed. Dynamic pages have content that can be changed while run time. A web page
can be designed using several web page technologies like HTML, ASP, PHP, ASP.NET, Adobe
Dreamweaver, Cold Fusion and many more. Here we will be discussing some of them.
oscist ,pVh,e,y ¼gkbij VsDLV ekdZvi ySaXost½ ij fy[kk gqvk MkD;weVsa l~ gksrk gS ftldks VªkaLysV djus ds fy, osc
czkmtj dk iz;ksx gksrk gSA osc ist nks izdkj ds gksrs gS &LVSfVd vkSj MkbusfedA osc ist fØ,V djus ds laHkkfor
rduhd gSa & ,pVh,e,y] ,,lih] ih,pih] ,,lih-usV] ,Mc Mªheohoj] dksYM ¶;wtu bR;kfnA ;gk¡ ge dqN osc rduhd
ds ckjs esa ppkZ djsx
a As
URL (Uniform Resource Locator)
Every Web page has a unique address called a URL which identifies where it is located on the Web
For example the URL for Google http://www.google.co.in. The basic parts of a URL often provide
"clues" to where a web page originates and who might be responsible for the information at that page
or site.
;wvkj,y izR;sd ist dk viuk vyx ;wuhd ,MSªl gksrk gS ftls ;wvkj,y ¼;wfuQkeZ fjlkslZ yksdsVj½ dgrs gSaA ;g osc ij
ml ist ds yksds’ku dks vkbMsfUVQkbZ djrk gSA

HTML (Hyper Text Markup Language)

HyperText Markup Language is a markup language that web browsers use to interpret
and compose text, images and other material into visual or audible web pages. Default characteristics
for every item of HTML markup are defined in the browser, and these characteristics can be altered
or enhanced by the web page designer's additional use of CSS (Cascading Style Sheets).
The information on the web server is compiled in Hyper Text Markup Language. It has useful
text and images linked to different documents. It deals with images, sounds and videos etc.
,pVh,e,y ,d osc ist fMtkbfuax ySaXost gS tks osc ist esa çnf'kZr MkVk dks dEikby ;k VªkalysV djrk gSA
blesa VsDLV ,oa bestst ds ek/;e ls nwljs fHkUu M‚D;weVsa ls fyad djrs gSAa HTML }kjk fufeZr osc ist VsDLV] best]
lkmaM ,oa fofM;ks dks çnf'kZr dj ldrs gSaA
,pVh,e,y ,d lk/kkj.k ySaXost gs tks osc ist fØ;sV djus esa bLrseky gksrh gSA ,pVh,e,y ,d izdkj ds <tag>
WebPageDesigning ds fy, bLrseky fd;k tkrk gSA HTML esa T;knkrj <tag>....</tag>bl rjg iz;ksx gksrk
gSA <tags> Web Page Document ds Content dks of.kZr djrk gSA
,pVh,e,y ,d vksisu Source Code gksrk gS ftldh Coding lkekU;r% Notepad esa dh tkrh gS ftldk
File Extension .html gksrk gSA ;s QkbZy Lor% Web Page File esa :ikUrfjr gks tkrh gSA ftls ge vius dEI;wVj
flLVe ds Default Web Browser esa ns[k ldrs gSaA
PHP
PHP (recursive acronym for "PHP: Hypertext Preprocessor") is a widely-used Open Source
general-purposescripting language that is especially suited for Web development and can be
embedded into HTML.
PHP is an HTML-embedded scripting language. Much of its syntax is borrowed from C, Java and
Perl with a couple of unique PHP-specific features thrown in. The goal of the language is to allow web
developers to write dynamically generated pages quickly."
This is generally a good definition of PHP. However, it does contain a lot of terms you may not be
used to. Another way to think of PHP is a powerful, behind the scenes scripting language that your
visitors won't see!
When someone visits your PHP webpage, your web server processes the PHP code. It then sees
which parts it needs to show to visitors (content and pictures) and hides the other stuff (file
operations, math calculations, etc.) then translates your PHP into HTML. After the translation into
HTML, it sends the webpage to your visitor's web browser.
<html>
<head>
<title>My First PHP Page</title>
</head>
<body>
<?php
echo "Hello World!";
?>
</body>
</html>

Display:
Hello World!
If you save this file and place it on PHP enabled server and load it up in your web browser, then
you should see "Hello World!" displayed. If not, please check that you followed our example correctly.
We used the PHP function echo to write "Hello World!" and we will be talking in greater depth about
this PHP function and many others later on in this tutorial.
<html>
<head>
<title>My First PHP Page</title>
</head>
<body>
<?php
echo "Hello World! ";
echo "Hello World! ";
echo "Hello World! ";
echo "Hello World! ";
echo "Hello World! ";
?>
Hosting Websites T Balaji 37

Dynamic HTML
The term Dynamic HTML, often abbreviated as DHTML, refers to the technique of making Web pages
dynamic by client-side scripting to manipulate the document content and presentation. Web pages
can be made more lively, dynamic, or interactive by DHTML techniques.
With DHTML you can prescribe actions triggered by browser events to make the page more lively
and responsive. Such actions may alter the content and appearance of any parts of the page. The
changes are fast and efficient because they are made by the browser without having to network with
any servers. Typically the client-side scripting is written in Java script which is being standardized.
Mk;ukfed ,pVh,e,y ,d VeZ gS ftldk ç;ksx Mk;ukfed osc ist cukus esa fd;k tkrk gS ftles DykbaV lkbM ls
fdlh fo'ks"k çdkj dh fLØfIVax dj osc M‚D;weVsa dks eSfuiqysV fd;k tkrk gSA dksbZ osc ist Mk;ukfed ,pVh,e,y dh
enn ls vkSj Hkh T;knk Mk;ukfed ,oa çHkkoh gks tkrk gS tks fdlh Hkh çdkj ds bosVa dks ju Vkbe esa gh bEIyhesVa djus
dh {kerk j[krk gSA
Contrary to what the name may suggest, DHTML is not a markup language or a software tool. It is a
technique to make dynamic Web pages via client-side programming. In the past, DHTML relies on
browser/vendor specific features to work. Making such pages work for all browsers requires much
effort, testing, and unnecessarily long programs.
Mk;ukfed ,pVh,e,y dksbZ l‚¶Vos;j ;k ,Iyhds'ku ugha gS cfYd ,d rduhd gS ftldh enn ls osc ist fMtkbZu
fd;s tkrs gSaA ,d Mk;ukfed osc ist cukus ds fy, vkidks ,pVh,e,y] fLØIV ¼tkok ;k fotqvy csfld½ ,oa dSLdsfMax
LVkby 'khV dh vko';drk gksrh gS tks IysVQkeZ bafMisM
a Vsa gSaA bUgsa fØ,V djus ds fy, vkidks fdlh [kkl ,Iyhds'ku
;k l‚¶Vos;j dh fuHkZjrk ugha jgrhA
Standardization efforts at W3C and elsewhere are making it possible to write standard based
DHTMLthat work for all compliant browsers.
Standard-based DHTML involves three aspects:
 Java script for cross-browser scripting
 Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) for style and presentation control.
 Document Object Model (DOM) for a uniform programming interface to access and
manipulate the Web page as a document.
When these three aspects are combined, you get the ability to program changes in Web pagesin
reaction to user or browser generated events, and therefore to make HTML pages moredynamic.
Popular withWeb developers, supported by all major browsers, and standardized, Javascriptprovides
the ability to program browser actions in response to events. To have true cross-platform DHTML,
we still need a uniform way for Javascript to access and manipulate Webdocuments. This brings us to
the DOM.
Advantages of DHTML
DHTML is merely a browser feature that provides your browser (Web page) to be dynamic. DHTML
is not Java script although it relies on it, but Java script used in webpage relies heavily on the fourth
generation browser features. So, in short although it is Java script and HTML but can't be called so
because of its reliance on the browser features. Only those 4th generation browser allows over web
page to be dynamic.
Mk;ukfed ,pVh,e,y ,d czkmtj Qhpj gS tks lkekU;r% prqFkZ tujs'ku czkmtj }kjk gh liksVZ fd;k tkrk tkrk gSA
Mk;ukfed ,pVh,e,y dks tkok fLØIV ugha dgk tk ldrk cfYd ;g tkok fLØIV ij fuHkZj gSA ;g lkekU;
,pVh,e,y ,oa tkok fLØIV dk lfeJ.k gksrk gS ysfdu bUgsa ;g iqdkjk ugha tkrkA Mk;ukfed ,pVh,e,y ,d czkmtj
Qhpj gksrk gSA
 CSS(Cascading Style
Sheets)
A CSS (cascading style sheet) file allows you to separate your web sites(X)HTML content from its
style. As always you use your (X)HTML file toarrange the content, but all of the presentation (fonts,
colors,background, borders, text formatting, link effects & so on...) areaccomplished within a CSS.At
this point you have some choices of how to use the CSS, eitherinternally or externally.
dSLdsfMax LVkby 'khV ;k laf{kIr esa lh,l,l ,d çdkj dk Mh,pVh,e,y daiksuVsa gksrk gS tks fdlh osc ist esa daVVsa ~l
tSls VsDLV] bestst] xzkfQDl] VscYl bR;kfn dks Q‚esZV ,oa vykbu ¼O;oLFkkiu½ djus ds dke esa vkrh gSA lh,l,l ds
Hkh vius dqN Dyklst ,oa ,yseVsa ~l gksrs gSa ftUgsa ç;ksx dj ge fdlh osc ist dks Mk;ukfed cukrs gSaA
dSLdsfMax LVkby 'khV çk;% nks rjhds ds gksrs gSa & igyk baVjuy LVkby 'khV ,oa nwljk ,DlVuZy LVkby 'khVA
Internal Stylesheet
First we will explore the internal method. This way you are simply placing the CSS code within the
<head></head> tags of each (X)HTML file you want to style with the CSS. The format for this is
shown in the example below.
baVjuy LVkby 'khV oks LVkby 'khV gksrh gS ftls osc ist ds lkslZ dksM ds lkFk gh dksM fd;k tkrk gS ftls ,d
LVkby VSx dh enn ls ç;ksx dj fy;k tkrk gSA
With this method each (X)HTML file contains the CSS code needed to style the page. Meaning that
any changes you want to make to one page, will have to be made to all. This method can be good if
you need to style only one page, or if you want different pages to have varying styles.
Here we see an example…
<html>
<head>
<title></title>
<style type="text/css">
CSS Content Goes Here…
</style>
</head>
<body> ……… </body>
</html>
External Stylesheet
Next we will explore the external method. An external CSS file can be created with any text or HTML
editor such as "Notepad" or "Dreamweaver". A CSS file contains no (X) HTML, only CSS. You simply
save it with the .css file extension. You can link to the file externally by placing one of the following
links in the head section of every (X) HTML file you want to style with the CSS file.
,DlVuZy LVkby 'khV oks LVkby 'khV gksrs gSa ftUgsa dksM djus ds fy, ge ,d vyx ls Qkby cuk ysrs gSa vkSj mls
Qkby dk ,DlVs'a ku -lh,l,l lsV djrs gSa vkSj fQj ml lh,l,l Qkby dks vius ,pVh,e,y ds lkslZ Qkby ls
tksM+nrs s gSaA ,slk djus ij ge fdlh lh,l,l Qkby dks osc ist esa fyad djus ds lkFk lkFk mls ç;ksx Hkh dj ldrs
gSaA
Here we see the procedure to implement external kind of style sheets…
<html>
<head>
<title><title>
<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css"href="style.css" />
Hosting Websites T Balaji 39

Hosting Websites
To make your web site visible to the world, you'll have to store it on a web server. This very process
is called hosting websites. In other words you have to make this visible by providing a space on web
following with a unique name (domin name) to be access by the internet user. After finishing
designing your web page, you have to find a web hosting provider which will provide you a schema
for hosting your website then you will be come to this so far.
Hosting your own Web site
Hosting your web site on your own server is always an option. Here are some points to consider:
Hardware Expenses
To run a "real" web site, you will have to buy some powerful server hardware. Don't expect that a low
cost PC will do the job. You will also need a permanent (24 hours a day) high-speed connection.
Software Expenses
Remember that server-licenses often are higher than client-licenses. Also note that server-licenses
might have limits on number of users.
Labor Expenses
Don't expect low labor expenses. You have to install your own hardware and software. You also have
to deal with bugs and viruses, and keep your server constantly running in an environment where
"everything could happen".
Using an Internet Service Provider
Renting a server from an Internet Service Provider (ISP) is a common option. Most small companies
store their web site on a server provided by an ISP. Here are some advantages:
Connection Speed
Most ISPs have very fast connections to the Internet.
Powerful Hardware
ISPs often have powerful web servers that can be shared by several companies. You can also expect
them to have an effective load balancing, and necessary backup servers.
Security and Stability
ISPs are specialists on web hosting. Expect their servers to have more than 99% up time, the latest
software patches, and the best virus protection.
Things to Consider with an ISP
Daily Backup
Make sure your ISP runs a daily backup routine, otherwise you may lose some valuable data.
Traffic Volume
Study the ISP's traffic volume restrictions. Make sure that you don't have to pay a fortune for
unexpected high traffic if your web site becomes popular.
Bandwidth or Content Restrictions
Study the ISP's bandwidth and content restrictions. If you plan to publish pictures or broadcast video
or sound, make sure that you can.
E-mail Capabilities
Make sure your ISP supports the e-mail capabilities you need.
Front Page Extensions
If you use FrontPage to develop your web site, make sure your ISP supports FrontPage server
extensions.
Database Access
If you plan to use data from databases on your web site, make sure your ISP supports the database
access you need.
Web Hosting Domain Names
A domain name is a unique name for your web site. Choosing a hosting solution should include
domain name registration. Your domain name should be easy to remember and easy to type.
What is a Domain Name?
A domain name is a unique name for a web site, like w3schools.com. Domain names must be
registered. When domain names are registered, they are added to a large domain name register. In
addition, information about the web site, including the IP address, is stored on a DNS server. DNS
stands for Domain Name System. A DNS server is responsible for informing all other computers on
the Internet about the domain name and the web site address.
Registering a Domain
Domains can be registered from domain name registration companies. These companies provide
interfaces to search for available domain names, and they offer a variety of domain name extensions
that can be registered at the same time.
Choosing a Domain Name
Choosing a domain name is a major step for any individual or organization. New domain name
extensions and creative thinking still offer thousands of excellent domain names! When choosing a
name, it is important to consider the purpose of a domain name, which is to provide an easy way to
reach your web site. The best domains have the following characteristics: Short - People don't like to
type! A short domain name is easier to type, read, and remember. Meaningful - A short domain is
nothing without meaning, 34i4nh.com is not easy to enter or to remember. Select a domain that
relates to your site in a way that people will understand. Clear - Clarity is important when selecting a
domain name. Avoid a name that is difficult to spell or pronounce.
Exposure - Names that are short and easy to remember are an asset. In addition to visitors, also
consider search engines. Search engines index your site and rank it for relevance against terms
people search for. In order to maximize your sites exposure, consider including a relevant search
term in your domain. Of course, only consider this if it still maintains a short, clear and meaningful
domain name.
Sub Domains
Most people are unaware that they use sub domains daily. The famous "www" of the World Wide
Web is an example of a sub domain. Sub domains can be created on a DNS server, and they don't need
to be registered with a domain name registrar, of course, the original domain name needs to be
registered before a sub domain could be created. Examples of sub domains used on the internet are
http://store.apple.com and http://support.microsoft.com. Sub domains can be requested from your
web hosting provider.
 Database Management
System
Introduction
Information and data are different;information is understood by a person and thedata are values
stored on a passive medium like a computer disk. The purpose of a database management system
(DBMS) is to bridge the gap between information and data - the data stored in memory or on disk
must be converted to usable information. A database is set of information with relative fields is
kindly known as database.
MsVkcsl v‚ijs'ku dk rkRi;Z MsVkcsl eSuts esVa ls lEcaf/kr dk;Z dks vatke nsus ls gSA MsVkcsl ds lUnHkZ esa buQkesZ'ku
¼lwpuk½ ,oa MkVk esa dkQh QdZ gksrk gS tcfd MkVk dsoy ,d oSY;w gksrh gS ftls vki vius daI;wVj flLVe ds eseksjh esa
LVksj djrs gSa ftudh dM+h ls dM+h feykdj lqpuk cuk;ha tkrh gSA lqpuk ,oa MkVk ds chp dh dM+h ds dM+h dks
MsVkcsl eSut
s esVa flLVe ls tksM+k tkrk gSA MsVkcsl fdlh fo"k; fo'ks"k rFkk lEcaf/kr QhYM dh lwpuk dk lsV gksrk gS
ftlls ml fo"k; fo'ks"k dh lwpuk dk vknku çnku fd;k tk lds] mls MsVkcsl dgrs gSaA
The basic processes that are supported by a DBMS are…
• Specification of data types, structures and constraints to be considered in an application
• Storing the data itself into persistent storage
• Manipulation of the database
• Querying the database to retrieve desired data
• Updating the content of the database
Datebase
A database is a model of a real world system. The contents (sometimes called the extension) of a
database represent the state of what is being modeled. Changes in the database represent events
occurring in the environment that change the state of what is being modeled. It is appropriate to
structure a database to mirror what it is intended to model.
MsVkcsl fdlh Hkh lwpuk ,oa fo"k; fo'ks"k dk e‚My gksrk gSA fdlh Hkh MsVkcsl dk daVVsa ;g çnf'kZr djrk gS dh MsVkcsl
esa D;k e‚My fd;k tk jgk gS eryc MsVkcsl esa fdl çdkj dh oSY;w eSfuiqysV fd;k tk jgk gSA MsVkcsl fdlh fo"k;
fo'ks"k ds lwpukvksa dk laxzg gksrk gS tks mlds ckjs esa ;k lEcaf/kr lHkh lqpuk dks oxhZ ‟r djds lewgokj rjhds ls
O;ofLFkr djrs gSaA tSls ,dfo"k; ysa & LVwMVsa ¼Nk=½ ftls vki crkSj MsVkcsl VkbVy ds rkSj ij MsVkcsl fØ,V dj
ldrs gSa ftles vki LVwMVsa ls lEcaf/kr lHkh lwpuk,a tSls mldk jksy uaå] uke] firk dk uke] d{kk bR;kfn lqpuk tks ड़
ldrs gSaA
Database Management System
A database management system (DBMS) is a collection of programs that enables users to create and
maintain a database. According to the ANSI/SPARC DBMS Report, a DBMS should be envisioned as a
multi-layered system…
MsVkcsl eSut
s esVa flLVe çksxzke dk dysD'ku ¼lewg½ gksrk gS tks ,d ;wtj dks MsVkcsl fØ,V djus ,oa esVa us djus dh
vuqefr ,oa lqfo/kk çnku djrk gSA MsVkcsl eSut
s esVa flLVe ds dbZ mnkgj.k gSa tks MsVkcsl fØ,V fØ,V ,oa eSfuiqysV
djrs gSaA ;gk¡ ge ANSI/SPARC ds DBMS fjiksVZ ds fo"k; esa ppkZ djsx
a s ftlds vuqlkj ,d MsVkcsl eSut
s esVa flLVe
dks eYVh&ys;j flLVe esa ns[kk tkrk gSA

External level External View 1 External View 2

Conceptual Schema
Conceptual level

Internal
Internal level Schema

Physical level Physical

Database

 External level - It is the external(View) level of the database architecture where we can be
able to view the data stored on the database.
 Conceptual level - It is the intermediatry or mid-level process where all the definition and
manipulation related to database is made.
 Internal Level- It is the internal level of the database management system where data
control following with the internal schema is created and maintained.
 Physical level - It is the physical level of the database architecture where the data is stored
physically in a table or network.
Schema
This illustrates ovel-all structure of a database along with data records entered. As the name implies
it shows the scheme of a database. It is the initial process where we define the data fields with
appropriate data types is formally known as Schema.
Ldhek fdlh Hkh MsVkcsl ds lEiw.kZ LVªDpj dks muds oSY;w ds lkFk çnf'kZr djrk gSA tSlk dh bldk uke gS
;g fdlh Hkh MsVkcsl dh Ldhe dks n'kkZrk gSA ;g fdlh u, MsVkcsl ds fØ,V djrs oä dk 'kq#okrh çksll s
gS tgk¡ ge MsVkcsl ds QhYM~l dks muds ,fVªC;wV ds lkFk fØ,V djrs gSaA
Sub Schema
It is derived from Schema depends upon the Application for the database management system being
used for the logical view of the data. As the database contains many of the records in the form of table
and a record among is treated as Subschema. A Schema can have many Subschema.
 Microsoft Access
Microsoft Access is application software what is used to create and manipulate database. It is one of
the application software in Microsoft Office Suite. Microsoft Access is a relational database
management system what does create or manipulate a database in the form of tables and queries.
ekbØkslk¶V ,Dlsl ,d MkVkcsl eSustesaV lkW¶Vos;j iSdst gS ftldh lgk;rk ls MkVkcsl fØ;sV djrs ¼Table,
Forms, Query and Report½,oa eSfuiqysV djrs gSaA
Database
A database is a model of a real world system. The contents (sometimes called the extension) of a
database represent the state of what is being modeled. Changes in the database represent events
occurring in the environment that change the state of what is being modeled. It is appropriate to
structure a database to mirror what it is intended to model.
fdlh fo"k;&oLrq ds ckjs esa n'kkZ;h x;h iwjh lwpuk ds laxzg dks MsVkcsl dgrs gSaAMkVkcsl eSustesaV ds izeq[k mnkgj.k
fuEufyf[kr gSa&MS Access, MySQL, SQL Server, Oracle etc.
DBMS (Database Management System)
A database management system (DBMS) is acollection of programs that enables users to createand
maintain a database.
MsVkcsl eSustesVa flLVe ,d izdkj dk lkW¶Vos;j iSdst gksrk gS tks MsVkcsl fØ;sV djus] eSfuiqysVdjus ,oa viMsV djus
esa iz;ksx gksrk gSA
Microsoft Access 2003
Microsoft Access 2003 is an RDBMS application what comes in use for creating and manipulating
databases. It overcame the previous version Access 2002 with new enhanced feature and durability.
It yields better comprehensive look and feature for ease of access. It uses .mdb file extension for the
databases it creates.
ekbØksl‚¶V ,Dlsl 2003,d fjys'kuy MsVkcsl eSustesaV flLVe ,Iyhds'ku gksrk gS tks ,d MsVkcsl dks fØ,V djus ,oa mls
eSfuiqysV djus ds mi;ksx esa vkrk gSA blus vius igys ds otZu 2002dks vksojVsd fd;k vkSj dbZ u, Qhpj ,oa VwYl ds lkFk gh
lkFk u, yqd dk Hkh vkxeu djk;k ftlds ckn bls bLrseky djuk dkQh ljy ,oa çHkkoh gks x;kA ekbØksl‚¶V ,Dlsl 2003[kqn
ds }kjk fØ,V fd;s x, MsVkcsl ds fy, .mdb¼ekmaVsM MsVkcsl½ ,DlVs'a ku bLrseky djrk gSA
Microsoft Office Access 2007
Microsoft OfficeAccess 2007 includes a suite of prebuilt tracking applications in the form of
templates that you can use to get started quickly. Use them right out-of-the-box or enhance and
refine them to track information your way. You can employ new views and layouts, enhanced sorting
and filtering, rich text, multi valued fields, split forms, and a host of new features to create richer,
better tracking applications and effectively share tracked information with others.
ekbØksl‚¶V v‚fQl ,Dlsl 2007igys ls dkQh rst ,oa igys ls fufeZr Vªsfdax ,Iyhds'ku dks crkSj VsEiysV dh rjg bLrseky djus
dh lqfo/kk nsrk gS ftlls vki dksbZ Hkh MsVkcsl mís'; cM+h vklkuh ls gkfly dj ldrs gSaA bl otZu esa ekbØksl‚¶V ,Dlsl 2003ds
esuw flLVe dks fjewo dj VSc flLVe yk;k x;k gS ftldk iz;ksx dkQh vklkuçn gSA bl otZu esa vkidks Qhpj fcYdqy u, ,oa
çHkkoh rjhds tSls MkVk osfyMs'ku] MkVk fQYVfjax] l‚fVaZx] Q‚eZ fLIyV bR;kfn dh lqfo/kk miyC/k gS ftlls vki fdlh MsVkcsl dks
fØ,V djus ds lkFk&lkFk mls 'ks;j djus] fLIyV djus] VªSd djus bR;kfn dh vuqefr ,oa lqfo/kk feyrh gSA
 Introduction to ‘C’
Programming
The Basic Model of Computation
The Basic model of Computation can be considered as a program executed step by step following
with the instructions given by the user to solve a problem or program at end. We formally give a set
instruction for a program to be executed and it made executed the program within a certain
procedure. Consider a real time event or program i.e. cooking tea where you need all the
prerequisites for making that possible like Tea leaves, sugar, milk or water; after boiling the tea
leaves in the water or milk along with certain amount of sugar you can have tea to be served in the
same way you need all the necessary things for a program like variable to store value, operators to
perform operation following with instructions you can be able to solve a problem at end.
fdlh Hkh ç‚Cye ;k çksxzke dks laiw.kZr% lqy>kus ds fy, gesa LVsi ckbZ LVsi funs'Z kksa dks fØ;kfUor djrs jguk gksxk
rRi'pkr gh ge fdlh leL;k dks lqy>k ikrs gSaA ge fdlh çksxzke dks lksYo djus ds fy, ,d fu;r funs'Z k nsrs gSaA
vkSj ml fu;r funs'Z k ds vuqlkj gh ml çksxkz e ddks Øeokj rjhds ls lqy>krs gSaA tSls dh fj;y Vkbe bosVa dks gh
mngkj.k ds rkSj ij ysa rks ik,axs dh mu lHkh dk;Z dks fØ;kfUor djus ds fy, gesa ,d fu;r funs'Z k ds vuqlkj gh
fdlh dk;Z dks vatke nsrs gSa pkgs oks funs'Z k Lo;a }kjk gh çsf"kr D;ksa u gksA ;gk¡ uhps daI;wVj çksxzke ls lEcaf/kr dqN
phtsa lanfHkZr dh x;h gS &
We consider the following things while or before computing a program…
 Make sure the output of the program then define the prerequisites for that program
 Declare the variables for that program and import necessary resources
 Form proper syntax of the program as per the procedure
 Use necessary functions and methods to get the desired result at end

Program Concepts
While solving a problem, a certain procedure is followed as the phases for the program executing and
debugging. There is number of levels involved what they play their role from starting to code a
program to finish a program by executing.
çksxzke dkalsIV dk eryc ;g gS dh fdlh çksxkz e dks lksYo djus ds fy, fu;r rjhds ,oa çkslhtj dh t#jr iM+rh gSA
,slk djus ij ge fdlh çksxzke dks vklkuh ls fØ;kfUor djus ds lkFk lkFk mls fMcx Hkh dj ldrs gSaA çksxzke dkalIs V
ds varxZr dbZ pj.k gksrs gSa ftuds vius Lo;a ds fdjnkj gksrs gSa ftudh enn ls ge fdlh çksxkz e dks vklkuh ls
fØ;kfUor djrs gSaA
Understand the Problem
We need to first fetch the problem what you have to solve or make that execute. For solving a
problem first you need to understand the things or problem that how and what manner it may be
solved or executed then write an algorithm for that problem step by step that will make the things
more clearly or make a diagram or flow chart of the problem that is considered more clear to form a
program before coding it.
Introduction to ‘C’ programming T Balaji 45
çksxzke dkalsIV ds rgr lcls igys gesa çksxzke ds mís'; ,oa lEcaf/kr leL;k dks le>uk gksxkA ;g çksxzke dkalsIV dh
lcls igyh ,oa vge~ dM+h gSA çksxzke ds mís'; ,oa lEcaf/kr leL;k dks iq.kZ~;rk le>us ds rRi'pkr ge ml çksxzke dh
:i js[kk dks ,YxksfjFke ,oa ¶yks pkVZ dh enn ls js[kkafdr djrs gSaA
Draw Algorithm/Flow Chart
Draw or prepare Algorithm or Flow chart or both to draw the architecture of the program so that it
can be formed into program code easily and accurately. Algorithm is something what, is written or
constructed step by step in a concise and clear way to solve a problem at end Whereas Flow chart is a
graphical notation or representation with a certain definition demonstrate the program flow and
control along with the given instructions.
;g çksxzke dkalIs V dh nwljh dM+h gS ftles fdlh çksxzke ds mís'; ,oa leL;k ds rgr ge ,d ,YxksfjFke ;k ¶yks pkVZ
cukrs gSaA ,YxksfjFke ,d çkphu çksxkz feax rduhd gS ftles ge fdlh çksxzke dks Øeokj rjhds ls lqy>krs gSa tcfd ¶yks
pkVZ ,d xzkfQdy fjçtsVa 's ku gS ftlds rgr ge fdlh çksxzke ds ,DthD;wlu ds ¶yks dks fu;r fp=ksa ds ek/;e ls
çLrqr djrs gSa A
Make Declarations
Declare the necessary variables or functions for that problem you understood at the first level.
Declarations may be local or global within a scope you can use as per the requirement. Variable
declaration is something what you assign a data type definition on that kind of value only it can
perform. Variables are the containers what contains a certain kind of value and are used in an
operation.
çksxkz e ds mís'; ,oa leL;k dks le>us vkSj mldk ,YxksfjFke ,oa ¶yks pkVZ dks cukus ds i'pkr ges vius çksxzke esa
t:jh fMDysjs'ku djus dh vko';drk iM+rh gSA tSls dh osfj,cy fMDysvj djuk] QaD'ku fMDysvj djuk bR;kfnA
Program Coding
It is the section where we write the code as per the program objective and Algorithms/Flowchart
drawn. It is set of some predefined code syntax along with set of instructions to execute the problem
at end. Program coding is the major step of programming where we code the program as the output
objective following with the predefined syntax and given instructions. A Program is always written in
its program IDE where it is fully concerned and supported to be designed and developed. After
coding the program we compile it and convert into object class so that you can be able to run it with
no error to get the desired output.
bu lc ds i'pkr ge çksxzke ds t#jr ,oa vkmViqV dks /;ku esa j[krs gq, çksxzke dh dksfMax djrs gSaA tSlk dh ge
tkurs gSa dh çksxkz e dks dksM djus ds fy, ges t:jh osfj,cy ,oa QaD'ku fMDysvj djus iM+ax
s s ,oa mUgsa Øec) rjhds
ls lqlfTtr djuk iM+x s kA
Testing and Debugging
It is the later process of program coding where things about the program objective is tested for what
it is designed. It is process used to justify the program objective as well as to fix errors comes in the
way of execution. Debugging is the step what fixes the errors found by the Testing. These both are the
steps of finding the fixing the errors and making sure the objective of programs.
çksxzke dks dksM djus ds i'pkr ges blds vkmViqV VsLV djuk iM+sxk dh ftl mís'; ds fy, bls cuk;k x;k gS ;s mls
iw.kZ dj jgk gS ;k ughaA vkSj ;fn ugha rks bls fMcx djuk iM+x s kA ;s nksuksa çksxzkfeax dk ,d çksll
s gS ftlds rgr ge
fdlh çksxzke ds vkmViqV dks VsLV djrs gSa ,oa lgh u gksus dh fLFkfr esa bls lq/kkjrs gSaA
 Introduction to ‘C’ Language
C is a programming language based on high level language but with low level feature. It had been
developed at AT & T’s bell laboratory in 1972 by Dennis Ritchie. It had been developed on UNIX
operating system but after it has become as able to develop the UNIX OS entirely. C programming
language is derived from BCPL (Basic Combined Programming Language). C programming language
is basically used for system programming and developing system utilities. C is a programmer’s
language. C is a computer language and a programming tool which has grown popular because
programmers like it! It is a tricky language but a masterful one.
C ,d çksxzkfeax ySaXost gS tks gkbZ ysoy ySaXost ij vk/kkfjr gksrk gS ysfdu Qhpj yks ysoy dk gksrk gSA bldk eryc
gS bl çksxzkfeax ySaXost esa ç;qä Hkk"kk gkbZ ysoy dh gksrh gS ysfdax bldh fo'ks"krk yks ysoy dk gksrk gSA bl çksxzkfeax
ySaXost dks ,Vh ,aM Vh csy yscksjsVjh esa 1972esa Msful fjph }kjk Msoys i fd;k x;k FkkA bl çksxzkfeax ySaXost dk fuekZ.k
;wfuDl v‚ijsfVax flLVe ij ,oa chlhih,y ySaXost dh enn ls fd;k x;k Fkk tks ckn esa bruk yksdfç; ,oa lcy
lkfcr gqvk dh bldh enn ls ckn esa iqjs ;wfuDl v‚ijsfVax flLVe dk gh fuekZ.k dj fn;k x;kA
C is one of a large number of high level languages which can be used forgeneral purpose
programming, that is, anything from writing small programsfor personal amusement to writing
complex applications.
Basic ideas about C
Using a compiler language is not the same as using an interpreted language. It differs in a number of
ways. A‘C’ program has to be created in two stages…
 Firstly, the program is written in the form of a number of text files using a screen editor. This
form of the program is called the source program. It is not possible to execute this file
directly.
 Secondly, the completed source file is passed to a compiler; a program which generates a
new file containing a machine code translation of the source text. This file is called an object
file or executable file. The executable file is said to have been compiled from the source text.
Character set
Character set is something what is used and recognized by a language pattern where a group of
characters are used representing a certain definition. There is number of character element in a
character set like alphabet (lower case, upper case), special characters, digits and many more. In ‘C’
programming the character set is used and recognized as the characters what this used directly and
some as escape sequences. For .e.g. $, (, ), <space> etc are characters used directly treated as Source
Characters whereas some characters what that are executed by the ‘C’ compiler like \n, \t etc are
treated as execution characters or escape sequences. \n creates a new line when executed; \t creates
a tab space when executed.
djSDVj lsV fdlh çksxzkfeax ySaXost dh Hkk"kk i)fr }kjk igpku djk;k x;k ,d lewg gksrk gS tgk¡ dbZ djSDVj gksrs gSa
ftuds vius vius ek;us ,oa ç;ksx gksrs gSaA fdlh çksxzkfeax ySaXost esa djSDVj lsV ds dbZ ,fyesVa gksrs gSa tSls vYQkcsV
¼yksoj dsl ,oa vij dsl½] fo'ks"k djSDVj] la[;k,¡ vkSj Hkh cgqr dqNA çksxzkfeax ySaXost esa dqN ,sls [kkl djSDVj gksrs gSa
tks djSDVj ds lfeJ.k ls curs gSa tSls ,Ldsi lhDosla djSDVj bR;kfnA
What characters as a program element are used in a program &treated as Tokens. A Token may be
Keyword, Identifier, Literal, operators etc.
Conditional Statements and Loops
Introduction
Decision making is all about to let the statements to be executed as per the decision made to jump
and branch to execute block of codes. Basically we need these kind of statements only to execute the
block of code as per the condition, if the condition will be true then the block of code will be executed
else not. The Decision making or control statements can be considered as Control statements which
is directed by a control placed in the program.
fMlhtu esfdax dk otwn fdlh Hkh çksxzkfeax ySaXost esa tfEiax ,oa czkafpax dk gksrk gS ftlls ,d daMh'ku ds vuqlkj
d.Vªksy dks ,d LFkku ls nqljs LFkku ij fLop djrs gSaA lk/kkj.kr% fdlh daMh'ku ¼'krZ½ ds vuqlkj ;fn daMh'ku Vªw gksrh
gS rks ;g vU;Fkk og LVsVesVa ,XthD;wV gksrk gSA fMlhtu esfdax ds varxZr vkus okys daMh'kuy LVsVesVa dqN bl çdkj
gSa &
Decision making or the control structure can be considered as following…
 Conditional Branching
 Looping

Decision making falls into the following forms as per discussed in the diagram above. We see
Decision making is considered into two stated forms – Conditional branching and Looping. The
Conditional branching is the conditional statements which allows or facilitates to execute a certain
block of code to be executed as per the condition, if the condition remains true then
tSlk dh Åij ds Mk;xzke esa çnf'kZr gS dh fMlhtu esfdax nks rjg ds gksrs gSa igyk daMh'kuy czkafpax ,oa nwljk ywfiaxA
daMh'kuy czkafpax ds varxZr fdlh LVsVesVa dks ,d ;k ,d ls vf/kd daMh'ku ds Vªw ¼lgh½ ;k QkYl¼xyr½ gksus ds fdlh
,d fLFkfr esa ,XthD;wV djuk tcfd ywfiax dk eryc fdlh ,d LVsVesVa dks ,d ;k ,d ls vf/kd daMh'ku ds fglkc
ls ckj ckj ,XthD;wV djuk gksrk gS tc rd og daMh'ku Vªw ¼lgh½ gksrh gSA
Decision making within a program
Decision making within a program is just like making decisions as per the condition. Sometimes we
see there is a situation where action or decision has to be taken on the basis of a certain condition
 Arrays
An array is a collective name given to a group of ‘similar quantities’.An array is a collection of similar
elements or data types. Whenever you need to collect and store more than one value of same data
types in a bulk quantity then you go better declare an array instead of declaring a number of
variables. It asks a name as the rest of the variables and a size in numeric placed in a subscript [ ].
,sjs lh çksxzkfeax esa ,d rjg dk osfj,cy gksrk gS tks ,d le; esa ,d ls T;knk ,d gh MkVk Vkbi ds oSY;w dks vyx
vyx LVksj dj ldrk gS ;k lk/kkj.k 'kCnksa esa dgsa rks ,sjs flfeyj¼,d leku½ MkVk oSY;w dk ,d lewg gksrk gS ftles
vki ,d le; esa ,d ls T;knk oSY;w LVksj dj ldrs gSa ,oa mUgsa fdlh Hkh le; ,Dlsl djus ds lkFk lkFk mls
eSfuiqysV Hkh dj ldrs gSaA ,sjs dks vki fdlh ,d MkVk Vkbi ls fMDysvj dj ldrs gSa ysfdu bls fMDysvj djus ds
fy, vkidks bldk lkbtHkh mYysf[kr djuk iM+sxk tks ;g r; djsxk dh ,sjs ml MkVk Vkbi dh fdruh oSY;w dks LVksj
djsxkA
Declaring an array
Here we see the declaration of array…
uhps fdlh ,sjs dks ,d MkVk Vkbi ds rgr fMDysvj djus ds ckjs esa mYysf[kr fd;k x;k gSA
Syntax:data_type array_name[size];
Declaration: int arr[10];
As we see that the size of that variable has been declared to 10 then it will store ten different integer
values separately without losing anyone. An array index is always started with zero (0), thus it will
be storing the value from 0 to 9.
Initializing array
Here we see the initializing an array variable as follows…
fdlh ,sjs dks fMDysvj djus ds ckn bls ge lk/kkj.k osfj,cy dh gh rjg bfuf'k;ykbt dj ldrs gSa ;kuh fMDysvj
gksus ds lkFk&lkFk bls ,d vkjafHkd oSY;w çnku dj ldrs gSaA ,slk djus dk uhps flaVDs l fn;k x;k gSA
Syntax: data_type array_name[ ]={value1, value2, value3, value4, value5};
Declaration: int arr[ ]={10, 5, 90, 63, 0};
Array comes with the following kinds…
 One dimensional array
 Two dimensional array
 Multi dimensional array
One dimensional arrays
It is the type of the Array where an array declared according, implemented in one dimension only
means it takes only one subscript with a size and stores the similar data.
ou Mk;es'a kuy ,sjs] ,sjs dk ,d çdkj gksrk gS ftls ukeZy ,sjs Hkh dgrs gSa ftles ,d lcfLØIV gksrk gS ftles blds
lkbt dk mYysD[ku gksrk gSA uhps blds ç;ksx ls lEcaf/kr mnkgj.k fn;k x;k gSA
Here we see…
Sample Program
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
Introduction to ‘C’ programming T Balaji 49

Functions
In this very chapter we will be learning the functioning of functions as well as creating and
manipulating them. Functions are nothing but self contained block of code with certain definition. A
function may be system defined or user defined. A system defined function is called library function
where a user defined function is needed to be declared and defined with a prototype. A function mad
programming easy because it yields the facility to split the program code in modules that can
anytime separately defined, tested and manipulated and can be called number of times in the
program code anytime without writing the program code again.
bl v/;k; ds varxZr ge QaD'ku ds ckjs esa foLr`r v/;;u djsaxsA QaD'ku tSlk dh geus blds ckjs esa laf{kIr tkudkjh
yh dh ;g ,d vyx Cykd v‚QdksM gksrk gS tks [kqn dks esu QaD'ku ls vyx gksrk gS ftls d‚y djus ij gh ;g
,XthD;wV gksrk gS ,d fu;r çfrQy ykSVrk gSA QaD'ku nks rjg ds gksrs gSa & igyk flLVe ifjHkkf"kr ,oa nwljk ;wtj
}kjk ifjHkkf"krA flLVe }kjk ifjHkkf"kr QaD'ku dks gh ykbczsjh QaD'ku dgjrs gSa tcfd ;wtj fMQkbaM¼ifjHkkf"kr½ QaD'ku
dks ç;ksx djus ls igys bls çksVksVkbi djuk iM+rk gS ,oa bldh MsfQfu'ku dks vyx dksM djuk iM+rk gS ftls vki
esu QaD'ku esa d‚y djds ç;ksx dj ldrs gSaA
Top-down approach of problem solving
It is a process as well as technique to solve a problem at hand. As we do program in ‘C’, then we find
certain approach to execute the task. We generally see Top-down approach and Bottom-up approach
to be applied to execute the program code. In the top-down approach the program code is executed
from the top to bottom whereas in the bottom-up approach the program code is started executing
from the bottom to up.
gj çksxzke dk ,d ,çksp gksrk gS dh ;g fdl çdkj ,oa fdl fn'kk esa ,XthD;wV gksrk gSA lk/kkj.kr% ,d çksxzke dks
,XthD;wV djus ds nks ,çksp gksrs gSa & igyk V‚i&Vw&c‚Ve ,oa nwljk c‚Ve&viA V‚i&Vw&c‚Ve ,çksp dk eryc çksxzke
Åij ls uhps dh rjQ ,XthD;wV gksxk tcfd c‚Ve&vi ,çksp dk eryc çksxkz e uhps ls Åij dh rjQ ,XthD;wV
gksxkA fdlh QaD'ku dk ,fXtD;qlu ,çksp lk/kkjr% V‚i&Vw&c‚Ve gksrk gSA
Modular programming
It is the technique to split the program into the parts or modules in the form of functions, procedures
and methods so that it can be better handled separately by an individual team and branch to solve it
better comparatively.
It plays an important role in case when a block of code is in demand to be used repeatedly in the
program then we can put the token of that module only instead of entire code again.
Modules are created so that testing and debugging can be held easily to find and detect the error and
rectify them.
;g ,d çksxkz feax rduhd gS ftles ;g çksxzke dks vyx Hkkx esa ck¡V nsrk gS ftlls t#jr ds ikVZ gh ,XthD;wV gksrs
gSaA bldh enn ls ftldh Hkkx dh vko';drk ugha gksrh og ,XthD;wV ugha gksrk gSA lh fdlh Hkh çksxzkfeax ySaXost esa
,d vge~ fdjnkj fuHkkrk gS D;ksfa d ;g çksxkz ej ,oa flLVe nksuksa dk le; cpkrk gS lkFk gh lkFk çkslsflax yksM Hkh
gYdk djrk gSA
Functions
A function is a self-contained block of statements that perform a consistent task of some kind. Every
C program can be thought of as a collection of these functions. As we noted earlier, using a function is
something like hiring a person to do a specific job for you. Sometimes the interaction with this person
is very simple; sometimes it’s complex.
 Storage Classes
Storage classes are the pattern of memory allocating to the variables whether in the memory or in
the CPU registers. To fully define a variable oneneeds to mention not only its ‘type’ but also its
‘storage class’. Inother words, not only do all variables have a data type, they alsohave a ‘storage
class’.If we don’t specify thestorage class of a variable in its declaration, the compiler willassume a
storage class depending on the context in which thevariable is used. Thus, variables have certain
default storageclasses.
LVksjst Dykl ,d çdkj dk eseksjh yksds'ku gS tks lk/kkj.k eseksjh yksds'ku esa u gksdj ds cfYd lhih;w jftLVj esa ik;k
tkrk gSA fdlh osfj,cy dks iwjh rjg ls fMQkbu djus ds fy, vkidks LVksjst Dykl MkVk Vkbi dk ç;ksx djuk iM+rk
gSA vki vius çksxkz e esa tc Hkh fdlh osfj,cy dks fMDysvj djrs gSa rks vki mldk MkVk Vkbi mlh le; fu/kkZfjr dj
nsrs gSa tgk¡ ij ml osfj,cy dk LVksjst Dykl Hkh fMQkbu dj ldrs gSa ;|fi vki fdlh osfj,cy dk LVksjst Dykl
ml oä ugha Hkh bafxr djrs gSa rc Hkh ml osfj,cy ds oSY;w LVksj djus ds ç‟fr ds fglkc ls mldks ,d LVksjst
Dykl Lor% çnku dj fn;k tkrk gSA
From C compiler’s point of view, a variable name identifies somephysical location within the
computer where the string of bitsrepresenting the variable’s value is stored. There are basically
twokinds of locations in a computer where such a value may be kept—Memory and CPU registers. It
isthe variable’s storage class thatdetermines in which of these two locations the value is stored.
lh dEikbyj ds „f"Vdks.k ls fdl Hkh osfj,cy dk ,d daI;wVj flLVe esa ,d HkkSfrd LFkku gksrk gS tgk¡ ij ml
osfj,cy ds oSY;w fcV ds J`a[kykvksa ds :i esa LVksj gksrh gSA bls vuqlkj fdlh flLVe esa oSY;w LVksj djus ds fy, nks
LFkku gksrs gSa igyk eseksjh ,oa nwljk lhih;w jftLVj-,oa LVksjst Dykl ds varxZr osfj,cy fMDysvj djus dh fLFkfr esa
oks osfj,cy lhih;w jftLVj esa LVksj gks tkrk gSA
Moreover, a variable’s storage class tells us:
 Where the variable would be stored.
 What will be the initial value of the variable, if initial value is not specifically assigned.(i.e. the
default initial value).
 What is the scope of the variable; i.e. in which functions the value of the variable would be
available.
 What is the life of the variable; i.e. how long would the variable exist.
Scope and extent
The scope of storage classes are some times local and for some storage class it is global. For e.g. we
see extern storage class which defines a variable global and accessible to all the functions and
modules remaining its original value.
fdlh LVksjst Dykl dk Ldksi bls ,Dlsl djus ,oa ,Dlsl gksus dh gn dks dgrs gSaA dqN osfj,cy dks ge yksdy
fMDysvj djrs gSa ,oa dqN dks Xykscy ifj.kke Lo:i oks Xykscy osfj,cy gj txg eryc gj QaD'ku esa ,Dlsl fd;k
tk ldrk gS ysfdu oks yksdy osfj,cy dsoy ogh rd flfer gksrk gS tgk¡ og fMDysvj fd;k x;k gksrk gSA
Generally Scopes of the programming entities are as follows…
 Program Scope
 File Scope
 Function Scope
 Block Scope
Program Scope
This is one of the scope type for the programming entities where an entity remains originated with
its value. Variables under this scope are accessible throughout the program even in any of the
function declared in the program.
 Structures and Unions
As we have studies that array is the collection of similar data types, in the same way structure is the
collection different data types. It wouldn’t have been so popular had it been able to handle only all
ints, or all floats or all chars at a time. In fact when we handle real world data, we don’t usually deal
with little atoms of information by themselves—things like integers, characters and such. Instead we
deal with entities that are collections of things, each thing having its own attributes, just as the entity
we call a ‘book’ is a collection of things such as title, author, call number, publisher, number of pages,
date of publication, etc. As you can see all this data is dissimilar, for example author is a string,
whereas number of pages is an integer.
vHkh rd geus ns[kk dh ,d ,sjs ,d çdkj ds MkVk Vkbi ds oSY;w dk lewg gksrk gS tcfd LVªDpj dbZ vyx vyx
rjg ds MkVk Vkbi ds oSY;w dk dysD'ku gksrk gS tks eseksjh esa ,d txg cukrk gS tgk¡ ij lHkh MkVk Vkbi ds vyx
vyx oSY;w tks dh ,d ;wtj ls buiqV fy, x, gSa dks LVksj djrk gSA fdlh ,d çdkj ds oSY;w dks buiqV ysdj mls
eSfuiqysV djuk ,oa fçaV djuk rks geus dbZ ckj ns[kk ,oa ç;ksx fd;k vc ge okLrfod rF;ksa ds vuqlkj lwpukvksa dks
LVksj djus dk ç;kl djsx a s tks ,d LVªDpj }kjk laHko gSa tSls ,d iqLrd dk lEiw.kZ fooj.k gks vxj laxfz gr djuk gS rks
blds laHkkfor xq.k /keZ gks ldrs gSa & bldk uke] bldk eqY;] bldh i`"B la[;k rFkk ys[kd dk uke bR;kfnA lh
çksxzkfeax ds MkVk Vkbi ds vuqlkj iqLrd ds uke dks djSDVj ,sjs ;k djSDVj i‚baVj ds enn ls LVksj dj ldrs gSa
vcdh eqY; dks ¶yksV MkVk Vkbi ls] i`"B la[;k dks bfUVtj MkVk Vkbi ls ,oa ys[kd dk uke iqu% djSDVj ,sjs ls ;k
djSDVj i‚baVj lsA
For dealing with such collections, C provides a data type called ‘structure’. A structure gathers
together, different atoms of information that comprise a given entity. And structure is the topic of
this chapter. We declare the structure using struct keyword.
A structure contains a number of data types grouped together.These data types may or may not be of
the same type. Thefollowing example illustrates the use of this data type. Here we see…
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
struct book
{
char name ;
float price ;
int pages ;
} ;
struct book b1, b2, b3 ;
printf ( "\nEnter names, prices & no. of pages of 3 books\n" ) ;
scanf ( "%c %f %d", &b1.name, &b1.price, &b1.pages ) ;
scanf ( "%c %f %d", &b2.name, &b2.price, &b2.pages ) ;
scanf ( "%c %f %d", &b3.name, &b3.price, &b3.pages ) ;
printf ( "\nAnd this is what you entered" ) ;
printf ( "\n%c %f %d", b1.name, b1.price, b1.pages ) ;
printf ( "\n%c %f %d", b2.name, b2.price, b2.pages ) ;
printf ( "\n%c %f %d", b3.name, b3.price, b3.pages ) ;
}
Output
Enter names, prices and no. of pages of 3 books
C 140.00 180
 File handling
Introduction
File handling means storing a kind of data permanent in a file rather than taking input again and
again. The data you enter while running a program get lost when program terminates but when you
will be using files creating and manipulating then the data you entered or manipulated will be
permamnet saved to the computer disk. Often it is not enough to just display the data on the
screen.This is because if the data is large, only a limited amountof it can be stored in memory and
only a limited amountof it can be displayed on the screen. It would be inappropriate tostore this data
in memory for one more reason. Memory is volatileand its contents would be lost once the program
is terminated. Soif we need the same data again it would have to be either enteredthrough the
keyboard again or would have to be regeneratedprogrammatically.
Qkby gSaMfyax dk eryc lh çksxkz feax dh enn ls dksbZ Qkby fØ,V djuk ftles vki dksbZ MkVk fy[k lds] mldk
MkVk i<+ lds bR;kfnA pqdh vc rd ds buiqV ,oa vkmViqV çnf'kZr djus ds LVS.MMZ ,aM dalksy QaD'ku dk ç;ksx
fd;k tkrk Fkk tks dsoy çksxzke ds pyrs jgus rd gh oSY;w eseksjh esa jgrh gS vkSj çksxzke ds VfeZuVs gksrs gh oSY;w Hkh
eseksjh ls xk;c gks tkrh gS D;ksfa d ;g ijekusVa ugha gksrk gSA fdlh Hkh buiqV ,oa vkmViqV oSY;w dks ijekusaV daI;wVj
fMLd esa LVksj djus ds fy, gesa Qkby gSaMfyax dk ç;ksx djuk iM+rk gSA
File Operations
There are different operations that can be carried out on a file.
fdlh Qkby gSaMfyax ls lanfHkZr laHkkfor Qkby v‚ijs'ku gSa &
These are:
 Creation of a new file
 Opening an existing file
 Reading from a file
 Writing to a file
 Moving to a specific location in a file (seeking)
 Closing a file
Let us now write a program to read a file and display its contentson the screen. We will first list the
program and show what it does,and then dissect it line by line. Here we come with a sample program
displaying just content of a file…
/* Display contents of a file on screen. */
# include "stdio.h"
void main( )
{
FILE *fp;
char ch;
fp = fopen ( "Hello.txt", "r" );
while (1)
{
ch = fgetc ( fp ) ;
if ( ch == EOF )
break ;
printf ( "%c", ch ) ;
}
fclose ( fp ) ;
}