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AQUATIC CHEMISTRY

Chemical Equilibria and Rates in Natural Waters

Third Edition

WERNER STUMM
EAWAG, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH), Zurich

JAMES J. MORGAN
Environmental Engineering Science, California Institute of Technology

A WILEY-MTERSCIENCE PUBLICATION
JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC.
New York • Chichester • Brisbane • Toronto • Singapore
 CONTENTS

1. Introduction 1
1.1 Scope of Aquatic Chemistry 1
1.2 The Solvent Water 6
1.3 Solute Species 9
Suggested Readings 11
Appendix 1.1: Some Useful Quantities, Units, Conversion
Factors, Constants, and Relationships 11

2. Chemical Thermodynamics and Kinetics 16

2.1 Introduction 16
2.2 Chemical Thermodynamic Principles 20
2.3 Systems of Variable Composition: Chemical
Thermodynamics 29
2.4 Gibbs Energy and Systems of Variable Chemical
Composition 32
2.5 Chemical Potentials of Pure Phases and Solutions 35
2.6 Chemical Potentials of Aqueous Electrolytes 38
2.7 The Equilibrium Constant 41
2.8 The Gibbs Energy of a System 44
2.9 Driving Force for Chemical Reactions 49
2.10 Temperature and Pressure Effects on Equilibrium 52
2.11 Equilibrium Tools 57
2.12 Kinetics and Thermodynamics: Time and Reaction
Advancement, £ 58
2.13 Rate and Mechanism 61
2.14 Concentration Versus Time 64
2.15 Theory of Elementary Processes 69
2.16 Elementary Reactions and ACT 76
2.17 Equilibrium Versus Steady State in Flow Systems 79
Suggested Readings 81
Problems 82
Answers to Problems 85

XI
xii Contents

3. Acids and Bases 88

3.1 Introduction 88
3.2 The Nature of Acids and Bases 90
3.3 The Strength of an Acid or Base 92
3.4 Activity and pH Scales 97
3.5 Equilibrium Calculations 105
3.6 pH as a Master Variable; Equilibrium Calculations Using
a Graphical Approach 118
3.7 Ionization Fractions of Acids, Bases, and Ampholytes 127
3.8 Titration of Acids and Bases 130
3.9 Buffer Intensity and Neutralizing Capacity 134
3.10 Organic Acids 140
Suggested Readings 144
Problems 144
Answers to Problems 147

4. Dissolved Carbon Dioxide 148

4.1 Introduction 148
4.2 Dissolved Carbonate Equilibria (Closed System) 150
4.3 Aqueous Carbonate System Open to the Atmosphere 157
4.4 Alkalinity and Acidity, Neutralizing Capacities 163
4.5 Alkalinity Changes 172
4.6 Analytical Considerations: Gran Plots 179
4.7 Equilibrium with Solid Carbonates 186
4.8 Kinetic Considerations 192
4.9 Carbon Isotopes and Isotope Fractionation 195
Suggested Readings 202
Problems 202
Answers to Problems 204

5. Atmosphere-Water Interactions 206

5.1 Introduction 206
5.2 Anthropogenic Generation of Acidity in the Atmosphere 207
5.3 Gas-Water Partitioning: Henry's Law 212
5.4 Gas-Water Equilibria in Closed and Open Systems 216
5.5 Washout of Pollutants from the Atmosphere 227
5.6 Fog 229
5.7 Aerosols 233
5.8 Acid Rain-Acid Lakes 235
5.9 The Volatility of Organic Substances 238
5.10 Gas Transfer Across Water-Gas Interface 241
Suggested Readings 248
Problems 249
Answers to Problems 251
 Contents xiii

6. Metal Ions in Aqueous Solution: Aspects of Coordination

Chemistry 252
6.1 Introduction 252
6.2 Protons and Metal Ions 258
6.3 Hydrolysis of Metal Ions 263
6.4 Solubility and Hydrolysis: Solid Hydroxides and Metal
Oxides 272
6.5 Chelates 275
6.6 Metal Ions and Ligands: Classification of Metals 281
6.7 Speciation in Fresh Waters 289
6.8 Seawater Speciation 305
6.9 Kinetics of Complex Formation 311
Suggested Readings 319
Problems 320
Answers to Problems 322
Appendix 6.1: Stability Constants 325
Appendix 6.2: The Various Scales for Equilibrium
Constants, Activity Coefficients, and pH 335

7. Precipitation and Dissolution 349

7.1 Introduction 349
7.2 The Solubility of Oxides and Hydroxides 359
7.3 Complex Formation and Solubility of (Hydr)oxides 368
7.4 Carbonates 370
7.5 The Stability of Hydroxides, Carbonates, and Hydroxide
Carbonates 389
7.6 Sulfides and Phosphates 398
7.7 The Phase Rule: Components, Phases, and Degrees of
Freedom > 409
7.8 Solubility of Fine Particles 413
7.9 Solid Solutions 416
Suggested Readings 420
Problems 420
Answers to Problems 424

8. Oxidation and Reduction; Equilibria and Microbial

Mediation 425
8.1 Introduction 425
8.2 Redox Equilibria and the Electron Activity 426
8.3 The Electrode Potential: The Nernst Equation and the
Electrochemical Cell '. 441
8.4 pe-pH, Potential-pH Diagrams 455
8.5 Redox Conditions in Natural Waters 464
8.6 Effect of Complex Formers on the Redox Potential 489
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8.7 Measuring the Redox Potential in Natural Waters 491

§.8 The Potentiometric Determination of Individual Solutes 498
Suggested Readings 506
Problems 507
Answers to Problems 512
Appendix 8.1: Activity Ratio Diagrams for Redox Systems 513

9. The Solid-Solution Interface 516

9.1 Introduction 516
9.2 Adsorption 519
9.3 Adsorption Isotherms 521
9.4 Hydrous Oxide Surfaces; Reactions with H + , OH~, Metal
Ions, and Ligands 533
9.5 Surface Charge and the Electric Double Layer 549
9.6 Correcting Surface Complex Formation Constants for
Surface Charge 568
9.7 Sorption of Hydrophobic Substances on Organic Carbon-
Bearing Particles 575
9.8 Ion Exchange 586
9.9 Transport of (Ad)sorbable Constituents in Groundwater
and Soil Systems 594
Suggested Readings 599
Problems 601
Appendix 9.1: The Gouy-Chapman Theory 604
Appendix 9.2: Contact Angle, Adhesion and Cohesion, the
Oil-Water Interface 608

10. Trace Metals: Cycling, Regulation, and Biological Role 614

10.1 Introduction: Global Cycling of Metals 614
10.2 Analytical Approaches to Chemical Speciation 615
10.3 Classification of Metal Ions and the Inorganic Chemistry
of Life 625
10.4 Organometallic and Organometalloidal Compounds 628
10.5 Bioavailability and Toxicity 632
10.6 Metal Ions as Micronutrients 637
10.7 The Interaction of Trace Metals with Phytoplankton at
the Molecular Level 641
10.8 Regulation of Trace Elements by the Solid-Water
Interface in Surface Waters *648
10.9 Regulation of Dissolved Heavy Metals in Rivers, Lakes,
and Oceans 654
10.10 Quality Criteria in Fresh Waters: Some Aspects 666
Suggested Readings ^ 670
 Contents xv

11. Kinetics of Redox Processes 672

11 1 Introduction 672
11.'2 How Good an Oxidant Is O2? 672
11.3 Can pe Be Defined for a Nonequilibrium System? 677
11.4 Kinetics of Redox Processes: Case Studies 679
11.5 Oxidants Used in Water and Waste Technology: A Few
Case Studies 691
11.6 Linear Free Energy Relations (LFERs) 702
11.7 The Marcus Theory of Outer-Sphere Electron Transfer:
An Introduction 703
11.8 Nucleophile-Electrophile Interactions and Redox
Reactions Involving Organic Substances 710
11.9 Corrosion of Metals as an Electrochemical Process 720
Suggested Readings 725

12. Photochemical Processes 726

12.1 Introduction 726
12.2 Absorption of Light 729
12.3 Photoreactants 735
12.4 Photoredox Reactions: Photolysis of Transition Metal
Complexes 743
12.5 Photochemical Reactions in Atmospheric Waters: Role of
Dissolved Iron Species 744
12.6 Heterogeneous Photochemistry 748
12.7 Semiconducting Minerals 753
Suggested Readings 759

13. Kinetics at the Solid-Water Interface: Adsorption,

Dissolution of Minerals, Nucleation, and Crystal Growth 760
13.1 Introduction 760
13.2 Kinetics of Adsorption 760
13.3 Surface-Controlled Dissolution of Oxide Minerals: An
Introduction to Weathering 771
13.4 Simple Rate Laws in Dissolution 776
13.5 Rates of CaCO 3 Dissolution (and of CaCO 3 Crystal
Growth) 788
13.6 Inhibition of Dissolution 795
13.7 Nucleation and Crystal Growth 800
Suggested Readings 816

14. Particle-Particle Interaction: Colloids, Coagulation, and

Filtration < 818
14.1 Colloids 818
14.2 Particle Size Distribution 826
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14.3 Surface Charge of Colloids 834

J4.4 Colloid Stability: Qualitative Considerations 837
14.5 Effects of Surface Speciation on Colloid Stability 842
14.6 Some Water-Technological Considerations in
Coagulation, Filtration, and Flotation 852
14.7 Filtration Compared with Coagulation 857
14.8 Transport in Aggregation and Deposition 858
Suggested Readings 866
Appendix 14.1: A Physical Model (DLVO) for Colloid
Stability 867

15. Regulation of the Chemical Composition of Natural Waters 872

15.1 Introduction 872
15.2 Weathering and the Proton Balance 875
15.3 Isothermal Evaporation 880
15.4 Buffering 884
15.5 Interactions Between Organisms and Abiotic
Environment: Redfield Stoichiometry 886
15.6 The Oceans: Relative Constancy of the Composition and
Chemical Equilibria 895
15.7 Constancy of Composition: Steady State 897
15.8 Hydrothermal Vents 901
15.9 The Sediment-Water Interface 903
15.10 Biological Regulation of the^ Composition 908
15.11 Global Cycling: The Interdependence of Biogeochemical
Cycles 914
15.12 The Carbon Cycle 916
15.13 Nitrogen Cycles: Pollution by Nitrogen Compounds 927
15.14 The Sulfur Cycle 932
Suggested Readings 933

References 935

Appendixes: Thermodynamic Data 976

1 Revised Chemical Equilibrium Data for Major Water-
Mineral Reactions 977
2 Thermodynamic Data for Trace Metal Speciation in Seawater 984
3 Thermodynamic Properties 990

Index 1005