The Role of Gender in Preparedness and Response Behaviors Towards Flood Risk in Serbia

International Journal of
Environmental Research
and Public Health
Article
The Role of Gender in Preparedness and Response
Behaviors towards Flood Risk in Serbia
Vladimir M. Cvetković 1 , Giulia Roder 2, * , Adem Öcal 3 , Paolo Tarolli 2 and
Slavoljub Dragićević 4
1 Faculty of Security Studies, University of Belgrade, Gospodara Vučića 50, 11040 Belgrade, Serbia;
[email protected]
2 Department of Land, Environment, Agriculture and Forestry, University of Padova, Agripolis,
viale dell’ Università 16, 35020 Legnaro, Italy; [email protected]
3 Independent Researcher, 06500 Ankara, Turkey; [email protected]
4 Faculty of Geography, University of Belgrade, Studentski Trg 3/III, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +39-(049)-8272700

Received: 18 September 2018; Accepted: 3 December 2018; Published: 6 December 2018
Abstract: Adverse outcomes from 2014 flooding in Serbia indicated problematic response phase
management accentuated by a gender imbalance. For this reason, we investigated the risk perceptions
and preparedness of women and men regarding these types of events in Serbia. Face-to-face
interviews, administered to 2500 participants, were conducted across 19 of 191 municipalities.
In light of the current findings, men seemed to be more confident in their abilities to cope with
flooding, perceiving greater individual and household preparedness. By contrast, women displayed
a deeper understanding of these events. Perhaps owing to a deeper level of understanding, women
demonstrated more household-caring attitudes and behaviors and were more prone to report a
willingness to help flood victims at reception centers. Emergency management agencies and land
planners should account for these differences in gender awareness and preparedness. Based on
these findings, doing so may increase citizen participation and shared responsibility under flood
hazard scenarios.
Keywords: flood risk; perception; preparedness; gender; Serbia
1. Introduction
Gender disparities exert powerful differences within societies worldwide, even in the field of
disasters. Women and men are not merely at risk because of their location in time and place [1] but
because of a complex mix of influential factors that include “differentiated roles and responsibilities,
skills and capabilities, vulnerabilities, social relations, institutional structures, and long-standing
traditions and attitudes” [2]. These social forces are thought to shape different behavioral tendencies,
including those related to the ability to anticipate, prepare for, respond to, and recover from disasters [3].
The interest and recognition of different attitudes and behaviors among men and women in the wake of
environmental problems have origins in the 1990s [4–7]. However, the assessment of gender differences
at all levels of the disaster cycle has historically been less than satisfactory. The social research on
disasters has often been approached from a mostly gender-blind perspective, mindful of some basic
findings reported in the literature for years (e.g., women are more at risk for psychosocial reactions [8]).
According to the gender glossary, gender blindness is “the failure to recognize that gender is an
essential determinant of social outcomes impacting on projects and policies”. This social–cognitive bias
can influence disaster management actions in place, affecting both physical actions and psychosocial
preparedness and response [9].
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Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15, 2761 2 of 21
As stated above, increased interest in gender inclusion in the disaster context occurred during the
International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (1990–1999); however gender-specific guidelines
were missing. In 2000, the special session of the UN General Assembly, “Gender equality, development
and peace for the twenty-first century” highlighted the inefficiencies and inadequacies of existing
approaches in responding to disasters [10]. Thus, the need for explicitly incorporating considerations on
gender into disaster prevention, mitigation, and recovery strategies has been increasingly emphasized.
The latest Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction signed off by 187 Member States on
18 March 2015 in Japan, and lead-up discussions and platforms discussed this topic more assiduously,
which included a request to increase the empowerment and participation of women (and youth) [11].
The rising importance of gender-sensitive research was underlined by the United Nations Office for
Disaster Risk Reduction, defined as one of the objectives for the period 2015–2020.
As a consequence, one can conclude that during the last century, progressive change regarding this
issue increasingly became a current concern for the disaster management community. One emphasis
is the effort devoted to understanding social power relations regarding disaster and emergency
management. In particular, as promoted through UN processes, mainstreaming the role of gender
includes an increased focus on integrating women in disaster policy, practice, and research.
In countries like Serbia, the context for the current study, analyzing gender differences is of particular
importance. For example, during a major 2014 flood event, women were found to be particularly affected
as they were weakly represented in the flood-planning response and overall decision-making processes [12].
For example, women argued that information did not reach them adequately, thus exposing gaps in
risk communication. Many women’s organizations responded immediately and offered assistance in
the most vulnerable areas. However, the public perception and media promulgated the idea that men
were the first to react. In a policy context, the importance of protection and rescue from floods from a
gender perspective has also been recognized by the Council for Gender Equality Government of the
Republic of Serbia. In fact, on 29 May 2014, the council held an extraordinary meeting dedicated to this
specific issue, concluding that developing more gender-sensitive statistics, indicators of vulnerability,
reconstruction, and recovery was a necessary initial step. Thus, for both research- and policy-driven
reasons, we conducted extensive interviews to explore and underline the differences in risk perception,
preparedness, and response behaviors of both women and men in the wake of flood events in Serbia to
foster increasingly targeted solutions for disaster planning and management.
1.1. Literature Review

Research into risk perception aims to understand the cognitive and emotional processes and
behavioral choices of individuals or groups in risk-related contexts [13]. Behaviors that people enact
before, during, and after disasters are the first and most critical support for the management of
emergency circumstances and can contribute to the minimization of adverse effects. According to
Slovic et al. [14] and Griffin et al. [15], risk encompasses an affective component responsible for
two different perceptions: risk as a feeling and as a rational conception. Thus, risk is not only a
combination of perceived probability but also and the feeling of worry related to it [16]. According to
Cutter et al. [17], “as men and women view the world differently, it follows that they also perceive
risks differently”. Gender differences may be linked to different cultural and societal contexts and
dynamics. In this regard, being able to spend time watching TV or fraternizing in community centers
to access hazard information [18] as well as work in the tobacco fields in Indonesia [19] gave men
a greater awareness to promote responsive behavior. Female counterparts, confined to child-care
and housekeeping responsibilities, as well as those watching less television and therefore receiving
less knowledge of such events as a result of less interaction outside the domestic sphere, were put
in jeopardy at the onset of a hazard occurrence [18–20]. By contrast, during Hurricane Andrew,
women were largely responsible for preparing family members and expressed a higher knowledge
of stocking provisions and getting the household ready for the hurricane [21]. Similar findings have
been highlighted by De Marchi et al. [22]. Such findings point to emergency management messaging
that understands more localized contexts and can capitalize on household tendencies, leveraging the
respective gender-specific tendencies to be able to complement each other more effectively. The form
of concern expressed so far can be related to the perceived likelihood of occurrence with personal
consequences [23], which could affect the psychological balance [24]. Accordingly, in a recent work
on Icelandic volcanic hazards regarding air travel [25], the perceptions of the necessity of restrictions
were positively associated with the perceived risk of an accident and were lower for those who were
more concerned about the consequences of false alarms or who had personally experienced travel
disruption; they were also higher for women than men. O’Neill et al. found females to be more worried
about potential flooding, and regarding perceived exposure to flood risk, gender was not found to be
statistically significant [16].
Before a disaster, research shows that many individuals perceive their own risk as sufficiently low,
reflecting an ‘it will not happen to me’ set of beliefs. As a result, people do not feel the need to invest
voluntarily in protective measures such as strengthening their house or buying insurance [26]. Risk
perceptions differently drive the willingness to protect and take action before a disaster occurs. Risk
awareness is not merely a perception of hazard occurrence or the feeling of threat at the individual or
household level, but also a ‘behavioral tendency’. Thus, it is related to the interest and intentions to
manage more or less intensively a hazard situation. Several researchers have reported men’s higher
confidence in their proactive behaviors during an emergency, rating their level of self-preparedness as
significantly high [24,27–29]. This behavior may at least in part be driven by the social role that men
usually play within the family context. By contrast, among the Wujie indigenous people interviewed
in Taiwan, it was statistically determined that women felt more prepared than men when thinking
about possible future hazards [30]. Similarly, women undertook more hazard adjustments than men
in a US study [31]. Among these actions, there is a range of essential amenities and supplies that are
helpful for the first period in a post-disaster phase. Baker [32] found that being prepared meant having
additional items in the house that were essential, particularly in the response and early recovery
process. According to the results obtained by Able and Nelson [33], men may see themselves as
responsible for some of the necessary supplies that are needed to survive in the wake of disasters.
However, in the USA, less than half of the individuals reported having a household emergency plan,
including household instructions for safer locations in the case of an emergency [34].
Regarding one aspect of planning, the few studies determining gender differences have found
that women are more likely to evacuate than men, perhaps because of socially constructed gender
roles and dynamics [35]. Enarson [36] found that mothers rarely resisted evacuation orders, treating
them more seriously than men, who may be more likely to disregard such orders. Delegating trust to
local authorities and their preventive actions could magnify or shrink the response of a community
by displaying a high willingness to adopt protection measures [37] in the first case, or demonstrating
dramatically low preparedness in the second [30,38,39].
Official rescue attempts are made by emergency rescue services and, inevitably, those contained
within relevant government authorities, supplemented by volunteer organizations [40,41]. Provision
of more informal forms of voluntary assistance depends on the social order, personal characteristics,
attitudes, and situational variables [42]. Assisting during and after a natural disaster can significantly
contribute to reducing the consequences of disasters. Proper assistance, coming from an informed
public, can create an environment where the management of a disaster event is more likely to be
successful [43]. Every individual has the right to be informed of the potential risks and preparedness
measures that can implement to enable secure and efficient actions [44]. Results suggest that providing
specific information on how preparedness measures can be realized may increase the confidence of
women in their ability to protect their property [45,46].
Thus, the findings to date support the idea that gender roles within the household and community
may have direct implications for the successful prevention, mitigation, and management of hazard
situations. Moderating social and demographic factors such as age, education, income, and marital
status can also play a role gender-wise. As a simple example, one’s economic status enables a better
absorption and recovery from losses. Perhaps less obvious is the finding that women have been
found to have a higher sensitivity to possible monetary losses [47,48]. However, having adequate
resources does not on its own ensure that women are not exposed to stress, anxiety, and concern
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15, x
about
4 of 21
evacuation and losses, job security, or the health, safety, and well-being of family and friends [49].
Poorly maintained
adequate and inadequate
resources does not on infrastructures
its own ensure that are women
typical of
arelow-income
not exposedwomen.
to stress,At particular
anxiety, and risk
concern about evacuation and losses, job security, or the health, safety,
are single-mothers, who also tend to have lower economic means and educational levels [50,51]. and well-being of family andSingle
friends [49]. Poorly maintained and inadequate infrastructures are typical
parents typically have the same worries as two-parent households but have added responsibilities of low-income women. At
particular risk are single-mothers, who also tend to have lower economic means and educational
for protecting and preparing the family for an emergency. This solo status can be easily unnoticed
levels [50,51]. Single parents typically have the same worries as two-parent households but have
in the recovery process [52]. Two-parent families are typically better placed, both financially and
added responsibilities for protecting and preparing the family for an emergency. This solo status can
psychologically. However, even in these types of families, there can be considerable gender disparity.
be easily unnoticed in the recovery process [52]. Two-parent families are typically better placed, both
For example,
financially inand
Kenya, 29% of the women
psychologically. However, interviewed
even in thesehad no formal
types education
of families, there canandbe77.5% depending
considerable
on their husband’s income to survive [53]. On the other hand, living
gender disparity. For example, in Kenya, 29% of the women interviewed had no formal education in a community with a
considerable
and 77.5% depending on their husband’s income to survive [53]. On the other hand, living in a and
proportion of highly educated women increases personal disaster preparedness
provides easier access
community with a to and seeking
considerable out of disaster-related
proportion information
of highly educated [54]. personal disaster
women increases
preparedness and provides easier access to and seeking out of disaster-related information [54].
1.2. Flood Risk in Serbia
1.2. Flood Risk in Serbia
Floods are the most common natural hazard risks in Serbia [55,56]. Their frequency, intensity,
Floods
and location are the
across the most common
territory makenatural
them hazard risks inthreat
a continuous Serbiato[55,56]. Their frequency,
the ecological intensity,
equilibrium and the
and location across the territory make them a continuous threat to the ecological equilibrium and the
social and economic development [57]. The potentially floodable area, considered for a return period
social and economic development [57]. The potentially floodable area, considered for a return period
of 100 years, covers an area of 16,000 km2 2(Figure 1), where 500 large settlements, 515 industrial assets,
of 100 years, covers an area of 16,000 km (Figure 1), where 500 large settlements, 515 industrial assets,
680 km
680ofkmrailroads andand
of railroads approximately
approximately4000
4000km
kmofof roads areat
roads are atrisk
risk[58].
[58].
Figure
Figure 1. (a)1.Location
(a) Location of Serbia;
of Serbia; (b) counties
(b) counties of Serbia;
of Serbia; (c) flood
(c) flood prone
prone areas
areas withwith 100-year
100-year return
return period.
period.
Int. J. Environ.
Int. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15, 2761
x 55 of 21
21
The most vulnerable area is the northern part of Serbia, in the main river catchment of the
The most vulnerable
country where the Danube areaRiver
is theisnorthern
located.part
Theofdegree
Serbia,ofinvulnerability
the main riverofcatchment of the country
the population and its
where the Danube River is located. The degree of vulnerability of the population
properties are not uniform, but vary depending on the type of natural disaster and expected and its properties are
potential
not uniform,
damage but vary depending on the type of natural disaster and expected potential damage [55,59].
[55,59].
In
In the period from
the period from 1915
1915 to
to 2013, 848 flood
2013, 848 flood events
events accounting
accounting forfor 133
133 deaths
deaths were
were registered
registered [58].
[58].
In detail, the events with the most impact occurred in the Kolubara (June 1996;
In detail, the events with the most impact occurred in the Kolubara (June 1996; May 2011), Great May 2011), Great Morava
(July
Morava 1999), Kolubara
(July and Drinaand
1999), Kolubara (June 2001),
Drina South
(June Morava
2001), South(November 2007), West2007),
Morava (November Morava,
WestDrina and
Morava,
Lim (November 2009), Great Timok (February 2010), Pèinja (May 2010),
Drina and Lim (November 2009), Great Timok (February 2010), Pèinja (May 2010), and Drina and Drina (December 2010)
watersheds
(December 2010) [57]. The most critical
watersheds [57]. event
The most occurred
criticalinevent
May 2014 (Figure
occurred 2), affecting
in May the territories
2014 (Figure of
2), affecting
Serbia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Croatia [60]. The precipitation exceeded 200
the territories of Serbia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Croatia [60]. The precipitation exceeded 200 mm inmm in a day and was
the most
a day anddramatic
was theevent
mostregistered
dramatic since
event1961 [61], affecting
registered more
since 1961 than
[61], 1.6 million
affecting more people
than (22% of the
1.6 million
country’s
people (22% population) [60]. However,
of the country’s population) the evacuation
[60]. However,procedures were difficult
the evacuation to manage
procedures were because
difficult of
to
the failure of people to move away from hazard areas. Such reactions highlighted
manage because of the failure of people to move away from hazard areas. Such reactions highlighted a general mistrust of
individuals in localities
a general mistrust within the
of individuals government’s
in localities withinactions, including evacuations,
the government’s coupled
actions, including with low
evacuations,
levels
coupled of awareness and preparedness
with low levels of awareness [62–64].
and preparedness [62–64].
Figure 2. The
Figure Themost
mostcritical
criticalflood
floodevent
eventoccurred
occurredinin2014 inin
2014 Serbia. (a) (a)
Serbia. flooded hotel
flooded in Obrenovac;
hotel (b)
in Obrenovac;
flooded
(b) streets
flooded in in
streets Obrenovac;
Obrenovac; (c)(c)
citizen evacuation
citizen evacuationininObrenovac;
Obrenovac;(d)(d)rescue
rescuehelicopter
helicopter in Obrenovac.
Obrenovac.
2.
2. Materials
Materials and
and Methods
Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.1. Study Area
A series of 2500 face-to-face interviews were conducted during the whole of 2015 in 19 of the
A series of 2500 face-to-face interviews were conducted during the whole of 2015 in 19 of the 191
191 municipalities in the Republic of Serbia (Table 1). All subjects gave their informed consent for
municipalities in the Republic of Serbia (Table 1). All subjects gave their informed consent for
inclusion before they participated in the study, and the University of Belgrade provided ethical
inclusion before they participated in the study, and the University of Belgrade provided ethical
approval for this research. These communities were chosen for their different demographic and social
approval for this research. These communities were chosen for their different demographic and
social characteristics, being a census-based representation of the whole population of Serbia. In these
municipalities, participants were selected randomly (first stage: parts of the community in the research
were selected; second stage: streets or sections of streets were determined by the level of primary
causal units; third stage: each research core was determined as the path with specified start and end
points of movement; fourth stage: selection of respondents was conducted following the procedure of
the next birthday for adult members), with the number of respondents being proportional to its size,
using a representative sampling approach [65]. Interviews were carried out for six months, and the
participation rate was 96%.
Table 1. Name and ID code of the municipalities involved in the survey. The number of interviews
is also shown. The location of the municipalities involved and the complete table of all Serbian
municipalities (with ID) are shown in the Supplementary Material (Figure S1; Table S1).
ID Municipality Interviews
19 Kraljevo 141
27 Šabac 140
34 Novi Sad 150
47 Obrenovac 178
57 Kragujevac 191
60 Smederevska Palanka 205
70 Smederevo 145
100 Rekovac 50
102 Kruševac 180
115 Paraćin 147
125 Batočina 80
126 Lapovo 39
128 Svilajnac 115
147 Sremska Mitrovica 174
149 Loznica 149
151 Bajina Bašta 50
152 Užice 147
154 Priboj 122
182 Sečanj 97
2.2. Demographic Characteristics

The interviewees, 50.2% (1256) women and 49.8% (1244) men (Table 2), were representative of the
gendered stratification of the country, which registers 51.3% women and 48.7% men [66]. The average
age of respondents was 40 years old, and the most represented category was people younger than age
30 (711; 28.4%). From the sample, it appears that the majority (41.7%) had a secondary (four years)
educational degree, and very few completed a higher level of education (university, 20.2%; doctoral
studies, 0.4%). In the household sample, married people accounted for 54.6%.
2.3. Questionnaire Design

The structured questionnaire was developed using close-ended, multiple choice questions, and
5-point Likert scale questions. The first part of the questionnaire included the socio-demographic
characteristics of the interviewees to assess the social background of the respondents and their
gender. Subsequent sections included questions related to risk awareness, preparedness, rescue
management and assistance, information and education (Appendix A, Table A1). Several published
survey approaches were consulted [67–70] and adapted according to the social and flood hazard
environment of Serbia. During July 2014, a pilot pre-test of the questionnaire was conducted in Batočina
(central Serbia) with 75 people with the aim of checking the comprehensibility and performance of
the questionnaire. In that pilot effort, participants were chosen randomly across the municipality and
were interviewed in a central location (i.e., the main public square).
Table 2. Basic socio-economic and demographic information of respondents (n = 2500) in a gendered

classification. In brackets there are percentages. Missing values in the sums correspond to people that
did not complete the questionnaire entirely.
Variable Category Total Male Female

Young (18–38) 1265 (50.6) 594 (46.96) 671 (53.04)
Age (years) Adult (39–68) 1182 (47.28) 623 (52.71) 559 (47.29)
Old (>68) 53 (2.12) 27 (50.94) 26 (49.06)
Compulsory education 1 1987 (79.08) 1025 (51.58) 962 (48.42)
Education level
University and higher 2 513 (20.92) 219 (42.69) 294 (57.31)
Single-headed household 3 644 (45.36) 317 (49.22) 327 (50.78)
Marital status
Two-headed household 4 1856 (54.64) 927 (49.95) 929 (50.05)
Low income 1663 (66.5) 834 (50.15) 829 (49.85)
Income 5 High income 666 (33.5) 343 (51.50) 323 (48.50)
1 Primary school degree (n = 180); Secondary degree—3 years (n = 520); Secondary degree—4 years (n = 1042); High
school diploma (n = 245). 2 Bachelor degree (n = 439); Master degree (n = 65); PhD or equivalent (n = 9). 3 Single
(n = 470); Divorced (n = 99); Widow/Widower (n = 75). 4 Married (n = 1856). 5 Considered below and above the
national monthly average net salary. Retrieved from: http://publikacije.stat.gov.rs/G2018/PdfE/G20181260.pdf.
2.4. Analyses
Statistical analyses of data were conducted using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
(SPSS) program (SPSS 20, IBM, Armonk, NY, United States of America ). First, we tested the variable
‘gender’ to validate our central hypothesis by using a multivariate analysis. A Chi-square test
of independence (χ2 ) was used to determine the connection between gender and risk awareness,
confidence in the positioning of household furniture, inventory of essentials, evacuation and rescue
management, personal assistant of flood victims, economic support reception centers, flood occurrence
information, the location of flood risk education, and the source of training. Assessment of the
impact level was performed by the phi coefficient, where a higher number indicated a stronger
relationship between the two variables [71]. For tables larger than 2 × 2, to assess the impact level,
we used the Cramer’s V coefficient, which considers the number of degrees of freedom. To test the
connection between gender and continuous dependent variables regarding individual preparedness,
household preparedness, community preparedness, national preparedness, rescue management
efficiency, confidence and trust, and unwillingness to get engage, a Pearson correlation was used.
Before proceeding to the implementation of the statistical test, we examined the general and specific
assumptions to ensure their appropriateness. The internal consistency of Likert scales for the 16 items
is good with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.80. External validity is established by using risk perception to
predict intended behaviors to anticipated flooding episodes, giving χ2 = 33.15, p = 0.000.
The interaction between gender and other socio-economic or demographic variables are poorly
investigated in disaster research, even if there are fundamental in programming sensitive management
and assistance actions. For this reason, we gave insights regarding gender and age, income, marital
status and educational level about threat appraisal, preparedness, information and communication
of significant variables. We performed analysis of variance and chi-square tests of independence
according to the unit of measurements of the variable implied.
3. Results
In order to test the central hypothesis of which gender is a predicting variable in all the stages of
the disaster cycle, a multivariate regression analysis was used identifying the extent to which seven
independent variables were associated with five socio-economic variables: gender, age, education,
marital status, and income. According to Table 2 categories, females, young, single-headed households,
university and higher educated respondents and high income people have been coded as 0; 1 has
been assigned otherwise. Previous analyses showed that the assumptions of normality, linearity,
multicollinearity and homogeneity of variance had not been violated. The results of the multivariate
regressions (Table 3) show that the most important predictor of individual preparedness is gender
(β = −0.143), and it explains 14.3% of variance, followed by the marital status (β = −0.092, 9.2%),
and the level of education (β = −0.059, 5.9%). The remaining variables (e.g., age and income level)
did not have significant effects on individual preparedness. This model (R2 = 0.032, Adj. R2 = 0.029,
F = 15.12, t = 28.26, p = 0.000) with all mentioned independent variables explains the 29.4% variance
and represent a good level of explanation based on standards in psychological research. The most
important predictor of household preparedness is gender again (β = −0.049) explaining the 4.9% of
variance (R2 = 0.009, Adj. R2 = 0.007, F = 4.36, t = 51.25. p = 0.000). The remaining variables did
not have significant effects on household preparedness. Concerning the results of the multivariate
regression with flood risk map knowledge information showed that the most important predictor is
educational level (β = −0.078) explaining the 7.8% of the variance. Gender did not have significant
effect in this model.
Table 3. Results of a multivariate regression analysis concerning individual and household preparedness
and flood risk map knowledge (n = 2500).
Individual Preparedness Household Preparedness Flood Risk Map Knowledge

Predictor Variable
B SE β B SE β B SE β
Gender −0.304 0.044 −0.143 ** −0.097 0.040 −0.049 * −0.030 0.050 −0.012
Age 0.003 0.002 0.038 0.045 0.046 −0.021 0.214 0.058 0.077 **
Education 0.050 0.019 0.059 * 0.005 0.018 −0.007 0.212 0.056 −0.078 **
Marital status −0.072 0.020 −0.092 ** −0.032 0.041 −0.016 −0.128 0.052 −0.051 *
Income 0.020 0.026 0.017 −0.043 0.043 −0.021 0.105 0.030 0.067 **
* p = 0.05. ** p ≤ 0.01. B: unstandardized (B) coefficients; SE: std. error; β: standardized (β) coefficients.
In the multivariate logistic regression model in Table 4, four independent variables (preventive
measures, evacuation consent, personal assistance of flood victims, and supplies) were included.
The logistic regression model related to the evacuation consent variable was statistically significant
χ2 = 15.024 (5, n = 2377), p ≤ 0.010 and explains between 6% (Cox & Snell) and 11% (Nagelkerke)
of variance. The results of the regression indicated that two predictors have a unique, statistically
significant contribution to the model (income level p < 0.01, and education level p < 0.05) where
income is the strongest predictor with an odds ratio of 1.44. The model including preventive measures
information was statistically significant χ2 = 35.968 (5, n = 2500), p ≤ 0.000 and explains between 14%
(Cox & Snell) and 26% (Nagelkerke) of variance. Here the results of the regression indicated that three
predictors have a statistically significant contribution to the model (gender p < 0.05, education level
p < 0.05 and marital status p < 0.01) and gender has the strongest influence with an odds ratio of 1.33.
The model including information of personal assistance of flood victims was statistically significant
χ2 = 91.84, (5, n = 2500), p ≤ 0.000 and explains between 3.6% (Cox & Snell) and 6.1% (Nagelkerke)
of variance. The results of the regression indicated that two predictors have a statistically significant
contribution to the model (gender p < 0.01, and age p < 0.01) and gender has the strongest influence
with an odds ratio of 2.44. The model including supplies information was not statistically significant
χ2 = 8.78 (5, n = 2500), p ≤ 0.121 but gender was the only significant predictor with an odds ratio
of 1.21.
From these results we can validate our central hypothesis that gender is a predictive variable in
all the stages of the disaster cycle in this research.
3.1. Risk Awareness

We were interested in exploring an individual’s level of threat appraisal according to a gender
perspective. Threat appraisal comprises the product of objectively assessed measures of probability
and consequences of risk. In this manuscript, we are evidencing the importance of all these components
that construct individuals’ conceptualization of flood risk. The results showed a statistically significant
difference in the awareness of a flood risk map where women (87.7%) had higher scores (p = 0.014).
This can be explained at least in part by educational attainment. That is, women with higher levels
of knowledge of flood occurrence (and maps) were also found to have a higher level of education
(p = 0.000). Furthermore, it was found that married women and men had a higher knowledge when
compared to single person families (p = 0.005). It appears that single headed households did not have
the same concerns as those of two-headed households, perhaps grounded in the carry-over related to
increased responsibilities in the family context.
Table 4. Multivariate binary logistic regression analyses used to assess the explanatory power of four
chosen predicting variables.
Preventive Evacuation Personal Assistance of

Supplies
Predictor Variable Measures Consent Flood Victims
B SE B SE B SE B SE
Gender 0.287 * 0.116 0.045 0.119 0.945 ** 0.116 0.197 * 0.094
Age 0.113 0.132 −0.088 0.141 0.625 ** 0.140 −0.167 0.107
Education −1.49 * 0.163 −0.329 * 0.137 −0.061 0.124 0.047 0.104
Marital status −0.518 ** 0.124 −0.123 0.123 0.096 0.114 0.129 0.097
Income −0.229 0.123 0.371 ** 0.125 0.127 0.121 −0.093 0.101
* p = 0.05. ** p ≤ 0.01. B: estimated logit coefficient; SE: std. error.
However, a higher division appeared concerning the health consequences. When asking people
to assess their knowledge about the health consequences of floods, it appeared that women (79.1%),
compared to men (76.8%), showed more sensitivity to the health effects associated with flooding, but
this was not statistically significant (Table 5). This could be ascribed to a combination of gender effects
and the employment status of women. At a glance, women in Serbia are housekeepers and child carers,
making them more likely to be more sensitive to environmental threats. Based on a flood likelihood
scenario, on a scale of 1 to 5, it was found that the flooding likelihood of occurrence during the period
of one year had a mean value of 2.58 (SD 1.36) for males and 2.53 (SD 1.34) for females, whereas it
was 2.84 (SD 1.38) for males and 2.85 (SD 1.37) for females based on a 5-year probabilistic approach
(Table 5). Thus, across genders in this study, there was a low awareness that these events would occur
in the future, and no statistical differences were found. People seemed to perceive that they are safe
from the possible occurrence of these events, even if they displayed specific knowledge about floods
and their negative consequences.
Table 5. Pearson correlation and Chi-square test results between risk awareness and gender. Standard
deviations are shown in parentheses.
Variable Sig. (2-Tailed) Pearson Correlation Men Women

Awareness of flood probability in 1 year 0.387 −0.017 2.58 (1.36) 2.53 (1.34)
Awareness of flood probability in 5-year 0.856 0.004 2.84 (1.38) 2.85 (1.37)
Awareness on flood risk locally 0.020 0.330 * 2.78 (1.25) 2.83 (1.25)
Variable Sig. (2-Tailed) χ2 Men Women
Having flood knowledge 0.167 1.90 76.8 79.1
Awareness of flood risk map 0.014 * 6.06 84.3 87.7
Awareness of health risk from flood 0.064 3.42 41.2 44.9
* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
For this reason, we explored in more detail whether there were some drivers concerning this lack
of general awareness from a gender perspective. As expected, respondents with a higher awareness
of flood risks perceived a higher flood probability (within 1 year) (men x = 2.78; women x = 2.83).
In this regard, a higher education has been seen to be a significant determinant (p = 0.021) for men for
both the flood occurrence scenarios and the opposite for female respondents (p = 0.013) underlined
women’s higher fear derived from a low education.
3.2. Flood Preparedness

The other main focus of this research was an attempt to predict disaster behaviors based on a future
scenario. According to the transtheoretical model of change [72], preparedness behavior readiness
can be thought of in terms of different ‘stages of change’: the pre-contemplation, contemplation,
preparation, action, and maintenance stages. In total, 2297 people who answered the question ‘What
stage of preparedness do you feel in response to a possible flood event?’, the highest percentage
consisted of those who did not intend to change or did not think about changes in the next six months
(the so-called pre-contemplation or ‘non-thinking’) with a value of 60.3% (Table 6). In addition, as seen
in the table, males tended to report more active stages of change (preparation, action, maintenance).
Expanding on these premises, the theory of planned behavior [73] clarifies that an individual’s
intentions to perform a given behavior vary according to a combination of subjective norms and
perceived behavioral controls unique to each individual. For this reason, it is interesting to examine
how flood preparedness varies across different demographic groups. Such variations reflect the extent
to which factors can shape community-driven efforts and education, supporting efforts to be prepared
for and cope with flood events.
Table 6. Preparedness level from a gender perspective (n = 2297) based on the transtheoretical model.
N stands for a number of respondents.
Preparedness Male Female

Description
Level n % n %
An individual does not intend to change or does
Pre-contemplation not consider changes in the short term (in the next 649 56.3 735 64.2
six months)
An individual is not prepared at present but intends
Contemplation 144 12.5 147 12.8
to undertake certain activities in the next six months
An individual has considered changing his/her
Preparation 141 12.2 100 8.7
behavior in the next month
An individual has changed behavior in the recent
Action 101 8.8 75 6.6
past, but the changes did not come to fruition
An individual has changed his/her behavior, and
Maintenance 45 3.9 37 3.2
these changes were initialized
Total: 1153 100 1144 100
These results were also in line with the answers provided when respondents were asked to
express from 1 to 5 their level of preparedness at the individual, household, community, and national
levels. In fact, women expressed lower levels of self-confidence in being prepared for a flood event,
with a mean value of 2.83 versus men with a mean value of 3.13 (r = 0.142, p = 0.000). The same
pattern of results was found for household preparedness (2.99 for women and 3.08 for men, p = 0.019,
r = 0.047), highlighting that women were not as confident in household readiness. Any gender
statistical difference has been found in regard to community and national preparedness levels, and
answers underlined general low scores.
Greater perceived preparedness reported by men might be borne of the fact that, typically in
Serbia, they engage in service in the army during which they are trained to manage emergency
situations [12]. They are perhaps leading to a more generalized perception of being more proactive
and ready when situations call for participation. Cultures, where there are family marginalization
and lower levels of involvement in community networks and less preferential treatment for women,
may culminate with women evaluating their preparedness to be lower than that of men including
when thinking about a possible hazard event reporting to be more exposed to risk. It may also be that
women are just more realistic in evaluating personal and household preparedness. As a result, and
with respect to a starting point for reducing gender-based differences and risks, good knowledge of the
surroundings may translate into a more exceptional individual’s capacity to cope with natural hazards.
A low level of preparedness was related to lower capacity and willingness to protect (p = 0.001).
However, men registered a higher propensity in undertaking preventive measures with a significant
value of 0.004 and a higher knowledge of the security procedures for responding to a possible flood
event (p = 0.000). By contrast, women expressed the view that they had no time for dealing with these
problems (r = 0.040, p = 0.020), especially unmarried women (unmarried x = 3.38; married x = 2.63;
p = 0.000). That is, women’s many household, child-rearing, and related responsibilities may lead to
a focus that allows them less time to consider the additional responsibility of being prepared for a
possible natural hazard event.
From further analyses, we found significant relationships between preparedness and education,
age, marital status and income. Poorly educated men and highly educated women perceived
themselves to be the most well prepared (men p = 0.000; women p = 0.025). Concerning age, both
younger female and male felt that they were more equipped compared to adults and elders perceiving
a higher level of preparedness as an individual and household level. We found some statistical
differences between individual/household preparedness and single women vs. married women (both
>than 30 years old) (Individual preparedness: p = 0.000; Household preparedness: p = 0.000). Married
women and men feel to be more prepared to overcome the negative occurrences of floods at both
levels. Female-headed households generally perceived themselves to be more vulnerable to floods
compared with their counterpart households with both spouses. This could be explained by the fact
that households with both spouses are better placed both financially and psychologically. They are
therefore able to respond to flood risks in a better mental and emotional state than are their single
counterparts. Wealthier men feel to be more risk takers and well equipped (p = 0.008), while statistics
concerning women were not significant. Generally, people with higher possessions and income feel
less vulnerable to the negative occurrence being able to manage the emergency. A higher awareness
of flood risks correlated positively with a higher assessment of preparedness (men p = 0.000; women
p = 0.000). This means that a good awareness and preparedness campaign might translate into effective
flood preparedness and mitigation measures at the individual and household levels.
Actions useful in the wake of a possible flood event include the handling of utilities (electricity,
gas, water). For this reason, we asked people to assess their confidence in dealing with these. It was
found that men had higher rates of confidence regarding where water valves (p = 0.000, male 86.5%,
female 73.4%), gas valves (p = 0.000, male 65.3%, female 42.2%) and electricity (p = 0.000, male 87.8%,
female 69.9%) devices were located in the household (Table 7).
We first asked people whether they stored essential amenities and, second, to choose from a list of
which ones they had. More men than women reported having an inventory of essentials useful for
the response process (27% and 23%, respectively). It was found that more men (a higher percentage)
than women possessed a radio-transistor (p = 0.044), shovel (p = 0.000), hack (p = 0.000), and hoe or
spade (p = 0.003) (Table 7). On the other hand, a higher percentage of women, compared to men,
reported having water storage (p = 0.016) and a higher proportion of food supplies (male 59.8%, female
65.3%). In our results, women were also found to be more sensitive to essential household content
protection, including significantly more women compared to men reporting that they had secured
copies of important personal, financial, and insurance documents in a safe place (p = 0.003, female
31.4%; male 24.2%).
3.3. Evacuation and Rescue Management

First responders, of course, play an important role in the protection and rescue of people in
disasters caused by flooding. When examining the perception of citizens regarding the efficiency of
first responder actions on a scale from 1 to 5, it was found that men displayed slightly greater levels of
confidence in planned emergency activities of authorities in almost all the choices provided (efficiency
of fire department: men (3.56), women (3.44), r = −0.045; emergency medical services: men (3.55),
women (3.43), r = −0.44; headquarters for disasters: men (3.75), women (3.69), r = 0.790 (Table 8).
Table 7. Pearson correlation and Chi-square test results between flood preparedness and gender. Likert
scales means are shown and standard deviations are presented in parenthesis for the first two set
of variables.
Pearson
Category Variable Male Female Sig. (2-Tailed)
Correlation
Individual preparedness 3.13 (1.06) 2.83 (1.01) 0.000 −0.142 **
Household preparedness 3.08 (0.995) 2.99 (0.968) 0.019 −0.047 *
Perception of preparedness
Community preparedness 2.96 (1.16) 2.94 (1.15) 0.568 −0.012
National preparedness 2.84 (1.10) 2.88 (1.11) 0.310 0.020
Expectation from others 2.63 (1.36) 2.68 (1.29) 0.378 0.018
Not being at risk 2.93 (1.48) 2.91 (1.41) 0.736 −0.007
The reason for not taking Not having time 2.57 (1.32) 2.70 (1.35) 0.020 0.047 *
precautions Expensive 2.74 (1.27) 2.77 (1.36) 0.638 0.010
Fail to provide safety 2.88 (1.36) 2.91 (1.25) 0.077 0.036
Not prevent the consequences 2.86 (1.36) 2.92 (1.35) 0.401 0.017
Category Variable Male Female Sig. (2-Tailed) χ2
Radio-transistor 19.5 15 0.044 * 4.04
Shovel 46.6 32.9 0.000 ** 24.30
Hack 32.4 18.5 0.000 ** 31.41
Inventory of essentials
Hoe, spade 37 28.9 0.003 ** 9.13
Water storage 41.3 51.7 0.016 * 8.240
Food 59.8 65.3 0.298 0.350
Water valves 86.5 73.4 0.000 ** 77.85
Confidence in the positioning
Gas valves 65.3 42.2 0.000 ** 112.1
of house furniture
Electricity 87.8 69.9 0.000 ** 110.2
* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed), ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Table 8. Pearson correlation and Chi-square test results between gender and evacuation and rescue
management. Likert scales means are shown, and standard deviations are presented in parenthesis for
the first two set of variables.
Pearson
Category Variable Men Women Sig. (2-Tailed)
Correlation
Police efficiency 3.30 (1.29) 3.27 (1.27) −0.013 0.528
Rescue Fire Department efficiency 3.56 (1.27) 3.44 (1.31) 0.021 −0.045 *
management Ambulance service efficiency 3.55 (1.17) 3.44 (1.27) 0.019 −0.44 *
efficiency Army efficiency 3.75 (1.30) 3.69 (1.36) 0.245 −0.024
Headquarters emergency situations efficiency 3.35 (1.32) 3.36 (1.40) 0.005 0.790 **
Family member 4.20 (1.27) 4.31 (1.18) 0.037 0.042 *
Neighbors 3.56 (1.28) 3.63 (1.21) 0.148 0.029
International humanitarian organization 2.39 (1.18) 2.43 (1.11) 0.419 0.016
Non-governmental organization 2.46 (1.21) 2.50 (1.13) 0.379 0.018
Confidence and Religious community 2.31 (1.25) 2.47 (1.19) 0.002 0.064 **
trust Police 3.25 (1.37) 3.36 (1.25) 0.043 0.041 *
Fire department 3.63 (2.27) 3.61 (1.19) 0.726 −0.007
Emergency head 3.48 (1.23) 3.40 (1.24) 0.122 −0.031
Army 3.56 (1.36) 3.58 (1.32) 0.768 0.006
Self-organized 3.14 (1.33) 3.06 (1.34) 0.166 −0.028
Variable Men Women Sig. (2-Tailed) χ2
Consent to evacuate 52.6 47.4 0.023 * 0.880
Home—higher floors 52.6 39.9
Friends’ house 39.9 32.2
Escape route
Neighbors 9.4 52.6 0.000 ** 22.24
Reception centers 10.7 16
Empty/Safer apartments 2.9 96.3
Evacuation plan for vulnerable family members 3.5 4 0.005 ** −0.06
Evacuation plan
Family dialogue on evacuation plan 16.6 14 0.117 4.28
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed), * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
Generally speaking, and in contrast to the standpoint of the answers given, the trust in family
members as actors from whom help could be expected was significantly more pronounced for women
compared to men, with mean values of 4.31 and 4.20, respectively (r = 0.042, p = 0.037). Some slight
gender differences were also found regarding confidence and trust in different organizations. Females
tended to rely more on police activities (r = 0.041, p = 0.043, male x = 3.25, female x = 3.36); international
humanitarian organizations (p = 0.043, male x = 2.46, female x = 2.50), non-governmental humanitarian
agencies (male x = 2.30, female x = 2.34), neighbors (male x = 3.56, female x = 3.63), religious community
affiliations (r = 0.064, p = 0.002, male x = 2.38, female x = 2.43), and the army (male x = 3.56, female
x = 3.58). Males, in reverse, tended towards a higher confidence in the fire department (male x = 3.63,
female x = 3.61), emergency aid bodies (male x = 3.48, female x = 3.40), and themselves (male x = 3.14,
female x = 3.06). Similar results were found in a study regarding trust in Serbia, which observed that
the church, the police, and the army were the three principal organs in which people trusted the most
for crisis management (Table 8) [66].
In contrast to the literature, in this research, it was found that men (52.6%) reported being more
willing to accept evacuation orders compared to women (47.4%) (p = 0.023) and especially low income
men (p = 0.002). An examination of the preferred evacuation strategies revealed statistically significant
differences across all items. Men preferred to remain in the house, but moving to higher floors (male
52.6%, female 39.9%) or go to friends’ places (male 39.9%, female 32.2%). It seems that men have
less confidence in the escape routes of public authorities even if they accepted evacuate orders. They
expressed a preference for remaining in their houses or going to people located close by. On the other
hand, women would evacuate to neighbors (female 52.6%, male 9.4%), to designated reception centers
(female 16%, male 10.7%), and other empty/safer apartments (female 3.7%, male 2.9%) (p = 0.000)
(Table 8).
Keeping oral or written response plans can also significantly contribute to more efficient
evacuation strategies at the household level. For this reason, we asked people to state whether
they had a plan for possible evacuation or whether they had ever held planning discussions in the
case of an upcoming flood event. Although generally low rates of the possession of written plans were
reported, women (4%) displayed a slightly higher percentage compared to men (3.5%) (p = 0.005).
Additionally, females (55.2%), when compared to males (51.5%), displayed higher sensitivity to the
evacuation procedures of the elderly, the disabled, and infants. There was no statistically significant
difference between men and women regarding planning discussions in the case of an upcoming flood
event. Here again, women demonstrated more sensitivity in taking care of aspects of household
organization and safety.
3.4. Assistance
Gender was also evaluated as a variable predicting the willingness to assist, with men more
likely to report being a volunteer during a disaster compared to women. Men (23.5%), compared
to women (11.1%), reported greater assistance of flood victims, as well as higher participation with
respect to economic support (men 28.1%, women 6.1%; p = 0.004). This latter form of assistance
can be considered as ‘passive engagement’ (Table 9). A more active participation was detected from
the women’s side; however, generally low base rates were reported, indicating that women (6.1%)
demonstrated significantly more proactive attitudes about effective assistance at reception centers
compared to men (3.7%) (p = 0.000).
Young women (p = 0.008) and men (p = 0.032) consider more to be engaged in assistantship
to flood victims also providing economic support. The same results have been found for married
individuals concerning both genders. To recall previous results, it seems that the lack of time and
the higher vulnerability of single individual families make them less interested in getting engaged
in the recovery process. Unexpectedly, low income women (p = 0.000) and men (p = 0.000) are more
prone to support financially flood victims. This behavior is translated might be seen as ‘unquestioning
obedience’ or ‘altruism’ that often comes from less wealthy individuals.
Table 9. Pearson correlation and Chi-square test results between assistance and gender. Likert scales
mean are shown and standard deviations are presented in parenthesis for the first set of variables.
Pearson
Category Variable Men Women Sig. (2-Tailed)
Correlation
Any difference 2.65 (1.24) 2.58 (1.25) 0.217 −0.026
Expected from others 2.76 (1.21) 2.70 (1.22) 0.294 −0.22
Unwillingness to State body tasks 2.98 (1.21) 2.93 (1.22) 0.316 −0.021
become engaged Expected from peers 2.98 (1.21) 2.93 (1.27) 0.041 −0.043 *
Lack of time 2.42 (1.19) 2.29 (1.20) 0.338 −0.020
High cost 2.65 (1.27) 2.42 (1.20) 0.007 −0.056 **
Variable Male Female Sig. (2-Tailed) χ2
Personal assistance of flood victims 23.5 11.1 0.000 ** 63.6
Type of assistance Economic support 28.1 33.6 0.004 ** 8.38
Reception Centers 3.7 6.1 0.000 ** 6.32
3.5. Information and Education

When people were asked to state the source from which they received information on floods, a
gender-based relationship emerged (Table 10). Women stated to be informed by technological sources
(television, press, and the Internet) and family; while their male counterparts, reported to rely more on
neighbors, friends, and the place of work for their information. This might be explained by the fact
that women are typically confined in the house, for their work and child rearing, making them isolated
from various sources of communication, except other family members.
Table 10. Chi-square test results between gender and information and education-predicting variables.
Category Variable Male Female χ2 Sig. (2-Tailed)

Family members 29.3 33.1 3.87 0.015 *
Neighbors 18.3 13.8 8.46 0.049 *
Friends 12.3 9.5 4.47 0.004 **
Relatives 12.7 11.3 0.995 0.034 *
School 12.8 15.4 3.23 0.319
Flood occurrence College 6.9 4.5 5.72 0.072
information Work 16.8 11.8 11.80 0.017 *
Religious community 2.8 2.4 0.199 0.001 **
Television 54.8 63 16.27 0.655
Radio 16.3 15.2 0.403 0.000 **
Press 29.5 33.9 5.11 0.526
Internet 24.4 33 20.74 0.024 *
School 36.5 28.7 2.11 0.347
The place of flood
Family 41.4 44.1 4.92 0.000 **
risk education
Work 36.5 28.7 16.88 0.000 **
Television 62.3 62.4 0.000 1.00
Radio 13.3 11.8 1.20 0.273
Source of training Video games 3.1 0.5 20.11 0.000 **
Internet 20.6 28 10.01 0.000 **
Lecture 30.3 31.4 0.318 0.573
By contrast, men may have more opportunities through greater interaction with the community.
Furthermore, 38% of both women and men expressed a strong desire to get trained on the correct
response actions in the wake of a possible flood event through the Internet or TV. Internet was the
most preferred by married individuals, young people and low income respondents. Low educated
(p = 0.000) and young men (p = 0.000) stated to prefer to get trained by videogames. For this reason,
we asked people to assess whether they had received education on these hazards by mentioning the
sources involved. Among school, family, and work, people seemed to consider family as the main
source of education for floods, with a higher and statistically significant percentage of women with
respect to men (p = 0.000). On the other hand, men (36.5%), with a higher percentage than women
(28.7%), noted that their place of work was the main source of education about flood hazards (p = 0.000).
Education from school received lower rates of endorsement among both men and women (26.5%)
(Table 10).
4. Discussion
This research suggests that in Serbia, there may be gender differentiation across phases of the
disaster cycle. However, it is important to note that it is not just a matter of difference, as underlined
by Gustafson [74]. Gender is not a merely a variable that assesses the differences between men and
women in the wake of disasters. It is also how living conditions, demographic and economic attributes,
behaviors and beliefs reflect gender power relations in this context. Once recognized, rather than
expose problems exclusively, disasters and disaster preparedness can also be seen as opportunities to
facilitate or provide openings for the empowerment of traditionally marginalized groups [75].
Assessing gender discrepancies can help policy makers recognize local capacities and provide
prospects for the less powerful to make disaster preparedness and relief more effective. The failure
in understanding local relationships and social networks may disadvantage communities including
women, men and their families and networks who face these events. One pathway for learning and
integrating gender in emergency management practices includes successful stories. For example, in
Bangladesh, with the introduction of improved gender-responsive disaster management, Cyclone
Sidr in 2007 took a lower number of female lives when compared to previous disasters and before
this policy [76]. Similar records have been found in response to tropical cyclones in Vanuatu in the
South Pacific Ocean. In his report for Care International, Webb [77] demonstrated that gender-sensitive
disaster risk reduction (DRR) programming contributed to reducing the impact and damage from
Cyclone Pam when compared to a community that did not undertake the same plan. In Macedonia,
the UNDP [78] included and trained women at the National Crisis Management Center for earthquake
and flood preparedness. This initiative, undertaken in 2008, served as a best practice for gender
inclusion in DRR that led to the drafting of gender-sensitive risk management plans at a national level.
Successful community-based management actions depend on how public authorities’ mainstream the
preparedness and recovery of men and women after disaster events, and how well gender-different
realities are noticed and dealt with. Thus, to assist public authorities to organize gender-sensitive
management plans, it is necessary to know how people differentially prepare and react to catastrophic
events from a gender perspective.
Gender dynamics in the disaster context should be of interest to government, non-governmental,
and international organizations and projects and not only at policy levels. They should also be a
priority for researchers and emergency management practitioners, who need to contribute more in their
studies and their practice to find a gender differentiation in how men and women perceive, prepare
for, tolerate, and react to natural disasters, including in combination with different socio-cultural and
economic backgrounds.
5. Conclusions
In this work, gender differences were found in a large sample in Serbia regarding a range of
flood preparedness indicators. Although there were some variables that indicated no significant or
slight differences, larger magnitude and significant differences appeared to revolve around men’s
perceptions of being more prepared and being more active or willing to be involved in or led by
community-level activities. Women generally reported being less confident, but perhaps had more
realistic views about being prepared while also reporting more household- and family-level cares,
concerns, and preparedness behaviors in selected areas. Such a pattern may be underpinned, at least
to some extent, by gender-specific roles linked to the household and to community access, leading to a
state of affairs that lead to less ability to connect with active social networks within the community,
coupled with being less informed and able to be involved in larger decision-making processes. For this
purpose, planners might consider how this may affect the way authorities can reach those people with
hazard information and emergency warnings. Importantly, based on current findings coupled with
other research on different gender profiles, both women and men should be seen as valuable resources
that might combine complementary strengths to maximize preparedness, response, and recovery.
That is, promoting more gender-related dialogue that aims to leverage the respective strengths of
women and men and requires women to be increasingly empowered to take leading roles in building
disaster resilience. In this work, females reported greater organization of essential supplies and
emergency amenities, saving important documents, and dealing with the financial matters of the
household. This should be taken not only as an advantage, but also perhaps as a proxy for a more
embedded sense of prioritizing the security of the household, which makes them more motivated
for arranging household and family concerns. This includes emphasizing their role in emergency
management messaging for preparing the family for a possible hazard situation. Men appeared to be
more confident in managing an emergency situation, including the perception that they were better
prepared to take action, including physical preparedness and response. Additionally, women had
fewer opportunities to maintain a high level of social networking in the community, which may lead
to them being less informed. This might then underpin women expressing TV as the main channel of
flood hazard information and education. Regarding the main outcomes of this research, at a political
level, it is thus important to:
• Learn more about and emphasize the role of women and men in emergency management planning
and messaging;
• Engage in more in-depth research on gender roles, including more in-depth qualitative or mixed
methods research that uses interviewing and/or focus group methodologies on gathering more
in-depth information;
• Develop strategies to empower women, educate men, and promote the genders working
together synergistically to prepare effectively while also perhaps, at the same time, overcoming
gender stereotypes;
• Promote gender-sensitive preparedness by using networks that appeal to and advocate for women,
including those that have a long history of assessing and addressing public health issues (e.g.,
women’s social and health care providers);
• Use a range of communication channels for increasing hazard knowledge and preparedness,
including gender-related scenarios or case studies that appeal to people and promote empowerment
and working cooperatively together within households and communities;
• Include flood hazard education in children’s school curricula (e.g., education on gender empowerment
and cooperation in the context of creating a current and future population that has resilience and risk
management knowledge and skills) with the purpose to prepare for and solve problems linked to a
range of risk scenarios in life such as flooding and other natural hazards.
Based on the current quantitative research, there is an increasing need for more gender-focused
mixed methods research to contextualize gender discrepancies in more depth and at a local scale.
Doing so can better target and tailor disaster management planning and preparedness, response, and
recovery education campaigns. Such work could result, perhaps even quite significantly, in fewer
victims of events such as floods, lessening economic losses, and reducing other consequences.
Supplementary Materials: The following are available online at http://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/15/12/2761/

s1, Figure S1: Study areas location (grey). Numbers refer to the ID of the municipality, Table S1: The ID of the
municipality and belonging county in Serbia.
Author Contributions: V.M.C. conceived and designed the questionnaire with inputs from A.Ö. and S.D. V.M.C.
contributed to acquisition and analyzed the data. G.R. interpreted the data and prepared the manuscript drafts.
V.M.C., G.R., A.Ö., P.T. and S.D. critically reviewed the data analysis and contributed to the content for revising
and finalizing the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under
Grant Agreement No. 740750.
Acknowledgments: We would like to thank Kevin Ronan, who provided us professional advice throughout the
writing and data interpretation.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Appendix A
Table A1. Set of questionnaire variables and units of measurement.
Variable Units of Measurement

Threat appraisal
Flood knowledge Dummy variable (yes/no/not sure)
Flood risk map knowledge Dummy variable (yes/no/not sure)
Flood-related health risks Dummy variable (yes/no/not sure)
1-year flood likelihood scenario 5-Point Likert scale
5-year flood likelihood scenario 5-Point Likert scale
Feeling of danger 5-Point Likert scale
Flood preparedness
Preparedness Transtheoretical model (Citizens Corps 2006)
Individual preparedness 5-Point Likert scale
Household preparedness 5-Point Likert scale
Community preparedness 5-Point Likert scale
National preparedness 5-Point Likert scale
Multiple choice question: (1) Expectation from others,
(2) Not being at risk, (3) Not having time, (4)
Unwillingness to protect
Expensive, (5) Fail to provide safety, (6) Not prevent
the consequences
Preparation usefulness for the future 5-Point Likert scale
Dummy variable (yes/no): (1) Water valves, (2) Gas
Confidence in the positioning of house furniture
valves, (3) Electricity
Dummy variable (yes/no): (1) Water valves. (2) Gas
Confidence in handling house furniture
valves, (3) Electricity
Dummy variable (yes/no): (1) radio-transistor, (2)
Inventory of essentials shovel, (3) hack, (4) hoe, spade, (5) water storage, (6)
food
Confidence in the location of financial documents Dummy variable (yes/no)
Evacuation and rescue management
Multiple choice question: (1) Home- Higher floors, (2)
Escape route Friends’ house, (3) Neighbors, (4) Reception centers,
(6) Empty/Safer apartments
Consent to evacuate Dummy variable (yes/no)
Family dialogue on evacuation plan Dummy variable (yes/no)
Evacuation plan for vulnerable family members Dummy variable (yes/no)
5-Point Likert scale: (1) Police, (2) Fire Department,
Rescue management efficiency (3) Ambulance service, (4) Army, (5) Headquarters
emergency situations
5-Point Likert scale: (1) Family member, (2)
Neighbors, (3) International humanitarian
Confidence and trust organization, (4) Non-governmental organization, (5)
Religious community, (6) Police, (7) Fire department,
(8) Emergency head, (9) Army, (10) Self-organized
Assistance
Willingness to assist community recovery Dummy variable (yes/no)
Dummy variable (yes/no): (1) Personal assistance of
Type of assistance flood victims, (2) Economic support (3) Reception
Centers
Level of agreement on a 5-point Likert scale: (1) Any
difference, (2) Expected from others, (3) State body
Unwillingness to become engaged
task, (4) Expected from peers, (5) Lack of time, (6)
High cost
Information and education
Dummy variable (yes/no): (1) Family members, (2)
Neighbors, (3) Friends, (4) Relatives, (5) School, (6)
Flood occurrence information
College, (7) Work, (8) Religious community, (9)
Television, (10) TV, (11) Radio, (12) Press, (13) Internet
Dummy variable (yes/no): (1) School, (2) Family, (3)
Flood risk education
Work
Desire to be trained Dummy variable (yes/no)
Dummy variable (yes/no): (1) Television, (2) Radio,
Preferable training source
(3) Video games, (4) Internet, (5) Lecture
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Keywords: flood risk; perception; preparedness; gender; Serbia

1.1. Literature Review

2.2. Demographic Characteristics

2.3. Questionnaire Design

Table 2. Basic socio-economic and demographic information of respondents (n = 2500) in a gendered

Variable Category Total Male Female

Individual Preparedness Household Preparedness Flood Risk Map Knowledge

3.1. Risk Awareness

Preventive Evacuation Personal Assistance of

Variable Sig. (2-Tailed) Pearson Correlation Men Women

3.2. Flood Preparedness

Preparedness Male Female

3.3. Evacuation and Rescue Management

3.5. Information and Education

Category Variable Male Female χ2 Sig. (2-Tailed)

Supplementary Materials: The following are available online at http://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/15/12/2761/

Variable Units of Measurement

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