2017-Judge Et Al-Job Attitudes, Job Satisfaction, and Job Affect-A Century of Continuity and of Change

Journal of Applied Psychology
Job Attitudes, Job Satisfaction, and Job Affect: A Century

of Continuity and of Change
Timothy A. Judge, Howard M. Weiss, John D. Kammeyer-Mueller, and Charles L. Hulin
Online First Publication, January 26, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/apl0000181
CITATION
Judge, T. A., Weiss, H. M., Kammeyer-Mueller, J. D., & Hulin, C. L. (2017, January 26). Job Attitudes,
Job Satisfaction, and Job Affect: A Century of Continuity and of Change. Journal of Applied
Psychology. Advance online publication. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/apl0000181
Journal of Applied Psychology © 2017 American Psychological Association
2017, Vol. 101, No. 11, 000 0021-9010/17/$12.00 http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/apl0000181
Job Attitudes, Job Satisfaction, and Job Affect:

A Century of Continuity and of Change
Timothy A. Judge Howard M. Weiss

The Ohio State University Georgia Institute of Technology
John D. Kammeyer-Mueller Charles L. Hulin

University of Minnesota University of Illinois at Urbana—Champaign
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
Over the past 100 years, research on job attitudes has improved in the sophistication of methods and in
the productive use of theory as a basis for fundamental research into questions of work psychology. Early
research incorporated a diversity of methods for measuring potential predictors and outcomes of job
attitudes. Over time, methods for statistically assessing these relationships became more rigorous, but the
field also became narrower. In recent years, developments in theory and methodology have reinvigorated
research, which now addresses a rich panoply of topics related to the daily flow of affect, the complexity
of personal motives and dispositions, and the complex interplay of attitude objects and motivation in
shaping behavior. Despite these apparent changes, a review of the concepts and substantive arguments
that underpin this literature have remained remarkably consistent. We conclude by discussing how we
expect that these major themes will be addressed in the future, emphasizing topics that have proven to
be enduring guides for understanding the ways that people construe and react to their appraisals of their
work.
Keywords: job attitudes, job satisfaction, job affect, organizational commitment
Supplemental materials: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/apl0000181.supp
The epigram “Plus ça change, plus c’est la même chose” (Karr, Applied Psychology, Hall, Baird, and Geissler (1917) argued that
1859, p. 305) is as applicable to job attitudes research as any in addition to advancing science, findings from applied psychology
topical or basic area. The change in job attitudes research over time
is obvious. Even a superficial historical analysis of job attitudes may also contribute their quota to the sum-total of human happiness;
research appearing in this journal would reveal vast temporal and it must appeal to every human being who is interested in increas-
ing human efficiency and human happiness by the more direct method
differences in methods, theorizing, terminology, and topical
of decreasing the number of cases where a square peg is condemned
choice. A simple statistical summary of employees’ reactions to
to a life of fruitless endeavor to fit itself comfortably into a round hole.
forms of music piped into the architectural drafting room (Gate-
(p. 6)
wood, 1921) would have as little chance of being published in the
Journal of Applied Psychology today, as would an analysis of the This statement is striking in its prescience; it foreshadows a
aptitudes and attitudes of “morons” as employees contributing to century of ideas with which attitudes research remains concerned
the war effort (Mateer, 1917). today. It also emphasizes the degree to which the concern with
By the same token, we would argue that the central preoccupa- “human happiness” is as legitimate and socially important as the
tions of applied psychology are—and should be—now as they concern with efficiency. Finally, of equal importance, it establishes
were then. In their foreword announcing the launch of Journal of the notion that job attitudes are a vital concern both in terms of
“pure science” of work psychology and toward applied organiza-
tional ends.
It is through these counterpoises— basic yet applied; discipline-
Timothy A. Judge, Fisher College of Business, The Ohio State Univer- based yet particularistic; evolving yet, in some ways, constant—
sity; Howard M. Weiss, School of Psychology, Georgia Institute of Tech- that job attitudes research always has been, and continues to be, a
nology; John D. Kammeyer-Mueller, Carlson School of Business, Univer- central area of concern among organizational and work psychol-
sity of Minnesota; Charles L. Hulin, Department of Psychology, University ogists. Our review is organized as follows: First, we provide
of Illinois at Urbana—Champaign.
definitions of job attitudes and evaluate the prevalence of various
The authors thank David Glerum and Kevin Dawson for this assistance
with this article.
conceptualizations of attitudes over time. Second, we provide an
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Timothy epochal historical overview of the research literature. Third and
A. Judge, Fisher College of Business, The Ohio State University, Fisher fourth, we review progress regarding the causes and consequences
Hall, 2100 Neil Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210. E-mail: [email protected] of job attitudes. We should note that we also discuss measures and
1
2 JUDGE, WEISS, KAMMEYER-MUELLER, AND HULIN
methods in the research literature that have both critically contrib- chologists have distinguished between overall satisfaction, the
uted to and benefitted from job attitudes research. However, due to judgment one has or expresses about one’s job as a whole (Bray-
space limitations, this discussion, along with tables that identify field & Rothe, 1951), and facet satisfactions, evaluations of aspects
the most common measures used in job satisfaction and organiza- of one’s job like work tasks, pay, promotions, supervision, or
tional commitment research, appear in the supplemental materials coworkers such as those that make up the Job Descriptive Index
to this article. Finally, we provide some suggestions regarding how (Smith, Kendall, & Hulin, 1969). Research has sometimes as-
the literature may develop in the future. sumed a part–whole relationship, suggesting that the overall eval-
uation is composed of weighted, additive summary of the facet
Concepts, Constructs, Terminologies, and Foci evaluations. Though of course they are conceptually and empiri-
cally related, research has shown that a general attitude toward a
Since the inception of our field, psychologists have found it job is distinct from attitudes about various features of the job
useful to develop concepts that describe how people think about (Ironson, Smith, Brannick, Gibson, & Paul, 1989).
and relate to their work and jobs. Labels such as job satisfaction, Commitment at work is similar to satisfaction in that it involves
morale, commitment, involvement, engagement, work subjective a sense of one’s positive or negative reaction to a specific object.
well-being, and work affect have all been invoked. Researchers Unlike satisfaction, at least in concept, commitment reflects a
have taken great pains to separate each new construct theoretically values-based appraisal of an object as opposed to the hedonic
from existing, more familiar constructs. Frequently, the theoretical outcomes of interacting with the object (Porter, Steers, Mowday, &
arguments for separation are more persuasive than the subsequent Boulian, 1974). As such, if one is committed to a job, it is seen
empirical efforts to demonstrate discriminant validity. The overall specifically as fulfilling one’s values, which should lead to main-
convergence of these constructs should not be surprising, because taining effort toward the job even if it is cognitively and affectively
they all attempt to capture the way people experience and relate to perceived as producing negative outcomes for the self. In addition,
their work and all have some degree of subjective evaluation as commitment is theoretically expected to arise only with the pas-
part of their core of meaning. sage of time through a process of growing identification and
Within this universe of related constructs, job satisfaction internalization of the work role (O’Reilly & Chatman, 1986). One
clearly has been the most studied construct. One way of demon- could, however, be satisfied with a job’s features very early on
strating this is to examine the percent of entries in the PsycINFO even if not committed to the job until later.
database using various labels for attitudes over time. Here, we Having defined two common forms of job attitudes, we note
included the terms job satisfaction, organizational commitment, from the start that certain self-report variables that have elements
and facet measures including satisfaction with work, tasks, super- of appraisal are distinct from attitudes based on the established
vision, promotions, pay, and job involvement.1 In Figure 1, we definition. For example, at least in concept, engagement is distinct
show that job satisfaction is featured most frequently, consistently from an attitude because it is primarily a motivational construct,
mentioned in over 70% of articles over time. After a brief heyday reflecting the investment of physical, cognitive, and emotional
of “work satisfaction” in the 1930s and 1940s, job satisfaction rises energies into job performance rather than an appraisal of the job
to be featured in over 80% of attitude-related articles from 1950 itself as favorable or unfavorable (Rich, LePine, & Crawford,
onward, with organizational commitment appearing prominently 2010). Attitudes can also be distinguished from evaluations of
in the period from 1990 forward. Figure 2 reveals similar results fairness or justice, organizational support, or interpersonal support,
when limiting the search to articles appearing in Journal of Ap- because these appraisals are beliefs regarding the intentions and
plied Psychology, albeit with a lower proportion of articles focused actions of others, rather than the direct appraisal of the favor or
on job satisfaction and a higher proportion of articles focused on disfavor one holds regarding others (e.g., Rhoades, Eisenberger, &
organizational commitment in recent years. Armeli, 2001). While engagement and perceived support are nat-
urally related to attitudes, they have been shown to be both
Definition and Nature of Job Attitudes theoretically and empirically distinct.
The role of affect is a final consideration. Recent years have
As a starting point for our review, a clear set of boundaries for
seen a resurgence of discussion about the role of affect. Some
an investigation should be established. Eagly and Chaiken (1993)
researchers prefer to distinguish satisfaction as an evaluative judg-
have given one of the most influential definitions of attitudes,
ment from affective states as causes of those judgments (e.g.,
proposing that an “attitude is a psychological tendency that is
Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996; Weiss, 2002). Others see satisfaction
expressed by evaluating a particularly entity with some degree of
as a multicomponent construct, containing both cognitive and
favor or disfavor” (p. 1). Other work distinguishes attitudes from
affective elements (e.g., Brief, 1998; Judge & Ilies, 2004). As we
beliefs; whereas beliefs can be compared against external criteria
describe in our review of the historical developments in this area,
that have some objective status, attitudes cannot be supported or
the cognitive or purely evaluative aspects have been the predom-
undermined by an external standard (Albarracín, Zanna, Johnson,
& Tarcan, 2005). Unlike general affective reactions such as
moods, however, attitudes are necessarily tied to a specific, par- 1
The search used adjacent terms and near matches for featured terms,
ticular source. such as supervision, and supervisor. Other facet job attitudes like satisfac-
At its core, job satisfaction refers to the overall evaluative tion with coworkers or work groups were also assessed, and were even less
commonly found than terms like pay satisfaction. The total number of
judgment one has about one’s job (Weiss, 2002). That is, satisfac- articles was computed as the sum of all hits for search terms, net of article
tion is the assessment of the favorability of a job, typically arrayed titles or abstracts that mentioned multiple attitudes (e.g., papers that ad-
along a continuum from positive to negative. Organizational psy- dressed both job satisfaction and organizational commitment).
JOB ATTITUDES 3
100%
Percent of Titles and Abstracts on Job Attitudes in the PsycINFO Database

92.25%
90.50%
90% 86.25%
85.29%
80% 78.46%
79.12% 79.12%
76.78%
70% 70.00%
60%
50%
Menoning Topic
40%
30% 30.00%
28.04%
31.38%
26.29%
20%
11.86%
12.66%
10% 5.54%
2.93%
0% 3.10%
3.07% 1.38%
0.00% 0.00% 0.70% 0.45%
1930-1939
1940-1949
1950-1959
1960-1969
1970-1979
1980-1989
1990-1999
2000-2009
2010-2016
Job sasfacon
Organizaonal commitment
Job involvement
Work/task sasfacon
Other facet sasfacons (supervisor, promoon, or pay)
Figure 1. Proportion of all articles per decade in the PsycINFO database concerning different job attitudes over
time. All percentages for job satisfaction and organizational commitment are shown. For the other attitudes, only
the peak decade and most recent percentages are shown. In some cases, percentages total more than 100%
because of multiple attitudes mentioned in the same article. See the online article for the color version of this
figure.
inate focus in theory and measurement on job satisfaction. On the Epoch 1: War Era (1915–1945)
other hand, more targeted emphases on affective experiential states
and their changes over time have taken a more central role in As with most areas of psychology, this was an incipient period
in which job attitudes were covered in a diffuse, sporadic, and
recent research on the way people relate to and experience their
indeterminate manner. Indeed, the first empirical study on job
work.
satisfaction published in the Journal of Applied Psychology was
authored by none other than E. L. Thorndike (1917), who observed
A Century of Job Attitudes Research that the monotony of grading printed compositions took a greater
toll on the satisfyingness of the task than on performance (employ-
Because the Journal of Applied Psychology is arguably the ees performed as well at the end of a 2-hr period as they did early
most important journal in work and organizational psychology, on, but found the activity much less satisfying). Still, the organized
it is an excellent lens through which the field of job attitudes area of study began in earnest in the late 1920s and 1930s, a decade
research has evolved. Parts of the history have been driven by after Thorndike’s article, and was greatly influenced by the indus-
changes in psychology in general, parts have been driven by trial and employment crises of the depression. Early in this period,
concurrent social issues, and parts have been driven by the research was rich with discussions of affect, attitudes, and person-
normal processes of scientific progress including changes in our ality. Methods were varied and eclectic. By the end of the period,
paradigms. We have structured our summary in terms of major a narrower paradigm had taken hold, one that would last for
research topics and tried to characterize the main themes of decades.
each. In 1931, Fisher and Hanna published The Dissatisfied
Our epochal representation appears in Table 1. Using an Worker. For Fisher and Hanna, chronic emotional maladjust-
epochal framework to summarize a century of research assumes ments and disturbances were the primary causes of worker
discontinuities. Kuhn (1962) argued that a paradigm shift oc- dissatisfactions, more so than work conditions. In case studies,
curs when anomalies observed during one period cannot be Fisher and Hanna (1931) talk of such reactions as not liking a
explained until the subsequent period provides new advance- supervisor or desiring to quit as “suggesting a need for psychi-
ments. Thus, the ending of any period or epoch does not imply atric attention” (p. 225). Viteles (1932) devotes a full chapter in
a refutation of prior research, but rather, a progression that his textbook on Industrial Psychology to Fisher and Hanna,
builds upon the contributions of the earlier periods. stating “one half of the amount expended annually on labor
100% 100.00%
Percent of Titles and Abstracts on Job Attitudes in the Journal of Applied

95.00%
90% 88.46%
83.33% 82.50%
80%
75.00%
70%
66.67% 67.57%
64.84%
60%
Psychology Menoning Topic
50%
40% 43.24%
37.36% 33.93%
30%
28.21%
20% 16.67%
13.33%
10%
4.17% 1.79%
6.84% 1.79%
0% 0.00%
0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00%
1930-1939
1940-1949
1950-1959
1960-1969
1970-1979
1980-1989
1990-1999
2000-2009
2010-2016
Job sasfacon
Organizaonal commitment
Job involvement
Work/task sasfacon
Other facet sasfacons (supervisor, promoon, or pay)
Figure 2. Proportion of all articles per decade in the PsycINFO database concerning different job attitudes over
time limited to the Journal of Applied Psychology. All percentages for job satisfaction and organizational
commitment are shown. For the other attitudes, only the peak decade and most recent percentages are shown.
In some cases, percentages total more than 100% because of multiple attitudes mentioned in the same article. See
the online article for the color version of this figure.
turnover is spent on the replacement of emotionally maladjusted were asked to respond to an emotion checklist. This data was
workers” (p. 589). This research presaged the role of both supplemented by daily measures of performance and physio-
dispositions and affect in the formation of job attitudes. In logical reactions. Without the aid of modern technology or
1932, Hersey published Workers’ Emotions in Shop and Home. statistics, Hersey attempted to assess daily within-person vari-
Four times a day, over periods of weeks, railcar repair workers ations in affective states and their relation to performance.
Table 1
Epochs in Job Attitudes Research
Epoch Denotation of era Highest intensity Landmark studies
Epoch 1 World War Era 1915–1945 Thorndike (1917); Hersey (1932); Kornhauser and Sharpe (1932); Hoppock (1935)
Epoch 2 Postwar Era 1945–1960 Brayfield and Rothe (1951); Weitz (1952); Brayfield and Crockett (1955); McGregor, (1957);
Herzberg, Mausner, and Snyderman (1959)
Epoch 3 Cognitive Era 1960–1980 Hulin (1966); Blood (1969); Smith, Kendall, and Hulin (1969); Locke (1969); Lawler and Hall
(1970); Hackman and Lawler (1971); Wanous and Lawler (1972); Mitchell (1974); Locke
(1976); Landy (1978)
Epoch 4 Behavioral Era 1975–1990 Porter, Steers, Mowday, and Boulian (1974); Mobley, (1977); F. J. Smith (1977); Bateman and
Organ (1983); Smith, Organ, and Near (1983); Iaffaldano and Muchinsky (1985); Hulin
(1991); Judge, Thoresen, Bono, and Patton (2001)
Epoch 5 Dispositional Era 1985–2000 Weiss and Adler (1984); Staw and Ross (1985); Staw, Bell, and Clausen (1986); Gerhart
(1987); Arvey, Bouchard, Segal, and Abraham (1989); Judge and Hulin (1993); Judge,
Locke, Durham, and Kluger (1998)
Epoch 6 Affective Era 1995–present Organ and Near (1985); Brief and Roberson (1989); Weiss and Cropanzano (1996); Weiss,
Nicholas, and Daus (1999); Brief and Weiss (2002); Ilies and Judge (2002); Miner, Glomb,
and Hulin (2005)
Note. Landmark studies were chosen primarily based on citation impact, but also on the authors’ judgment of the quality, impact, and importance of the
work. Choice of epochs (epoch), labels applied to those epochs (denotation of era), and temporal range when a majority of the primary research was
published (highest intensity) were similarly chosen based on the authors’ judgment. Landmark studies are listed in chronological order (then alphabetical
for those appearing in the same year).
JOB ATTITUDES 5
Hoppock’s (1935) work is often considered one of the early The Kunin and Weitz studies illustrate the often intimate tie
landmark studies of job satisfaction, with its groundbreaking focus between psychologists working in organizations (Kunin was an
on survey methods and correlates of satisfaction and dissatisfac- organizational consultant; Weitz was a researcher in the life insur-
tion. However, both Hoppock’s intentions and methods were quite ance industry) and the research published. Though that link still
different from the paradigm that was to develop. Hoppock was exists, it seems much weaker now than it was then.
more interested in the societal implications of dissatisfaction than Early need fulfillment and humanistic models of job satisfaction
the business implications, rarely touching on later. Consistent with were offered by Morse (1953); Schaffer (1953), and McGregor
this objective, his desire was to provide a general sense of the level (1960). Exemplifying this approach, McGregor argued that man-
of dissatisfaction in the working population. Hoppock also used an agers could enhance employee satisfaction and productive engage-
eclectic array of methods, including surveys, interviews and daily ment by providing opportunities to fulfill universal human needs
diaries. In an evocative and memorable approach that would not be for self-actualization. Earlier, he argued that management essen-
used today, pictures and biographies of many of the workers he tially consisted of “a process primarily of creating opportunities,
interviewed appear in his book. releasing potential, removing obstacles, encouraging growth, pro-
As noted previously, this early research was diverse in ideas and viding guidance” (McGregor, 1957, p. 207). The primary means of
methods, in contrast with the main thread of research for the next doing this was to enlarge jobs, allow employees to participate in
five decades. How did this stew become the broth we know? Not decision-making, and to encourage self-direction rather than ex-
being present at the time makes it hard to answer this question, but tensive use of control systems. The Institute of Human Relations at
in our judgment, Kornhauser and Sharpe (1932) laid the ground- Yale further developed these ideas, with an emphasis on task
work for the more focused paradigm to come. This work empha- characteristics as a determinant of affective reactions to a job (e.g.,
sized the use of questionnaires to ask about facets of job satisfac- Walker & Guest, 1952). Hackman and Oldham’s (1975) job char-
tion and employed statistical techniques to assess relationships. acteristic model can be traced directly back to this work.
Studies began to employ a more descriptive approach related to Probably the most influential work of the period was reported by
very specific issues, summarizing basic statistical evidence on job Herzberg, Mausner, and Snyderman (1959). They asserted that the
attitudes of department store employees (Kolstad, 1938) or report- factors that cause positive job attitudes are different from the
ing the percentage of employees satisfied with their jobs by occu- factors that generate negative attitudes. Subsequent research from
pational level (Super, 1939). While these studies had the advantage the cognitive era cast serious doubts on the merits of this assertion,
of ostensible scientific objectivity, generalizability and theoretical ultimately leading to the near disappearance of Herzberg’s ideas in
development were consigned to minor roles. It took several de- mainstream discussions of satisfaction or affect. However, as
cades for theory and statistical techniques to catch up with the noted by Weiss and Cropanzano (1996), Herzberg’s attention to
insights of other researchers in this early era. the driving force of work events and his acknowledgment of real
variability in affect levels would later be reflected in the affective
era. Herzberg’s two-factor theory was one of the more prominent
Epoch 2: Postwar Era (1945–1960)
theories during this time, but most direct tests of the theory soon
The postwar years were exemplified by a push to apply the thereafter were either unsupportive or equivocal (Ewen, 1964;
pragmatically oriented technologies developed during the war to House & Wigdor, 1967; Hulin & Smith, 1967; Soliman, 1970).
the private sector. For example, Strong’s (1943) Vocational Inter-
ests of Men and Women demonstrated that future occupational
Epoch 3: Cognitive Era (1960 –1980)
satisfaction could be predicted by the “match” between a person’s
vocational interests and those of people engaged in the occupation. As was true with virtually all areas of psychology, the cognitive
It was also during this time that researchers’ attention turned to the era represented a transformative shift in attitudes research. This
outcomes of job attitudes, particularly turnover (e.g., Weitz & transformation can be characterized by a few themes. First, the
Nuckols, 1955) and job performance (e.g., Brayfield & Crockett, study of job satisfaction began to be organized around theories that
1955). In a methodological development, Kunin (1955) reported linked quantifiable features of a job with more positive attitudes in
on a novel symbolic rating scale, the Faces Scale, which he used mathematical representations, which we term a calculative per-
to gauge job satisfaction. spective. The Cornell model of job satisfaction (Smith et al., 1969),
Weitz (1952) researched affective dispositions, asserting that for example, focused on standards for evaluating the worth of a job
because some individuals are prone to have more generally neg- relative to alternatives. Other theories also exploited advancements
ative attitudes, “the number of dissatisfactions with the job should in calculative attitudes research. Examples include value–percept
be placed in its proper background—namely, some ‘gripe index’ of theory (Locke, 1969), opponent process theory (Landy, 1978), and
the individual” (p. 202). He found a strong positive correlation expectancy theory (Mitchell, 1974). While calculations of satis-
between the “gripe index” and job dissatisfaction. Weitz also faction based on extrinsic characteristics dominated this period, a
linked affective dispositions to the attitude– behavior relationship, durable model of intrinsic job satisfaction, the job characteristics
noting that dissatisfied employees who scored high on the gripe models (Hackman & Lawler, 1971; Hackman & Oldham, 1976),
index were less likely to quit than those who scored low. Weitz also arose during this time period.
speculated that this could be because individuals with a chronically Second, job attitudes research became more interactional by
negative perspective also have negative attitudes toward alterna- incorporating individual desires via through computational pro-
tive jobs. Measurement of components of satisfaction also began, cesses. Locke’s (1969) value–percept model, for example, posited
though several influential efforts still conceptualized job satisfac- that job satisfaction represented a have–want discrepancy across
tion as a unitary construct (Brayfield & Rothe, 1951; Kunin, 1955). job attributes, moderated by the value or importance the individual
places on each attribute. Wanous and Lawler (1972) proposed and between satisfactions and constructs of work- and job-withdrawal
evaluated a similar model, subtracting “is now” scores describing behaviors.
the current job from “would like” scores describing an ideal job, The relationship between attitudes and performance had a very
with a positive attitude resulting from a low discrepancy between long history, and the interest in behavior during this period gen-
these scores. Empirically, this research proposed overall attitudes erated more thorough investigations. Longitudinal studies pro-
would be more accurately estimated by multiplying levels of facets posed that it was not clear if satisfaction would increase perfor-
of job satisfaction by the corresponding importance attached to mance, or if performing well was satisfying (Wanous, 1974).
each, as opposed to the simple summation of facet scores (Mobley Others proposed that consideration of moderators like reward
& Locke, 1970). In other words, attitudes were believed to func- contingency and self-esteem would demonstrate that satisfaction
tion something like a mental regression model—if satisfaction could be linked to performance only in certain circumstances
facets and their respective importance to an individual could be (Jacobs & Solomon, 1977). Despite these efforts to refine the
accurately measured, a precise individual level of overall satisfac- satisfaction-performance link, the most influential study regarding
tion would be determined. job attitudes in this era was a meta-analysis showing weak corre-
A third theme emerging in this era was a focus on how contex- lations between satisfaction and performance (Iaffaldano &
tual factors—such as organizational structure (Porter & Lawler, Muchinsky, 1985). This publication led to a widespread belief that
1965), organizational climate (Schneider & Snyder, 1975), or increasing job satisfaction was unlikely to have much influence on
community characteristics (Hulin, 1966, 1969)—affect job atti- behaviors related to task performance. At the same time, a new
tudes. Demographic or background factors—such as age (Blood, perspective on performance was beginning to emerge that would
1969; Glenn, Taylor, & Weaver, 1977; Saleh & Otis, 1964), race show that attitudes could be more closely linked to the discretion-
(O’Reilly & Roberts, 1973; Weaver, 1978), gender (Blood, 1969; ary helping and morale building behaviors characteristic of a
Hulin & Smith, 1964; Sauser & York, 1978), and employment “good soldier” (Bateman & Organ, 1983).
status (Miller & Terborg, 1979)—also were studied more exten- Other research linked job satisfaction to absence, with inconsis-
sively, not only in their direct relationship to job attitudes but as tent results that tell us as much about the problems involved in
moderating variables as well (Katz, 1978; Kavanagh & Halpern, studying isolated, low base rate criteria (Hulin, 1991) as the actual
1977; Vecchio, 1980). Relationships among demographics and relevance of job attitudes for those criteria. In one noteworthy
attitudes have been inconsistent across studies, and theoretical study— born from a joint product of serendipity and ingenuity,
explanations for why such differences might occur were not com- F. J. Smith (1977) found that salaried employees at Sears’ head-
mon. From the vantage point of today, such demographic effects, quarters who came to work on the annual survey day— braving a
to the extent they exist, seem to be reflections of other more Chicago snowstorm in so doing— had significantly more positive
proximal factors like job roles and human capital levels (though job attitudes than comparable employees surveyed in the New
these differences too are fading as a function of demographics). York office.
Epoch 4: Behavioral Era (1975–1990) Epoch 5: Dispositional Era (1985–2000)

Partly as a result of the greater integration with social attitudes As our earlier review revealed, that job attitudes partly reflect
research, applied psychology research began to focus more sys- the dispositional make-up of the individual was recognized in the
tematically on the behaviors emanating from job attitudes. Addi- earliest eras of job attitudes research. Yet these studies were the
tionally, there was a demand from practitioners to explain why a exception rather than the rule from the postwar to the behavioral
manager would care about job attitudes beyond an altruistic con- eras. While research on the situational antecedents of job attitudes
cern for the happiness of the workforce. had shown promise, new trait-based models of personality begin-
The link between job satisfaction and turnover garnered the ning in the 1980s signaled a possible alternative explanation for
most attention. Following the cognitive perspective, the decision to how job attitudes might arise.
quit one’s job was seen as a function of the perceived desirability Longitudinal studies of dispositions and attitudes, along with an
of movement (i.e., dissatisfaction) and the perceived ease of move- integrative review by Adler and Weiss (1988), ushered in the
ment. Theoretical models linking job satisfaction with turnover dispositional era in attitudes research. Staw and Ross (1985) found
through a process of withdrawal were supported (Mobley, 1977). that job satisfaction was reasonably stable over time, even when
It was during this time period that research on organizational individuals changed employers or occupations. Staw, Bell, and
commitment burgeoned. As early work showed significant links Clausen (1986) further refined this idea by showing affective
between commitment and turnover (Porter et al., 1974), this vari- tendencies assessed during childhood showed impressive correla-
able came to occupy such a central place in turnover research that tions with job satisfaction assessed at midlife. In a similarly
by the end of this era, meta-analyses placed it alongside job provocative study, Arvey, Bouchard, Segal, and Abraham (1989)
satisfaction as one of the two core attitudinal predictors of turnover found significant consistency in job satisfaction levels among pairs
(Carsten & Spector, 1987; Hom, Caranikas-Walker, Prussia, & of monozygotic twins reared apart from early childhood. Addi-
Griffeth, 1992). Consistent with the late stages of the calculative tional work showed that those who reported negative reactions to
view of attitudes, an “investment” model based on the internal neutral objects on Weitz’s (1952) questionnaire were also less
calculation of expected benefits and costs of membership in an satisfied with their jobs (Judge & Hulin, 1993; Judge & Locke,
organization relative to alternatives was influential in the commit- 1993). Levin and Stokes (1989) demonstrated that a negative
ment literature (Farrell & Rusbult, 1981). Hanisch and Hulin affective disposition was related to lower levels of job satisfaction
(1990, 1991) expanded this area to emphasize the relationships across varying task characteristics in both laboratory and field
JOB ATTITUDES 7
settings. Soon thereafter, the publication of Digman’s (1990) re- passing refinements to theory, statistical procedures, and measures
view of the growing body of research on the five-factor model of that have continued to influence the evolution of the field.
personality, in conjunction with Barrick and Mount’s (1991) meta-
analytic work showing the utility of these personality traits in
Antecedents of Job Attitudes
predicting job performance, showed a way to increase the speci-
ficity of dispositional approaches. The consistent demonstration of Having reviewed the historical trends in job attitudes research,
the relevance of personality prompted a general consensus that we now turn our attention to some of the underlying conceptual
five-factor model traits are a necessary consideration for under- and theoretical factors for the major trends that have emerged. As
standing job attitudes (Judge, Heller, & Mount, 2002). we will see, our review for each theoretical tradition is not bound
This era saw a growth in the sophistication of statistical models by time, because various features of humanist, calculative, dispo-
for theory testing. The growth of mediation models based on sitional, and affective theories have been present in all eras of job
structural equation modeling fit well with the dispositional ap- attitudes research. Considering these major paradigms helps to
proach. For example, core self-evaluations (CSEs) were modeled highlight how each theme has contributed to a total understanding
as a predictor of perceived job characteristics, which in turn of job attitudes over time.
predicted job satisfaction (Judge, Bono, & Locke, 2000; Judge,

Locke, Durham, & Kluger, 1998). Other structural models were Humanist Perspectives
developed that paired commitment and satisfaction with chains of
behavior (Hom et al., 1992; Williams & Hazer, 1986). The use of For the humanist perspective, job attitudes result when each
meta-analysis as a tool for synthesizing and consolidating findings individual’s needs for growth, development, and meaning are met
also expanded during this time period. Besides meta-analyses by the conditions of work. Theories of job attitudes based on needs
related to dispositions, the literature on job characteristics and job and values derived from humanist models were already in place
attitudes also received meta-analytic treatment, showing that these during of the earliest phase of job attitudes research. The second
relationships were consistently quite large across samples (Fried & edition of the Journal of Applied Psychology, in fact, contained an
Ferris, 1987). Another comprehensive meta-analysis explored both article “The Human Element in Business,” which noted that a
antecedents and outcomes of organizational commitment (Mathieu successful organizational psychology requires “a full understand-
& Zajac, 1990). Another influential study used meta-analysis to ing of man’s (sic) physical normal desires and needs— his physical
demonstrate that the relationship between job satisfaction and wholeness—it calls for a clear perception of the meaning of his
turnover was stronger during periods of low unemployment when larger life which brings him into relation with his employer and
jobs were plentiful (Carsten & Spector, 1987). fellow workmen” (Metcalf, 1917, p. 175). Over time, the themes of
the inherent human needs for growth and self-actualization would
become prominent in several theories, as evident in major works
Epoch 6: Affective Era (1995–Present) by McGregor (1957) and Maslow (1965).
Echoing the importance of personal meaning in work, other
As with the general attitudes literature (Katz & Stotland, 1959; research proposed that emotional responses to a job are a reflection
Schwarz & Clore, 1983), affect had long been part of definitions of of the correspondence between values and job features (Locke,
job attitudes. The affective component of the experience of a job 1969). Job characteristics theory retained features of the humanist
was central in early work (Hersey, 1932). Work during the cog- model, noting that a satisfying job is seen as one in which there is
nitive era also included emotions in the definition of attitudes a sense of achievement and meaning for doing work, with such
(Locke, 1969). Along similar lines, researchers have long defined meaning being provided by autonomy, task variety, task identity,
commitment as a form of attitude best exemplified as an affective task significance, and feedback (Hackman & Lawler, 1971; Lawler
attachment to an object (e.g., Mowday, Porter, & Steers, 1982; & Hall, 1970).
O’Reilly & Chatman, 1986). However, with a few exceptions The social component of work was noted early on in the devel-
(Cranny, Smith, & Stone, 1992; Williams & Alliger, 1994), the opment of job characteristics theory (e.g., Hackman & Lawler,
affective property of job attitudes lay relatively inert. Over time, 1971), but then was largely bypassed until the beginning of the
questions emerged about the exclusive reliance on explicit use of 21st century. In recent years, research has incorporated coopera-
cognitive primes and comparative standards in measuring attitudes tion and social interactions in the appraisal of the work context
(e.g., Organ & Near, 1985). (e.g., Morgeson & Humphrey, 2006). Meta-analyses show that
The publication of affective events theory (Weiss & Cropan- interdependence, feedback from others, and social support relate to
zano, 1996) ushered in a new era of research on emotions and job attitudes at a magnitude that is similar to task characteristics
attitudes. The reemergence of within-person measurement of job (Humphrey, Nahrgang, & Morgeson, 2007). Antecedents of com-
attitudes provided the methodological foundation for empirically mitment have also been addressed from the humanist perspective,
studying job attitudes as fluctuating lawfully within-person and with commitment shown to be derived from considerate and sup-
mood dependent. It became evident that a substantial proportion of portive social relationships (e.g., Eisenberger, Fasolo, & Davis-
job satisfaction variability was within-person, and, rather than LaMastro, 1990; Rhoades et al., 2001).
wholly representing error variance, was predictable through the Critics have challenged vague terms like self-actualization and
measurement of events (Weiss, Nicholas, & Daus, 1999). More- a tendency to assume humanist mechanism explained attitude
over, behavioral variability was also linked to these variations in formation without actually putting these assumptions to the test
internal affective states (Miner, Glomb, & Hulin, 2005). This (Wahba & Bridwell, 1976). There are also concerns about the
perspective has continued to grow and change over time, encom- close correspondence between descriptions of job conditions val-
ued by humanists and the content of job attitudes scales. While appraisals of situations, whether they are characteristics of the job
explicit use of early humanist writers has waned, the core tenets or the organization as a whole (Judge et al., 2000). This fits with
have remained an underlying theme in theorizing. The emergence a general model in which dispositions interact with the environ-
of the self-determination perspective in organizational research ment. There are also points of correspondence between disposi-
(e.g., Deci, Connell, & Ryan, 1989; Grant, 2008; Greguras & tional and humanist approaches. Individuals with higher levels of
Diefendorff, 2009; Rich et al., 2010) has brought need-value CSE derive satisfaction by pursuing goals that are congruent with
theory back into focus as a significant theoretical component of their dispositional values related to achievement (Judge, Bono,
attitudes research. Erez, & Locke, 2005).
The dispositional approach does help to explain stability in job
attitudes across time, even as job conditions change. However,
Calculative Perspectives
there are concerns that these trait-based approaches overemphasize
Standing in contrast to the intrinsic drives featured prominently stability and fail to address within-person variation over time. This
in the humanistic perspective on job attitudes, calculative models is likely an unprofitable approach, as few would dispute that an
are focused on specific cognitive processes underlying the positive accurate model of dispositions integrates both persons and situa-
and negative aspects of the work. These processes are embodied in tions as they dynamically interact with one another (Pervin, 1989).
a mathematical utility function. From the calculative perspective, Mood and event based approaches, which we cover next, take this
job attitudes are caused by the correspondence between multiple interactive process as a central focus.
outcomes the worker desires on the job and the actual features of
the job. This approach does consider job content, like the job
Mood and Event-Based Approaches
characteristics approach, but the underlying rationale is based on
precise mental arithmetic. The Cornell model of job satisfaction While the theories mentioned so far largely differ from one
(Smith et al., 1969) proposed that the utility one derives from a job another in terms of the comparative emphasis on fundamental
is evaluated in terms of the effects of frames of reference (i.e., human needs, calculations based on monetary gain, or long-term
relative standards) on evaluations of job outcomes. The investment internal dispositions, most have shared a common emphasis by
model proposes that commitment exists when the mental calcula- predicting a person’s attitude toward a job as a single score.
tion of the benefits associated with a job exceeds costs (Farrell & However, there is substantial variability in job attitudes within
Rusbult, 1981; Rusbult & Farrell, 1983). the same individual over time. Two key drivers of within-
Theories of job attitudes which focus on quantifiable causative person variability, as noted in affective events theory (Weiss &
elements do have advantages. Comparative levels of objective Cropanzano, 1996), include the flow of moods within an indi-
rewards have long been shown to be good predictors of satisfaction vidual as well as the events the person experiences on a day-
(e.g., Dyer & Theriault, 1976), even for those who do not believe to-day basis.
they are particularly motivated by money (Jurgensen, 1978). Mood and event based approaches are intimately linked to work
Moreover, the calculative perspective is extremely general and can on dispositions. Individuals higher in negative dispositions are
easily accommodate “enjoyment of the work” and “freedom to more likely to experience negative emotions which then spill over
make decisions” as part of the calculation of utility. On the other to negative appraisals of one’s work, whereas those who are higher
hand, the calculative perspective suffers from circularity—if one in positive dispositions attend to more positive features of their
engages in a behavior for any reason, post hoc models can be work (Connolly & Viswesvaran, 2000). However, there is substan-
constructed to show that the choice was a result of utility maxi- tial variability in moods over time. The return of repeated mea-
mization (Becker & McClintock, 1967). In other words, by being sures of affect in the workplace, coupled with new statistical
so general as to incorporate any needs into the utility function, techniques and psychometrically rigorous measurement, demon-
calculative models do not offer any specific predictions (Herrn- strated that individuals varied significantly in satisfaction over
stein, 1990). Moreover, incorporating importance scores does not time and that there were cycles of mood over time (Miner et al.,
increase the correlations between facet scores and overall satisfac- 2005; Weiss et al., 1999). State-based positive affect is positively
tion (Blood, 1969, 1971; Ewen, 1967; Mikes & Hulin, 1968). associated with job attitudes, and state-based negative affect is
negatively associated with job attitudes (Thoresen, Kaplan, Bar-
sky, Warren, & de Chermont, 2003).
Dispositional Approaches
The nature of one’s affect toward the organization has been
Unlike either the humanist or calculative perspectives, the dis- shown to have quite substantial variability within individuals (Da-
positional perspective places the locus of job attitude formation in lal, Lam, Weiss, Welch, & Hulin, 2009). Commitment involves
the worker him- or herself. Along with the attention to persistence affect-laden concepts like values (Porter et al., 1974), and ongoing
of attitudes over time, the dispositional perspective emphasizes social relationships (Stevens, Beyer, & Trice, 1978). The affective
that some people have a generally positive or negative attitude component of commitment has exhibited the most significant
across domains. The dispositional approach takes this concern on relationships with organizational actions and employee behavior
directly, showing that there are indeed reasons to believe that there (Meyer, Stanley, Herscovitch, & Topolnytsky, 2002; Solinger, van
are substantial underlying relationships between dispositional Olffen, & Roe, 2008). Time itself can be an important part of
views of the world and job attitudes. Meta-analyses show that commitment. For example, individuals who plan on staying in an
dispositional CSEs are substantially related to job satisfaction organization have been found to have a flat or positive trajectory
(Judge & Bono, 2001) and affective commitment (Chang, Ferris, of commitment over time, whereas those who leave are marked by
Johnson, Rosen, & Tan, 2012). In both cases, CSE enhance one’s substantial declines in commitment (Solinger, Hofmans, & van
JOB ATTITUDES 9
Olffen, 2015; Kammeyer-Mueller, Wanberg, Glomb, & Ahlburg, behavior literature matured, a concomitant rise in the understand-
2005). ing of dimensions of job performance provided a framework for
classifying behavior. Consistent with prior work, we focus on
categories of task, citizenship, and counterproductive performance
Outcomes of Job Attitudes
(Rotundo & Sackett, 2002). Moreover, reflecting the special status
For many researchers, the relationship between job attitudes and of withdrawal in the job attitudes literature, we treat it separately
behaviors are of central importance. The applied aspects of orga- from counterproductivity. Withdrawal behaviors are responses
nizational psychology have been concerned with whether attitudes based on a negative appraisal of a situation, marked by a desire to
are related to tangible outcomes. Research in the broader area of avoid or alter the situation. As satisfaction and commitment are
social attitudes, as with research on job attitudes, found a weaker reduced, it is expected that a variety of disengagement activities
relationship between attitudes and behavior than was expected. will occur. The most substantive body of research on work with-
Several theorists proposed why these relationships were so weak, drawal comes from the work of Hanisch and Hulin (1990, 1991).
including foundational work by Campbell (1963); Doob (1947); Similar to the correspondence principle, these authors propose that
Hull (1943), and possibly most influentially for the field of orga- broad attitudes toward work will be the best predictors of broad
nizational psychology, Fishbein and Ajzen (1972). These authors classes of behavior, as opposed to single actions. Individuals with
emphasize that there is a distinction between one’s orientation good employment alternatives will be likely to withdraw by taking
between an object and the behaviors they will employ related to an alternative job. Individuals without these options may enact
this object, exemplified in the theory of reasoned action and the withdrawal in the form of absence, while others who have more
follow-up theory of planned behavior. closely monitored schedules may fail to attend to their work tasks
A second distinction was drawn between the level of specificity and psychologically withdraw while maintaining physical pres-
in attitudes as predictors and behaviors, with the former being ence. Early retirement is also an option chosen by some dissatis-
assessed at a very broad, general level of abstraction, whereas the fied workers (Hanisch & Hulin, 1990). In all of these cases, broad
latter are assessed at a much more specific level. As such, broad job attitudes should be more theoretically powerful predictors of
attitudes are not appropriate predictors of very specific behaviors. the entire class of job behaviors than they would be as predictors
The correspondence principle says that if specific behaviors are to of any specific act. An important and often overlooked tenet of this
be predicted, specific attitudes toward that behavior should be literature is that withdrawal is not valenced or normed; from an
investigated. As a result, Fishbein and Ajzen (1972) advocated the individual worker’s perspective, many withdrawal behaviors may
study of broad families of behaviors to correspond with broad be adaptive (Hulin, 1991). What is adaptive and what is counter-
measures of attitudes. Consistent with this finding, broad job productive often depends on one’s perspective.
attitudes are more closely related to multiple-act families of be- Commitment is a construct that was essentially tailor-made to
havior compared to the relationship broad attitudes have with predict withdrawal from the onset. This fit has been excessively
specific behaviors (Fisher, Locke, & Henne, 1992; Roznowski & close, obscuring attitudes and behavioral intents. It has been ar-
Hulin, 1992). gued that two of the three dimensions of the three-component
Although attitudes research can find stronger relationships with model of commitment do not reflect attitudes at all, but rather, are
behavior if they ask about attitudes toward behavior, this also tends situational constraints that influence withdrawal decisions and
to produce an infinite regress in prediction in which one can get processes (Solinger et al., 2008). Many items in popular organi-
ever greater correspondence between attitudes and behavior while zational commitment inventories are clearly redundant with items
measuring attitudes that become so narrow as to be meaningless in in inventories measuring withdrawal cognitions (e.g., Bozeman &
the broader domain of the actor’s life (Dawes & Smith, 1985). The Perrewé, 2001).
optimal degree of attitude specificity is clearly a complex issue, The progression of withdrawal model implies that a decision to
and is best determined by considering the specific research ques- leave a job is the result of both one’s level of job attitudes, but
tion. moreover, that a comparative deterioration in attitudes should
accompany withdrawal decisions. As within-person modeling be-
came more common in organizational research, researchers found
Process of Adaptation and Withdrawal
that the trajectory of attitudes was an important part of the with-
Pure attitudes researchers propose that attitudes serve a func- drawal process. Those who eventually leave their jobs are marked
tional purpose, directing one’s motivation and attention toward by progressively lower and lower levels of satisfaction and com-
desirable ends. Within the field of organizational psychology, this mitment (Bentein, Vandenberghe, Vandenberg, & Stinglhamber,
issue is covered in some depth by Mobley, Griffeth, Hand, and 2005; Kammeyer-Mueller et al., 2005).
Meglino (1979) and by Hulin (1991). The adaptation process leads An events-based approach has shown that sudden emotional
a person to approach situations associated with positive attitudes, reactions can sometimes override the attitude system for with-
and correspondingly withdraws from situations associated with drawal. In these cases, overall attitudes toward the job are less
negative attitudes. This serves as a unifying perspective for much important than suggested by classic attitude theories. Instead,
of the work we review. momentary emotional reactions can produce dramatic changes in
affect and cognition that overwhelm or bypass general attitudes
(Lee, Mitchell, Wise, & Fireman, 1996). At the same time, this
Prediction of Specific Criteria
research has also found that some of the dramatic events that elicit
The overall process of adaptation and withdrawal is manifested abrupt decisions to terminate employment are related to unex-
in a number of specific behavioral criteria. As the satisfaction- pected alternative job offers (Lee, Gerhart, Weller, & Trevor,
2008). A decision that one’s job is suddenly not appealing when a counterproductive actions can also arise out of a desire to release
superior alternative appears is perfectly consistent with the Cornell or express strong negative attitudes toward an external agent such
model of job attitudes (Smith et al., 1969). as a supervisor, coworker, or the organization as a whole (Robin-
Performance and productivity are responses related to apprais- son & Bennett, 1997). Meta-analysis shows that job satisfaction is
als of the work situation, marked by a desire to maintain and substantially negatively related to unethical behavior at work
approach the situation. Brayfield and Crockett (1955) noted that (Kish-Gephart, Harrison, & Treviño, 2010). A negative cognitive
earlier work implicitly assumed that workers will attribute satis- appraisal of an object will most often simply result in withdrawal,
factory or dissatisfactory working conditions to the employer and but discrete emotions like hostility and anger predict more retal-
will exert effort reflecting either gratitude or withhold effort re- iatory behavior like counterproductivity (Judge, Scott, & Ilies,
flecting resentment; this was a position they critiqued because it 2006; Lee & Allen, 2002).
failed to establish a reason for this motivation. The investment Organizational effectiveness includes macrooutcomes of satis-
model suggests that if a person appraises a job as superior to faction and commitment, including customer service perceptions
alternatives, he or she will make higher levels of reward invest- and performance, unit-level productivity and performance, unit-
ments to maintain membership and increase access to desirable level withdrawal, and financial/sales performance. With regard to
future job rewards in that same organization (Farrell & Rusbult, productivity and profit, an earlier meta-analysis across nearly
1981; Rusbult & Farrell, 1983). A more affectively based variant 8,000 business units within 36 companies using the Gallup Work-
on the humanist model proposed that individuals who have atti- place Audit found that overall job satisfaction positively predicted
tudes indicative of support and value congruence with the organi- both unit-level profit and productivity, as well as customer satis-
zation will exert their best efforts on the job (Meyer, Paunonen, faction (Harter, Schmidt, & Hayes, 2002). Beyond also meta-
Gellatly, Goffin, & Jackson, 1989). analytically linking job satisfaction to customer satisfaction and
Meta-analyses clearly show that when different facets of job customer service quality ratings at the individual level (Brown &
satisfaction are formed into composites, there is a notable cor- Lam, 2008), a more recent and holistic meta-analysis drawing
rected correlation of rc ⫽ .30 between satisfaction and perfor- upon studies from the academic literature on collective job satis-
mance (Judge, Thoresen, Bono, & Patton, 2001). However, the faction found large relationships between job satisfaction and
causal structure of the relationship is not straightforward, because macrolevel outcomes including unit-level productivity, unit-level
attitudes can be either the cause or consequence of performance. citizenship behaviors, unit-level withdrawal, and customer satis-
Success may be associated with greater satisfaction because doing faction (Whitman, Van Rooy, & Viswesvaran, 2010), also finding
well in a valued domain is self-reinforcing (Locke, 1965; Locke, that unit-level OCB mediated the unit level job satisfaction-
1970). Other work shows that performance-contingent rewards are performance relationship. Less work has been conducted on the
especially effective in linking rewards and satisfaction (Cher- macrooutcomes of organizational commitment. However, some
rington, Reitz, & Scott, 1971). One meta-analysis of panel studies initial work suggests that commitment is related to meeting sales
found that job attitude levels were associated with changes in targets for bank employees (Benkhoff, 1997) at the individual
future job performance, but performance levels were not associ- level. Focusing on unit-level commitment, some research also
ated with changes in future attitudes (Riketta, 2008). However, suggests that it is related to reduced customer complaints and
even this relationship may change, depending on features of the customer wait times across dispersed units of a public sector
worker and work context. service organization (Conway & Briner, 2012).
Citizenship behavior involves creating a positive psychological Collective attitudes may act as mediators between collective
environment in an organization and often also entails behavior that psychological constructs (e.g., organizational climates) or human
might be hoped for or even recognized in performance evaluations, resource practices (e.g., high-performance work systems; Huselid,
but may not be specifically demanded of employees. During the 1995) and macrolevel outcomes. For example, using meta-analytic
1980s, there was a dramatic growth in research related to these structural equation modeling, unit-level attitudes were found to
behaviors. This research was directly predicated on resolving mediate the relationship between service climate and customer
disputes regarding attitudes and performance. Specifically, this satisfaction (Hong, Liao, Hu, & Jiang, 2013). Additionally, inter-
research proposed that attitudes might not lead to carefully nal (i.e., law and professional code) facets of ethical climate are
watched and easily monitored task behaviors; but if citizenship related to collective citizenship behavior and financial perfor-
behaviors were taken into account, attitudes would emerge as a mance, as mediated by collective organizational commitment
much more significant correlate of behavior (Bateman & Organ, (Chun, Shin, Choi, & Kim, 2013). Unit-level job attitudes have
1983; Smith, Organ, & Near, 1983). Satisfaction with the social been shown to mediate the relationship between high-performance
environment can facilitate altruistic citizenship, because people are work systems and overall unit performance (Messersmith, Patel,
more likely to help others toward whom they are positively dis- Lepak, & Gould-Williams, 2011), financial performance (Gong,
posed (Smith et al., 1983). Commitment to an organization’s Law, Chang, & Xin, 2009; Piening, Baluch, & Salge, 2013; Sung
values can also enhance discretionary citizenship behavior (Meyer, & Choi, 2014), and customer satisfaction (Piening et al., 2013).
Becker, & Vandenberghe, 2004). Research has also suggested reciprocal relationships between
Counterproductive behavior is a mirror image of citizenship satisfaction and macro-outcomes. For example, Schneider,
behavior in that it reflects exceptional effort, but unlike citizenship Hanges, Smith, and Salvaggio (2003) found evidence for a recip-
behavior, it is an exceptional effort to either violate organizational rocal, cross-lagged effect between overall satisfaction and both
norms or even actively harm the organization with no clear utili- return on assets and earnings per share. Furthermore, there is a
tarian self-benefit. Some counterproductive behaviors, such as reciprocal relationship after 1-year between employee job satisfac-
stealing, can be attributed to a desire to enhance the self. However, tion and customer satisfaction (Zablah, Carlson, Donavan, Max-
JOB ATTITUDES 11
ham, & Brown, 2016). With regard to commitment, a reciprocal it is not that one exerts effort to maintain a feeling about the job,
relationship between commitment and financial performance as but rather, the feeling about one’s values being fulfilled that helps
well as customer satisfaction was found after introducing a 1-year one draw on a well of intrinsic energy.
time lag (Winkler, König, & Kleinmann, 2012). Regardless of the These ideas correspond to another potential future research
direct relationships between attitudes and macrooutcomes, some direction. The existence of distinct positive and negative affect
characteristics of unit-level attitudes may act as boundary condi- systems (Tellegen, Watson, & Clark, 1999), as well as increased
tions. For example, there is a stronger relationship between job investigation of approach and avoidance systems in motivation
satisfaction trajectory and unit-level turnover for units that have (DeShon & Gillespie, 2005; Payne, Youngcourt, & Beaubien,
more variability in individual-level job satisfaction trajectories 2007), suggests that future research should also revisit the idea of
(Liu, Mitchell, Lee, Holtom, & Hinkin, 2012). positive and negative attitude systems. This would, in essence, be
a partial return to Herzberg’s notion of satisfiers and dissatisfiers,
but with significantly updated theoretical and empirical bases.
Future Research Directions
Cacioppo and Berntson (1994) proposed that attitudes may be
As the preceding review shows, job attitudes research has a long represented in a two dimensional space that includes highly pos-
and complex history, and over time, a combination of theoretical itive and highly negative attitudes sometimes existing simultane-
and empirical developments has changed the way researchers ously toward the same object, or attitudes which have low levels of
understand appraisals of the work context. While offering future both positivity and negativity. On the antecedent side, disposi-
research directions, many of these emerging perspectives will tional positive and negative affectivity may relate especially well
revisit familiar themes that have appeared since the earliest days of to corresponding positive and negative components of attitudes.
the Journal of Applied Psychology, but in new and (to us) exciting Personally fulfilling work characteristics may relate uniquely to
ways. positive job attitudes, whereas conflict and tension may relate
The ongoing development of the affective perspective will gen- uniquely to negative job attitudes. Turning to the link between
erate opportunities to consider new ways that attitudes can be attitudes and behavior, there are likely to be distinct outcomes
dynamically linked to performance. For example, Dalal et al. from positive and negative attitudes, as suggested by the distinct
(2009) proposed that individuals who are in a positive mood will approach and avoid motivational systems which may mediate
engage in activities to maintain this pleasant state of mind, en- these processes.
hancing motivation to engage in citizenship behaviors. Rothbard Consequences of attitudinal conflict, in which positive and
and Wilk (2011) found that positive affect at the start of the work negative evaluations of a job coexist, may be especially interest-
day was associated with superior customer service behavior, con- ing. The exit-voice-loyalty-neglect model proposes that voice be-
sistent with the idea that positive affect enhances approach moti- havior is a possible consequence of employees who appraise an
vation and proactivity. Conversely, negative affect at the start of organization’s fundamental mission positively, but appraise the
the work day was associated with lower levels of customer service organization’s current practices negatively (Rusbult, Farrell, Rog-
behavior, possibly reflecting depletion. Such potential self- ers, & Mainous, 1988). While this specific form of addressing a
regulatory cycles create an interesting point for both contrast and conflict among attitudes is possible, other responses to conflicts
consilience relative to longer-term striving for personal fulfillment within the attitude space should be considered. For example, how
and intrinsic motivation proposed in humanist models. does one address a situation in which a supervisor produces both
Much of the work cited so far regarding affect and performance positive attitudes, because of the support he or she provides, and
only addresses generalized mood states, and may have different negative attitudes, because this support is often delivered with an
relationships when specific forms of satisfaction or commitment element of undermining? What are the consequences for a worker
are incorporated into the theoretical models. The self-regulatory who holds a job that produces positive attitudes because of the
processes involved in attitudes will require independent theoretical positive humanist features like meaning and interesting work, but
development that ties together direct effects of moods and emo- which also produces negative attitudes because it incorporates low
tions with comparable consequences (Beal, Weiss, Barros, & Mac- pay and low social status? As these two examples illustrate, there
Dermid, 2005). For example, employees may undertake transient are many cases wherein contradictory attitudes toward the same
efforts to regulate their moods more than attempting transient object can strongly coexist.
efforts to better like their jobs. As such, it is not likely that one Development of theory related to independent negative and
would engage in regulatory behavior to maintain a positive ap- positive attitude systems will require commensurate work in the
praisal of one’s job. If one has a positive appraisal of one’s job in area of measurement. Confirmatory factor analyses have long
the moment, the decision to regulate effort may be a reflection of shown that “reverse-coded” questions create problems in estab-
a desire to retain or leave the job, or perhaps may be mediated lishing a single factor in attitude scales like the Job Descriptive
through a sense of reciprocity (i.e., if I am satisfied with my Index (Harvey, Billings, & Nilan, 1985). Rather than treating this
supervisor or organization today, perhaps I will increase effort result as an indication of measurement error, measures could be
during this day as a way of acknowledging this positive appraisal). designed to emphasize the theoretical meaning of this multidimen-
Such reactions may be mediated through job affect, consistent with sional structure. One solution may emerge through grounded the-
evidence that counterproductive behavior can arise as a result of ory methods, building up our understanding of the factors that fuel
the anger generated through perceptions of unjust treatment distinct negative attitudes, in a process that will culminate in more
(Matta, Erol-Korkmaz, Johnson, & Biçaksiz, 2014). Alternatively, refined scales over time (Edmondson & McManus, 2007). Such
a feeling that a job is matching one’s values may spur on greater work should yield many insights quickly as people are apt to
effort consistent with humanist models of commitment, but again, describe elements of their work that they have uniquely negative
attitudes toward, and that have no corresponding positive antipode. prior research has shown that there is a genetic component to job
On the other hand, the very nature of Likert scales requires satisfaction (Arvey, McCall, Bouchard, Taubman, & Cavanaugh,
respondents to place their attitudes in a bipolar attitude space, 1994; Judge, Ilies, & Zhang, 2012) and that genetics account in
which has been an acknowledged weakness of this approach part for the relationship between CSEs and health problems, as
(Kaplan, 1972). New response modalities may be an alternative. mediated by job satisfaction (Judge et al., 2012). Furthermore,
Another direction for job attitudes research can be found in molecular genetics studies can help isolate specific genetic effects
situational moderation of the job attitudes-behaviors relationship. on job attitudes to assist in explaining their heritability, contribut-
Although a recent meta-analysis demonstrated that situational ing to our understanding of job attitudes—with the implication that
strength reduced the job satisfaction-performance relationship genetic factors are only a “piece to the puzzle” of accounting for
(Bowling, Khazon, Meyer, & Burrus, 2015), more research needs variability in job attitudes, along with situational factors (Spain &
to be carried out on job satisfaction and other attitudes that links Harms, 2014). For example, a dopamine receptor gene (DRD4
them with personality, context, and behavior (Judge & Zapata, VNTR) and a serotonin transporter gene (5-HTTLPR) were found
2015). In a similar vein, cultural values may affect the press of the to be significantly related to job satisfaction, with pay level me-
situations experienced in the work context. For example, Ng, diating the relationship (Song, Li, & Arvey, 2011).
Sorensen, and Yim (2009) found meta-analytic evidence that the With regard to organizational neuroscience, the approach has
job satisfaction-performance relationship was reduced in collec- been a point of contention between critics, optimists, and realists
tivist cultures, given the normative press to contribute to the group, alike (Ashkanasy, Becker, & Waldman, 2014; Healey & Hodgkin-
despite satisfaction or dissatisfaction. Future research should seek son, 2014; Lindebaum, 2016; Lindebaum & Jordan, 2014; Spector,
to examine additional situational characteristics beyond cultural 2014) and is not without its limitations, caveats, and unsolved
values (Ng et al., 2009), aspects of situational strength (Meyer, problems (Adolphs, 2015; Lee et al., 2012; Schwartz, Lilienfeld,
Dalal, & Hermida, 2010), and trait activation (Tett & Burnett, Meca, & Sauvigné, 2016). Although we are critical of the extent to
2003) as they moderate job attitude validities—as well as those which organizational neuroscience can be considered as deus ex
situational characteristics in combination—potentially when they machina for organizational behavior research, we do believe that
are at odds with one another (e.g., competing situational con- these neurobiological factors are not “prime determinants but
straints and expectations).
rather . . . biophysical roots on which purposive human activity
Additional research may also examine the effect of context and
draws in tandem with other social, environmental and technolog-
situation on the unfolding of the “microstructure” of job attitudes
ical resources” (Healey & Hodgkinson, 2014, p. 784).
(e.g., Solinger et al., 2015). Although Solinger et al. (2015) fo-
Beyond a mere understanding of the neurobiological and
cused only on organizational entry and exit, future research should
genetic bases for job attitudes, taking an organizational neuro-
examine the extent to which various situations in organizations
science approach in this area could potentially lead to thera-
(e.g., mistreatment, promotion, feedback, empowerment, conflict,
peutic benefits, improvements, and enrichments in the lives of
praise, etc.) at varying levels of strength and press affect both
employees (Senior & Lee, 2013). How and where can organi-
affective, cognitive, and behavioral trajectories of attitudes. In
zational neuroscience methods be applied to the study of job
turn, commonly encountered situational moderators of the effect of
attitudes? First, organizational neuroscience methods can be
these microstructure components on behavior should be examined.
Similar logic can be extended to narrow characteristics of job used to test theories developed regarding attitude formation and
attitudes including attitude strength (Krosnick & Petty, 1995; change as applied to organizations. For example, the iterative
Schleicher, Smith, Casper, Watt, & Greguras, 2015; Schleicher, reprocessing model (Cunningham, Zelazo, Packer, & Van
Watt, & Greguras, 2004), accessibility, stability, certainty, ambiv- Bavel, 2007) suggests that attitudes exist as current evaluations
alence, and so forth (Cooke & Sheeran, 2004; Glasman & Albar- built from attitude representations— current evaluations shift as
racín, 2006; Kraus, 1995). Finally, given that work contexts should a function of the iterative processing of new information, sug-
moderate job attitude and behavior relationships, they may also gesting both stable and dynamic components of job attitudes.
affect the clustering of attitudes between-individuals. As such, Current simulation research provided support for the iterative
profiles of job attitudes in various work contexts and work ar- reprocessing model for racial stereotype perceptions and change
rangements should be explored. For example, one study found as well as suggests future application of electroencephalogram
commitment profiles toward different targets (i.e., profession, or- and functional MRI methods for testing the model with human
ganization, job, supervisor, etc.) varied as a function of whether or subjects (Ehret, Monroe, & Read, 2015). Second, neuroscience
not employees were in a standard or fixed-term (contract) arrange- methods (for a list of techniques see Senior, Lee, & Butler,
ment (Cooper, Stanley, Klein, & Tenhiälä, 2016). In sum, there are 2011) are becoming increasingly tractable owing to advances in
a variety of future avenues for examining the situational modera- technology, making them more amenable for research in orga-
tion of the job attitudes-behaviors relationship. nizational settings (Waldman, Wang, & Fenters, 2016). An
Attitudes research in organizations can also be advanced additional benefit to using these methods, is that traditional
through organizational neuroscience (Becker, Cropanzano, & San- methods used to investigate implicit attitudes (e.g., the Implicit
fey, 2011; Lee, Senior, & Butler, 2012) and behavioral genetics Association Test) cannot be used when an employee is engaged
(Arvey & Bouchard, 1994; Ilies, Arvey, & Bouchard, 2006) in in another task (Volk & Köhler, 2012). The combination of
organizations. Behavioral genetics mediated models that link neuroeconomic games as manipulations, neurological assess-
genes, individual-differences variables, and job attitudes with be- ments, and job attitudes measures can perhaps bring the neu-
haviors can help advance our understanding of the formation of job robiological study of job attitudes to light in organizational
attitudes in part from our dispositional tendencies. For example, behavior research.
JOB ATTITUDES 13
Summary and Conclusions various job conditions (e.g., Morgeson & Humphrey, 2008),
whereas the dispositional approach recognized that dispositions
Looking back at a century of work on job attitudes in the influence attitudes through perception of job characteristics (Judge
Journal of Applied Psychology and the field of industrial/organi- et al., 1998). As in the past, the future of job attitudes research can
zational psychology as a whole, the most consistent theme appears be expected to ultimately follow an arc of continued progress in
to be a circle. Each progressive generation puts forward theories which different threads of the literature recognize, at times abrade
that challenge the assumptions of the last, with new methodolog- against, and in the end integrate with, one another.
ical tools that are necessary to refine the scope and precision of the
answers researchers can provide or even address in a rigorous way
new, evolving, questions. While our review of the past century of References
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2017-Judge Et Al-Job Attitudes, Job Satisfaction, and Job Affect-A Century of Continuity and of Change

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Journal of Applied Psychology

Job Attitudes, Job Satisfaction, and Job Affect: A Century

Job Attitudes, Job Satisfaction, and Job Affect:

Timothy A. Judge Howard M. Weiss

John D. Kammeyer-Mueller Charles L. Hulin

Keywords: job attitudes, job satisfaction, job affect, organizational commitment

Supplemental materials: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/apl0000181.supp

Percent of Titles and Abstracts on Job Attitudes in the PsycINFO Database

Percent of Titles and Abstracts on Job Attitudes in the Journal of Applied

Epoch Denotation of era Highest intensity Landmark studies

Epoch 4: Behavioral Era (1975–1990) Epoch 5: Dispositional Era (1985–2000)

predicted job satisfaction (Judge, Bono, & Locke, 2000; Judge,

of value to the field. If anything, recent years have recovered some

and goal attainment. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90, 257–268.

Locke, E. A. (1969). What is job satisfaction? Organizational Behavior

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