Data Communications - Chapter 1 PDF

Intro to Data Communications
Chapter 1
Data Communications
Chapter 1: Intro to Data Communications

• Principles of Data Communications
• Infrared, Bluetooth, and RFID
• Ethernet and WiFi
• Digital and Mobile Telephony
• Terrestrial and Satellite Communications
• Fiber Optics Technology
Principles of Data Communications
Data
Data
• information in numerical
form that can be
digitally transmitted or
processed
• information or facts
used usually to
calculate, analyze, or
plan something
• information produced or
stored by a computer
• requires interpretation
to become information
Data
• in most cases, data within a
computer moves as parallel
data, while that moving to or
from a computer moves as
serial data
• can be organized in many
different types of data
structures, including
arrays, graphs, and objects
• comes in these three
states: data at rest, data in
transit and data in use
DATA TRANSMISSION
SERIAL PARALLEL
Communications
Electronic Communication
• meaningful exchange of information at a distance by technological

means, particularly through electrical signals or electromagnetic waves.
• basically composed of a transmitter, a receiver, and a channel for the
information to get from one point to another
• any transfer of signs, signals, writing, images, sounds, data, or
intelligence of any nature transmitted in whole or in part by a wire, radio,
electromagnetic, photo electronic or photo optical system that affects
interstate or foreign commerce.
1. Analog Data, Analog Signal
• Modulation:
– combines an input signal m(t)
and a carrier frequency fc to
produce a signal s(t) whose
bandwidth is usually centered
on fc
– Types of modulation
 Amplitude modulation: AM
 Angle Modulation
 Frequency modulation:
FM
 Phase modulation: PM
• e.g., voice signals are transmitted
over telephone lines at their
original spectrum.
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2. Analog Data, Digital Signals
• Digitization is the conversion of analog data into digital data
• Digital data can then be transmitted using NRZ-L or another code
• Digital data can then be
converted to analog
signal
• Analog to digital
conversion done using a
codec (coder-decoder)
• Two principle codec
techniques
• Pulse Code
Modulation
• Delta modulation
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3. Digital Data, Analog Signal
• Designed to transmit analog signals in 300Hz to 3400Hz (limited by the
central office, not the twisted pair cable)
• Use modem for digital data
(modulator-demodulator)
• Modulation involves operation
on one or more of the three
characteristics of a carrier signal
– Amplitude shift keying (ASK)
– Frequency shift keying (FSK)
– Phase shift keying (PSK)
• Binary PSK (BPSK)
• Four-level PSK (QPSK)
• Multilevel PSK (MPSK)
– QAM: a combination of ASK
and PSK
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4. Digital Data, Digital Signal
• Digital signal is a sequence of
discrete, discontinuous
voltage pulses.
• Each pulse is a signal element.
• Binary data are transmitted
by encoding the bit stream
into signal elements.
• In the simplest case, one bit is
represented by one signal
element.
– e.g., 1 is represented by a
lower voltage level, and 0
is represented by a higher
voltage level
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Data
Communications
• Data communications refers to the transmission of digital data between
two or more computers.
• A computer network or data network is a telecommunications network
that allows computers to exchange data.
• The physical connection
between networked
computing devices is
established using either
cable media or wireless
media.
• The best-known
computer network is
the Internet.
• Digital systems are those designed to store, process, and communicate
information in digital form. They are found in a wide range of applications,
including process control, communication systems, digital instruments, and
consumer products
• Modes of Data Transmission
Other Key Terms
• Channel
 physical medium like cables over which information is exchanged
 in popular network terminology, path over which data is sent or
received is called data channel.
• Data Transfer Rate
 speed of data transferred or received over transmission channel,
measured per unit time
 smallest unit of measurement is bits per second (bps); 1 bps means 1
bit (0 or 1) of data is transferred in 1 second.
 commonly used data transfer rates:
1 Bps = 1 Byte per second = 8 bits per second
1 kbps = 1 kilobit per second = 1024 bits per second
1 Mbps = 1 Megabit per second = 1024 Kbps
1 Gbps = 1 Gigabit per second = 1024 Mbps
Other Key Terms
• Bandwidth
 data transfer rates that can be supported by a network
 measured in bits per second (bps)
 can be affected by factors like:
Network devices used
Protocols used
Number of users connected
Network overheads like collision, errors, etc.
• Throughput
 actual speed with which data gets transferred over the network;
besides transmitting the actual data, network bandwidth is used for
transmitting error messages, acknowledgement frames, etc.
 a better measurement of network speed, efficiency and capacity
utilization rather than bandwidth.
Other Key Terms
• Protocol
 a set of rules and regulations used by
devices to communicate over the
network to ensure successful
communication
 define situations like when and how to
transmit data, when to receive data,
how to give error-free message, etc.
 examples used over the Internet:
Transmission Control Protocol
Internet Protocol
Point to Point Protocol
File Transfer Protocol
Hypertext Transfer Protocol
Internet Message Access Protocol
Data Communications is Now Everywhere!

Infrared, Bluetooth, and RFID
• Infrared Communication corresponds to 430THz to 300GHz and a
wavelength of 980nm in the electromagnetic spectrum. The propagation
of light waves in this band can be used for a communication system (for
transmission and reception) of data. This communication can be between
two portable devices or between a portable device and a fixed device.
• There are two types of Infrared communication
1. Point to Point: It requires a line of sight between the transmitter and
a receiver. In other words the transmitter and the receiver should be
pointed to each other and there shouldn’t be any obstacles between
them. Example is the remote control communication.
2. Diffuse Point: It doesn’t require any line of sight and the link between
the transmitter and the receiver is maintained by reflecting or
bouncing of the transmitted signal by surfaces like ceilings, roof, etc.
Example is the wireless LAN communication system
IR transmission
• The transmitter of an IR LED inside its circuit, which emits infrared light
for every electric pulse given to it. This pulse is generated as a button on
the remote is pressed, thus completing the circuit, providing bias to the
LED. The LED on being biased emits light of the wavelength of 940nm as a
series of pulses, corresponding to the button pressed.
IR Reception
• The receiver consists of a photodetector which develops an output
electrical signal as light is incident on it. The output of the detector is
filtered using a narrow band filter that discards all the frequencies below
or above the carrier frequency (38 KHz in this case). The filtered output is
then given to the suitable device like a Microcontroller which controls
devices like a PC or a Robot. The output from the filters can also be
connected to the Oscilloscope to read the pulses.
• Features of IR Sensor:
Input voltage: 5VDC
Sensing Range: 5cm
Output signal: analog voltage
Emitting element: Infrared LED
• IR Receiver/TSOP Sensor – Features & Specifications

TSOP is the standard IR remote control receiver series, supporting all
major transmission codes. This is capable of receiving infrared radiation
modulated at 38 kHz. IR sensors we have seen up to now working just for
little short distance up to 6 cm. TSOP is sensitive to a specific frequency
so its range is better contrast with ordinary photo diode. We can alter it
up to 15 cm.
Advantages of IR communication:
• Security: Infrared communication has high directionality and can

identify the source as different sources emit radiation of different
frequencies and thus the risk of information being diffused is eliminated.
• Safety: Infrared radiation is not harmful to human beings. Hence
infrared communication can be used at any place.
• High Speed data Communication: The data rate of Infrared
communication is about 1Gbps and can be used for sending information
like video signal.
• Bluetooth wireless technology is
a short range communications
technology intended to replace
the cables connecting portable
unit and maintaining high levels
of security.
• Bluetooth technology is based on Ad-hoc technology (also known as Ad-
hoc Pico nets), which is a local area network with a very limited coverage.
• IEEE has approved a Bluetooth-based standard named IEEE 802.15.1 for
Wireless Personal Area Networks (WPANs). IEEE standard covers MAC and
Physical layer applications.
• Bluetooth specification details the entire protocol stack. It employs Radio
Frequency (RF) for communication. It makes use of frequency
modulation to generate radio waves in the ISM band.
The usage of Bluetooth has widely increased for its
special features.
• It offers a uniform structure for a wide range of
devices to connect and communicate with each other.
• It technology has achieved global acceptance such
that any Bluetooth enabled device, almost
everywhere in the world, can be connected with
Bluetooth enabled devices.
• Its low power consumption and an offered range of
up to ten meters has paved the way for several usage
models.
• It offers interactive conference by establishing an
adhoc network of laptops.
• It usage model includes cordless computer, intercom,
cordless phone and mobile phones.
Bluetooth
• When more than two Bluetooth devices communicate with one another,
this is called a PICONET. A Piconet can contain up to seven slaves clustered
around a single master.
• Point to point configuration with one master and one slave is the simplest
configuration. The device that initializes establishment of the Piconet
becomes the master.
• The master is responsible
for transmission control by
dividing the network into a
series of time slots amongst
the network members, as a
part of time division
multiplexing scheme
Bluetooth Specifications
• Spectrum
Bluetooth technology operates in the unlicensed industrial, scientific and
medical (ISM) band at 2.4 to 2.485 GHZ, using a spread spectrum
hopping, full-duplex signal at a nominal rate of 1600 hops/sec. the 2.4
GHZ ISM band is available and unlicensed in most countries.
• Range
Bluetooth operating range depends on the device Class 3 radios have a
range of up to 1 meter or 3 feet Class 2 radios are most commonly found
in mobile devices have a range of 10 meters or 30 feet Class 1 radios are
used primarily in industrial use cases have a range of 100 meters or 300
feet.
• Data rate
Bluetooth supports 1Mbps data rate for version 1.2 and 3Mbps data rate
for Version 2.0 combined with Error Data Rate.
Advantages of Bluetooth
• Radio Frequency Identification System (RFID) is a technology-based
identification system which helps identifying objects just through the tags
attached to them, without requiring any light of sight between the tags
and the tag reader. All that is needed is radio communication between the
tag and the reader.
3 Main Components of an RFID System
• A RFID tag: It consists of a silicon microchip
attached to a small antenna and mounted on a
substrate and encapsulated in different
materials like plastic or glass veil and with an
adhesive on the back side to be attached to
objects.
• A reader: It consists of a scanner with antennas
to transmit and receive signals and is
responsible for communication with the tag
and receives the information from the tag.
• A Processor or a Controller: It can be a host
computer with a Microprocessor or a
microcontroller which receives the reader input
and process the data.
Ethernet and WiFi
Ethernet and Wi-Fi
Ethernet
• a widely deployed LAN technology invented by Bob Metcalfe and D.R.
Boggs in the year 1970.
• standardized in IEEE 802.3 in 1980.
• shares media and uses Carrier Sense Multi Access/Collision Detection

(CSMA/CD) technology to detect collisions.
• Its connector is the network interface card (NIC) equipped with 48-bits
MAC address, which helps other Ethernet devices to identify and
communicate with remote devices in Ethernet.
Ethernet and Wi-Fi
• Traditional Ethernet uses 10BASE-T specifications. The number 10 depicts
10MBPS speed, BASE stands for baseband, and T stands for Thick
Ethernet. 10BASE-T Ethernet provides transmission speed up to 10MBPS
and uses coaxial cable or Cat-5 twisted pair cable with RJ-45 connector.
• Ethernet follows star topology with segment length up to 100 meters. All
devices are connected to a hub/switch in a star fashion.
Straight-Through
Crossover
Ethernet and Wi-Fi
Fast-Ethernet
• an extended version of the Ethernet to encompass need of fast
emerging software and hardware technologies.
• can run on UTP, Optical Fiber, and wireless connections.
• can provide speed up to 100 MBPS (100BASE-T in IEEE 803.2 using Cat-5
twisted pair cable).
• uses CSMA/CD technique for wired media sharing among the Ethernet
hosts and CSMA/CA (CA stands for Collision Avoidance) technique for
wireless Ethernet LAN.
Fast Ethernet on fiber

• defined under 100BASE-FX standard which provides speed up to 100
MBPS on fiber.
• can be extended up to 100 meters in half-duplex mode and can reach
maximum of 2000 meters in full-duplex over multimode fibers.
Ethernet and Wi-Fi
Giga-Ethernet
• introduced in 1995, overtook Fast-Ethernet as it provides speed up to
1000 mbits/seconds.
• IEEE802.3ab standardize Giga-Ethernet over UTP using Cat-5, Cat-5e and
Cat-6 cables.
• IEEE802.3ah defines Giga-Ethernet over Fiber.
Ethernet and Wi-Fi
Wireless Fidelity (Wi-Fi)
• based on the IEEE 802.11 family of standards and is primarily a local area
networking (LAN) technology designed to provide in-building broadband
coverage.
Ethernet and Wi-Fi
Wireless Fidelity (Wi-Fi)
• has become the de facto standard for last mile broadband connectivity in
homes, offices, and public hotspot locations.
• can typically provide a coverage range of only about 1,000 feet from the
access point.
• current WiFi systems support a peak physical-layer data rate of 54 Mbps
and typically provide indoor coverage over a distance of 100 feet.
• offers remarkably higher peak data rates than 3G systems do , primarily
since it operates over a larger 20 MHz bandwidth, but WiFi systems are
not designed to support high-speed mobility.
• one significant advantage over WiMAX and 3G is its wide availability of
terminal devices; a vast majority of laptops shipped today have a built-in
WiFi interface that are now also being built into a variety of devices,
including personal data assistants (PDAs), cordless phones, cellular
phones, cameras, and media players.
Ethernet and Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi Specifications
• Transmission Mode: all WiFi networks are contention-based TDD
systems, where the access point and the mobile stations all vie for use of
the same channel. Because of the shared media operation, all WiFi
networks are half duplex.
• Channel Bandwidth: The WiFi standards define a fixed channel
bandwidth of 25 MHz for 802.11b and 20 MHz for either 802.11a or g
networks.
• Radio Signals: radio signals transmitted from WiFi antennas are picked up
by WiFi receivers, such as computers and cell phones that are equipped
with WiFi cards. Whenever, a computer receives any of the signals within
the range of a WiFi network, which is usually 300 — 500 feet for
antennas, the WiFi card reads the signals and thus creates an internet
connection between the user and the network without the use of a cord.
Ethernet and Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi Cards
• can be thought of as being invisible cords that connects a computer to
the antenna for a direct connection to the internet
• can be external or internal.
If a WiFi card is not installed in your

computer, then you may purchase a USB
antenna attachment and have it externally
connect to your USB port, or have an
antenna-equipped expansion card installed
directly to the computer (as shown in the
figure given above). For laptops, this card
will be a PCMCIA card which you insert to
the PCMCIA slot on the laptop.
Ethernet and Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi Hotspots
• A WiFi hotspot is created by installing an access point to an internet
connection. The access point transmits a wireless signal over a short
distance. It typically covers around 300 feet. When a WiFi enabled device
such as a Pocket PC encounters a hotspot, the device can then connect to
that network wirelessly.
• Most hotspots are located in places that are readily accessible to the
public such as airports, coffee shops, hotels, book stores, and campus
environments. 802.11b is the most common specification for hotspots
worldwide. The 802.11g standard is backwards compatible with .11b but
.11a uses a different frequency range and requires separate hardware
such as an a, a/g, or a/b/g adapter. The largest public WiFi networks are
provided by private internet service providers (ISPs); they charge a fee to
the users who want to access the internet.
Ethernet and Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi Hotspots
• Any notebook computer with integrated wireless, a wireless adapter
attached to the motherboard by the manufacturer, or a wireless adapter
such as a PCMCIA card can access a wireless network.
• Furthermore, all
Pocket PCs or
Palm units with
Compact Flash,
SD I/O support,
or built-in WiFi,
can access
hotspots.
Digital and Mobile Telephony
Telephony is the field of technology involving the development, application,
and deployment of telecommunication services for the purpose of electronic
transmission of voice, fax, or data, between distant parties.
Telephony is commonly referred to as the construction or operation of
telephones and telephonic systems and as a system of telecommunications
in which telephonic equipment is employed in the transmission of speech or
other sound between points, with or without the use of wires.
The term is also used frequently to refer to computer hardware, software,

and computer network systems, that perform functions traditionally
performed by telephone equipment. In this context the technology is
specifically referred to as Internet telephony, or voice over Internet
Protocol (VoIP).
Digital Telephony is the use of digital electronics in the operation and
provisioning of telephony systems and services. Since the 1960s a
digital core network has replaced the traditional analog transmission and
signaling systems, and much of the access network has also been digitized.
Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP or IP telephony) is a methodology and
group of technologies for the delivery of voice communications and
multimedia sessions over Internet Protocol (IP) networks, such as the
Internet. The terms Internet telephony, broadband telephony,
and broadband phone service specifically refer to the provisioning of
communications services (voice, fax, SMS, voice-messaging) over the public
Internet, rather than via the public switched telephone network (PSTN).
Digital Telecomms Network
Cellular or mobile network is an underlying technology for mobile phones,
personal communication systems, wireless networking etc. The technology is
developed for mobile radio telephone to replace high power
transmitter/receiver systems. Cellular networks use lower power, shorter
range and more transmitters for data transmission.
Features of Cellular Networks
• Offer very high capacity in a limited spectrum.
• Reuse of radio channel in different cells.
• Enable a fixed number of channels to serve an arbitrarily large number
of users by reusing the channel throughout the coverage region.
• Communication is always between mobile and base station (not directly
between mobiles).
• Each cellular base station is allocated a group of radio channels within a
small geographic area called a cell.
• Neighboring cells are assigned different channel groups.
• By limiting the coverage area to within the boundary of the cell, the
channel groups may be reused to cover different cells.
• Keep interference levels within tolerable limits.
• Frequency reuse or frequency planning.
• Organization of Wireless Cellular Network.
How Mobile Phones Work
1. When you speak into a cellphone, a tiny microphone in the handset
converts the up-and-down sounds of your voice into a corresponding up-
and-down pattern of electrical signals.
2. A microchip inside the phone
turns these signals into strings
of numbers, which are then
packed up into a radio wave and
beamed out from the phone's
antenna (in some countries, the
antenna is called an aerial).
3. The radio wave races through
the air at the speed of light until
it reaches the nearest cellphone
mast.
How Mobile Phones Work
4. The mast receives the signals and
passes them on to its base
station, which effectively
coordinates what happens inside
each local part of the cellphone
network, which is called a cell.
5. From the base station, the calls are routed onward to their destination.
• Calls made from a cellphone to another cellphone on the same
network travel to their destination by being routed to the base station
nearest to the destination phone, and finally to that phone itself.
• Calls made to a cellphone on a different network or a land line follow a
more lengthy path. They may have to be routed into the main
telephone network before they can reach their ultimate destination.
The mobile web, also known as
mobile internet, refers to browser-
based Internet services accessed
from handheld mobile devices,
such as smartphones or feature
phones, through a mobile or other
wireless network.
• A mobile phone that connects to data or voice services without going
through the cellular base station is not on mobile Internet. A laptop with
a broadband modem and a cellular service provider subscription, that is
traveling on a bus through the city is on mobile Internet.
• A mobile broadband modem "tethers" the smartphone to one or more
computers or other end user devices to provide access to
the Internet via the protocols that cellular telephone service providers
may offer.
Evolution of Mobile Technology
The rapid world wide growth in cellular telephone subscribers has demonstrated
conclusively that wireless communications is a robust, viable voice and data
transport mechanism. The wide spread success of cellular has led to the
development of newer wireless system and standards for many other types of
telecommunication traffic besides mobile voice telephone calls.
1G
• voice-centric based on analog and cellular technologies
• had very limited capacity and served only the niche market
like the military, government agencies and celebrities
• no universal mobile communication standard at that time
2G
• enabled mobile availability to mass customers
• digital communication with the Global System for Mobile
Communications (GSM) as the technology for Europe and
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) for the US.
• eventually evolved into 2.5G as a transition path to mobile
web technology
3G
• provided marked improvements in voice and data capacities.
• WCDMA (which later evolved to HSPA) and CDMA2000 were
the leading technologies at the time
4G
• focused on increasing data and voice capacity and improve
the overall quality of experience
• leading systems were WiMAX and LTE
5G
• currently being developed to enhance the experience of the
entire communications technology ecosystem, which
includes Internet of Things (IoT), mobile vehicles (V2X), and
enhanced mobile broadband (eMBB) experience.
Terrestrial & Satellite Communications
Terrestrial and Satellite Communications
Microwaves
• form of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths ranging from about
one meter to one millimeter; with frequencies between 300 MHz (1 m)
and 300 GHz (1 mm)
• travel by line-of-sight; unlike lower frequency radio waves they do not
diffract around hills, follow the earth's surface as ground waves, or
reflect from the ionosphere, so terrestrial microwave communication
links are limited by the visual horizon to about 40 miles (64 km)
• widely used in modern technology, for example in point-to-
point communication links, wireless networks, microwave radio relay
networks, radar, satellite and spacecraft communication, medical
diathermy and cancer treatment, remote sensing, radio astronomy,
particle accelerators, spectroscopy, industrial heating, collision
avoidance systems, garage door openers and keyless entry systems, and
for cooking food in microwave ovens.
Terrestrial Microwave Communications
• Before the advent of fiber-optic transmission, most long-distance
telephone calls were carried via networks of microwave radio relay links
run by carriers such as AT&T Long Lines.
Terrestrial Microwave Communications
Microwave radio is used in broadcasting and telecommunication

transmissions because, due to the following
• shorter wavelength (higher frequency) than RF waves
• Smaller and more efficient highly directional antennas
• there is more bandwidth in the microwave spectrum
Terrestrial Telecommunications
Terrestrial Digital Television
Satellite Communications
• A communication satellite is a microwave repeater station in a space
that is used for telecommunication, radio and television signals.
• It processes the
data coming from
one earth station
and it converts the
data into another
form and send it to
the second earth
station.
How a Communication Satellite Works
• The process of satellite communication begins at an earth station where
an installation is designed to transmit and receive signals from a satellite
in orbit around the earth. Earth stations send information to satellites in
the form of high powered, high frequency (GHz range) signals.
• The satellites receive and retransmit the signals back to earth where
they are received by other earth stations in the satellite’s footprint, the
coverage area that receives a signal of useful strength from the satellite.
• The satellite frequency bands which are commonly used for
communication are the Cband, Ku-band, and Ka-band.
• It is important to note that there is an inverse relationship between
frequency and wavelength i.e. when frequency increases, wavelength
decreases this helps to understand the relationship between antenna
diameter and transmission frequency. Larger antennas (satellite dishes)
are necessary to gather the signal with increasing wavelength.
How a Communication Satellite Works
• Two stations on earth want to communicate through radio broadcast but
are too far away to use conventional means. These stations can use a
relay station for their communication. One earth station transmits the
signal to the satellite.
• Uplink frequency is the frequency
at which ground station is
communicating with satellite.
• The satellite transponder converts
the signal and sends it down to
the second earth station, and this
is called Downlink frequency.
• The second earth station also
communicates with the first one
in the same way.
Advantages of Satellite
• Coverage area is very high.
• Transmission cost is independent
of the coverage area.
• Higher bandwidths are possible.
Disadvantages of Satellite
• Launching satellites into orbits is
a costly process.
• The bandwidths are gradually
used up.
• High propagation delay for
satellite systems than the
conventional terrestrial systems.
Types of Satellites according to Earth Orbits
1. A Geo-Synchronous Earth Orbit Satellite is one which is placed at an

altitude of 22,300 miles above the Earth. This orbit is synchronized with
a side real day(i.e., 23hours 56minutes) and can have inclination and
eccentricity. It may not be circular. It can be tilted at the poles of the
earth. But it appears stationary when observed from the Earth.
Types of Satellites according to Earth Orbits
2. The Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) satellite networks will orbit at
distances of about 8000 miles from earth's surface. Signals transmitted
from a MEO satellite travel a shorter distance. This translates to
improved signal strength at the receiving end. This shows that smaller,
more lightweight receiving terminals can be used at the receiving end.
3. The Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellites are mainly classified into three
categories namely, little LEOs, big LEOs, and Mega-LEOs. LEOs will orbit
at a distance of 500 to 1000 miles above the earth's surface.
4. Experimental High-Altitude Long-Endurance (HALE) platforms are
basically highly efficient and lightweight airplanes carrying
communications equipment. These act as very low earth orbit
geosynchronous satellites.
Satellite Telecommunications
Satellite Digital Television
Global Positioning System (GPS)
• a navigation system based on satellite communications
• created the revolution in navigation and position location
• mainly used in positioning, navigation, monitoring and surveying
applications
• contains twenty-four satellites in MEO:
 These satellites are made into six groups so that each group contains
four satellites called constellation.
 Any two adjacent constellations are separated by 60 degrees in
longitude.
 The orbital period of each satellite is approximately equal to twelve
hours.
 Hence, all satellites revolve around the earth two times on every day.
At any time, the GPS receivers will get the signals from at least four
satellites.
GPS Codes
• Each GPS satellite transmits two signals, L1 and L2 are of different
frequencies. Trilateration is a simple method for finding the position
(Latitude, Longitude, Elevation) of GPS receiver. Using this method, the
position of an unknown point can be measured from three known points.
• The two types of GPS codes are the Coarse Acquisition code (C/A Code)
and the Precise Code (P Code).
• The signal, L1 is modulated with 1.023 Mbps pseudo random bit
sequence (the C/A code) and it is used by the public.
• The signal, L2 is modulated with 10.23 Mbps pseudo random bit
sequence (the P code) and it is used in military positioning systems.
Generally, this P code is transmitted in an encrypted format and it is
called as Y code.
• The P code gives better measurement accuracy when compared to C/A
code, since the bit rate of P code is greater than the bit rate of C/A code.
Two Types of GPS Services
1. Precise Positioning
Service (PPS)
PPS receivers keep
tracking of both C/A code
and P code on two signals,
L1and L2. The Y code is
decrypted at the receiver
in order to obtain P code.
2. Standard Positioning
Service (SPS)
SPS receivers keep
tracking of only C/A code
on signal, L1.
GPS Receiver
There exists only one-way transmission from satellite to users in GPS system.
Hence, the individual user does not need the transmitter, but only a GPS
receiver. It is mainly used to find the accurate location of an object. It
performs this task by using the signals received from satellites.
GPS Receiver
• Receiving Antenna receives the satellite signals. It is mainly, a circularly
polarized antenna.
• Low Noise Amplifier (LNA) amplifies the weak received signal
• Down converter converts the frequency of received signal to an
Intermediate Frequency (IF) signal.
• IF Amplifier amplifies the Intermediate Frequency (IF) signal.
• ADC performs the conversion of analog signal, which is obtained from IF
amplifier to digital. Assume, the sampling & quantization blocks are also
present in ADC (Analog to Digital Converter).
• DSP (Digital Signal Processor) generates the C/A code.
• Microprocessor performs the calculation of position and provides the
timing signals in order to control the operation of other digital blocks. It
sends the useful information to Display unit in order to display it on the
screen.
Fiber Optics Technology
An optical fiber can be understood as a dielectric waveguide, which operates
at optical frequencies. The device or a tube, if bent or if terminated to
radiate energy, is called a waveguide, in general.
The electromagnetic energy travels through it in the form of light. The light
propagation, along a waveguide can be described in terms of a set of guided
electromagnetic waves, called as modes of the waveguide.
Parts of an Optical Fiber
• The most commonly
used optical fiber
is single solid
dielectric cylinder of
radius a and index of
refraction n1. This
cylinder is known as
the Core of the fiber.
• A solid di-electric material surrounds the core, which is called as Cladding.
Cladding has a refractive index n2 which is less than n1. It helps in reducing
scattering losses, adds mechanical strength to the fiber, and protects the
core from absorbing unwanted surface contaminants.
Types of an Optical Fiber
Basic Fiber Optics Communication System
Basic Fiber Optics Communication System
Functional Advantages over Metal Cables
• higher transmission bandwidth and amount of data transmission
• very low power loss (hence helpful in long-distance transmissions)
• provides high security (cannot be tapped) for data transmission
• immune to electromagnetic interference and electrical noise
Physical Advantages over Metal Cables
• much higher capacity and lighter weight for the same cable diameter
• no spark hazards are present since it is dielectric
• more corrosion resistant as it is more flexible and easier to bend
• raw material for the manufacture is glass, which is cheaper than copper
• lasts longer
Disadvantages
• high installation cost and the no. of repeaters increases with distance
• fragile (requires more protection) if not enclosed in a plastic sheath
Fiber to the Home (FTTH) is a technology that uses optical fiber directly from
the central point to the residential premises. It provides uninterrupted high-
speed internet service. Here, “H” includes both home and small business.
FTTH offers a number of advantages over the FTTH Advanced Services
previous cabling technologies. The most
Services Bandwidth
important ones are as follows −
Data Download 10 Mbps
• Enormous information carrying capacity
• Easily upgradeable VoIP and video- 1 Mbps
conference
• Easy to install
• Allows fully symmetric services Multimedia 2 Mbps
contents
• Reduces operations and maintenance costs
• Covers very long distances On-line Gaming 1 Mbps
• Strong, flexible, and reliable SD Digital TV 3 Mbps
• Allows small diameter and lightweight
HD Digital TV 8 Mbps
cables
Additional TV 16 Mbps
• Safe and secure
channels
• Immune to electromagnetic interference
(EMI)
• Lower cost
FTTH vs DSL
Transport ADSL ADSL2 ADSL2+ VDSL VDSL2 FTTH

PON
D:8M 12M 24M 55M 100M 100+

Max bandwidth
U:1M 3.5M 1M 19M 100M 100+
Distance 3-5KM <=1.3KM <=100KM
• ISDN − 2B + D = 2 × 64 + 16 = 144 Kbps

• HDSDN − American standard 0.51mm, 2Mbps at max 5km.
• ADSL − 3-5 km 8 Mbps
• ADSL2 − 3-5 km 12 Mbps
• ADSL2+ − 3-5 km 24 Mbps
• VDSL − ≤ 1.3 km, 55 Mbps; VDSL2 upstream/downstream 100 Mbps
FTTH Terminologies
• Differential Fiber Distance is an OLT is connected to several ONU/ONTs. The
differential fiber distance is the difference in the distance between the
nearest and the farthest ONU/ONT from the OLT. In GPON, the maximum
differential fiber distance is 20 kms. This affects the size of the ranging
window and it is in accordance with ITU-T G.983.1.
• Logical Reach is defined as the maximum distance that can be covered for a
particular transmission system, regardless of the optical budget. Since, Logical
reach is the maximum distance between ONU/ONT and OLT except for the
limitation of the physical layer - In GPON, the maximum logical reach is
defined as 60 kms.
• Mean Signal Transfer Delay is the average of the upstream and downstream
delay values between reference points. This value is determined by
measuring round-trip delay and then dividing by 2. GPON must accommodate
services that require a maximum mean signal transfer delay of 1.5 ms.
FTTH Terminologies
• Optical Access Network (OAN) is an access network towards the network
side, it is also known as SNI (Service Network Interface). Up-link ports of OLT
connects with L2 Switch Ring of access network. All other in-between
components such as ODF/FDMS connected towards SNI comes under the
Optical Access Network.
• In a PON Technology towards downstream side, all passive components from
the PON Port of OLT to the PON Port of ONT come under the Optical
Distribution Network. Normally, Splitter and ODF/FDMS come under this
category.
• A Central Office (CO) equipment provides PON with the various network
interfaces. One Optical Line Termination (OLT) serves multiple ONTs through
PON Downstream transmission, i.e., from OLT to ONT is usually TDM.
Upstream traffic, i.e., from ONT to OLT is usually TDMA. PON system may be
either symmetrical or asymmetrical.
FTTH Terminologies
• Optical Network Termination (ONT)/ Optical Network Unit (ONU) is a
Customer Premises Equipment that provides user interfaces to the customer.
• Physical Reach is defined as the maximum physical distance that can be
achieved for a particular transmission system. ‘Physical reach’ is the
maximum physical distance between the ONU/ONT and the OLT. In GPON,
two options are defined for the physical reach: 10 km and 20 km.
• Service is defined as a network service required by the operators. Service is
described by a name that is clearly recognized by everyone, regardless of
whether it is a frame structure name or a general name.
• Split ratio determines cost over optical power and bandwidth splitting, which
creates the need for an increased power budget to support the physical
reach. Split ratios of up to 1:64 are realistic for the physical layer, given
current technology. However, anticipating the continued evolution of optical
modules, the TC layer must consider split ratios up to 1:128.
PON DS (Mbps) US (Mbps)
FTTH Data Rates
BPON 155.52 155.52
GPON aims at
622.08 155.52
transmission speeds Amd 1
622.08 622.08
greater than or
1244.16 155.52
equal to 1.2 Gbps, Amd 2
with speed 1244.16 622.08
combinations of: 1244.16 155.52
• 1.2 Gbps up, 1244.16 622.08
2.4 Gbps down 1244.16 1244.16
• 2.4 Gbps up, GPON 2488.32 155.52

2.4 Gbps down. 2488.32 622.08
2488.32 1244.16
2488.32 2488.32
EPON 1250 1250
10GEPON+ 10312.5 10312.5

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Intro to Data Communications

Chapter 1: Intro to Data Communications

• meaningful exchange of information at a distance by technological

Data Communications is Now Everywhere!

• IR Receiver/TSOP Sensor – Features & Specifications

• Security: Infrared communication has high directionality and can

• shares media and uses Carrier Sense Multi Access/Collision Detection

Fast Ethernet on fiber

If a WiFi card is not installed in your

The term is also used frequently to refer to computer hardware, software,

Microwave radio is used in broadcasting and telecommunication

1. A Geo-Synchronous Earth Orbit Satellite is one which is placed at an

Transport ADSL ADSL2 ADSL2+ VDSL VDSL2 FTTH

D:8M 12M 24M 55M 100M 100+

Distance 3-5KM <=1.3KM <=100KM

• ISDN − 2B + D = 2 × 64 + 16 = 144 Kbps

combinations of: 1244.16 155.52

• 1.2 Gbps up, 1244.16 622.08

2.4 Gbps down 1244.16 1244.16

• 2.4 Gbps up, GPON 2488.32 155.52

EPON 1250 1250

10GEPON+ 10312.5 10312.5

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