Engineering Rock Mass Classifications PDF

Contours 01 roek mass quality in a mine, based on the Geomeehanies Cfassification, depictíng
differing engineering eondítions for mineral extraetion. (Rearranged after Ferguson, 1977.)
BIBLIOTECA
Engineering
Rock Mass
elas sifications
A Complete Manual for
Engineers and Geologists
in Mining, Civil, and
Petroleum Engineering
Z. T. Bieniawski
Professor and Director
Mining and Mineral Resources Research Institute
The Pennsylvania State University
'. WILEY
A WILEY'INTERSCIENCE PUBLlCATION
John Wiley & Sons

New York / Chichester / Brisbane / Toronto / Singapore
Contents
PREFACE xi
1 INTROOUCTION 1
1.1 Function of Classifications in Engineering I
1. 2 Rock Classifications as Design Aids I 2
References I 3
2 ROLE OF ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATIONS IN SITE

CHARACTERIZATlON ANO ENGINEERING OESIGN 5
2.1 Rock as an Engineering Material I 6
2.2 Structural Features of Rock Masses I 9
2.3 Site Characterization Procedures I 10
2.4 Input Data Requirements: An Integral Approach I 21
2.5 Design Methodalogies I 23
References I 26
3 EARLY ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATIONS 29

3.1 Rock Load Classification Metbod I 32
3.2 Stand-Up Time Classification I 33
3.3 Rack Quality Designation Index (RQD) I 37
3.4 Rock Structure Rating (RSR) Concept I 40
References I 47
vii
viii CONTENTS
4 GEOMECHANICS CLASSIFICATION (ROCK MASS

RATING SYSTEM) 51
4.1 Classification Procedures I 52
4.2 Applications I 63
4.3 Data Base I 66
4.4 Correlations I 68
References I 69
5 Q-SYSTEM 73
5.1 Classification Procedures I 74
5.2 Correlations I 82
5.3 Data Base I 89
References I 90
6 OTHER CLASSIFICATIONS 91
6. 1 NATM Classification I 91
6.2 Size- Strength Classification I 95
6.3 ISRM Classification I 10 1
6.4 Specialized Classification Approaches I 103
References I 103
7 APPLlCATIONS IN TUNNELING 107

7 .1 Park River Tunnel I 107
7.2 Overvaal Railroad Tunnel I 121
7.3 Assessment of Underground Conditions from Surface
Rock Exposures I 123
7.4 Large Underground Chambers I 123
7.5 Maximum Spans and Safety Factors for Unsupported
Excavations I 131
References I 134
8 APPLICATIONS IN MINING 137

8.1 Hard Rock Mining: Africa I 137
8.2 Hard Rock Mining: USA I 143
8.3 Coal Mining: USA I 162
li· 8.4 Coal Mining: India I 169
I References I 175
CONTENTS ix
9 OTHER APPLICATIONS 177

9. I Estimating Rock Mass Strength / 177
9.2 Estimating Rock Mass Modulus / 185
9.3 Assessing Rock Slope Stability / 186
9.4 Special Uses / 187
9.5 Improving Cornmunication: Unified Classification
System / 198
References / 201
10 CASE HISTORIES DATA BASE 205

Listing of RMR Case Histories / 207
APPENDIX: DETERMINATION OF THE ROCK MASS

RATING 221
Output Example / 222
Program Listing for Personal Computer / 226
BIBLlOGRAPHY 239
INDEX 249
•
Preface
Rock mas s classifications have emerged in the past 15 years as powerful

design aids in civil engineering, mining, and geology, and more than 300
papers have been written on the subject. Yet, no comprehensive textbook
dealing specifically with this topic exists. This book provides an in-depth
treatment of the subject matter and aims to serve as an authoritative reference,
consolidating otherwise widely scattered information. In addition, new, un-
published material and case histories have been included.
The subject of rock mass classifications is currently taught in over 1000
universities and colleges in the United States and abroad, to undergraduate
and graduate students in geology, geological engineering, civil engineering,
mining engineering, and petroleum engineering. The book presents not only
the fundamental concepts of the various classification schemes but also
critically appraises their practical applications in industrial projects.
This book is intended for engineers and geologists in industry, particularly
consulting geotechnical engineers and engineering geologists , as well as for
undergraduate students in engineering and graduate students in geology.
1 remember fondly the many people who stimulated my thinking in the
course of working over 15 years on the subject of rack mass classifications.
1 am particularly grateful to the late Professor Leopold Müller of Salzburg,
who was instrumental in my developing the Geomechanics Classification
and starting on this system during my visit to the Technical University of
Karlsruhe, West Germany, in 1972. 1 am also grateful to my old colleague,
Dr. Phillip J. N. Pells, now of the School of Civil Engineering at the
University of Sydney, Australia, who made important contributions to my
early work on rock mass classifications and is specifically acknowledged
here because he never replies to my letters!
xi
xli PREFACE
Many researchers and practicing engineers have made important contri-

butions by modifying and improving my original RMR system (Geomechanics
Classification). They are too numerous to identify here, but all are listed in
Table 3.1 in the texto However, 1 would like to single out my former graduate
students who, tbrough tbeir doctoral dissertations have significantly advanced
the state of the art of rock mass classifications in rnining. They are: Dr.
David Newman, now assistant professor at the University of Kentucky; Dr.
I Erdal Unal, now associate professor at the Middle East University in Turkey;
and Dr. Claudio Faria Santos from Brazil. Moreover, of my current doctoral
1 candidates, Mr. Dwayne C. Kicker contributed by performing an up-to-date
survey of rock mass c1assifications, and Dr. Glenn A. Nicholson, of the
U.S. Arrny Corps ofEngineers, developed an empírical constitutive relationship
for rock mass based on rock mass c1assifications.
My friend Professor Dr. Georg Spaun of the Technical University of
Munich was the source of many stimulating discussions and provided me
witb thrilling insights into engineering geology and tbe New Austrian Tunneling
Metbod. Dr. Nick Barton of the Norwegian Geotechnical Institute was
always helpful in exchanging ideas and permitting the use of the tables and
figures concerning the Q-system. Finally, Professor Evert Hoek, now at the
University of Toronto, was an inspiration over many years regarding the
innovative use of rock mass c1assifications and their role in rock engineering
designo
1 would also like to acknowledge the assistance received during the prep-
aration of the manuscript. The text was compiled at The Pennsylvania State
University for a graduate course on geotechnical aspects of tunneling in
11 rock. My research assistant, Dr. Claudio Faria Santos, prepared the micro-
¡I computer program for determining tbe rock mass rating and assisted in
1
computerizing the data base of RMR case histories. My wife, Elizabeth,
~
still remembering her graduate studies in librarianship, was most helpful in
cross-referencing the text and the indexo My secretary, Jessie Fowler, typed
'1
S , I the manuscript and always remained cheerful in spite of endless corrections.
~ Ji
z. T. BIENIA WSKl
~~
University Park, Pennsylvania
June 1989
JI
Engineering
Rock Mass
Classifications
1
1ntroduction
The origin of lhe scienee of clnssification goes back lO lhe
writings of lhe ancient Greeks bUI lhe process of
clnssificalion, lhe recognition of similarities and Ihe grouping
of objecls based lhereon, dales back lo primitive mano
- Robert R. Sokal
In his presidential address to tbe Classification Society. Professor Sokal not

only provided a historical overview of the subject but also emphasized that
classification is an important aspect of most sciences, witb similar principIes
and procedures having been developed independently in many fields (Sokal,
1972).
The science of classification is caUed taxonomy, which deals with theoretical
aspects of classification, including its basis, principIes, procedures, and
rules. A distinction should be made between classification and identification;
classification is defined as tbe arrangement of objects into groups on the
basis of their relationship, whereas identification means the allocation or
assignment of additional unidentified objects to the correct class, once such
classes have been established by prior classification.
1.1 FUNCTION OF CLASSIFICATIONS IN ENGINEERING
Classifications have played an indispensable role in engineering for centuries.

For example, the leading classification society for shipping, Lloyd's Register
1
!+
2 INTRODUCTlON
of London, was established in 1760 when the first printed "register of ships"
appeared. Particulars of ships were listed, with various classification symbols
affixed, each denoting the condition of various parts of the ship structure
or equipment. Today rigid standards are specified for ship construction and
maintenance before a ship is insured, and tbese standards are laid down by
the technical cornmittee, composed of shipbuilders, marine engineers, and
naval architects, that advises the classification society. Through a worldwide
organization of surveyors, classifications are performed when a ship is built
and when it is in operation; in essence, a classification society dictates the
design and construction of every ship in the world more tban.lOO tons gross.
It provides detailed specifications which must be met as tbe minimum standards.
The American Bureau of Shipping, established in 1867, the Bureau Veritas
of France, and the Registro Italiano Navale are other prominent classification
societies, in addition to Lloyd's Register of Shipping.
In rock engineering, the first major classification system was proposed
over 40 years ago for tunneling with steel supports (Terzaghi, 1946). Con-
sidering the tbree main design approaches for excavations in rock-analytical,
observational, and empirical-as practiced in mining and civil engineering,
rock mass classifications today form an integral part of the most predominant
design approach, tbe empirical design metbods. Indeed, on many underground
construction and mining projects, rock mass classifications have provided
the only systematic design aid in an otherwise haphazard "trial-and-error"
procedure.
However, modem rock mass classifications have never been intended as
the ultimate solution to design problems, but only a means toward this end.
In fact, sorne 15 years ago, when work started on tbe major rock mas s
classification schemes in use today, the tunneling scene worldwide was often
characterized by limited site investigation programs and even more limited,
if any, design procedures. Any such procedures that were used tben would
hardly qualify nowadays as an engineering design process, such as tbat used
"
systematically in other branches of engineering. Rock mass classifications
11,
were developed to create sorne order out of the chaos in site investigation
procedures and to provide tbe desperately needed design aids. They were
not intended to replace analytical studies , field observations, and measurements,
nor engineering judgment.
1.2 ROCK CLASSIFICATIONS AS OESIGN AIOS
In essence, rock mass classifications are not to be taken as a substitute for

engineering designo They should be applied intelligently and used in conjunction
with observational metbods and analytical studies to formulate an overall
REFERENCES 3
design rationale compatible with the design objectives and site geology.
When used correctly and for the purpose for which they were intended,
rock mass eJassifications can be powerful aids in designo
The objectives of rock mass eJassifications are therefore to
1. Identify the most significant parameters influencing the behavior of a

rock mass .
2. Divide a particular rock mass forrnation into groups of similar behavior,
that is, rock mass eJasses of varying quality.
3. Provide a basis for understanding the characteristics of each rock mass
class.
4. Relate the experience of rock conditions at one site to the conditions
and experience encountered at others.
5. Derive quantitative data and guidelines for engineering designo
6. Provide a common basis for comrnunication between engineers and
geologists.
The preceding items suggest the three main benefits of rock mass eJas-
sifications:
1. Improving the quality of site investigations by calling for the minimum

input data as eJassification parameters.
2. Providing quantitative information for design purposes.
3. Enabling better engineering judgment and more effective comrnunication
on a project.
REFERENCES
Agricola, Georgius. De Re Metallica, 1556. Trans. H. C. Hoover and L. H.
Hoover, Dover, New York, 1950, 638 pp.
Peck, R. B. Judgment in Geatechnical Engineering, Wiley, New York, 1984,
332 pp.
Plattes, Gabriel. A Discavery af Subterraneall Treasure of Mines and Mineralls,
1639. Reprinted by the Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, London, 1980,
60 pp.
Sokal, R. R. "Classification: Purposes, Principies, Progress and Prospects."
Science 185 (4157), Sept. 24, 1972, pp. 1115-1123.
Terzaghi, K. "Rock Defects and Loads on Tunnel Support." Rack Tunneling
with Steel Supparts, ed. R. V. Proctor and T. White, Cornmercial Shearing
Co., Youngstown, OH, 1946, pp. 15 - 99.
----
2
Role of Rock Mass
Classifications in Site
Characterization and
Engineering Design
The mere formulation of a problem is far more often
essential than its solution; 10 raisf! new questions, new
possibilities, requires creative imagination and marks
real advances in science.
- Albert Einstein
Unlike other engineering materials, rock presents the designer with unique
problems. First of aH, rock is a complex material varying widely in its
properties, and in most mining as well as civil engineering situations , not
one but a number of rock types will be present. Furthermore, a choice of
rock materials is only available if there is a choice of altemative sites for a
given project, although it may be possible, to sorne extent, to reinforce the
rock surrounding Ihe excavation. Most of all, Ihe design engineer and geologist
are confronted wilh rock as an assemblage of blocks of rock material separated
by various types of discontinuities, such as joints, faults, bedding planes,
5
6 ROLE OF ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATlONS
and SO on. This assemblage constitutes a rock mass. Consequently , the

engineering properties of bolh intact rock and lhe rock mass must be considered.
2.1 ROCK AS AN ENGINEERING MATERIAL
11 The behavior of rock is best presented in a stress-strain curve , an example

I of which is given in Figure 2.1.
It will be noted that, initially, deformation increases approximately pro-
portionally with increasing load. Eventually, a stress level is reached at
which fracture is initiated, that is, minute cracks, which are present in almost
any material, start to propagate. With increasing deformation , the crack
propagation is stable, lhat is, if lhe stress increase is stopped , the crack
propagation is also stopped. Further increasing the stress, however, leads
to anolher stress level , called critical energy release, at which the crack
propagation is unstable, that is, it continues even if the stress increase is
stopped .
Next, lhe maximum load bearing capacity is reached. Called strenglh
failure, th.is is in fact the strenglh of lhe rock material. Most rocks characterized
by brittle fracture fail violently at this stage when tested in a conventional
(soft) loading machine. In such a case, lhe specimen machine system collapses
and strength failure coincides with rupture (i.e., complete disintegration of
rock specimen). If, however, the stiffness ofthe testing machine is increased,
the stress decreases with increasing strain. This stage is characterized by
the negative slope of the stress-strain curve, and lhe material is now in a
fractured state. This is important, since it shows that even cracked, fractured
material can offer resistance to loads applied to il. An excavation may be
such that it will not collapse even if the rock material surrounding such a
structure has failed by exceeding its material strength. Thus, lhe rock sur-
rounding an excavation may be fractured and the excavation still stable.
Indeed, fractured rock may even be desirable, since it will not lead to sudden
and violent strenglh failure. Practical applications of lhis concept to mining
and tunneling and its significance for rock support considerations are dealt
wilh in detail by Jaeger and Cook (1979) .
Stress- strain curves serve as the source for obtaining the compressive or
tensile strengths, lhe modulus of elasticity , and Poisson' s ratio of rock
material s . These properties of some common rock types can be found in
Lama and Vukuturi (1978) and in Kulhawy (1975).
Laboratory testing melhods are generally well established, and testing
techniques have been recommended by the Intemational Society for Rock
Mechanics (ISRM) and lhe American Society for Testing and Materials
.
300 STRENGTH FAILURE
r \0- /0,\
0----- CRITICAL
\
~O---OT-----
~
e
c.. ENERGY
200
'"
<n
RELEASE
(long term \
RUPTURE
(Iocus of points)
\,\ ,
<n strengthl \
"-'
cr C'
1- '>
<n
"
¿ -, """'-
---' FRACTURE
,,~""
« 100 "-
INITIATION
x
«
"-
PORE
6
P
-- -- -- --
~ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ CRACK CLOSURE --....:.
O
O 2 3 4 5 6 7
STRAIN (10-')
Figure 2.1 Representation of brittle fracture mechanism for hard rack in uniaxial
compression. (Alter Bieniawski, 1967.)
10 100
05
, 0.7
III iI
4 5
I ~ n ,1
10
I
30
I
~o
I
50
I
70
II d
100
I
300 400
I I I
700
II
VER'!' Ií'fAK WfAK STRO~G VERY STRONG

COATES
I I 1964
VERY lOW STRENGTH

OEERE B MILLER
1966
1oI00ERATELY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

VER'I' WEAK WEAK
STRONG 1970
SOIL ROCK
XTREI.IELY BROCH B FRANKLlN
LOW
iTRENG1H 1972
50ll JENNINGS
1973
SOIL VER'I' tOW STRENGTH

BIENIAWSKI
1973
VERY lOW LOW STRDiGTH

ISRM
1979
0'5 I O~7' '1 ¡H i I I

10 JiO 4~ 5'0 17b' '1 I
100
I
300 400
I I I i
700
1 10 100
UNIAXlAL COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH, MP,
Figure 2.2 Various strength classifications for intact rack.
7
8 ROLE OF ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATfQNS
(ASTM). Detailed procedures for performing laboratory tests are available

as ISRM Suggested Methods (1981 b) or ASTM Standards (1987).
A number of c1assifications featuring rock material strength and modulus
of elasticity have been proposed. The intact rock strength classifications are
compared in Figure 2.2. The strength-modulus c1assification proposed by
Deere and Miller (1966) is depicted in Figure 2.3, using sandstone as an
example. This c1assification has been widely recognized as particularly con-
venient for use in !he field of rock mechanics. Subsequently, !he ISRM
E D e B A
VERV lOW LOW MEDIUM HIGH VERV HIGH
STRENGTH STRENGTH STRENGTH STRENGTH STRENGTH
150
"
Il.
100
/
V
"r:.... 80
'.~
/
'./
~,,/ ~ Vi
60
"a:zw ?' .' '?~Z/
....
(f) 40
~/
.... ~ .r ~
Y'/
....w
..: , ,o .
I
~
7
1/
.' /~
W /
i~ ;X.17 .;..-
::;¡
~' 1/
.i' ".'
~ ./ •
¡:: E-
...J
=> ~06> o
,.• 20
o
."
r-
¡¡>OJ
V.' ,/• o~ r:;":- V/ " /
/ " 1$,/
....
..: V V ,. ~'&~<c
"
V /
•V
(f)
=> 10
/ , Lv ¡; •
...J
=> / /
."
o 8
o
::;¡ ,
6 / ./ V"':
....z 1/ / ~v ,/
w
"
z 4 i /. ~\J ./
......:
'J
\V .'
2 V
10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 80 100 150 200 300 400
.1,
UNIAXIAL COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH, MPa
Figure 2.3 Strength-deformation representation for three rock types. (Alter Deere
and Miller, 1966.)
STRUCTURAL FEATURES OF ROCK MASSES 9
Commission on Rock Classification has recommended different ranges of

values for intact rock strength (ISRM, 1981 b). The main reason for the
ISRM ranges was the opinion tbat the Deere-Mi11er elassification did not
inelude differentiation in the strength in tbe range below 25 MPa. It should
be also noted that this led to a recommendation tbat the convenient value
of 1 MPa (145 psi) for the uniaxial compressive strength may be taken as
tbe lowest strengtb limit for rock materials. Hence , tbe material s with a
strengtb lower than I MPa should be considered as soils and described in
accordance with soil mechanics practice.
The major limitation of the intact rock elassifications is that they cannot
provide quantitative data for engineering design purposes . Therefore , their
main value lies in enabling better identification and communication during
discussions of intact rock properties.
2.2 STRUCTURAL FEATURES OF ROCK MASSES
When the design engineer and the engineering geologist are confronted witb
rock, they must visualize the rock mass as an assemblage of intact rock
blocks separated by different types of geological discontinuities. They must
therefore consider the characteristics of both the intact material and !he
discontinuities.
The question immediately arises as to how the rock material is related to
the rock mass. In answering this question, one must note, first of a11, that
the importance of the properties of intact rock material will be genera11y
overshadowed by the properties of the discontinuities in the rock masses.
However, this does not mean that the properties of the intact rock mater-
ial should be disregarded when considering the behavior of jointed rock
masses. After all, if discontinuities are widely spaced or if the intact rock
is weak and altered, the properties of tbe intact rock may strongly influence
the gross behavior oftbe rock mass . Furthermore, a sample of a rock material
sometimes represents a sma11-scale model of the rock mass, since they botb
have gone through the sarne geological cyele. Nevertheless, in general, the
properties of the discontinuities are of greater importance than the properties
of the intact rock material.
An important issue in rock elassifications is the selection of tbe pararneters
of greatest significance. There appears to be no single parameter or index
that can fu11y and quantitatively describe a jointed rock mass for engineering
purposes. Various parameters have different significance, and only if taken
togetber can tbey describe a rock mass satisfactorily.
The strengtb of the rock material is ineluded as a elassification pararneter
in tbe majority of rock mass elassification systems. lt is a necessary pararneter
10 ROLE OF ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATIONS
because the strength of the rack material constitutes Ihe strength limit of
Ihe rock mass. The uniaxial compressive strength of rack material can be
determined in the field indirectly by means of Ihe point-load strength index
(Franklin; 1970), so that one is not restricted to laboratory testing.
The second parameter most commonly employed is Ihe rack quality des-
l' ignation (RQD) . This is a quantitative index based on a modified core-
recovery pracedure which incorporates only sound pieces of core that are
I 100 mm or greater in length . The RQD is a measure of drill core quality
or fracture frequency, and disregards Ihe influence of joint tightness, orientation,
continuity, and gouge (infilling) . Consequently , Ihe RQD does not fully
describe a rack mass .
Olher classification parameters used in current rack mass classifications
are spacing of discontinuities, condition of discontinuities (raughness, con-
tinuity, separation, joint-wall wealhering , infilling), orientation of discon-
tinuities , groundwater conditions (inflow, pressurel, and in-situ stresses.
An excellent discussion of the methods for quantitative description of
discontinuities in rack masses can be found in ISRM (1981 b) .
lt is accepted that in the case of surface excavations and those near-
surface undergraund rack excavations that are contralled by Ihe structural
geological features, Ihe following classification parameters are importan!:
strength of intact rack material, spacing of discontinuities, condition of
discontinuities, orientation of discontinuities, and groundwater conditions.
In the case of deep undergraund excavations where the behavior of rack
masses is stress-controlled, knowledge of Ihe virgin stress field or Ihe changes
in stress can be of greater significance than Ihe geological parameters. Most
civil engineering prajects , such as tunnels and subway chambers , fall into
the first category of geologically controlled rack mass structures.
2.3 SITE CHARACTERIZATION PROCEDURES
Comprehensive site characterization guidelines were published by the In-

ternational Association of Engineering Geology (l981a), Ihe Construction
Industry Research and Information Association (Weltman and Head , 1983) ,
and Ihe U.S. National Committee on Tunneling Technology (1984). This
last reference was a very important contribution because its findings were
based on a three-year case-history study of subsurface explorations for
undergraund design and construction. The objective was to discover im-
provements in practices and procedures that could make geotechnical site
investigation programs more effective. Based on 87 U.S. prajects, it was
recommended Ihat
SfTE CHARACTERfZATlON PROCEDURES 11
1. Expenditures for geotechnical site exploration should be 3% of estirnated

project cost.
2. The level of exploratory borings should be 1.5 linear ft of borehole
per route ft of tunnel alignment.
3. Not only should all geologic reports be incorporated in the contract
documents, but a "Geotechnical Design Report," compiled by the
tunnel designers, should be included in the specifications.
The interaction of the various site characterization activities and the pa-
rameters needed for engineering design is demonstrated Table 2.1. lt will
be seen that the testing approaches are divided into categories of field testing
and laboratory testing. Their purpose is to establish the needed design pa-
rameters characterizing the rock material, the rock mass , the in-situ stress
field, and other conditions.
The first fact that must be recognized when planning a site investigation
program is !hat there is no such thing as a standard site investigation (Hoek,
1982). Thls statement applies equally well to both stages of site characterization,
namely, a preliminary site investigation and the detailed site characterization.
The scope of the appropriate geological investigations is outlined in Figure
2.4.
The purpose of the initial site investigation is to establish the feasibility
of the project. In essence, the initial site assessment involves the discovery,
correlation, and analysis of such geological data as:
l. Rock types to be encountered.

2. Depth and character of !he overburden.
3. Macroscopic scale discontinuities, such as major faults.
4. Groundwater conditions.
5. Special problems, such as weak ground or swelling rock.
The initial site assessment can utilize a number of sources of information,

in particular
1. Available geological maps, published literature, and possibly, local

knowledge.
2. Photogeological images (aerial and ground photographs) of the area.
The photogeological study is of special importance, and its benefits may

even justify procuring new aerial photographs if !hose available are inadequate.
~
'"
TABLE 2.1 Recommended Rock Mechanics Observations and Measurements for Site Characterization
Property/Data
Test Rock Material Rock Mass In-Situ Stress Field Modulus 01 Delormation Empirical Design Data
Laboratory Testing
Uniaxial compression Material strength, Elastic modulus.
tests anisotropy Poisson's ratio
Triaxial compression Friction and m; parameter
tests cohesion 01
rock material
Density, porosity, Density, porosity, Weatherability and
water content, slake durability swelling parameters
swelling
Field Testing
Geotechnical surveys Input data lor
and integral Detailed engineering geological engineering
sampling description 01 rock strata classilications 01
rock masses
Point-load test Strength index
from rack
pieces
Overcoring cells and Magnitude and Deformation parameters
small Ilat jacks . directions 01
stresses
Plate bearing tests Effect 01 joints Deformation parameters
and borehole jacks on strength
01 rock mass
Seismic/sonic Sonic velocity Longitudinal and shear
measurements data Irom wave velocities and
laboratory rock dynamic moduli
Convergence Stress redistribution Time-dependent rock
monitoring and maS$ movements
borehole around excavations
extensometers
Piezometers in Water inflow,
boreholes pressure, and
permeability
Rock bolt pullout Rock support data:
tests spacing, length, etc.
-'"
PRELlMINARY
DATA COLLECTION
¡
FEASIBILlTY
STUDY
DETAILED SITE CHARACTERIZATION
F'LAN INVESTlGATlONS
•
OETAILEO
GEOLOGlCAL MAPPlNG
,¡.
EXPLORATORY ORILLlNG
i.
EXPLORATORY AOITS
+ + +
IN - SITU ROCK
GEOPHYSICAL TESTING LA80RATORY TESTING
MECHANICS TESTS
t.'éASUREMENT OF
GROuNOWATER TESTS
IN-SITU STRESSES
1 PROCESSING OF DATA
1
PREPARE FINAL GEOLOGICAL MAPS ANO SECTlONS
ANALYZE RESULTS OF L A8ORATORY ANO IN-SITU TESTS
ENGINEERING CLASSIFICATtON OF RaCK MASSES IN REGIONS
DESIGN
STUDIES
CONSTRUCTION
Figure 2.4 Stages of a site characterization programo

SITE CHARACTERIZATION PROCEDURES 15
The benefits of Ihe photogeological study include information on topography,

drainage, lilhology, geological structures , and discontinuities.
One of the purposes of Ihe initial site exploration is to determine the
regional geology of the vicinity of the project. This aspect is fully treated
by Fisher and Banks (1978). While determination of the regional geology
is based mainly on studies of reports, maps , and publications involving Ihe
geological history of the area as well as studies of ·information derived from
local knowledge and aerial photography, sorne limited investigations may
al so be conducted. These would include mapping óf the surface outcrops,
physical exploration , and a limited program of drilling and groundwater
investigations. Sorne laboratory tests on rock samples and index field tests
on rock cores may also be performed. Based on Ihese investigations, pre-
liminary geological maps and sections showing favorable and unfavorable
regions in Ihe rock mass should be prepared. These maps and sections are
important for planning Ihe next stages of the site characterization programo
Where outcrops and geological structures are not easily deduced by eilher
photogeological or ground investigations, geophysical melhods may be used
to locate large discontinuities such as faults. The most effective means of
doing Ihis would be by seismic or resistivity methods (Hoek and Brown,
1980).
Based on an initial site exploration , the final site characterization will be
conducted once the feasibility of Ihe project has been established. This stage
of site characterization will include detailed exploratory drilling, geological
mapping, geophysical surveys , and rock mechanics testing .
2.3.1 Drilling Investigations

The purpose of a drilling investigation is to
l. Confirm Ihe geological interpretations.

2. Examine cores and boreholes to determine the quality and characteristics
of the rock mas s .
3. Study groundwater conditions.
4. Provide cores for rock mechanics testing and petrographic analyses .
As the object of drilling is to obtain rock cores for interpretation and testing,
it is essential to obtain as near 100% core recovery as possible. To ensure
a successful drilling operation , the following information should be remem-
bered:
1. The cost of a drilling investigation for geotechnical purposes is much

higher, sometimes by a factor of two, than the cost of drilling for llÚneral
exploration purposes. Geotechnical drilling necessitates quality equipment
and extra care , but it can provide high-quality information.
2. The drilling equipment should feature diamond core drilling fac ilities
permitting core of at least NX size (54-mm dial and featuring split double-
tube core barreis to llÚnimize drilling vibrations. Also included should be
equipment for performing water pressure tests.
3. The purpose of the drilling investigation is to obtain not only the core
logs but also the logging of the borehole itself. Hence, examination of the
borehole walls by borehole cameras or by other systems should also be
considered.
4. Por meaningful interpretation of the orientation of the geological features,
core orientation procedures may be employed during geotechnical drilling.
A number of techniques are available for that purpose (Hoek and Brown,
1980). Boreholes should be angled so that vertical discontinuities can be
sampled.
5. In cases where poor rock conditions are evident and yet 100% core
recovery is desirable, a technique known as the integral sampling method
may be employed (Rocha, 1967) in shallow holes.
6. Good care should be taken of the core recovered from the boreholes.
This means that the cores should be photographed as soon as possible ,
carefully marked, placed in protective wrapping in the core boxes, and
stored in properly provided storage sheds. eore samples removed for testing
should be appropriately marked in the core boxes .
A systematic method should be used for geotechnicallogging of the rock

cores. There is a difference between a geological core log for general purposes
and a geotechnical core log for engineering purposes. The geotechnical core
log provides a format to record both the geological and engineering char-
acteristics of the rock core and the results of any field tests. The log of core
should systematically record all the information available from the coreo An
example of a geotechnical core log is given in Figure 2.5 . It should be noted
that there is no rigid standard format for a geotechnical core log, and the
amount of detail used will depend on the actual purpose of the project.
2.3.2 Engineering Geological Mapping

The purpose of engineering geological mapping is to investigate the significant
features of the rock mass, especially the discontinuities , such as naturally
occurring joints. It is also important to determine the geological structure,
SITE CHARACTERIZATlON PROCEDURES 17
THE PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY ,." .. E
GEOTECHNICAL LOG
D"U.. L SIT[
' .... CH.N[ 1"""00 SU,lION • LOC.U,O" se"\.[
WATeR
TESTS
A"D
LEYELS 10.0
'00
<%.
""ACTUIOIr:
!>PAC, .. G
¡ .... ,
2.0 lOO
'00
soo
....
,.,-
%
COII'[""
2.0.0
,---
.E"'14
IEIUNG
••
~!~l'i
~'HT
OIEP'" DESC,.'PT,O,", 0" s, ....,. ' .... 'OL le
.0'
1,
~
~
-=,:~
1-=,
:
--=
-::
J
': •
i~:
,~ ,
:
-:
~.
~
--=,
~:
~.
~
~
~.
~
0111'[ 0101'1.1.[0 101[".'"'5
O... T[ I.CleIiI:O
I.OGG(O IV
Figure 2.5 Geotechnical core lag.

18 ROLE OF RaCK MASS CLASSIFICATlONS
especially in stratified rock which may have been subjected to faulting .

Detailed procedures for engineering geological mapping have been described
in a number ofpublications, notably by Dearrnan and Fookes (1974), Kendorski
and Bischoff (1976), Dowding (1978), the Jntemational Association of En-
gineering Geology (1981b), and Compton (1985) .
Jt should be noted that while engineering geological mapping is fairly
frequently found on tunneling projects , this is not Ihe case on mining projects.
Engineering geological mapping in underground coal mines is a fairly recent
innovation.
Finally , one should emphasize that one of the purposes of engineering
geological mapping is to pro vide input data for a rock mass classification
to be used at Ihe site for estimating the stability of underground structures
and support requirements. Clearly, engineering geological mapping will
provide the most reliable input data for a rock mass classification although
it is also possible to obtain reasonable data from interpretations of the
borehole and core logs.
2.3.3 Geophysical Investigations

Geophysical techniques involving seismic refraction and retlection , electrical
resistivity, and gravimetric and magnetic measurements form an accepted
par! of engineering-geological investigation procedures. Detailed descriptions
of these methods, togelher with Iheir applications , limitations, accuracy,
and costs, may be found in many textbooks (see, specifically, Hoek and
Brown, 1980). It should be emphasized that Ihe results of geophysical
surveys should always be checked by diamond drilling investigations. Al-
tematively , geophysical measurements may be used to provide geological
information about regions of a rock mass positioned between two boreholes.
Geophysical investigations may be conducted eilher by surface geophysical
investigations or by geophysical exploration in boreholes.
Of the geophysical techniques applicable to rock mechanics, the seismic
refraction method is Ihe most popular and useful for the purposes of rock
mass characterization. This method may be used either on the surface or in
boreholes.
The squared ratio between the longitudinal seismic wave velocity as
measured in the field (VF) and the sonic wave velocity as measured in the
laboratory (V L ) has been used as an index of rock quality. The ratio is
squared to make Ihe velocity index equivalent to the ratio of the dynamic
moduli. The difference in Ihese two velocities is caused by the structural
discontinuities in Ihe rock mass. Por a high-quality massive rock mass
containing only a few joints, the velocity ratio (VF IVd should approach
unity. As Ihe degree of jointing and fracturing becomes more severe, Ihe
SITE CHARACTERIZATlON PROCEDURES 19
TABLE 2.2 Velocily Index and Rock Mass Quallly'

Velocity Index (VF/Ve)' Description 01 Rock Mass Quality
<0.2 Very poor
0.2-0.4 Poor
0.4-0.6 Fair
0.6-0.8 Good
0.0-1.0 Very good
a After Coon and Merritt (1970).
velocity ratio will be reduced to values lower !han unity. Table 2.2 illustrates
!he relationship between the velocity index and rack mass quality (Coon
and Merritt, 1970).
Attempts have been made to use the velocity index to estimate !he ratio
of !he static modulus of the rack mass to the laboratory modulus of the rock
material. However, Coon and Merritt (1970) concluded !hat the velocity
index is not reliable for predicting directly in-situ rack mass deformability.
This index has too many uncertainties because of the different sensitivities
of the seismic and sonic waves as well as difficulties in generating and
identifying elastic waves in rack mas ses and rock materials.
2.3.4 Geological Data Presentation

If determination of geological data for site characterization is a difficult
problem, presentation of these data for engineering purposes is sometimes
even more difficult. Communication between !he engineering geologist and
the design engineer would be greatly enhanced if!he format for data presentation
could be established in the early stages of an engineering project. The
following suggestions are use fuI:
l. Borehole data should be presented in well-executed geotechnicallogs.

2. Mapping data derived from joint surveys should be presented as spherical
projections such as of the Schmidt or Wolff type (Goodman , 1976;
Hoek and Brown, 1980).
3. A summary of all the geological data, including the groundwater
conditions, should be entered in the input data sheets for rack mass
classification purposes (see Fig. 2.6) .
4. Longitudinal sections and cross sections of structural geology al the
site should form an integral part of a geological reporto
5. Consideration should be given to constructing a geological model of
the site.
INPUT DATA FORM GEOMECHANICS ClASSIFICATION (ROCK MASS RATING SYSTEM)
~ Nam& 01project:
Sil1 01 survey :
CondUCIed by :
011111: r
SmuCTURAl
AEGIOH
ROCI< TYPE
PERSISTENCE (CONTINUfTV)
Vlry low:
CONOlllON OF
<1m .
DlSCONTlNUITIE5
Sell Sel2 5el3 ....
STR ENGlH OF INTACT AOCK MATERIAL DRILl CORE OUALrTY R.O.D. Low: 1 ·3 m ..
UniaxiaJ Poinl·load
Deslg nation eompraniv, OR s¡¡.ngll!
$lriUlgth, MPa indaJ , MP,
EJ:celienl qlllJiIy:
Good qual't :
".",,,
75·90"4
Madium:
High:
3·10m .
tO-20m .
FiI" qualil~: SG-7S"4 Vllry high : ,20 m .
Very High: 0,." 250....... .>10.. Poor qu.lity: 2S." " SEPARATION (APERTlJRE)
H¡gh " 100-250..... ... .4·10 "' " .. , ... . Very poor qual~y: <2S"
Ve ry 1igh1 jo;"ls: < 0.1 mm ...
Medium High: 50· 100 .......... 0·4 ..
Modarata: 25-50 ..... ...... 1·2 .. Tlghl jo<nIS: D.l·0.Smm .
low:
Very low: ,.,
5·25 " ..........<1 .• R.a .D. • RodI Ovally Designalion Modera1.1y open joims:O.5 - 2.5 mm .
Openp¡'nts : 2.S-10mm .
ST RIKE ANO OIP ORIENTATtONS
Very wide aper1ura: ,10mm
Se11
5812
Strik •..
Slfik• ..
(a~)
(from ............... IQ ............... )
(lrom ...•........... 10 .• ..)

Dip:..
Dip:.
,- , (dirM;ti:ln)
ROUGHNESS ("ida also il surlaces ,re S1.ppod, undulating or planllf)
V.r, rough surfacts :
Rough sunaces:
SlighUy rough surlacts :
Sel3 Strik • ....
"~ . .. lo .............. ) Oip:..
Smoo1h $urlacn:
Se14 St,ike... (from ............... lo .... ........ .. ) Oip:..
Slichnside<j surlacn :
..
NOTE: fWIer all directions lo magnelic notth. f lLLIOO (GOUGE)
SPACING OF DISCONllNUlllES Type:
s., 0., Sil' 3 , Thicknus:

Unlaxial compr.ssiva sUflng1h, M!'a .
Very wide: o,.e,2m
S..pag.:
W.. 0.S·2m
WAU AOCK Of OISCQNTINUrTlES
Modera!e: 200 - 600 mm
Unwaa1h"ad
Close : 60 - 200 mm
Slighl!)' wia1her e<:!
Very clon: < 60 mm
t.4C1d"idllly wtalh·llad
GROUNO WATER Highly wnlhefad
Compltll!)' wta1harad
INflOW per tO m lilers/m inul e GENERAL CONOITIONS (complele!)' dry, Residual SJil
oIlunn.llanglh . damp. Wlt. dripping or Ilowing und. r GE NERAL REMARKS ANO AOOITIONAl DATA
•
WAlER PRESSURE kPa
Iowlm.dium or high preS$ure, : M.oUOA fAULTS s.p&cify Iocahly, na1ura and orifInlllions.
IN SITU STRE SS ES
NOTE: fo, delinnions and melhods eonsu~ ISRM docum.nl: 'Ou .. n,jt,,'i~. dl/5cripllOfl of
díscofllinui,il/J in rock massl/s.·
Figure 2.6 Input data lorm lor engineering classilication 01 rack masses.
INPUT DATA REOUIREMENTS 21
2.4 INPUT DATA REQUIREMENTS: AN INTEGRAL APPROACH
Provision of reliable input data for engineering design of structures in rock

is one of the most difficult tasks facing engineering geologists and design
engineers. lt is extremely important Ihat the quality of the input data matches
Ihe sophistication of the design methods. It has been often contended Ihat
sorne design methods, such as numerical techniques, have outpaced our
ability to provide the input data necessary for Ihe application of Ihese melhods.
Obviously, it must be realized Ihat if incorrect input parameters are employed,
incorrect design information will result.
The guidelines cited below are recornmended as an integral approach to
site characterization of rock masses :
Firstly, a detailed engineering geological assessment of Ihe rock mass
conditions and parameters is required.
Secondly, Ihe stress field should be established by means of either an
overcoring technique or small Hat jacks. In the case where underground
adits are not available for stress measurements by mean S of overcoring or
small Hat jacks, Ihe hydrofacturing melhod may be employed in deep boreholes
(Haimson, 1978).
Thirdly, seismic velocity geophysical surveys should be conducted to
determine the continuity of the roek mass conditions throughout Ihe area of
the proposed engineering project.
Fourthly, diamond drilling of good-quality core of NX size (54-mm dial
should be undertaken so that the rock quality designation (RQD) can be
established and samples can be selected for laboratory tests to determine
the statie strengths, moduli, and the sonie velocity on intaet rock specimens.
The parameters needed for site characterization are surnmarized here for
Ihe convenience of the engineering geologists responsible for the collection
of geological data for use in engineering designo
The first step is to divide Ihe rock mass into a number of structural regions.
These regions are geological zones of rock masses in which certain features
are more or less uniform oAlthough rock masses are discontinuous in nature,
they may nevertheless be uniform in regions when, for example, the type
of rock or the spacings of discontinuities are the same throughout the region.
In most cases, Ihe boundaries of structural regions will coincide with such
major geological features as faults and shear zones.
Once the structural regions have been delineated, input parameters are
established for each structural region and entered onto an input data sheet,
an example of which is given in Figure 2.6.
Rock Quallty Designation (RQD) This index is used as a classification

parameter because, although not sufficient on its own for a full description
f
22 ROLE OF RaCK MASS CLASS/FICATlONS
of a rock mass, it has been found most useful in tunneling applications as

a guide for selection of tunnel support. The RQD has been employed extensively
in tbe United States and in Europe, and is a simple, inexpensive, and
reproducible way to assess the quality of rock core (Deere et al., 1967).
This quantitative index is a modified core-recovery percentage which
incorporates only those pieces of core tbat are 100 mm or greater in length.
Shorter lengtbs of core are ignored, since they are considered to be due to
close shearing, jointing, or weathering in the rock mass. It should be noted
that the RQD disregards the inftuence of discontinuity tightness, orientation,
continuity, and gouge (infilling) material.
For RQD determination, the International Society for Rock Mechanics
(ISRM) recommends double-tube, N-sized core barreis (core dia. of 54 mm).
Spacing and Orienfafion of Disconfinuifies The spacing of discon-

tinuities is the mean distance between tbe planes of weakness in the rock
mass in tbe direction perpendicular to tbe discontinuity planes. The strike
of discontinuities is generally recorded with reference to magnetic north.
The dip angle is tbe angle between the horizontal and tbe joint plane taken
in a direction in which the plane dips.
Condifion of Disconfinuities This parameter ineludes roughness of the

discontinuity surfaces, their separation (distance between the surfaces), their
length or continuity (persistence), weathering of the wall rock of the planes
of weakness, and tbe infilling (gouge) material.
Roughness, or the nature of the asperities in the discontinuity surfaces,
is an important parameter characterizing tbe condition of discontinuities.
Asperities tbat occur on joint surfaces interlock, if the surfaces are clean
and closed, and inhibit shear movement along the joint surface. Asperities
usually have a base length and amplitude measured in rnillimeters and are
readily apparent on a core-sized exposure of a discontinuity.
Separation, or the distance between the discontinuity surfaces, controls
tbe extent to which tbe opposing surfaces can interlock as well as the amount
of water tbat can ftow through tbe discontinuity. In tbe absence of interlocking,
tbe discontinuity filling (gouge) controls entirely the shear strengtb of the
discontinuity. As tbe separation decreases, the asperities of the rock wall
tend to become more interlocked, and both the filling and the rock material
contribute to the discontinuity shear strength. The shear strengtb along a
discontinuity is tberefore dependent on the degree of separation, presence
or absence offilling materials, roughness ofthe surface walls, and the nature
of the filling material.
Continuity of disco[}!inuities inftuences tbe extent to which tbe rock material
and tbe discontinuities separately affect the behavior of the rock mass. In
the case of underground excavations, a discontinuity is considered fully
DESIGN METHODDLOGIES 23
continuous if its lenglh is greater than the dimension of lhe excavation.

Consequently, for continuity assessment, the length of the discontinuity
should be determined.
Weathering of the wall rack, that is, the rack constituting the discontinuity
sur faces , is classified in accordance wilh the recornmendations of the ISRM
Cornrnittee on Rack Classification (198Ib):
l. Unweathered/fresh. No visible signs of wealhering are noted: rack

fresh; crystals bright.
2. Slightly weathered rack. Discontinuities are stained or discolored and
may contain a thin filling of altered material. Discoloration may extend into
lhe rock from the discontinuity surfaces to a distance of up to 20% of the
discontinuity spacing.
3. Moderately wealhered rack. Slight discoloration extends from dis-
continuity planes for greater lhan 20% of lhe discontinuity spacing. Dis-
continuities may contain filling of altered material. Partial opening of grain
boundaries may be observed.
4. Highly weathered rack. Discoloration extends lhraughout the rack,
and the rack material is partly friable . The original texture of the rock has
mainly been preserved, but separation of lhe grains has occurred.
5. Completely weathered rack. The rack is totally discolored and de-
composed and in a friable condition. The extemal appearance is that of soil.
The infilling (gouge) has a twofold influence: a) depending on the thickness,

the filling prevents the interlocking of the fracture asperities; and b) it
possesses its own characteristic praperties, lhat is , shear strength , permeability,
and deformational characteristics. The following aspects should be described:
type, thickness , continuity, and consistency.
Groundwater Conditions In lhe case of tunnels or mine drifts , the rate

of inflow of graundwater in liters per minute per 10 meters of the excavation
should be determined . Altematively, general conditions can be described
as completely dry , damp , wet, dripping , and flowing. If actual water pressure
data are available, lhese should be stated and expressed in terms of the ratio
of the water pressure to the major principal stress.
2.5 DESIGN METHODOLOGIES
The topie of design methodology as related to rack mass classifications is

important for two reasons . Firstly , rack mass classifications are based on
case histories and hence tend to perpetuate conservative practiee unless they
r
24 ROLE OF ROCK MASS CLASSfFICATlONS
are seen as a design aid , requiring periodic updating. Secondly, they represent
only one type of the design methods, an empirical one, which needs to be
used in conjunction with other design methods . A good design methodology
can ensure that rock mass classifications are used with the greatest effect
and that they do not hamper but promote design innovation and state-of-
the-art technology.
Various definitions of engineering design have been given (Bieniawski,
1984). In general, engineering design may be defined as that socioeconomic
activity by which scientific, engineering, and behavioral principIes, together
with technical informaton and experience, are applied with skill, imagination,
and judgment in the creation of functional economical, aesthetically pleasing,
and environmentally acceptable devices, processes, or systems for the benefit
of the society. The design process embraces all those activities and events
that occur between the recognition of a social need or opportunity and the
detailed specification of acceptable solution. The designer's responsibility
continues during the manufacture or construction of the project and even
beyond il.
The distinguishable stages of the engineering design process (Bieniawski ,
1988) are
1. Recognition of a need.
2. Statement of the problem, identification of performance objectives,
and design issues.
3. Collection of information.
4. Concept formulation in accordance with the design criteria: search
for a method, theory, model, or hypothesis.
5. Analysis of solution components.
6. Synthesis to create detailed alternative solutions.
l.
7. Evaluation of ideas and solutions.
8. Optimization.
9. Recornrnendation and communication.
10. Implementation .
Obert (1973) emphasized that, compared with the time that man has been
mining underground, the concept of designing an underground opening is
a relatively recent innovation. One reason for this is that the problem of
designing a mine or a tunnel is different from that of designing a conventional
structure such as a building or a bridge.
In a conventional engineering design, the externalloads to be applied are
first determined and a material is then prescribed with the appropriate strength
DESIGN METHODOLOGIES 25
and deformation characteristics, following which the structural geometry is

selected. In rock mechanics, the designer deals with complex rock masses,
and specific material properties cannot be prescribed to meet design re-
quirements. Furthermore, the applied loads are not as important in rock
mas ses as Ihe forces resulting from the redistribution of the original stresses,
that is, those existing before the excavation was made. AIso, a number of
possible failure modes can exist in a rock structure, so determination of the
"material strength" is a major problem. Finally, the geometry of a structure
in rock may depend on the configuration of the geological features. Hence,
the design of an excavation in rock must inelude a Ihorough appraisal of
the geological conditions and, especially, possible geological hazards.
In essence, rock mechanics design in mining and tunneling incorporates
such aspects as planning Ihe lacation of structures, deterrnining Iheir dirnensions
and shapes, their orientations and layout, excavation procedures (blasting
or machine boring), support selection, and instrumentation. The rack mechanics
engineer studies Ihe original in-situ stresses, monitors the changes in stress
due to mining or tunneling, determines rock properties, analyzes stresses,
deformations, and water conditions (pressure and flow), and interprets in-
strumentation data.
Unfortunately, the application of improved geotechnical design concepts
in mining and tunneling has not progressed at the same rate as for other
engineering works. The result has been excessive safety factors in many
aspects of underground projects. It is believed that an increasing demand
for more realistic safety factors as well as the recognition of the money-
saving potential of rock mechanics will lead to greater application of rock
mechanics design in mining and tunneling. Nevertheless, while extensive
research is being conducted in rock mechanics today, there still seems to
be a major problem in "translating" the research findings into innovative
and concise design procedures.
The design methods which are available for assessing the stability of
mines and tunnels can be categorized as follows:
1. Analytical methods.
2. Observational methods.
3. Empirical melhods.
Analytical design meihods utilize Ihe analyses of stresses and deformations

around openings. They inelude such techniques as elosed-form solutions,
numerical methods (finite elements, finite difference, boundary elements,
etc.), analog sirnulations (electrical and photoelastic), and physical modeling.
Observational design methods rely on actual monitoring of ground movement
during excavation to detect measurable instability and on the analysis of
26 ROLE OF ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATIONS
ground- support interaction. Although considered separate methods , these

observational approaches are Ihe only way to check Ihe results and predictions
of the other methods. .
Empirical design methods assess the stability of mines and tunnels by
the use of statistical analyses of underground observations. Engineering rock
mass classifications constitute Ihe best-known empirical approach for assessing
the stability of underground openings in rock (Goodman, 1980; Hoek and
Brown, 1980).
REFERENCES
American Society for Testing and Materials. Standard Methods of Test for Rock
Materials, 04.08, Soil and Rock, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Philadelphia,
1987.
Bieniawski, Z . T. "Mechanism of Brittle Fracture of Rock." Int. J. Rock Mech .
Min. Sci. 4, 1967, pp. 395- 435.
Bieniawski , Z . T. Rock Mechanics Design inMiningandTunneling , A. A. Balkema,
Rotterdam, 1984, 272 pp.
Bieniawski, Z. T. Strata Control in Mineral Engineering, Wiley, New York, 1987,
212 pp.
Bieniawski, Z. T. "Towards a Creative Design Process in Mining." Min. Eng.
40(11) , Nov. 1988, pp. 1040- 1044.
Compton, R. R. Geology in the Field, Wiley, 'New York, 1985, 398 pp.
Coon, R. F., and A. H. Merritt. "Predicting In Situ Modulus of Deformation Using
Rack Quality Indexes ," ASTM Special Technical Publication 477, Philadelphia,
1970, pp. 154- 173.
Daugheny, C. W. "Logging of Geologic Discontinuities in Boreholes and Rock
Cores." Proc. Short Course Subsurf Explor. , George Washington University,
Washington , DC, 1981.
Dearman, W. R., and P. G. Fookes. "Engineering Geological Mapping for Civil
Engineering Practice." Q. J. Eng. Geol. 7, 1974, pp. 223-256.
Deere, D. U. "Technica1 Description of Rock Cores for Engineering Purposes. "
Rock Mech. Eng. Geol. 1, 1963, pp. 16- 22.
Deere, D. U., and R. P. Miller. Engineering Classification and Index Properties
of Intact Rock, Air Force Laboratory Technical Repon No. AFNL-TR-65-116,
Albuquerque, NM, 1966.
Deere, D. U. , A. J. Hendron, F. D. Patton, and E. 1. Cording. "Design of Surface
and Near Surface Construction in Rock." Proc. 8th U.S. Symp. Rock Mech. ,
AIME, New York, 1967, pp. 237-302.
Dowding, C. D ., ed. Site Characterization and Exploration , ASCE, New York,
1978, 321 pp.
REFERENCES 27
Dunham, K. R., A. G. Thurman, and R. D. Ellison. "The Use of GeologicaV

Geotechnicallnvestigation as an Aid to Mine Planning." Proc. 18th U.S. Symp.
Rack Mech., Colorado Sehool of Mines, Keystone, 1976, pp. lC4.1 - 6.
Einstein, H. H., W. Steiner, and G. B. Baechef. "Assessment of Empirieal Design
Methods for Tunnels in Roek." Proc. Rapid Excav. Tunneling Corif., AlME,
New York, 1979, pp. 683-706.
Fisher, P., and D. C. Banks. "Influenee of the Regional Geologic Setting on Site
Geologieal Features." Sile Characteriza/ion and Exploration, ed. C. E. Dowding,
ASCE, New York, 1978, pp. 302-321.
Franklin, L A. "Observations and Tests for Engineering Description and Mapping
of Roeks." Proc. 2nd Int. Congo Rock Mech., lSRM, Belgrade, 1970, vol. 1,
paper 1-3 .
Goodman, R. E. Methods o[ Geological Engineering, West Publishing, SI. Paul,
MN, 1976,472 pp.
Goodman, R. E. Introduction 10 Rack Mechanics, Wiley, New York, 1980,478
pp.
Haimson, B. C. "The Hydrofracturing Stress Measuring Method and Field Results."
Int . J. Rack Mech. Min. Sci. 15, 1978, pp. 167-178.
Hoek, E., and E. T. Brown. Underground Excavations in Rack, Institution of
Mining and Metallurgy, London, 1980,527 pp.
Hoek, E. "Geotechnical Considerations in Tunnel Design and Contraet Preparation ."
Trans. Instn. Min. Metal/, 91, 1982, pp. AlOI-AI09.
lotemational Assaciation of Engineering Geology. "Guidelines for Site lovestigations."
no. 24, 1981a, pp. 185-226.
lntemational Association of Engineering Geology. "Rock and Soil Description for
Engineering Geological Mapping." Bul/.lnt. Assoc. Eng. Geol., no. 24, 1981b,
pp. 235 - 274.
Intemational Saciety for Rock Mechanies. "Basie Teehnieal Deseription of Roek
Masses." Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 18, 1981a, pp. 85 - 110.
lntemational Soeiety for Roek Meehanies. Rock Characterization, Testing and
Monitoring - ISRM Suggested Methods, Pergamon, Landon, 1981b, 211 pp.
Jaeger, J. c., and N. G. W. Cook. Fundamentals o[ Rack Mechanics, Chapman
& Hall, London, 1979, 3rd ed., 593 pp.
Kendorski, F. S., and J. A. Bisehoff. "Engineering Inspeetion and Appraisal of
Rack Tunnels." Proc. Rapid Excav. Tunneling Conf., AlME, New York, 1976,
pp. 81-99.
Kulhawy, F. H. "Stress-Deformation Properties of Rack and Diseontinuities." Eng.
Geol. 9, 1975, pp. 327-350.
Lama, R. D., and V. S. Vukuturi. Handbook on Mechanical Properties o[ Rocks,
vol. 2, Trans Teeh Publieations, Clausthal-Zellerfeld, West Germany, 1978,481
pp.
MeDonough, J. T. "Site Evaluation for Cavability and Underground Support Design
at the Clímax Mine." Proc. i7lh U.S. Symp. Rock Mech., University of Utah,
Snowbird, 1976, pp . 3A2- 15.
Obert, L., and C. Rich. "Classification of Rock for Engineering Pulposes." Proc.
1st AUSI. - N.Z. Con! Geomech., Australian Geomechanics Society, Melbourne,
197 1, pp. 435-441.
Obert, L. A. "Philosophy of Design." Bureau of Mines iC8585, 1973, pp. 6-8.
Rocha, M. "A Method of Integra! Sampling ofRock Masses." Rock Mech. 3, 1967,
pp . 1-12.
Turk, N., and Dearman, W. R. "Improvements in the Determination of Point Load
Strength." Bull. Int. Assoc. Eng. Geol., no. 31, 1985, pp. 137-142.
U.S. Naliona! Committee on Tunneling Technology. Geolechnical Site Invesligalions
for Underground Projects, National Academy Press, Washington, OC, 1984,
182 pp.
Weltman, A. J., and 1. M. Head, Sile investigation Manual, Construction Industry
Research and Information Association, London, Special Publication no. 25,
1983, 144 pp.
3
Early Rack Mass
e lassificatians
Observation, no! old age, brings wisdom.
~Plubilius Senlentiae
Empirical design methods relate practica! experience gained on preyious

projects to the conditions anticipated at a proposed site.
Rock mass classifications form the backbone of the empirical design
approach and are widely employed in rock engineering. In fact, on many
projects , the classification approach serves as !he only practical basis for
the design of complex underground structures. Most tunnels now constructed
make use of sorne classification system. The most used and the best known
of these is Terzaghi' s rock load classification, which was introduced oyer
40 years ago (Terzaghi, 1946). Since then, this classification has been
modified (Deere et al. , 1970) and new rock classification systems haye been
proposed. These systems took cognizance of the new adyances in rock
support technology, namely, rockbolts and shotcrete, and addressed different
engineering projects: tunnels, chambers, mines, slopes, and foundations.
Today, so many different rock classification systems exist that it is useful
to tabulate the more cornrnon ones, as shown in Table 3. l.
Rock mass classifications haye been successfully applied throughout the
world: in the United States (Deere et al., 1967; Wickham et al. , 1972;
Bieniawski, 1979), Canada (Coates, 1964; Franklin , 1976), westem Europe
29
'"
C>
TABLE 3.1 Major Engineering Rock Mass Classificalions Currently In Use

Name 01 Classilieation Originator and Date Country 01 Origin Applieations
1. Roek load Terzaghi, 1946 USA Tunnels with steel suppcrt
2. Stand·up time Lauffer, 1958 Austria Tunneling
3. NATM Paeher et al. , 1964 Austria Tunneling
4. Roek quality designation Deere et al., 1967 USA Core logging, tunneling
5. RSR eoneept Wiekham et al. , 1972 USA Tunneling
6. RMR system Bieniawski, 1973 South Alriea Tunnels, mines, slopes,
(Geomeehanies Classilieation) (Iast mOdilied, 1979-USA) foundations
RMR sys/em ex/ensions
Weaver, 1975 South Alriea Rippability
Laubseher, 1977 South Alriea Mining
Olivier, 1979 South Alriea Weatherability
Ghose and Raju , 1981 India Coal mining
Moreno Tallon, 1982 Spain Tunneling
Kendorski et al. , 1983 USA Hard roek mining
Nakao el al., 1983 Japan Tunneling
Serafim and Pereira, 1983 Portugal Foundations
Gonzalez de Vallejo, 1983 Spain Tunneling
Unal, 1983 USA Roof bolting in coal mines
Romana, 1985 Spain Slope slabilily
Newman, 1985 USA Coal mining
Sandbak, 1985 USA Boreabilily
Smith , 1986 USA Dredgeability
Venkaleswarlu, 1986 India Coal mining
Robertson, 1988 Canada Slope slabilily
7. Q..system Barton el al. , 1974 Norway Tunnels, chambers
Q-sys/em ex/ensíons Kirslen, 1982 Soulh Africa Excavalability
Kirslen, 1983 Soulh Africa Tunneling
8. Strenglh-size Franklin, 1975 Canada Tunneling
9. Basic geotechnical description International Sociely for General, communication
Rock Mechanics, 1981
10. Unified classificalion Williamson, 1984 USA General, communication
-
'"
32 EARLY ROCK MASS CLASS/FICATlONS
(Lauffer, 1958; Pacher et al., 1974; Barton et al., 1974) , South Africa
(Bieniawski, 1973; Laubscher, 1977; Olivier, 1979) , Australia (Baczynski ,
1980), New Zealand (Rutledge, 1978), Japan (Nakao , 1983), India (Ghose
and Raju, 1981), lhe USSR (Protodyakonov, 1974), and in Poland (Kidybinski ,
1979).
Of the many rock mass classification systems in existence, six require
special attention because they are most common, namely, those proposed
by Terzaghi (1946), Lauffer (1958) , Deere et al. (1967) , Wickham et al.
(1972), Bieniawski (1973), and Barton et al. (1974). .
The rock load classification of Terzaghi (1946) was the first practical
classification system introduced and has been dominant in the United States
for over 35 years , proving very successful for tunneling with steel supports.
Lauffer's classification (1958) was based on the work of Stini (1950) and
was a considerable step forward in the art of tunneling since it introduced
the concept of the stand-up time of the active span in a tunnel, which is
highly relevant in determining the type and amount of tunnel support. The
classification of Deere et al. (1967) introduced the rock quality designation
(RQD) index , which is a simple and practical method of describing the
quality of rock core from boreholes. The concept of rock structure rating
(RSR) , developed in the United States by Wickham et al. (1972, 1974),
was the first system featuring classification ratings for weighing the relative
importance of classification parameters. The Geomechanics Classification
(RMR system), proposed by Bieniawski (1973), and lhe Q-system, proposed
by Barton et al. (1974), were developed independently and bolh provide
quantitati ve data for lhe selection of modem tunnel reinforcement measures
such as rack bolts and shotcrete. The Q-system has been developed specifically
for tunnels and chambers, whereas the Geomechanics Classification, allhough
al so initially developed for tunnels, has been applied to rock slopes and
foundations, ground rippability assessment, and mining problems (Laubscher,
1977; Ghose and Raju, 1981; Kendorski et al., 1983).
3.1 ROCK LOAD CLASSIFICATION METHOD
Terzaghi (1946) formulated the first rational method of classification by

evaluating rock loads appropriate to the design of steel sets. This was an
important development because support by steel sets has been the most
commonly used system for containing rock tunnel excavations during lhe
past 50 years . It must be emphasized, however, that while this classification
is appropriate for the purpose for which it was evolved, that is, for estimating
STAND·UP TIME CLASSIFICATlON 33
SURFACE
Figure 3.1 The tunnel rack·load concept 01 Terzaghi (1946).
rack loads for steel-arch supported tunnels, it is not as suitable for modern
tunneling methods using shotcrete and rockbolts . After detailed studies ,
Cecil (1970) concluded that Terzaghi's classification was too general to
pennit an objective evaluation of rock quality and Ihat it provided no quantitative
information on the properties of rock masses .
The main features of Terzaghi' s classification are depicted in Figure 3. l
and are listed in Tables 3.2 and 3.3. The rock load values in Table 3.2
apply to the described ground conditions if the tunnel is located under Ihe
water table . If the tunnel is located aboye Ihe groundwater level , the rock
loads for classes 4- 6 can be reduced by 50%. An important revision of
Terzaghi 's rock load coefficients was presented by Rose (1982)- see Table
3.3- who showed Ihat Terzaghi's rock conditions 4- 6 should be reduced
by 50% from their original rock load values beca use water table has liule
effect on the rock load (Brekke , 1968).
3.2 STAND-UP TIME CLASSIFICATION
The 1958 classification by Lauffer has its foundation in the earlier work on
tunnel geology by Stini (1950), considered the falher of Ihe "Austrian School"
of tunneling and rock mechanics. Stini emphasized Ihe importance of structural
¡;¡
TABLE 3.2 Original Terzaghi's Rock Load Classilication 01 1946'·0

Rock ConditionC Rock Load H p (N) Remarks
1. Hard and intact Zera Light lining required only il spalling or popping occurs
2. Hard stratilied or schistose 0-0.5B Light support, mainly lor protection against spails. Load may
change erraticaily lram point to point
3. Massive, moderately ¡ointed 0-0.25B
4. Moderately blocky and seamy 0.25B-0.35(B + H,) No side pressure
5. Very blocky and seamy (0 .35-1 .10)(B + H,) Little or no side pressure
6. Completely crushed 1.10(B + H,) Considerable side pressure
Softening eftects 01 seepage toward bottom 01 tunnel
require either continuous support lor lower ends 01 ribs
ar circular ribs
7. Squeezing rack, moderate depth (1.10-2 .10)(B + H,) Heavy side pressure, invert struts required . Circular ribs are
recommended
8. Squeezing rack, great depth (2 .10-4.50)(B + H,)
9. Sweiling rack Up to 250 N, irrespective Circular ribs are required. In elrtreme cases, use yielding
01 the value 01 (B + H,) support
BAfter Terzaghi (1946).

B After Terzaghi (1946).
bRock load Hp in feet on tunnel roof with width B (ft) and height H t (ft) at depth of more than 1.5(8 + H,}.
e Definitions:
Intact rack contains neither joints nor hair cracks . Hence, if it breaks, it breaks across sound rock. On account of the injury to the rock due to blasting, spalls
may drop off the roof several hours or days after blasting. This is known as a spalfing condition . Hard, intact rock may also be encountered in the popping
condition invoJving the spontaneous and violent detachment of rock slabs from the sides or roof.
Stratified rack consists of individual strata with little or no resistance against separation along the boundaries between strata. The slrala may or may not
be weakened by transverse jolnts. In such rock, the spalling condition is quite common.
Moderately ¡ointed rack conlains joints and hair cracks, but the blocks between joints are locally grown together or so intimately interlocked that vertical
walls do not require lateral support. In rocks of this type, both spalling and popping condilions may be encountered.
Blocky and seamy rock consists of chemically intact or almost intact rock fragments which are entirely separated from each other and imperfectly interlocked.
In such rock, vertical walls may require lateral support.
Crushed but chemically intact rack has the character of a crusher runo If most or all of the fragments are as small as fine sand grains and no recementation
has taken place, crushed rock below the water table exhibits the properties of a water·bearing sand.
Squeezing rock slowly advances into the tunnel without perceptible volume increase. A prerequisite for squeeze is a high percentage of microscopic and
submicroscopic particles of micaceous minerals or of clay minerals with a low swelling capacity.
Swelling rock advances into the tunnel chiefly on account of expansiono The capacity to swell seems to be limited to those rocks ·that contain clay minerals
such as montmorillonite, with a high swelling capacity.
~
¡;¡
TABLE 3.3 Terzaghi's Rock Load Classlficatlon Currently in Use"·
Roek Condition ROO Roek Load Hp (ft) Remarks

t . Hard and intaet 95-100 Zero Same as Terzaghi (1946)
2. Hard stratilied or sehistose 90-99 0-0.58 Same as Terzaghi (1946)
3. Massive, moderately jointed 85-95 0-0.258 Same as Terzaghi (1946)
4. Moderately bloeky and seamy 75-85 0.258-0.20 (8 + H,)
Types 4, S, and 6 redueed by about
5. Very blocky and seamy 30-75 (0.20-0.60) (8 + H,)
50% lrom Terzaghi values because
6. Completely erushed but ehemieally 3-30 (0.60-1.10) (8 + H,) water table has little elfeet on roek
intaet load (Terzaghi, 1946; Brekke, 1968)
6a. Sand and gravel 0-3 (1.10-1.40) (8 + H,)
7. Squeezing roek, moderate depth NA' (1.10-2.10) (8 + H,) Same as Terzaghi (1946)
8. Squeezing roek, great depth NA' (2.10-4.50) (8 + H,) Same as Terzaghi (1946)
9. Swelling roek NA ' Up to 250 ft irrespeetive 01 value 01 Same as Terzaghi (1946)
(8 + H,)
'As modilied by Deere el al. (1970) and Rose (1982).
bRock load Hp in feet of rock on roof of support in tunnel with width B (ft) and height Ht (ft) at depth of more than 1.5 (B + Hr).
eNot applicable.
ROCK OUAUTY OES/GNATlON (ROO) INOEX 37
defects in rock masses. Lauffer proposed tbat tbe stand-up time for any
active unsupported rock span is related to tbe various rock mas s classes.
An active unsupported span is the width of the tunnel or the distan ce from
the face to the support if this is less than the tunnel width. The stand-up
time is tbe periad of time that a tunnel will stand unsupported after excavation.
It should be noted that a number of factors may affect tbe stand-up time,
such as orientation of tunnel axis, shape of cross section, excavation method,
and support method. Lauffer's original classification is no longer used, since
it has been modified a number of times by other Austrian engineers, notably
by Pacher et al. (1974), leading to tbe development of the New Austrian
Tunneling Method.
The main significance of tbe Lauffer-Pacher classification is that an
increase in tunnel span leads to a major reduction in tbe stand-up time. This
means, for example, that while a pilot tunnel having a small span may be
successfully constructed full face in fair rock conditions, a large span opening
in tbis same rock may prove impossible to support in terms of the stand-up
time. Only with a system of smaller headings and benches or multiple drifts
can a large cross-sectional tunnel be constructed in such rock conditions.
This classification introduced tbe stand-up time and the span as relevant
parameters in determining the type and amount of tunnel support, and it
has intluenced the development of more recent rock mass cIassification
systems.
3.3 ROCK QUALITY OESIGNATION (RQO) INOEX
The rock quality designation (RQD) index was introduced over 20 years
ago as an index of rock quality at a time when rock quality information was
usually available only from tbe geologists' descriptions and the percentage
of core recovery (Deere and Deere, 1988).
D. U. Deere developed that index in 1964, but it was not until 1967 that
the concept was presented for tbe first time in a published form (Deere et
al., 1967). The RQD is a madified core-recovery percentage which incorporates
only sound pieces of core that are 100 mm (4 in.) or greater in length. This
quantitative index has been widely used as a red flag to identify low-quality
rock zones which de serve greater scrutiny and which may require additional
borings or other exploratory work .
For RQD determination, the Intemational Society for Rock Mechanics
recornmends a core size of at least NX diameter (54.7 mm) drilled with
double-tube core barreIs. The following relationship between the RQD index
and the engineering quality of the rock was proposed by Deere (1968):
RQD (%) Roek Quality

<25 Very poor
25-50 Poor
50-75 Fair
75-90 Good
90-100 Exeellent
The eorreet procedure for measuring RQD is illuslrated in Figure 3.2. lt

should be noted Ihat Ihe RQD pereentage ineludes only Ihe pieees of sound
eore over 100 mm (4 in.) long, whieh are summed and divided by Ihe lenglh
of Ihe eore run. In Ihis respeel, pieees of eore Ihal are nOI hard and sound
should nOI be eounled even though Ihey possess ¡he requisite lOO-mm length.
Thus, highly weathered roek will reeeive zero RQD. Coneeming Ihe eore
-----------------1 ~ Length 01
Cor. Plecas> '0 cm (4 in.)
ROO = ,t... x 100%
L=38cm I2!!1 Cor. Run Length
,J.
ROO = 38 + 17 + 20 + 43 x 100%
200
ROO = 59% (FAtR)
E
u
¿:~-,---------------
Break Causad L O
by Orllllng =
prOc·:_~ __________ ~~_~_T·ry
Figure 3.2 Procedure lor measurement and calcula/ion 01 rock quality designa/ion.
(After Deere, 1989.)
ROCK OUAUTY OESIGNATION (ROO) INOEX 39
run, the RQD calculations sbould be based on the actual drilling-run length
used in the field , preferably no greater than 1.5 m (5 ft). The core length
is measured along the centerline (see Fig. 3.2) . The optimal core diameters
are the NX size and NQ size (47.5 mm or 1.87 in .), but sizes between BQ
and PQ with core diameters of 36.5 mm (1.44 in .) and 85 mm (3.35 in.)
may be used provided careful drilling that does not cause core breakage by
itself is utilized.
Cording and Deere (1972) attempted to relate the RQD index to Terzaghi's
rock load factors and presented tables relating tunnel support and RQD.
They found that Terzaghi' s rock load concept should be limited to tunnels
supported by steel sets, as it does not apply well to openings supported by
rock bolts.
Merritt (1972) found that the RQD could be of considerable value in
estimating support requirements for rock tunnels. He compared the support
criteria based on his improved version, as a function of tunnel width and
RQD , with those proposed by others. This is summarized in Table 3.4,
compiled by Deere and Deere (1988).
TABLE 3.4 Comparlson 01 RQO and Support Requlrements lor a 6-m

(20-ft)-wlde Tunnel'
No Support or
Local Bolts Pallern Bolts Steel Ribs
Oeere el al. ROO 75-100 ROO 50-75 ROO 50-75 (light ribs
(1970) (1.5-1.8-m on 1.5-1 .8-m
spacing) spacing as
ROO 25-50 alternative to bolts)
(0.9-1.5-m ROO 25-50 (Iight to
spacing) medium ribs on
0.9-1 .5-m spacing
as alternative to
bolts)
ROO 0-25 (medium
to heavy circular
ribs on 0.6-0.9-m
spacing)
Cecil (1970) ROO 82-100 ROO 52-82 ROO O-52 (ribs or
(alternatively, reinforced
40-60-mm sholcrete)
shotcrete)
Merrill ROO 72-100 ROO 23-72 ROO 0-23
(1972) (1.2-1.8-m
spacing)
BOata interpolated from Merritt (1972) by Deere and Oeere (1988).
40 EARLY ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATJONS
Palmstrom (1982) has suggested that when core is unavailable the RQD
may be estimated from the number of joints (discontinuities) per unit volume,
in which the number of joints per meter for each joint set is added. The
conversion for clay-free rock masses is
RQD = 115 - 3.3}v (3.1)
where J v represents lhe total number of joints per cubic meter.

A secondary outcome of lhe RQD research in the late 1960s was the
correlation of the RQD with the in-situ modulus of deformation, but this
has not been used much in recent years (Deere and Deere, 1988).
Today, the RQD is used as a standard parameter in drill COTe logging
and forms a basic element of lhe two majOT rock mass classitication systems:
the RMR system and the Q-system.
Although the RQD is a simple and inexpensive index, alone it is not
sufficient to provide an adequate description of a rock mass because it
disregards joint orientation, tightness, and gouge (intilling) material. Es-
sentially, it is a practical pararneter based on "a measurement of lhe percentage
of 'good' rock (core) interval of a borehole" (Deere and Deere, ·1988) .
3.4 ROCK STRUCTURE RATING (RSR) CONCEPT
The RSR concept, a ground-support prediction model, was developed in

lhe United States in 1972 by Wickham , Tiedemann, and Skinner. The
concept presents a quantitative method for describing the quality of a rock
mass and for selecting the appropriate ground support. lt was the tirst
complete rock mas s classitication system proposed since that introduced by
Terzaghi in 1946.
The RSR concept was a step forward in a number of respects: tirst, it
was a quantitative classification, unlike Terzaghi's qualitative one; second,
it was a rock mass classitication incorporating many parameters, unlike the
RQD index, which is limited to core quality; third , it was a complete clas-
sitication having an input and an output, unlike a Lauffer-type classitication
that relies on practical experience to decide on a rock mas s class and which
then gives an output in terms of the stand-up time and span.
The main contribution of the RSR concept was that it introduced a rating
system for rock masses. This was the sum of the weighted values of the
individual parameters considered in lhis classification system. In olher words,
lhe relative importance of lhe various classitication parameters could be
assessed. This rating system was determined on lhe basis of case histories
ROCK STRUCTURE RATlNG (RSR) CONCEPT 41
as well as reviews of various books and technical papers dealing with

different aspects of graund support in tunneling.
The RSR concept considered two general categories of factors influencing
rock mass behavior in tunneling: geological parameters and construction
parameters. The geologic parameters were a) rack type; b) joint pattem
(average spacing of joints); c) joint orientations (dip and strike); d) type of
discontinuities; e) major faults, shears, and folds; f) rack material praperties;
and g) weathering or a1teration. Sorne of these factors were treated separately;
others were considered collectively. The developers pointed out (Wickham
et al., 1972) that in sorne instances it would be possible to define the aboye
factors accurately , but in others, only general approximations could be made.
The construction parameters were a) size of tunnel , b) direction of drive,
and c) method of excavation.
AIl the aboye factors were grouped by Wickham, Tiedemann, and Skinner
(1972) into three basic parameters, A, B, and e (Tables 3.5,3.6, and 3.7,
respectively), which in themselves were evaluations as to the relative effect
of various geological factors on the support requirements. These three pa-
rameters are as follows:
l. Parameter A: General appraisal of a rack structure on the basis of

a. Rack type origin (igneous, metamorphic, sedirnentary).
b. Rock hardness (hard, medium, soft, decomposed).
c. Geologic structure (massive , slightly faultedlfolded, moderately
faultedlfolded, intensely faultedlfolded) .
2. Parameter B: Effect of discontinuity pattem with respect to the direction
of tunnel drive is on the basis of
a. Joint spacing.
b. Joint orientation (strike and dip).
c. Direction of tunnel drive.
3. Parameter C: Effect of graundwater inflow based on
a. Overall rock mass quality due to parameters A and B combined.
b. Joint condition (good, fair, poor).
c. Amount of water inflow (in gallons per minute per 1000 feet of
the tunnel).
The RSR value of any tunnel section is obtained by summing the weighted
numerical values determined for each parameter. Thus, RSR = A + B +
C, with a maximum value of lOO. The RSR reflects the quality of the rack
mass with respect to its need for support. Since a lesser amount of support
~
TABLE 3.5 Rock Structure Rating, Parameter A: General Area Geology"

Sasie Roek Type
Hard Medium Soft Deeomposed Geologieal Strueture
Igneous 1 2 3 4
Metamorphie 1 2 3 4 Slightly Faulted Moderately Faulted Intensely Faulted
Sedimentary 2 3 4 4 Massive or Folded or Folded or Folded
Type 1 30 22 15 9
Type 2 27 20 13 8
Type 3 24 18 12 7
Type 4 19 15 10 6
'After Wickham el al. (1974).
TABLE 3.6 Rock Structure Ratlng, Parameter B: Jolnt Pallern , Olrection 01 Orive'
Strike 1. to Axis Strike 11 to Axis

Direction of Orive Direction of Orive
60th With Dip 60th
Against Dip Dip 01 Prominent Joints·
Dip 01 Prominent Joints·
Average Joint Spacing Flat Dipping Vertical Dipping Vertical Flat Dipping Vertical
1. Very ciosely jointed , < 2 in . 9 11 13 10 12 9 9 7
2. Closely jointed, 2-6 in. 13 16 19 15 17 14 14 11
3. Moderately jointed, 6 - 12 in. 23 24 28 19 22 23 23 19
4. Moderate to blocky, 1-2 ft 30 32 36 25 28 30 28 24
5. 6 10cky to massive, 2-4 ft 36 38 40 33 35 36 34 28
6. Massive, > 4 ft 40 43 45 37 40 40 38 34
'After Wickham el al. (1974) .
· Oip: tlat: 0-20°; dipping: 20- 50°; and vertical: 50 - 90°.
f;
k
44 EARLY RaCK MASS CLASSIFICATlONS
TABLE 3.7 Rock Structure Rating, Parameter C: Groundwater, Jolnt

Condition'
Sum 01 Parameters A +B
13-44 45-75
Anticipated Water Inllow Joint Condition

(gpm/1000 ft) Good Fair Poor Good Fair Poor
None 22 18 12 25 22 18
Slight, <200 gpm 19 15 9 23 19 14
Maderate, 200-1000 gpm 15 11 7 21 16 12
Heavy, >1000 gpm 10 8 6 18 14 10
• After Wickham el al. (1974).
b Joint
condition: good = tight or cemented; fair = stightly weathered or altered; poor = severely
weathered, altered, or open.
was expected for machine-bored tunnels Ihan when excavated by drill and
blast methods, it was proposed that RSR values be adjusted for machine-
bored tunnels. The outcome was a curvilinear relationship given in a graphical
form corresponding to a range of values for the RSA adjustment factor (AF)
for various tunnel diameters, namely:
30-fl (9. 15-m)diarneter: AF = 1.058

8.00-m diarneter: AF = 1. 127
25-ft (7.63-m) diameter: AF = 1.135
7.00-m diameter: AF = 1. 150
20-ft (6. lO-m) diameter: AF = 1.168
6.00-m diameter: AF = 1.171
15-ft (4.58-m) diameter: AF = 1.186
IO-ft (3.05-m) diameter: AF = 1.200
Thus, with an RSR of 60 ~nd an AF of 1.15, Ihe adjusted RSR would be

69; this number would be used for support selection.
lt should be noted that Tables 3.5-3.7 are reproduced not from the
original 1972 reference but from a report published two years later. The
RSR ratings were changed in 1974 and Ihe latter report represents Ihe latest
information available.
In arder to correlate RSR values wilh actual support installations, a concept
of the rib ratio (RR) was introduced. The purpose was to have a common
basis [or correlating RSR determinations with actual or required installations.
ROCK STRUCTURE RATlNG (RSR) CONCEPT 45
Since 90% of the case-history tunnels were supported with steel ribs, Ihe
RR measure was chosen as the theoretical support (rib size and spacing).
lt was developed from Terzaghi ' s formula for determining roof loads in
loase sand below Ihe water table (datum condition). Using Ihe tables provided
in Rock Tunneling with Steel Supports (Terzaghi, 1946), Ihe theoretical
spacing required for the same size rib as used in a given case-study tunnel
section was determined for the datum condition. The RR value is obtained
by dividing this Iheoretical spacing by the actual spacing and multiplying
the answer by 100 . Thus , RR = 46 would mean that the section required
only 46% of the support used for the datum condition. However, differently
sized tunnels, although having Ihe same RR, would require different weight
or size of ribs for equivalent support. The RR for an unsupported tunnel
would be zero; for a tunnel requiring Ihe same support as Ihe datum condition,
it would be 100.
An empirical relationship was developed between RSR and RR values,
namely
(RR + 80)(RSR + 30) 8800

(3.2)
or (RR + 70)(RSR + 8) = 6000
lt was concluded Ihat rock structures wilh RSR values less than 19 would
require heavy support, whereas those with ratings of 80 and over would be
unsupported.
Since the RR basically defined an anticipated rock load by considering
the load-carrying capacity of different sizes of stee1 ribs, the RSR values
were also expressed in terms of unit rock loads for variously sized tunnels.
A total of 53 projects were evaluated, but since each tunnel was divided
into typical geological sections, a total of 190 tunnel sections were analyzed.
The RSR values were determined for each section, and actual support in-
stallations were obtained from as-built drawings.
The support was distributed as follows :
Sections with steel ribs: 147 (89.6%)

Sections with rock bolts: 14 (8.6%)
Sections with shotcrete: 3 (1.8%)
Total supported: 164 (100.0%)
Total unsupported: 26
Total: 190 sections
The RSR prediction model was developed primarily with respect to steel
rib support. Insufficient data were available to correlate rock structures and
46 EARLY ROCK MASS CLASSIFlCATJONS
rock bolt or shotcrete support. However, an appraisal of rack bolt requirements

was made by considering rack loads with respect to the tensile strength of
the boll. The authors pointed out (Wickham et al., 1972) that this was a
very general appraach: it assumed that anchorage was adequate and that all
bolts acted in tension only; it did not allow eilher for interaction between
adjacent blocks or for an assumption of a compression arch formed by the
bolts . In addition , the rack loads were developed for steel supported tunnels.
Nevertheless, the following relation was given for 25-mm diameter rack
bolts with a working load of 24,000 lb:
24
Spacing (ft) = W (3.3)
where W is the rack load in 1000 Ib/ft2

No correlation could be found between geologic condition and shotcrete
requirements, so Ihe following empirical relationship was suggested:
t = 1 +
W
or t = D 65 ~50RSR (3.4)
1.25
where t = shotcrete thickness, in.;

W rack load, Ib/ft2;
D = tunnel diameter, fl.
Support requirement charts have been prepared that pravide a means of

determining typical ground-support systems based on RSR prediction as to
Ihe quality of Ihe rock mass through which the tunnel is to be driven. Charts
for 3-m-, 6-m-, 7-m-, and 10-m-diameter tunnels are available, an example
being given in Figure 3.3 . The three steel rib curves reflect typical sizes
used for the particular tunnel size. The curves for rack bolts and shotcrete
are dashed to emphasize that they are based on assumptions and not derived
fram case histories. The charts are applicable to eilher circular or horseshoe-
shaped tunnels of comparable widths.
The RSR concept is a very use fuI method for selecting steel rib support
for rack tunnels . As wilh any empirical appraach, one should not apply Ihe
concept beyond Ihe range of Ihe sufficient and reliable data used for developing
il. For Ihis reason, the RSR concept is not recommended for selection of
rack bolt and shotcrete support. lt should be noted that although definitions
of Ihe c1assification parameters were not explicitly stated by the praposers,
most of the input data needed would normally be inc1uded in a standard
joint survey; however, Ihe lack of definitions (e.g., "slightly faulted" or
"folded" rock) may lead to sorne confusion.
REFERENCES 47
O.,
7
2!:1mm 0 1AMETER
ROCK BOlTS
O
LO
--
6t-'~-
"'>-= L'
::"-
'"o: .0 2.0 o!!
,
"'o:
:>
>-
u
:>
o:
40 3 .0
"~
¿
'"
O
-'
I
,,
.
,'.- .... .-
I 'fF4~
,,
>-
V>
4.0 "O
U
"
U
O
30 o:
VPRACTICAL LlMIT FOR
I RI B ANOBOLTSPACING
o: ' .0
,,
6 .0 ,
20 I
,,
7.0 I
,,
'O
O 2 4 6 7 8
RIB SPACING. ft
BOL T SPACING. ft
SHOTCRETE THICKNESS, in
Figure 3.3 RSR concept: support chart for a 24·ft· (7.3·m·) diameler lunnel. (After
Wickham el al., 1972.)
Sinha (1988) poinled oul Ihal while Ihe RSR provides a rib ratio, lO use
Ihis ratio one has lo find Terzaghi' s rock load and sleel rib spacing and Ihen
reduce Terzaghi's rib spacing lo correspond 10 Ihe oblained rib ratio. It is
nOI possible 10 prescribe Ihe sleel ribs or rock bolls wilhoul using Ihe Terzaghi
syslem. Thus according lo Sinha (1988), the RSR concepl may be viewed
as an improvemenl of Terzaghi' s melhod ralher Ihan an independent syslem .
REFERENCES
Baczynski, N. "Rock Mass Characterization and lts Application to Assessment of
Unsupponed Underground Openings," Ph.D. thesis, University of Me1boume ,
1980, 233 pp.
Barton, N., R. Lien, and J. Lunde. "Engineering Classification of Rock Masses
for the Design of Tunnel Suppon." Rack Mech. 6, 1974, pp. 183-236.
Bieniawski, Z. T. "Engineering Classification of Jointed Rock Masses." Trans. S.
Afr. InSI. eiv. Eng. 15, 1973, pp . 335 - 344.
Bieniawski, Z. T. "The Geomechanics Classification in Rock Engineering Appli-

cations." Proc. 4th Int. Congr. Rock Mech., rSRM, Montreux, 1979, vol. 2,
pp. 41-48.
Brekke, T. L. "Blocky and Searny Rock in Tunneling." Bull. Assoc. Eng. Geol.,
5(1), 1968, pp. 1- 12.
Cecil, O. S. "Correlation of Rockbolts- Shotcrete Support and Rock Quality Pa-
rameters in Scandinavian Tunnels ," Ph.D. thesis, University of Illinois, Urbana,
1970,414 pp.
Coates, D. F. "Classification of Rock for Rock Mechanics," Int. J. Rock Mech.
Min. Sci. 1, 1964, pp. 421-429.
Cording, E. J., and D. U. Deere. "Rock Tunnel Supports and Field Measurements."
Proc. RapidExcav. Tunneling Conf., ArME, New York, 1972, pp. 601 - 622.
Deere, D. U. , A. J. Hendron, F. D. Patton, and E. J. Cording. "Design of Surface
and Near Surface Construction in Rock." Proc. 8th U.S. Symp. Rock Mech.,
ArME, New York, 1967, pp. 237 - 302.
Deere, D. U. "Geological Considerations." Rock Mechanics in Engineering Practice,
ed. R. G. Stagg and D. C. Zienkiewicz, Wiley, New York, 1968 , pp. 1-20.
Deere, D. U., R. B. Peck, H. Parker, J. E. Monsees, and B. Schmidt. "Design of
Tunnel Support Systems." High. Res. Rec., no. 339, 1970, pp. 26-33.
Deere, D. U., and D. W. Deere. 'The RQD Index in Practice." Proc. Symp. Rock
Classif. Eng. Purp., ASTM Special Technical Publication 984, Philadelphia,
1988, pp. 91-101.
Deere, D. U. Rock Quality Designation (RQD) after Twenty Years, U.S. Arrny
Corps of Engineers Contract Report GL-89-1, Waterways Experiment Station,
Vicksburg, MS, 1989, 67 pp.
Franklin, J. A. "An Observational Approach to the Selection and Control of Rock
Tunnel Linings." Proc. Con!. Shotcrete Ground Control, ASCE, Easton, MA,
1976, pp. 556- 596.
Ghose, A. K., and N. M. Raju. "Characterization of Rock Mass vis-á-vis Appli-
cation of Rock Bolting in Indian Coal Measures." Proc. 22nd U.S. Symp. Rock
Mech., MIT, Cambridge, MA, 1981, pp. 422-427.
Kendorski, F., R. Cummings, Z. T. Bieniawski, and E. Skinner. "Rock Mass
Classification for Block Caving Mine Drift Support," Proc. 5th Int. Congr. Rack
Mech., ISRM, Melbourne, 1983, pp. B51-B63.
Kidybinski, A. "Experience with Rock Penetrometers for Mine Rock Stability
Predictions." Proc. 4th Int. Congr. Rack Mech., ISRM, Montreux, 1979, pp.
293- 301.
Laubscher, D. H. "Geomechanics Classification of Jointed Rock Masses-Mining
Applications," Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. Sect. A 86, 1977, pp. Al - A7.
Lauffer, H. "Gebirgsklassifizierung für den Stollenbau." Geol. Bauwesen 74, 1958,
pp. 46- 51.
Merritt, A. H. "Geologic Prediction for Underground Excavations." Proc. Rapid
Excav. Tunneling Conf., ArME, New York, 1972, pp. 115-132.
REFERENCES 49
Nakao, K. , S. lihoshi , and S. Koyama. "Statistical Reconsiderations on !he Parameters

for the Geomechanics Classification ." Proc. 5thlnl. Congr. RockMech.,lSRM,
Melbourne, 1983, pp. BI3 - BI6.
Oliver, H. J. "Applicability of the Geomechanics Classification to !he Orange-Fish
Tunnel Rock Masses." Civ. Eng. S. Afr. 21, 1979, pp. 179- 185.
Pacher, F., L. Rabcewicz, and J. Golser. "Zum der seitigen Stand der Gebirgs-
klassifizierung in Stollen-und Tunnelbau." Proc. XXII Geomech. Colloq., Salzburg,
1974, pp. 51 - 58 .
Palmstrom, A. "The Volumetric Joint Count- a Useful and Simple Measure of
the Degree of Rock Jointing." Proc. 4th InI. Congr., Int. Assoc. Eng. Geol.,
Dehli, 1982, vol. 5, pp. 221-228.
Protodyakonov, M. M. "KJassifikacija Gomych Porod." Tunnels Ouvrages Souterrains
1, 1974, pp. 31-34.
Rose, D. "Revising Terzaghi's Tunnel Rack Load Coefficients." Proc. 23rd U.S.
Symp. Rack Mech., AIME, New York, 1982, pp. 953- 960.
Rutledge, J. C., and R. L. Prestan . "Experience with Engineering Classifications
of Rock." Proc. InI. Tunneling Symp., Tokyo, 1978, pp. A3.I - A3.7
Sinha, R. S. "Discussion of the RSR Model." Proc. Symp. Rack Class. Eng. Purp.,
ASTM Special Technical Publication 984, Philadelphia, 1988, p. 50.
Skinner, E. H. "A Ground Support Prediction Concept-the RSR Model." Proc.
Symp. Rack Class. Eng. Purp., ASTM Speci.l Technic.1 Publication 984, Phil-
adelphia, 1988, pp. 35- 49.
Stini, 1. Tunnulbaugeologie, Springer-Verlag, Vienna, 1950,336 pp.
Terzaghi, K. "Rock Defects and Loads on Tunnel Support." Rack Tunneling with
Steel Suports, ed. R. V. Proctor and T. White, Commercial Shearing Co.,
Youngstown, OH , 1946, pp. 15 - 99.
Wickham, G. E. , H. R. Tiedemann , and E. H. Skinner. "Support Determination
based on Geologic Predictions." Proc. Rapid Excav. Tunneling ConJ., AIME,
New York, 1972, pp. 43 - 64.
Wickham, G. E., H. R. Tiedemann, and E. H. Skinner. "Ground Support Prediction
Model - RSR Concept." Proc. Rapid Excav. Tunneling ConJ., AIME, New
York, 1974, pp . 691-707.
4
Geomechanics
Classification (Rock Mass
Rating System)
If yau can measure what yau are speaking about and
express it in numbers. yau know something about il.
-Lord Kelvin
The Rock Mass Rating (RMR) system, otherwise known as the Geomechanics
Classification, was developed by the author during 1972-1973 (Bieniawski,
1973). lt was modified over the years as more case histories became available
and to conform with intemational standards and procedures (Bieniawski,
1979). Over the past 15 years, the RMR system has stood the test of time
and benefited from extensions and applications by many authors throughout
the world. These varied applications, amounting to 351 case histories (see
Chapo 10), point to the acceptance of the system and its inherent ease of
use and versatility in engineering practice, involving tunnels, chambers,
mines, slopes, and foundations. Nevertheless , it is important that the RMR
system is used for the purpose for which it was developed and not as the
answer to all design problems.
Delinition 01 the System Due to the RMR system having been modified
several times, and since the method is interchangeably known as the Geo-
51
52 GEOMECHANICS CLASSIF/CATION
mechanics Classification or the Rock Mass Rating system, it is important

to state that the system has remained essentially the same in principIe despite
the changes. Thus, any modifications and extensions were the outgrowth of
the same basic method and should not be misconstrued as new systems. To
avoid any confusion , the following extensions of lhe system were valuable
new applications but still a part of the same overall RMR system: mining
applications, Laubscher (1977, 1984); rippability, Weaver (1975); hard rock
mining, Kendorski et al. (1983); coal mining , Unal (1983), Newman and
Bieniawski (1986); dam foundations, Serafim and Pereira (1983); tunneling,
Gonzalez de Vallejo (1983); slope stability, Romana (1985); and Indian coal
mines (Venkateswarlu, 1986) .
Moreover, sorne users of the RMR system list their results as "CSIR
rating" or talk of the "CSIR Geomechanical" system. This is incorrect and
has never been used or endorsed by lhe author. The correct expressions are
"Rock Mass Rating system" or lhe "RMR system," or the "Geomechanics
Classification." While it is true lhat lhe author has worked for an organization
whose initials are "CSIR," that organization did not develop the system,
and indeed, most of the work on this system was performed after he left
the CSIR sorne 12 years ago.
4.1 CLASSIFICATION PROCEDURES
The following six parameters are used to classify a rock mass using the
RMR system (Geomechanics Classification):
l. Uniaxial compressive strength of rock material.

2. Rock qua lity designation (RQD).
3. Spacing of discontinuities.
4. Condition of discontinuities.
5. Groundwater conditions.
6. Orientation of discontinuities.
To apply the Geomechanics Classification, the rock mass is divided into

a number of structural regions such that certain features are more or less
uniform within each region. Although rock masses are discontinuous in
nature, they may nevertheless be uniform in regions when, for example,
lhe type of rock or the discontinuity spacings are the same throughout the
region. In most cases, lhe boundaries of structural regions will coincide
with major geological features such as fauIts , dykes, shear zones, and so
on. After the structural regions have been identified, the classification pa-
CLASSIFfCATJON PROCEDURES 53
rameters for each structural region are determined fram measurements in

the field and entered onto lhe input data sheet given in Figure 2.6.
The Geomechanics Classification is presented in Table 4.1.
In Section A of Table 4.1, five parameters are grauped into five ranges
of values. Since the various parameters are not equally important for the
overall cJassification of a rack mass, importance ratings are allocated to the
different value ranges of the parameters, a higher rating indicating better
rack mass conditions. The importance ratings are assigned to each parameter
according to Section A of Table 4.1. In this respect, the average typical
conditions are evaluated for each discontinuity set and the ratings are in-
terpolated, using Classi/ication Charts A-E. The charts are helpful for
borderline cases and also remove an impression lhat abrupt changes in ratings
occur between categories. Chart D is used if either RQD or discontinuity
data are lacking. Based on the correlation data fram Priest and Hudson
(J 976), the chart eoables an estimate of the missing parameter. Furthermore,
it should be noted that the importance ratings given for discontinuity spacings
apply to rack mas ses having three sets of discontinuities. Thus, when only
two sets of discontinuities are present, a conservative assessment is obtained.
In this way, the number of discontinuity sets is considered indirectly. Laubscher
(1977) presented a rating concept (see Chapo 8) for discontinuity spacings
as a function of the number of joiot sets. It can be shown that when less
lhan three sets of discontinuities are present, lhe rating for discontinuity
spacing may be increased by 30%.
After the importance ratings of lhe cJassi/ication parameters are established,
lhe ratings for the /ive parameters listed in Section A of Table 4.1 are
surnmed to yield the basic (unadjusted for discontinuity orientations) RMR
for the structural region under consideration.
The next step is to incJude the sixth parameter, namely, the inlluence of
strike and dip orientation of discontinuities by adjusting the basic RMR
according to Section B of Table 4.1. This step is treated separately because
the inlluence of discontinuity orientations depends on the engineering ap-
plications, such as a tunnel, mine, slope, or foundation. It will be noted
that the "value" of the parameter "discontinuity orientation" is not given in
quantitative terms but by qualitative descriptions such as "favorable." To
help decide whether strike and dip orientations are favorable or not in
tunneling, reference should be made to Table 4.2, which is based on studies
by Wickham et al. (1972). For slopes and foundations, the reader is referred
to papers by Romana (1985) and by Bieniawski and Orr (1976), respectively.
The parameter "discontinuity orientation" rellects on the significance of
lhe various discontinuity sets present in a rack mass. The main set, usually
designated as set No. 1, controls the stability of an excavation; for example,
in tunneling it wiJI be the set whose strike is parallel to lhe tunnel axis. The
~ TABLE 4.1 The Rock Mass Raling Syslem (Geomechanlcs Classilicalion 01 Rock Masses)'
A. CLASSIFtCATION PARAMETERS ANO THEIR RAnNGS
Paramele r Rengas 01 VaJues

Poinl·load slre nglh For Ihis Iow ranga , uniaxial
Strength 01 > 10 4 - 10 2- ' 1- 2
index: (MPa) compressive test is preferred
1 ¡ntac! rock
material Uniaxial compressive
> 250 100 - 250 50-100 25 - 50 5-25 1-5 <1
strength (MPa)
Rating 15 12 7 , 2 1 O
Orill core qualrty ROO (%) 90-100 75-90 50-75 25 - 50 <25

2
Rating 20 17 13 8 3
Spacing 01 discontinuities >2m 0.6-2 m 200- 600 mm 60 - 200 mm < 60 mm
3
Rating 20 15 10 8 5
Slickensided sU flacas
Very rough surlaeas Sol! gouge > 5 mm thiCK
, Condition ,01 discontinuities
No! continuous
No separation
Slightly rough surfaces
Separatioo < 1 mm
Slightly rough SUflacas
Separation < 1 mm
Gouge "
< 5 mm thick
0'
0'
Separation > 5 mm
Sli9.htly weathered walls Highly weathered wall
Unwealhered wall rock Separalion 1-5 mm Conlinuous
Continuous
Raling 30 25 20 10 O
ln!low per 10m

lunnellength No", <10 10-25 25-1 25 > 125
(Umin)
0' 0' m o, 0'
5 Groundwater Jolnt water

Ratio pressure
Major principal O < 0.1 0.1-0.2 0.2- 0.5 > 0.5
stress
O< m o,
'" 0'
General conditions Completely dry Damp Wet Dripping Flowing
Raling 15 10 7 , O
B. RATlNG ADJUSTMENT FOR OISCONTlNUITY ORIENTATIONS
Strike and Oip Orientalions 01

V8fy Favorable Favorable Fair UnlavoraDle Very Unfavorable
Oiscontinuities
Tunnels and mines O -2 -, - 10 - 12

Ralings Foundatlons O -2 -7 - 15 - 2'
Slopes O -, -2' - SO - 60
C. ROCK MASS CLASSES OETERMINED FROM TOTAL RATINGS
Rating 100_81 80_61 60 ..... 41 40 ..... 21 <20

Class no. I 11 11 1 IV V
Po<>< _
Description Very good rocll: Good rack Fair rack Very poor rock
D. MEANING OF ROCK MASS CLASSES
Class no. I 11 111 IV V
Average stand-up lime 20 yr lor 1S-m span 1 yr lor 100m span 1 wk lor S-m span 10 h lar 2.5-m span 30 min lor l-m span
Coh&sion 01 the roci< mass (kPa) > 400 300 - 400 200- 300 100-200 < 100
Friction allgle 01 Ihe rack mass (d eg) > 45 35 - 45 25 -35 15 -25 < 15
8 After Bieniawski (1979).
'"'"
56 GEOMECHANICS CLASSIFICATlON
CHART A Ratings lor Strength 01 Intaet Roek

15
14
13
12
./
,/'
.... ....... - ......
11
10 ./
..
.~
9
8 /
;;
a: 7
/ --
6
5
/
4 /
3
/
2 /
/
o
O 40 80 120 160 200 240
Uniaxial Compresslve Strength • MPa
CHART B Ratlngs lor Rao

20 C
19
./
18 ./'
17 ./
16 ./'
15
./
14
./'
13 ./
.
.::
12
11
./
./'
./'
;; 10
a: ./
9
8 ./
./'
...... ....
7
6
...- ......
5
4
3
2
o
o 20 40 60 80 100
ROO· ".
CLASSfFfCATfON PROCEDURES 57
CHART C Ratlngs for Dlscontlnuity Spaclng
16
20
19
18
17
./
./
./ --
15
14
V
13 ,
7'
12 -"
'"
E 11
;; 10 /' '"
a: 9 /'
8
/
/
7
6
/
5
, 4
3
2
1
O
o 400 800 1200 1600 2000
Sp.clng of OlaconllnuIU•• - mm
CHART D Chart for Correlatlon between RQD and Discontlnuity Spaclng
35 40
100
90
80 ROO mlx
70
..
o
60
50
LEGENO:
lÍ6'
COMBINEO ROO ANO SPACING
I
O ~ RATINGS OF EACH REGlON I
a: 40 I
30 AVE. CORRELATION LINE
ROO mln
1;
20
10
O
10 20 30 40 60 100 200 600 2000
Mean Olscontlnulty Spaclng - mm
g:
CHART E Guldelines lor Classilication 01 Discontinulty Condltlons'

Parameter Ratings
< 1m 1-3 m 3-10 m 10-20 m > 20 m
Discontinuity length (persistence/continuity)
6 4 2 1 O
None < 0.1 mm 0.1-1 .0 mm 1-5 mm > 5 mm
Separation (aperture)
6 5 4 1 O
Very rough Rough Slightly rough Smooth Slickensided
Roughness
6 5 3 1 O
Hard filling Soft filling
Infilling (gouge) None < 5mm > 5mm <5 mm > 5 mm
6 4 2 2 O
Unweathered Slightly weathered Moderately weathered Highly weathered Decomposed
Weathering
6 5 3 1 O
Note: Sorne conditions are mulually exclusive. Fer example, if infilling is present, il is ¡rrelevan! what the roughness may be. since its affeet will be
ti
overshadowed by the influence of the gouge. In such cases , use Tabla 4.1 directly.
CLASSIFICATlON PROCEDURES 59
TABLE 4.2 Effect 01 Dlscontlnuity Strike and Dlp Orientations in Tunneling a

Slrike Perpendicular lo Tunnel Axis
Drive wilh Dip Drive againsl Dip
Dip 45-90 Dip 20-45 Dip 45-90 Dip 20-45
Very favorable Favqrable Fair Unfavorable
Slrike Parallel lo Tunnel Axis Irrespeclive of Slrike

Dip 20-45 Dip 45-90 Dip 0-20
Fair Very unfavorable Fair

a Modified after Wickham et al. (1972).
surnrned-up ratings of the classification parameters for this discontinuity set

will constitute the overall RMR. On the other hand, in situations where no
one discontinuity set is dominant and of critical importance, or when estimating
rock mass strength and deformability, the ratings from each discontinuity
set are averaged for the appropriate individual classification parameter.
In the case of civil engineering projects, an adjustment for discontinuity
orientations will generally suffice. Por mining applications, other adjustments
may be called for, such as the stress at depth or a change in stress; these
have been discussed by Laubscher (1977) and by Kendorski et al. (1983).
The procedure for these adjustments is depicted in Table 4.3.
Afier the adjustment for discontinuity orientations, the rock mass is classified
according to Section e of Table 4. 1, which groups the final (adjusted) RMR
into five rock mass dasses, the full range of the possible RMR values varying
from zero to 100. Note that the rock mass classes are in groups of 20 ratings
each . This concept of rating a rock mass out of a maximum value of 100
has a distinct advantage over an open-ended system in that it a1lows the
engineer or geologist to get the sense of a relative quality, or the lack of
it, of a given rock mass in terms of its maximum potential.
Next, Section D of Table 4.1 gives the practical meaning of each rock
mass dass by relating it to specific engineering problems. In the case of .
tunnels, chambers, and mines , the oUlput from the Geomechanics C1assificatioll"-
is the stand-up time and the maximum stable rock span for a given RMR,
as shown in Figure 4.1.
When mixed-quality rock conditions are encountered at the excavated
rock face, such as good-quality and poor-quality rock being present in one
exposed area, it is essential to identify the "most critical condition" for the
assessment of the rock strata. This means that the geological features most
significant for stability purposes will have an overriding inftuence. Por example,
a fault or shear in high-quality rock face will playa dominant role irrespective
of the high rock material strength in the surrounding strata.
TABLE 4.3 Adjuslmenls lo Ihe Rock Mass Rating Syslem lor Mining
Applicallons
Slrength 01
¡ntae! rock
Blastlng damage
Ratlng: 0-15 - adjustment Ab
0.S-1.0
Olscontlnulty
orlentatlon
Discontinulty
denslty
ROO: ¡¡.'O
I adjustment
In·situ stress &
change 01 stress
Spaclng: Q-20 adjustment
Ratlng: 0-40 - A,
J Basle RMR
O-lOO
0 .6-1.2
I
Olscontlnully
conditlon Major laults &
fractures
Ratlng : 0·30 -- S
0.7·1.0
Adjusted AMA
Groundwater
condillon RMRxAbxA,x$
~
Ratlng: 0-'5
r-- rnax . O.,
l
I Support r,commlndltlonl
I
It is recommended that when there are two or more clearly different zones
in one rock face, one approach to adopt is to obtain RMR values for each
zone and then compute lhe overall weighted value by the surface area
corresponding to each zone in relation to the whole area, as well as by the
influence lhat each zone has on the stability of the whole excavation.
The Geomechanics CJassification provides guidelines for the selection of
rock reinforcement for tunnels in accordance wilh Table 4.4. These guidelines
depend on such factors as the depth below surface (in-situ stress), tunnel
size and shape, and the method of excavation. Note that lhe support measures
given in Table 4.4 represent lhe permanent and not the primary support.
Table 4.4 is applicable to rock masses excavated using conventional drilling
and blasting procedures.
Most recently, Lauffer (J 988) presented a revised stand-up time diagram
specifically for tunnel boring machine (TBM) excavation and superimposed
eLASSIFleATlON PRo eEDURES 61
it on the RMR diagram given in Figure 4.1. This is depieted in Figure 4.2,
which is most useful because it demonstrates how the boundaries of RMR
classes are shifted for TBM applications. Thus, an RMR adjustment can be
made for machine-excavated rock masses.
Support load can be determined from the RMR system as proposed by
Unal (1983):
lOO - RMR
P = - - , - - : - - -yB (4. 1)
100
where P the support load , kN;

B = the tunnel width , m;
-y = the rock density, kglm3
lt must be emphasized that for all applications such as those involving

the selection of rock reinforeement and determination of rock loads or rock
mas s strength and deformability , it is the actual RMR value that must be
used and not the rock mass class, within which this RMR value falls. In
1d 1wk 1mo 1y,

30
o~ '\. 1 o
6,X
i
20
\ ~
1'\ ~.
Imm diate
10
CoII pse
..1
\,~ 050 i •
o ! .DI. .:\ .
8
--"---_.,---- ._._ :;:~<,..,.. l7;i - ! -~-i'- , -
E
¿:
lO
<l.
6
S
4
c;
/'
)7\'
. -- :-,,"""
\ ., 0- i . \ • •
'If} _"' " \
-.-.
\ 0
_.•._.. - ._-
\
"K----
i
I '\
",.--- •.. -.
en :
3
,,/ \ :'\ ! '\ '\ 7o - f - - -SO -
'O
o
a:: 2
1/\ '\ ~I--c-c
5O~",Ú
"" i
. •
60 i
o~ ~tO C'f.. "'~s, S~
\ I ~o .. Supp.,0 t
_.
. 30
tf.
-_.
Fe
I
-,\;7"' -' .....

,
" I
! ¡
10 1 10 2 10 3 10 4
Stand-up Time, hrs
Figure 4.1 Relationship between the stand-up time and span lor various rack mass
elasses, aeeording to the Geomeehanies Classilieation: output lar tunneling and
mining. The plotted data points represent rool lalls studied: Iilled squares lar mines,
open squares lar tunnels. The contour lines are limits 01 applicability_
TABLE 4.4 Guldellnes lor Excavatlon and Support 01 Rock Tunnels in Accordance with the Rock Mass Rating System'
~
Support
Rock Bolts (20-mm Dia,
Rock Mass Class Excavation Fully Grouted) Shotcrete Steel Sets
Very good rack Full face
I 3-m advance Generally, no support required except for occasional spot bolting
RMR:B1-100
Good rack Full face Locally, bolts in crawn 50 mm in crown where None
11 1.0-1.5-m advance 3 m long, spaced 2.5 m, required
RMR:61-BO Complete support 20 m with occasional wire
from face mesh
Fair rack Top heading and bench Systematic bolts 4 m long, 50-100 mm in crown and None
111 1.5-3-m advance in top spaced 1.5-2 m in 30 mm in sides
RMA: 41-60 heading crown and walls with
Commence support after wire mesh in crown
each blast
Complete support 10m
from face
Poor rock Top heading and bench Systema1ic bolts 4-5 m 100-150 mm in crown Light to medium ribs
IV 1.0-1.5-m advance in top long, spaced 1-1 .5 m and 100 mm in si des spaced 1.5 m where
RMR: 21-40 heading. Install support in crown and wall with required
concurrently with wire mesh
excavation 10m from
face
Very poor rock Multiple drifts Systematic bolts 5-6 m 150-200 mm in crown, Medium to heavy ribs
V 0.5-1.5-m advance in top long, spaced 1 -1.5 m 150 mm in sides, and spaced 0.75 m with
RMR : <20 heading. Install support in crown and walls with 50 mm on face steel lagging and fore-
concurrently with wire mesh. Boll invert poling if required. Close
excavation. Shotcrete invert
as soon as possible
after blasting
aShape: horseshoe; width : 10 m; vertical stress: <25 MPa; construetion: drilling and btasting.
APPUCATlONS 63
ld lwk 1mo l y. 10yr

30
20
c;
,,", 60
~\
---- I
i!
86 ''\
\ AA
"'~
E
10
8
c;
"ro....
/' '\ II
A
"
6
¿ 5 /''\ '\ '\ '\
ro C
a. 4
" "\ "\
"
- \ '\ '\
(/)
3 _ 20/
O
O
a: 2
.~ D 1'\ ___ ~\"G 8\1
'\ ~/
\ 40 i I'OC'/-
v>~s'sI'
\ I
= E
--- -7 20 - ,
.
---r.
TllM Classes
--1-
=
-
'\ i I
i
10 10 2 10 3 10 4
Stand-up Time, hrs
Figure 4.2 Modilied 1988 Lauffer diagram depicting boundaries 01 rock mass classes
lor TBM applications. (After Lauffer, 1988.)
this way , the RMR systern is very sensitive to individual parameters, because
within one rock rnass class, such as "good rock," there is rnuch difference
between RMR = 80 and RMR = 6l.
Finally, note that !he ranges in Table 4.1 follow the recornrnendations
of the Intemational Society of Rock Mechanics (ISRM) Cornmissions on
Standardization and on Classification. The interested reader is referred to a
docurnent entitled Suggested Methods for Quantitative Description of Dis-
cOnlinuities in Rock Masses (ISRM, 1982).
4.2 APPLICATIONS
The Geornechanics Classification has found wide applications in various

types of engineering projects, such as tunnels, slopes, foundations, and
mines . Most of!he applications have been in !he field of tunneling (Bieniawski,
1984) ,
This classification systern has been also used widely in mining, particularly
in !he United States, India, and Australia. Initially, Laubscher (1977) applied
Ihe Geomechanics Classification lo asbeslos mines in Africa. Mosl recently,

Ihe RMR syslem was applied lO coal mining as well as lo hard rock mining
(Ghose and Raju , 1981 ; Abad el al. , 1983; Unal, 1983; Kendorski el al.,
1983; Newman , 1986; Venkaleswarlu, 1986).
The Geomechanics Classification is also applicable lo slopes (Romana,
1985) and lo rock foundations (Bieniawski and Orr, 1976). This is a useful
fealure Ihal can assist wilh Ihe design of slopes near Ihe tunnel portal s as
well as allow estima tes of ¡he deformability of rock foundations for such
structures as bridges and dams.
In the case of rock foundations, knowledge of Ihe modulus of deformability
of rock masses is of prime importance. The Geomechanics Classification
pro ved a useful method for estimating in-situ deformability of rock masses
(Bieniawski, 1978). As shown in Figure 4.3, the following correlation was
obtained:
EM = 2 RMR - lOO (4.2)
where EM is the in-situ modulus of deformation in OPa and RMR is >50.

More recenlly, Serafim and Pereira (1983) provided many results in the
range RMR < 50 and proposed a new correlation:
EM = 1O(RMR - ID)140 (4.3)
90
I
I
_80 I
o
~
~
EM = 2RMR -100
-; 70
>
w
; 60
r
::;
ii 50
q
>
~
¡?40
;;/
¡. '
w
e
~
e 30 ,
~
~
~
,0 +
:5O 20 ~ +/+" CASE HISTORIES:
0 +... + + BIENIAWSKI,I978
>
.. °
~
r
¡¡¡
~
10
O 10 20
O 9o--0iO--Ó Ó
---
30 40 50
1
Q............
GEOMECHAN I Cs ROCK MAS S RATING (RMR)

O
60 70
SERAFIM
6 PEREIRA, 1983
80 90 100
Figure 4.3 Corre/ation between the in-situ modu/us 01 delormation and RMR.
APPUCATlQNS 65
In the case of slopes , the Qutput is given in Section O of Table 4.1 as

the cohesion and friction of the rock mass . Romana (1985) has applied the
RMR system extensively for determination of rock slope stability.
Recently, Hoek and Brown (1980) proposed a method for estimating rock
mass strength which makes use of the RMR classitication. The criterion for
rock mas S strength is as follows :
al
(4.4)
where al =lhe major principal stress al failure,

a3 = the applied minor principal stress ,
a, = the uniaxial compressive slrenglh oflhe rock material ,
m and s = conSlants dependent on the properties of lhe rock and
the extent lO which it has been fractured by being
subjecled lO a l and a 3.
For inlact rock , m = mi, which is delermined from a tit of the above
equation lo triaxial test data from laboralory specimens, taking s = 1 for
rock material. For rock masses, the conSlants m and S are related to the
basic (unadjusted) RMR as follows (Hoek and Brown, 1988):
Far Undisturbed Rack Masses (smooth-blasted or machine-bored ex-

cavations):
RMR - lOO) (4 .5)

m = m i exp ( 28
RMR - lOO) (4.6)

s = exp ( 9 ,I
Far Disturbed Rack Masses (slopes or blast-damaged excavations):
RMR - lOO) (4.7) I

m = m i exp ( 14
I
s = exp (
RMR -
6
lOO) (4.8)
Moreno Tallon (1982) developed a series of correlations between tunnel

deformation , RMR, and time, based on a case history in Spain. Unal (1983)
proposed an "integrated approach" to roof stability assessment in coal mines
66 GEOMECHANICS CLASS/FICATlON
by incorporating RMR with roof span, support pressure, time, and deformation.
This is diagrarnmatically depicted in Figure 4.4. Finally, recent research by
Nicholson and Bieniawski (1986), incorporating the RMR system, proposed
an empirical constitutive relationship for rock masses.
4.2.1 Strengths and Limitations

The RMR system is very simple lo use, and Ihe classification paramelers
are easily obtained from either borehole data or underground mapping (Gonzalez
de Vallejo, 1983; Cameron-Clark and Budavari, 1981; Nakao el al., 1983).
This classification melhod is applicable and adaplable lo many differenl
situations, including coal mining, hard rock mining, slope stability, foundation
stability, and tunneling.
The RMR system is capable of being incorporated into Iheoretical concepts,
as is evident in the work of Unal (1983), Moreno Tallon (1982), Hoek and
Brown (1980), and Nicholson and Bieniawski (1986).
The Geomechanics Classification is adaptable for use in knowledge-based
expert systems. With the introduclion of fuzzy-set methodology applied to
the Geomechanics Classification by Nguyen and Ashworth (1985) and by
Fairhurst and Lin (1985), lhe subjectiveness, or fuzziness, inherent in a
classification can be considered and incorporated into the expert system.
The output from the RMR classification method tends lo be rather con-
servative, which can lead lo overdesign of support systems. This aspect is
best overcome by monitoring rock behavior during tunnel construction and
adjusting rock classification predictions lo local conditions. An example of
this approach is the work of Kaiser et al. (1986), who found that the no-
supporl limit given in Figure 4.1 was too conservative and proposed the
following correction to adjust RMR (No Support) at the no-support limit
for opening size effects:
RMR (N S) = 22 In ED + 25 (4.9)
where ED is Ihe equivalent dimension as defined by equation (5.2).

For lhe convenience of the user, a microcomputer program is listed in
lhe Appendix for determination of the RMR and lhe resulting rock mass
properties. An example of lhe output is included.
4.3 DATA BASE
The dala base used for lhe development of a rock mass classification may
indicate the range of its applicability. For example, lhe RMR system originally
2,~mt 6~\~
,,
,, , '
'
50. ,, ,, ",
lIl 'O ,, ,, ",
---- ----- - - ooC - - --~ -b r ----- -"-7; ',- ,,
'\
,
,,
,
,,
",
I.L 4
O
30.
", \
\ BO
~ 3
"I~,
f'.~,.\tI
p = 100 100
- RMR
lB , X
21: o \ ", I
,1------
, 50
to\tl. S S
GS
.
- ,. - - - - - " " , - - - - - - " , '120<;"1-
\ I , I~
~ \
, '30
,
I
,,I ,
'20
SUPPORT PRESSURE . P
,
kPO 200 '50 '00 50 ,Q2 ,o' 104 fOO hrs
TIME
GRO UNO REACTION
CURVE -'----~ I ---- _ ----
SUPPORT
,o
CHARACTERISTIC
15
z
O
,.~ 20
o:
O
~25
o L85m
ROOF SPANS
30
FOR RMR' 40
mm
Figure 4.4 Integration 01 RMR with support characteristics and rool delormation in coal
....'" mines. (After Unal, 1983.)
1
68 GEOMECHANlCS CLASSIFICATlON
involved 49 case histories (which were reanalyzed by Unal , 1983) , followed

by 62 case histories added by Newman and Bieniawski (1986) and a further
78 tunneling and mining case histories collected between 1984 and 1987.
To date, according to tbe autbor' s files, the RMR system has been used in
351 case histories (see Chapo 10). lt was found that the system could be
successfully used in rock formations not featured in the original case histories
(Fowell and Johnson, 1982; Sandbak, 1985; Smitb, 1986; Singh et al. ,
1986). At the same time , in sorne cases the system did not provide realistic
results (Kaiser et al., 1986).
Nakao et al. (1983) made a significant contribution by performing a
statisticaI reconsideration of tbe parameters for tbe Geomechanics Classification
in order to apply the RMR system to Japanese geological conditions. In
total, 152 tunnel cases were studied. lt was found that the results of the
parameter rating analysis "virtually agreed with that of the RMR concep!."
Finally, the RMR classification-as any other-is not to be taken as a
substitute for engineering designo This classification is only a par! of the
empirical design approach, one of the three main design approaches in rock
engineering (empirical, observational, and analytical). It should be applied
intelligently and used in conjunction witb observational and analyticaI metbods
to formulate an overall design rationale compatible with the design objectives
and site geology.
4.4 CORRELATIONS
A correlation was proposed between the RMR and tbe Q-index (Bieniawski,
1976) as well as between the RMR and the RSR (Rutledge and Preston,
1978). Based on 111 case histories analyzed for this purpose (involving 62
Scandinavian cases, 28 South African cases, and 21 case histories from the
United States, Canada, Australia, and Europe), the following relationship
was found for civil engineering tunnels (Bieniawski, 1976):
RMR = 9 In Q + 44 (4.10)
For mining tunnels, Abad et al. (1983) anaIyzed 187 coal mine roadways
in Spain , arriving at this correlation:
RMR = 10.5 In Q + 42 (4.11)
Rutledge and Preston (1978) determined the following correlation from

seven tunneling projects in New Zealand:
REFERENCES 69
RSR = 0.77 RMR + 12.4 (4.12)
Moreno Tallon (1982) confirmed Ihe above relationships on tbe basis of

four lunneling projecIs in Spain. Jelhwa el al. (1982) further subslantialed
tbe correlation by Bieniawski (1976) on Ihe basis of 12 projecIs in India,
whereas Trunk and H6nisch (1989) found an almo SI idenlical correlation lO
tbal given in equalion (4.10) based on tbeir study of tunnels in Wesl Germany.
For further di seu ss ion of Ihese and other correlalions, see Seclion 5.2.
REFERENCES
Abad, 1., B. Celada, E. Chacon, V. Gutierrez, and E. Hidalgo. "Application of
Geomechanical Classification to Predict the Convergence of Coal Mine Galleries
and to Design Their Supports." Proc. 5th Int. Congr. Rock Mech., ISRM,
Melboume, 1983, vol. 2, pp. EI5-EI9.
Abdullatif, O. M., and D. M. Cruden. "The Relationship between Rock Mass
Quality and Ease of Excavation." Bull. 1m. Assoc. Eng. Geol., no. 28, 1983,
pp. 184-87.
Afr. Inst. Civ. Eng. 15, 1973, pp. 335-344.
Bieniawski, Z. T., and R. K. A. Maschek. "Monitoring the Behavior of Rock
Tunnels during Construction." Civ. Eng. S. Afr. 17, 1975, pp. 256- 264.
Bieniawski, Z. T. "Rock Mass Classifications in Rock Engineering." Exploration
for Rock Engineering, ed. Z. T. Bieniawski, A. A. Balkema, Johannesburg,
1986, pp. 97 - 106.
Bieniawski, Z. T., and C. M. Orr. "Rapid Site Appraisal for Dam Foundations by
the Geomechanics Classification." Proc. 12th Congr. Large Dams, ¡COLD,
Mexico City, 1976, pp. 483-501.
Bieniawski, Z. T. "Determining Rock Mass Deformability: Experience from Case
Histories." 1m. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 15, 1978, pp. 237-247.
Bieniawski, Z. T. "The Geomechanics Classification in Rock Engineering Appli-
cations." Proc. 4th Int. Congr. Rock Mech., ISRM, Montreux, 1979, vol. 2,
pp. 41 - 48.
Bieniawski, Z. T. "Rock Classifications: State of the Art and Prospects for Stan-
dardization." Trans. Res. Rec. , no. 783, 1981, pp. 2-8.
Bieniawski, Z. T. "The Geomechanics C1assification (RMR System) in Design
Applications to Underground Excavations." Proc. Int. Symp. Eng. Geol. Un-
derground Cons!r., LNEC, Lisbon, 1983, vol. 2, pp. 1l.33- 11.47.
Bieniawski, Z. T. RockMechanics Design in Mining andTunneling, A. A. Balkema,
Rotterdam, 1984, pp. 97-133.
Boniface, A. "Support Requirements for Machine Driven Tunnels." S. Afr. Tunnelling
8, 1985, p. 7.
70 GEOMECHANICS CLASS/FICATlON
Brook, N., and P. G. R. Dharmaratne. "Simplified Rock Mass Rating System for
Mine Tunnel Suppon." Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. 94, 1985, pp. AI48 - AI54.
Cameron-Clark,I. S. , and S. Budavari. "Correlation of Rock Mass Classification
Parameters Obtained from Borehole and In Situ Observations." Eng. Geol. 17,
1981, pp. 19-53.
Deere, D. U. , and D. W. Deere. "The RQD Index in Practice." Proc. Symp. Rack
Class. Eng. Purp., ASTM Special Technical Publication 984, Philadelphia,
1988, pp. 91-LOI.
Fairhurst, C., and D. Lin . "Fuzzy Methodology in Tunnel Suppon Design." Proc.
26th U.S. Symp. Rock Mech., A. A. Balkema, Rotterdam, 1985, vol. 1, pp.
269- 278.
Faria Santos, C. "Analysis ofCoal Mine Floor Stability ," Ph.D. thesis, Pennsylvania
State University, University Park, 1988,211 pp.
Fowell, R. J., and S. T. Johnson. "Rock CIassifications for Rapid Excavation
Systems." Proc. Symp. Strata Mech., Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1982, pp. 241-
244.
Ghose, A. K., and N. M. Raju. "Characterization of Rock Mass vis-a-vis Application
of Rock Bolting in Indian Coal Measures." Proc. 22nd U.S. Symp. Rock Mech.,
MIT, Cambridge, MA, 1981, pp. 422-427.
Gonzalez de Vallejo, L. 1. "A New Rock Classification System for Underground
Assessment Using Surface Data." Proc. Int. Symp. Eng. Geol. Underground
Constr., LNEC, Lisbon, 1983, vol. 1, pp. II.85- Il.94.
Grainger, G. S. "Rock Mass Characteristics ofthe Rocky Mountain Pumped Storage
Project Hydsoelectric Tunnel and Shaft. " Proc. 27th U.S. Symp. Rock Mech.,
AIME, New York, 1986, pp. 961-967.
Hanna, K., and D. P. Conover. "Design of Coal Mine Entry lntersection." AlME-
SME Ann. Meet. , Phoenix, AZ, 1988, preprint #88-39.
Hoek, E., and E. T. Brown . "Empirical Strength Criterion for Rock Masses."
J. Geotech. Eng. 106(GT9), 1980, pp. 1030-1035.
Hoek, E. "Geotechnical Design of Large Openings at Depth." Proc. Rapid Excav.
Tunneling Conj., AIME, New York, 1981, pp. 1167-1180.
Hoek, E., and E. T. Brown. "The Hoek-Brown Failure Criterion-a 1988 Update."
Proc. 15th Can. Rock Mech. Symp., University of Toronto, Oct. 1988.
Intemational Society for Rock Mechanics. ISRM Suggested Methods: Rock Char-
acterization, Testing and Monitoring, ed. E. T. Brown, Pergamon, Landon,
1982, 211 pp.
Jethwa, J. L. , A. K. Dube, B. Singh, and R. S. Mithal. "Evaluation of Methods
for Tunnel Suppon Design in Squeezing Rock Conditions." Proc. 4th Int. Congr.,
Int. Assoc. Eng. Geol., Dehli, 1982, vol. 5, pp. 125- 134.
Kaiser, P. K., C. MacKay, and A. D. Gale. "Evaluation of Rock Classifications
at B. C. Rail Tumbler Ridge Tunnels." Rock Mech. Rock Eng. 19, 1986, pp.
205-234.
REFERENCES 71
Kendorski, F., R, Cummings, Z. T. Bieniawski, and E. Skinner. "Rock Mass

Classification for Block Caving Mine Drift Support." Proc. 5th Int. Congr. Rock
Mech., ISRM , Melboume, 1983, pp. B51-B63.
Applications. " Trans. Inst. Min . Metall. 86, 1977, pp. AI - A7.
Laubscher, D. H. "Design Aspects and Effectiveness of Support Systems in Different
Mining Situations." Trans. Inst. Min. Metall . 93, 1984, pp. A70-A81.
Lauffer, H. "Zur Gebirgsklassifizierung bei Frasvortrieben ." Felsbau 6(3) , 1988,
pp. 137- 149.
Lokin, P., R. Nijajilovic, and M. Vasic. "An Approach to Rock Mass Classification
for Underground Works." Proc. 5th Int. Congr. Rock Mech., ISRM, Melboume,
1983, vol. 1, pp . B87 - B92.
Moreno TaIlon , E. "Comparison and Application of!he Geomechanics Classification
Schemes in Tunnel Construction." Proc. Tunneling '82, Institution of Mining
and Metallurgy, London, 1982, pp. 241 - 246.
Nakao, K. , S. lihoshi, and S. Koyama. "Statistical Reconsiderations on!he Parameters
for Geomechanics Classification." Proc. 5th Int. Congr. Rock Mech. , ISRM,
Melboume , 1983, vol. 1, pp. BI3 - BI6.
Newman, D. A., and Z. T. Bieniawski. "Modified Version of the Geomechanics
Classification for Entry Design in Underground Coal Mines." Trans. Soco Min.
Eng. A1ME 280, 1986, pp. 2134-2138.
Nguyen, V. U., and E. Ashworth. "Rock Mass Classification by Fuzzy Sets ." Proc.
26th U.S. Symp. Rock Mech., A. A. Balkema, Rotterdam , 1985, vol. 2, pp.
937 - 946.
Nicholson, G . A ., and Z. T. Bieniawski. "An Emprical Constitutive Relationship
for Rock Mass." Proc. 27th U.S. Symp. RockMech. , AIME, New York , 1986,
pp . 760-766.
Nicholson, G. A. "A Case History Review from a Perspective of Design by Rock
Mass Classification Systems." Proc. Symp. Rock Class. Engineering Purp.,
ASTM Special Technica1 Publication 984, Philadelphia, 1988, pp. 121 - 129.
Oliveira, R., C. Costa, and J . Davis. "Engineering Geological Studies and Design
of Castelo Do Bode Tunnel." Proc. InI. Symp. Geol. Underground Constr.,
LNEC, Lisbon, 1983, vol. 1, pp. IJ.69- Il.84.
Olivier, H. J. "Applicability ofthe Geomechanics Classification to the Orange-Fish
Tunnel Rock Masses." Civ. Eng. S. Afr. 21 , 1979, pp . 179- 185.
Priest, S. D. , and J. A. Hudson. "Discontinuity Spacings in Rock." InI. J . Rock
Mech. Min. Sci. 13, 1976, pp. 135 - 148.
Priest, S. D., and E. T. Brown, "Probabilistic Stability Analysis of Variable Rock
Slopes." Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. 92, 1983, pp. AI - AI2.
Robertson, A. M. "Estimating Weak Rock Strength." AIME- SME Ann. Meet.,
Phoenix , AZ, 1988, preprint #88-145.
Romana, M. "New Adjustment Ratings for Application of Bieniawski Classification
to Slopes." Proc. Int. Symp. Rock Mech . in Excav. Min. Civ. Works , ISRM,
Mexico City, 1985, pp . 59- 68.
Rutledge, J. C., and R. L. Preston. "Experience with Engineering Classifications
of Rock." Proc. In/. Tunneling Symp., Tokyo, 1978, pp. A3 . 1- A3.7.
Sandbak, L. A. "Roadheader Drift Excavation and Geomechanics Rock Classifica-
tion." Proc. Rapid Excav. Tunneling Conf, AIME, New York , 1985, vol. 2,
pp. 902- 916.
Sandbak, L. A. "Rock Mass Classification in LHD Mining at San Manuel."
AlME- SME Ann. Mee/., Phoenix, AZ, 1988, preprint #88-26
Serafim, J. L., and J. P. Pereíra. "Considerations of the Geomechanics Classification
of Bieniawski." Proc. Inl. Symp . Eng. Geol. Underground Constr., LNEC,
Lisbon , 1983, vol. 1, pp. 1l.33-11.42.
Sheorey, P. R. "Support Pressure Estimation in Failed Rock Condilions ." Eng.
Geol. 22, 1985, pp. 127- 140.
Singh, R. N., A. M. Elrnherig, and M. Z. Sunu . "Application of Rock Mass
Characterization to the Stability Assessment and Blast Design in Hard Rock
Surface Mining Excavations." Proc. 27/h U.S. Symp. Rock Mech., AIME, New
York, 1986, pp. 471-478.
Smith, H. J. "Estimating Rippability by Rock Mass Classification." Proc. 27th
U.S. Symp. Rock Mech., AlME, New York, 1986, pp. 443-448.
Trunk , U. and K. H6nisch. Private comrnunication, 1989. To be published in
Felsbau.
Unal, E. "Design Guidelines and Roof Control Standards for Coal Mine Roofs,"
Ph.D. thesis, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, 1983,355 pp.
Venkateswarlu, V. "Geomechanics Classification of Coal Measure Rocks vis-A-vis
Roof Suppons," Ph.D. thesis, lndian School of Mines, Dhanbad, 1986,251 pp.
Weaver, J. "Geological Factors Significant in the Assessment of Rippability." Civ.
Eng. S. Afr. 17(12), 1975, pp. 313-316.
Wickham, G. E., H. R. Tiedemann, and E. H. Skinner. "Support Determination
Based on Geologic Predictions." Proc. Rapid Excav. Tunneling Conf, AJME,
New York, 1972, pp. 43- 64.
Zhou , Y. , C. Haycocks, and W. WU. "Geomechanics Classification for Multiple
Searn Mining." AlME- SME Ann. Mee/., Phoenix , AZ, 1988, preprint #88-11.
5
Q-System
Few things are created and perfected al the same time.
- Thomas Edison
The Q-system of rock mass classification was developed in Norway in 1974

by Barton, Lien, and Lunde, all of the Norwegian Geotechnical Institute.
Its development represented a major contribution to the subject of rock mass
classification for a number of reasons: the system was proposed on the basis
of an analysis of 212 tunnel case histories from Scandinavia, it is a quantitative
classification system, and it is an engineering system facilitating the design
of tunnel supports.
The Q-system is based on a numerical assessment of the rock mass quality
using six different parameters:
l. RQD .
2. Number of joint sets.
3. Roughness of !he most unfavorable joint or discontinuity.
4. Degree of alteration or filling along the weakest joint.
5. Water inflow.
6. Stress condition.
These six parameters are grouped into three quotients to give the overall
rock mass quality Q as follows:
73
74 Q-SYSTEM
RQD . lr lw
Q = (5.1)
ln la SRF
where RQD = rock quality designation,

ln = joint set number,
lr = joint roughness number,
la = joint alteration number,
lw = joint water reduction number,
SRF = stress reduction factor.
The rack quality can range from Q = 0.001 to Q = 1000 on a logarithmic

rock mass quality scale.
5.1 CLASSIFICATION PROCEDURES
Table 5. 1 gives the numerical values of each of tbe classification parameters.

They are interpreted as follows: The first two parameters represent the overall
structure of tbe rock mass, and tbeir quotient is a relative measure of the
block size. The quotient of tbe third and the fourth parameters is said to be
an indicator of tbe interblack shear strengtb (of tbe joints). The fifth parameter
is a measure of water pressure, while tbe sixth parameter is a measure of
a) loosening load in the case of shear zones and clay bearing rock, b) rock
stress in competent rock, and c) squeezing and swelling loads in plastic
incompetent rock. This sixth parameter is regarded as the "total stress"
parameter. The quotient of tbe fifth and tbe sixth parameters describes the
"active stress."
Barton et al. (1974) consider the parameters ln, l" and la as playing a
more important role than joint orientation , and if joint orientation had been
included, tbe classification would have been less general. However, orientation
is implicit in parameters lr and la because they apply to tbe most unfavorable
joints.
The Q value is related to tunnel support requirements by defining the
equivalent dimensions of tbe excavation. This equivalent dimension, which
is a function of both the size and the purpose of the excavation, is obtained
by dividing tbe span, diameter, or the wall height of the excavation by a
quantity called the excavation support ratio (ESR). Thus
span or height (m)

Equivalent dimension = (5.2)
ESR
CLASSIFICATlON PROCEOURES 75
The ESR is related to the use for which the excavation is intended and the
degree of safety demanded, as shown below:
Excavation Category ESR No. of Cases

A. Temporary mine openings 3-5 2
B. Vertical shafts:
Circular section 2.5
Rectangular/square section 2.0
C. Permanent mine openings, water tunnels for
hydropower (excluding high-pressure
penstoeks), pilot tunnels, drifts, and headings
for large excavations 1.6 83
D. Storage cavems, water treatment plants , minor
highway and railroad tunnels, surge chambers,
access tunnels 1.3 25
E. Power stations, major highway or railroad
tunnels, civil defense chambers, portals,
intersections 1.0 73
F. Underground nuclear power stations, railroad
stations, faetories 0.8 2
The relationship between the index Q and the equivalent dimension of

an excavation determines the appropriate support measures, as depicted in
Figure 5.1. Barton et al. (1974) provided the corresponding 38 support
calegories specifying Ihe estimates of permanent support, as given in Tables
5.2-5 .6. For temporary support determination, eilher Q is increased to 5Q
or ESR is increased lO 1.5 ESR.
It should be noled thal Ihe length of bolts is not specified in the support
tables, bul the bolt length L is determined from the equalion
2 + 0.158
L = ESR (5.3)
where B is Ihe exeavation width.

The maximum unsupported span can be obtained as follows:
. I
Maximum span (unsupported) = 2(ESR) Q0.4 (5.4)
The relationship between Ihe Q value and the permanenl support pressure
P mor is ca1culated from Ihe following equation:
o: TABLE 5.1 Q-System Descriptlon and Ratlngs: Parameters RQD, J n, J" J., SRF, and Jw'
Rack Quality Designation (RQD)
Very poor 0-25 Note:
Poor 25-50 (i) Where ROO is reported or measured as "' 10
Fair 50-75 (including O), a nominal value of 10 is used lo
Good 75-90 evaluale Q in equalion (5.1).
Excellent 90-100 (ii) ROO intervals of 5, Le., 100,95,90, ele., are
sufficienlly accurale
Joinl Sel Number Jn

Massive, none or few joints 0.5-1.0 Note:
One joint set 2 (i) For inlerseclions, use (3.0 x Jo)
One joint set plus random 3
Two joint sets 4 (ii) For portals, use (2.0 x J o)
Two joint sets plus random 6
Three joinl seis 9
Three joinl seis plus random 12
Four er more joinl seis, random. heavily joinled,
"sugar cube," ele. 15
Crushed rock, earthlike 20
Joint Roughness Number J,

(a) Rock wall contacl and Note:
(b) Rock wall conlact befere 10·cm shear (i) Add 1.0 if Ihe mean spacing of Ihe relevanl joinl sel
is greater Ihan 3 m
Discontinuous joint 4
Rough or irregular, undulaling 3
,
Smooth, undulating 2.0 Note:
Slickensided, undulating 1.5 (ii) J, = 0.5 can be used for planar slickensided joints
Rough or irregular, planar 1.5 having lineation, pravided the lineations are
Smooth , planar 1.0" favorably oriented
Slickensided, planar 0.5 (iii) Descriptions B to G refer to small-scale features and
(e) No rack wall contact when sheared intermediate·scale features, in that arder
Zone containing clay minerals thick enough to
prevent rack wall contact 1.0·
Sandy, gravelly, or crushed zone thick enough
to prevent rack wall contact 1.0·
Joint Alteratian Number Ja

(a) Rack wall contact J. $ , (approx)
A. Tightly healed, hard , nonsoftening,
impermeable filling, Le., quartz or epidote 0.75
B. Unaltered joint walls, surface staining only 1.0 25-35°
C. Slightly altered joint walls. Nonsoftening
mineral coatings, sandy particles, clay-free
disintegrated rack, etc. 2.0 25-30°
D. Silty or sandy clay coatings, small c1ay
fraction (nonsoftening) 3.0 20- 25°
E. Softening or low-friction c1ay mineral
coatings, Le., kaolinite , mica. Also chlorite,
tale, gypsum, and graphite, etc., and small
quantities of swelling clays (discontinuous
coatings, 1- 2 mm or less in thickness) 4.0 8 - 16°
(b) Rack wall contact befare 10-cm shear
F. Sandy particles, clay-free disintegrated rack,
etc . 4.0 25- 30°
.....
..... (Table continues on p. 78.)
Cil
TABLE 5,1 (Continued)
Joinl Alleralion Number J.
G, Strangly over-eonsolidated, nonsoftening
clay mineral lillings (eontinuous, < 5 mm in
thiekness) 6.0 16-24'
H. Medium or low over-eonsolidation , softening,
elay mineral lillings. (eontinuous, < 5 mm in
thiekness) 8.0 12-16'
J . Swelling elay lillings, i.e., montmorillonite
(eontinuous, < mm in thiekness). Value 01 Ja
depends on pereentage 01 swelling clay-
sized partieles, and aeeess to water, etc. 8.0- 12.0 6-12'
(e) No rack wall eontaet when sheared
K. Zones or bands 01 disintegrated or erushed
rack and elay (see G., H., J . lor deseription 6.0, 8.00r
01 elay eondition) 8.0-12.0 6-24'
L. Zones or bands 01 silty or sandy elay, small
elay Iraetion (nonsoftening) 5.0
M. Thiek, continuous zones or bands 01 elay
(see G., H., J . lor deseription 01 elay 10.0, 13.0 or
eondition) 13.0-20.0 6-24'
Note:
(i) Values 01 $, are intended as an
approximate guide to the mineralogieal
properties 01 the alteration produets, il
present
Stress Reduction Factor (SRF)
(a) Weakness zones intersecting excavation, Note:
which may cause loosening 01 rack (i) Reduce these SRF values by 25-50% il the
mass when tunnel is excavated relevant shear zones only influence but do not
Multiple occurrences of weakness zones intersect the excavation
containing clay or chemically disintegrated
rack, very loase surrounding rack (any
depth) 10.0
B. Single-weakness zones containing clay or
chemically disintegrated rack (depth 01
excavation .. 50 m) 5.0
C. Single-weakness zones containing clay or
chemically disintegrated rack (depth 01
excavation > 50 m) 2.5
D. Multiple-shear zones in competent rack
(clay-Iree), loase surrounding rack (any
depth) 7.5
E. Single-shear zones in competent rack (clay-
Iree) (depth 01 excavation .. 50 m) 5.0
F. Single-shear zones in competent rack (clay-
Iree) (depth 01 excavation >50 m) 2.5
G. Loase open joints, heavily jointed or "sugar
cube," etc. (any depth) 5.0
(b) Competent rack, rack stress problems
H. Low stress , near surlace CJ'c! CYt fIlIa, 2.5 (ii) For strangly anisotrapic stress lield (il measured):
> 200 > 13 when 5 ~ (J,!(J3 oS;; 10, reduce a e and a, to 0.8 (Te
J. Medium stress 200-10 13-0.66 1.0 and 0.8 0'1; when U,/U3 > 10, reduce U c and a, to
~ (Table continues on p. BO.)

..
Q
TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Stress Reduetion Factor (SRF)
K. High-stress. very tight 0.6 'h and 0.6 C7t (where 17, = unconfined
structure (usually favorable compressive strength, C7t = tensile strength (point
to stability. may be load), "t and "3 = majar and minar principal
unfavorable to wall stability 10-5 0.66-0.33 0.5-2.0 stresses)
L. Mild rock burst (massive
rock) 5-2.5 0.33-0.16 5-10
M. Heavy rock burst (massive
rack) < 2.5 < 0.16 10-20
(e) Squeezing rock ; plastic
flow of incompetent rack
under the influence of
high rack pressures
N. Mild squeezing rack pressure 5-10
o. Heavy squeezing rack pressure 10-20 (iii) Few case records available where depth of crawn
(d) Swelling rack; chemical swelling activity below surface is less than span width . Suggest
depending on presence of water SRF increase fram 2.5 to 5 far such cases (see H)
P. Mild swelling rack pressure 5-10
R. Heavy swelling rack pressure 10-15
Joint Water Reduction Factor Jw
Jw Approximate water
pressure
(kg/cm')
A. Dry excavations or minor inflow, i.e., Note:

B. 5 l/min locally 1.0 <1 (i) Factors C-F are crude estimates. Increase Jw il
Medium inflow or pressure occasional drainage measures are installed
outwash 01 joint lillings 0.66 1.0-2.5
C. Large inllow or high pressure in (ii) Special problems caused by ice lormation are not
competent rack with unlilled joints 0.5 2.5-10.0 considered
D. Large inflow or high pressure,
considerable outwash 01 joint lillings 0.33 2.5-10.0
E. Exceptionally high inflow or water
pressure at blasting, decaying with
time 0.2-0.1 > 10.0
F. Exceptionally high inllow or water
pressure continuing without
noticeable decay 0.1-0.05 > 10.0
'After Sarton el al. (1974).
bNominal.
-'"
82 Q·SYSTEM
:c
e
'"
;¡;
:r
,.
o
;¡; I "
e (; 34 :
•E a:
i5 ~ w '" "
..•
E
>
;;
E
~
c
"
3
~
w ¿ 0.4 "
~
Q. 0.2
'" 0.1
, !
0 .001 0 .01 0.1 10 100 1000

Rock Mass Qualily a
Figure 5.1 Q·system: equivalent dimension versus rock mass qua/ity. (Alter Barron
et al., 1974.)
P roof (5.5)
If tbe nurnber of joint sets is les s than three, tbe equation is expressed as
Proof ~ ¡112 r l Q - I/3 (5,6)

3 n r
Although the Q-systern involves 9 rock rnass c1asses and 38 support

categories, it is not necessarily too cornplicated. Sorne users of tbe Q-systern
have pointed out that the open logaritbrnic scale of Q varying from 0.001
to 1000 can be a source of difficulty; it is easier to get a feeling for a quoted
rock mass quality using a linear scale of up to 100. The nurnerical procedure
rnay also give sorne users a rnisplaced sense of nurnerical precision-for
example, when reporting Q values such as " 11.53."
5.2 CORRELATIONS
As stated in Section 4.4, a correlation was developed between the Q-index

and the RMR (Bieniawski, 1976) as well as between the Q-index and the
RSR (Rutledge and Preston, 1978). A total of 111 case histories were
analyzed for tbis purpose: 62 Scandinavian cases, 28 South African cases,
~
Support Conditional Factors Span/ESR pO Span/ESR Notes

Category Q ROO/ Jo Jr/J n (m) (kg/cm') (m) Type of Support (Table 5.6)
13 40-10 '" t O '" 1.5 0.5 5-14 sb (utg)
"'10 < 1.5 B (utg) 1.5-2 m
< 10 '" 1.5 B (utg) 1.5-2 m
<10 < 1.5 B (utg) 1.5-2 m + S 2-3 cm
14 40-10 "'10 "'15 0.5 9-23 B (tg) 1.5-2 m + clm 11
<10 "'15 B (tg) 1.5-2 m + S (mr) 5-10cm 11
<15 B (utg) 1.5-2 m + clm 111
15 40-10 >10 0.5 15-40 B (tg) 1,5-2 m + clm 11, IV
'" 1O B (tg) 1,5-2 m + S (mr) 5-10 cm 11, IV
16 C ,d 40-10 >15 0,5 30-65 B (tg) 1.5-2 m + clm V, VI
'" 15 B (tg) 1,5-2 m + S (mr) 10-15 cm V, VI
IAfter Barton el al. (1974).
b Approx .
COriginal authors' estimates of support. Insufficient case records available for reliable estimation of support requirements . The type of support to be used
in categories 1-8 will depend on the blasting technique. Smooth-wall blasting and thorough barring-down may remove the need for support. Rough-wall
blasting may result in the need for single applications 01 shotcrete, especially where the excavation heighl is > 25 m. Future case records should differentiate
categories 1-8. Key: sb = spot bolting; B = systematic boltin9; (utg) = untensioned, grouted; (t9) tensioned (expanding-shell type for competent rock
masses, grouted post-tensioned in very poor quality rock masses; S = shotcrete; (mr) = mesh-reinforced; clm = chain-link mesh; CCA = cast concrete
arch; (sr) steel-reinforced. 80lt spacings are given in meters (m). Shotcrete or cast concrete arch thickness is given in centimeters (cm).
dS ee note XII in Table 5.6.
TABLE 5.3 Q-Syslem: Support Measures for Q Range 1 lo 10'
Support Conditional Factors Span/ESR pb Span/ESR Notes

Category Q ROD/J o J,/J, (m) (kg/cm 2) (m) Type 01 Support (Table 5.6)
17 10-4 > 30 1.0 3.5-9 sb (utg)
:;'10, ,,;30 B (utg) 1-1 .5 m
< 10 :;.6 B (utg) 1-1 .5 m + S 2-3 cm
< 10 <6 S 2-3 cm
18 10- 4 >5 :;. 10 1.0 7-15 B (tg) 1-1 .5 m + clm 1, 111
>5 < 10 B (utg) 1-1 .5 m + clm
,,;5 :;. 10 B (t9) 1- 1.5 m + S 2- 3 cm 1. 111
,,;5 < 10 B (utg) 1-1 .5 m + S 2-3 cm
19 10-4 :;.20 1.0 12-29 B (t9) 1- 2 m + S (mr) 10-15 cm I, II , IV
< 20 B (tg) 1-1 .5 m + S (mr) 5-10 cm 1,11
20' 10-4 :;.35 1.0 24- 52 B (tg) 1-2 m + S (mr) 20-25 cm 1, V, VI
< 35 B (t9) 1-2 m + S (mr) 10-20 cm I, II , IV
21 4-1 :;.12.5 ,,;0.75 1.5 2.1-6.5 B (utg) 1m + S 2-3 cm
< 12.5 < 0.75 S 2.5- 5 cm
> 0.75 B (utg) 1m
22 4-1 > 10, < 30 > 1.0 1.5 4.5- 11 .5 B (ut9) 1m + clm
,,; 10 > 1.0 S 2.5-7.5 cm
< 30 ,,; 1.0 B (utg) 1 m + S (mr) 2.5-5 cm
:;.30 B (Ut9) 1 m I
23 4- 1 :;. 15 1.5 8-24 B (tg) 1 -1 .5 m + S (mr) 10-15 cm I,II,IV, VII
< 15 B (ut9) 1- 1.5 m + S (mr) 5-10 m I
24 c ,d 4-1 :;.30 1.5 18-46 B (t9) 1- 1.5 m + S (mr) 15-30 cm 1, V, VI
< 30 B (t9) 1 -1 .5 m + S (mr) 10-15 cm I,II,IV
' After Sarton et al. (t974) .
°Approx.
eSee note XII in Tabla 5.6.
m dSee footnote e in Table 5.2.
TABLE 5.4 Q-Syslem: Support Measures lor Q Range 0.1 lo 1.0'
a>
Condilional Faclors pO
'" Support
Calegory Q RQD/ J, J,IJ,
Span/ESR
(m) (kg/cm' )
Span/ESR
(m) T ype 01 Support C
Noles
(Table 5.6)
25 1.0- 0.4 > 10 > 0.5 2.25 1.5-4.2 8 (ulg) 1 m + mr or clm I
'" 1O > 0.5 8 (ulg) 1 m + S (mr) 5 cm I
"'0.5 8 (Ig) 1 m + S (Mr) 5 cm I
26 1.0-0.4 2.25 3.2- 7.5 8 (Ig) 1 m + S (mr) 5-7.5 cm VIII , X , XI
8 (ulg) 1 m + S 2.5-5 cm 1, IX
27 1.0-0.4 '" 12 2.25 6-18 8 (Ig) 1 m + S (mr) 7.5-10 cm 1, IX
< 12 8 (ulg) 1 m + S (mr) 5-7.5 cm 1, IX
> 12 CCA 20-40 cm + 8 (Ig) 1 m VIII , X, XI
< 12 S (mr) 10-20 cm + 8 (Ig) 1 m VIII, X, XI
28" 1.0- 0.4 "'30 2.25 15-38 8 (Ig) 1 m + S (mr) 30-40 cm 1, IV, V, IX
"'20, < 30 8 (Ig) 1 m + S (mr) 20-30 cm 1, 11, IV, IX
< 20 8 (Ig) 1m + S (mr) 15-20 cm 1,11, IX
CCA (sr) 30-100 cm + 8 (Ig) 1 m IV, VIII, X, XI
29 0.4-0.1 >5 > 0.25 3.0 1.0-3.1 8 (ulg) 1 m + S 2- 3 cm
"'5 > 0.25 8 (ulg) 1 m + S (mr) 5 cm
"'0.25 8 (Ig) 1 m + S (Mr) 5 cm
30 0.4-0.1 "'5 3.0 2.2-6 8 (Ig) 1 m + S 2.5-5 cm IX
<5 S (mr) 5-7.5 cm IX
8 (Ig) 1 m + S (mr) 5-7.5 cm VIII , X, XI
31 0.4-0.1 >4 3.0 4-14.5 8 (Ig) 1 m + S (mr) 5-12.5 cm IX
~4, ~ 1 . 5 S (mr) 7.5-25 cm IX
< 1.5 CCA 20-40 cm + 8 (Ig) 1 m IX, XI
CCA (sr) 30-50 cm + 8 (Ig) 1 m VIII, X, XI
32" 0.4-0.1 "'20 3.0 11-34 8 (Ig) 1 m + S (mr) 40-60 cm 11, IV, IX, XI
< 20 8 (Ig) 1 m + S (mr) 20-40 cm 111, IV, IX, XI
' After Barton et al. (1974) .
oApprox.
eFer key, refer to Table 5.2, footnote c.
dS ee note Xli in Tabla 5.6.
TABLE 5.5 Q-Syslem: Support Measures for Q Range 0.001 lo 0.1'
Support Conditional Factors Span/ESR pb Span/ESR Notes

Category Q ROD/J , J,/J a (m) (kg/cm' ) (m) Type 01 Support' (Table 5.6)
33 0.1-0.01 "'2 6 1.0-3.9 B (tg) 1 m + S (mr) 2.5-5 cm IX
<2 S (mr) 5- 10 cm IX
S (mr) 7.5-15 cm VIII . X
34 0.1-0.01 "'2 "'0.25 6 2.0-11 B (tg) 1 m + S (mr) 5-7.5 cm IX
<2 3 0.25 S (mr) 7.5-15 cm IX
< 0.25 S (mr) 15-25 cm IX
CCA (sr) 20-60 cm + B (tg) 1 m VIII, X, XI
35 d 0.1-0.01 3 15 6 6.2- 28 B (tg) 1 m + S (mr) 30- 100 cm 11 , IX, XI
'" 15 CCA (sr) 60-200 cm + B (tg) 1 m VIII , X,XI, 11
< 15 B (tg) 1 m + S (mr) 20-75 cm IX, XI, 111
< 15 CCA (sr) 40- 150 cm + B (tg) 1 m VIII , X,XI , 111
36 0.01-0.001 12 1.0-2.0 S (mr) 10-20 cm IX
S (mr) 10- 20 cm + B (tg) 0.5-1 .0 m VIII , X, XI
37 0.01 - 0.001 12 1.0-6.5 S (mr) 20-60 cm IX
S (mr) 20-60 cm + B (tg) 0.5-1.0 m VIII, X, XI
38' 0.01-0.001 3 10 12 4.0- 20 CCA (sr) 100-300 cm IX
3 10 CCA (sr) 100-300 cm + B (tg) 1 m VIII, X, 11, XI
< 10 S (mr) 70-200 cm IX
< 10 S (mr) 70-200 cm VIII , X, III , XI
' After Bartan el al. (1974).
ti Approx.
eFor key, refer to Table 5.2, footnote c.
dS ee note XII in Table 5 .6.
eSee note XIII in Table 5.6 .
Q>
""
88 Q-SYSTEM
TABLE 5.6 Q-System: Support Measures-Supplementary Notes"

1. For cases 01 heavy rack bursting or "popping," tensioned bolts with enlarged
bearing plates often used , with spacing 01 about 1 m (occasionally down to 0.8
m). Final support when "popping" activity ceases.
11. Several bolt lengths olten used in same excavation, i.e., 3, 5, and 7 m.
111. Several bolt lengths often used in same excavation, i.e., 2, 3, and 4 m.
IV. Tensioned cable anchors often used to supplement bolt support pressures.
Typical spacing 2-4 m.
V. Several bolt lengths often used in same excavation, i.e., 6, 8, and 10m.
VI. Tensioned cable anchors often used to supplement bolt support pressures.
Typical spacing 4-6 m.
VII. Several 01 the older-generation power stations in this category employ systematic
or spot bolting with areas 01 chain-link mesh , and a Iree-span concrete arch
rool (25-40 cm) as permanent support.
VIII. Cases involving swelling, e.g. , montmorillonite clay (with access 01 water). Room
lor expansion behind the support is used in cases 01 heavy swelling. Orainage
measures are used where possible.
IX. Cases not involving swelling clay or squeezing rock.
X. Cases involving squeezing rack. Heavy rigid support is generally used as per-
manent support.
XI. According to the authors' [Sarton et al.) experience, in cases 01 swelling or
squeezing, the temporary support required belore concrete (or shotcrete) arches
are lormed may consist 01 bolting (tensioned shell-expansion type) il the value
01 ROO/ Jo is sufficiently high (i.e., > 1.5), possibly combined with shotcrete. II
the rack mass is very heavily jointed or crushed (i.e., ROO/J o < 1.5, lor example,
a "sugar cube" shear zone in quartzite), then the temporary support may consist
01 up to several applications 01 shotcrete. Systematic bolting (tensioned) may
be added after casting the concrete (or shotcrete) arch to reduce the uneven
loading on the concrete, but it may not be effective when ROO/J o < 1.5, or
when a lot 01 clay is present, unless the bolts are grouted belore tensioning . A
sullicient length 01 ancho red bol! might also be obtained using quick-setting resin
anchors in these extremely poor-quality rack masses. Serious occurrences 01
swelling and/or squeezing rock may require that the concrete arches are taken
right up to the lace, possibly using a shield as temporary shuttering. Temporary
support 01 the working lace may al so be required in these cases.
XII. For reasons 01 salety, the multiple drift method will often be needed during
excavation and supporting 01 rool arch. Categories 16, 20, 24, 28, 32, 35 (span/
ESR > 15 m only).
XIII. Multiple drift method usually needed during excavation and support 01 arch,
walls, and Iloor in cases 01 heavy squeezing . Category 38 (spanlESR > 10m
only).
"After Sarton el al. (1974) _
DATA BASE 89
Figure 5.2 Correlalion between lhe RMR and lhe Q·index. (After Bieniawski. 1976
and Jelhwa el al., 1982.)
and 21 other case histories from the United States, Canada. Australia. and
Europe. The results are plotted in Figure 5.2. from which it can be seen
that the following relationship is applicable:
RMR = 91nQ + 44 (5.7)
The aboye correlation was further substantiated by Jethwa et al. (1982),

whose case studies are also included in Figure 5.2. Further comparisons
between the Q and the RMR systems are given by Barton (1988).
5.3 DATA BASE
Barton (1988) presented histograms of the 212 case records used to develop
the Q-system. The majority of the cases are from Scandinavia (Sweden and
Norway), including 97 cases reported by Cecil (1970).
The distribution of the rock types was as follows: 13 types of igneous
rock, 26 types of metamorphic rock, and 11 types of sedimentary rocks.
Hard rock was predominant, involving 48 cases of granite and 21 cases of
gneiss.
90 Q-SYSTEM
The Q values covered the whole range of rock mas S qualities; there were
40 cases with Q = 10 - 40, 45 cases with Q = 4 - 10, 36 cases with
Q = 1 - 4, and 40 cases with Q = 0.1 - 1.0.
The predominant tunnel spans or diameters were 5-10 m (78 cases) , and
10-15 m (59 cases). There were 40 cases of large cavems from hydroelectric
projects, with spans of 15- 30 m and wall heights of 30-60 ffi.
The excavation depths were cornmonly in the range of 50 to 250 m .
However, 20 cases were in the range 250 to 500 m, and 51 cases involved
depths less than 50 m.
Most case histories (I80) were supported excavations ; 32 of the 212 cases
were permanently unsupported excavations . The predominant form of support
was rock bolts, or combinations of rock bolts and shotcrete often mesh-
reinforced.
REFERENCES
Barton, N., R. Lien, and J . Lunde . "Engineering Classification of Rock Masses
for the Design of Tunnel Support." Rack Mech. 6, 1974, pp. 183- 236 .
Barton, N. "Recent Experiences with !he Q-System of Tunnel Support Design."
Exploration for Rack Engineering, ed . Z. T. Bieniawski, A. A. Balkema, Jo-
hannesburg, 1976, pp. 107- 115 .
Barton, N. "Rock Mass Classification and Tunnel Reinforcement Selection using
!he Q-System. " Proc. Symp . Rack Class. Eng . Purp., ASTM Special Technical
Publication 984, Philadelphia, 1988, pp. 59-88.
Bieniawski , Z . T. "Rock Mass Classifications in Rock Engineering." Exploration
for Rack Engineering , ed . Z. T. Bieniawski , A. A. Balkema, Johannesburg ,
1976, pp .l 97 - 106.
Bieniawski , Z. T. "The Geomechanics Classification in Rock Engineering Appli-
cations." Proc. 4th Int. Congr. Rack Mech. , ISRM , Montreux, 1979, vol. 2,
pp. 41 - 48.
Cecil, o. S . "Correlations of Rock Bolt- Shotcrete Support and Rock Quality
Parameters in Scandinavian Tunnels," Ph.D. thesis, University of Illinois, Urbana,
1970, 414 pp.
Jethwa, 1. L., A. K. Dube, B. Singh, and R. S. Mithal. "EvaJuation of Methods
for Tunnel Support Design in Squeezing Rock Conditions _" Proc. 4th Int . Congr.
Int. Assoc. Eng. Geol., Delhi, 1982, vol. 5, pp. 125- 134.
Kirsten , H. A. D . "The Combined Q/NATM System- The Design and Specification
of Primary Tunnel Support ," S. Afr. Tunnelling 6, 1983, pp. 18-23.
Rutledge, J. c. , and R. L. Preston . "Experience with Engineering Classifications
of Rock. " Proc. InI. Tunneling Symp., Tokyo, 1978, pp. A3: 1- 7.
Sheorey, P. R. "Support Pressure Estimation in Failed Rock Conditions," Eng .
Geol. 22, 1985, pp. 127- 140.
6
Other Classifications
Real difficulties can be avercome;
it is only rhe imaginary ones tha! are unconquerable.
- Somerse! Maugham
Among the various modem rock mass classifications, the approach used by
tbe New Austrian Tunneling Method and the strength- size classification of
Franklin and Louis deserve special attention.
6.1 NATM CLASSIFICATION
The New Austrian Tunneling Method (NATM) features a qualitative ground

classification system tbat must be considered within the overa!1 context of
the NATM. In essence, tbe NATM is an approach or philosophy integrating
the principies of the behavior of rock mas ses under load and monitoring the
performance of underground excavations during construction. The word
"method" in the English translation is unfortunate, as it has led to sorne
misunderstanding. The fact is tbat tbe NATM is not a set of specific excavation
and support techniques. Many people believe that if shotcrete and rock bolts
are used as support , tben tbey are employing the New Austrian Tunneling
Method. This is far from tbe truth. The NATM involves a combination of
many established ways of excavation and tunneling, but the difference is
the continua! monitoring of the rock movement and the revision of support
91
92 OTHER CLASSIFICATlONS
to obtain the most stable and economical lining. However, a number of

other aspects are also pertinent in making the NATM more of a concept or
philosophy lhan a method.
The New Austrian Tunneling Method was developed between 1957 and
1965 in Austria. lt was given its name in Salzburg in 1962 to distinguish
it from lhe traditional old Austrian tunneling approach. The main contributors
to the development of lhe NATM were Ladislaus von Rabcewicz, Leopold
Müller, and Franz Pacher.
Essentially, the NATM is a scientific empirical approach. It has evolved
from practical experience and Rabcewicz called it "empirical dimensioning"
(Rabcewicz, 1964). However, it has a theoretical basis involving the rela-
tionship between the stresses and deformations around tunnels (better known
as the ground-reaction curve concept). Its early theoretical foundations were
given by two Austrians, Fenner and Kastner. The melhod makes use of
sophisticated in-situ instrumentation and monitoring, and interprets lhese
measurements in a scientific manner.
As stated earlier, this method is often misunderstood, and recently a
number of publications attempting to clarify lhese misconceptions have
appeared in the intemational press; the more notable among them are those
by Müller (1978), Golser (1979), Brown (1981), and Sauer (1988).
Müller (1978) considers the NATM as a concept Ihat observes certain
principIes. Although he has listed no less than 22 principIes, there are seven
most important features on which the NATM is based:
l. Mobilization 01 the Strength 01 the Rock Mass. The melhod relies on

the inherent strength of the surrounding rock mas s being conserved as the
main component of tunnel support. Primary support is directed to enable
the rock to support itself. lt follows that lhe support must have suitable load-
deformation characteristics and be placed at the correct time.
2. Shotcrete Protection. In order to preserve lhe Ioad-carrying capacity
of lhe rock mass, loosening and excessive rock deformations must be min-
imized. This is achieved by applying a thin layer of shotcrete, sometimes
together with a suitable system of rock bolting, immediately after face
advance. lt is essential that the support system used remains in full contact
with the rock and deforms wilh il. While the NATM involves shotcrete, it
does not mean that the use of shotcrete alone constitutes the NATM.
3. Measurements. The NATM requires lhe installation of sophisticated
instrumentation at the time the initial shotcrete lining is placed, to monitor
the deformations of the excavation and lhe buildup of load in the support.
This provides information on tunnel stability and permits optimization of
lhe formation of a load-bearing ring of rock strata. The timing of lhe placement
92 OTHER CLA$SIFICATlON$
10 obtain the most stable and economical lining. However, a number of

other aspects are also pertinent in making the NATM more of a concept or
philosophy than a method .
The New Austrian Tunneling Method was developed between 1957 and
1965 in Austria. It was given its name in Salzburg in 1962 to distinguish
it from tbe traditional old Austrian tunneling approach. The main contributors
to the development of the NATM were Ladislaus von Rabcewicz, Leopold
Müller, and Franz Pacher.
Essentially, the NATM is a scientific empirical approach . It has evolved
from practical experience and Rabcewicz called it "empirical dimensioning"
(Rabcewicz , 1964) . However, it has a theoretical basis involving tbe rela-
tionship between the stresses and deformations around tunnels (better known
as the ground-reaction curve concept) . lts early theoretical foundations were
given by two Austrians, Penner and Kastner. The method makes use of
sophisticated in-situ instrumentation and monitoring, and interprets these
measurements in a scientific manner.
As stated earlier, this method is often misunderstood, and recently a
number of publications attempting to clarify these misconceptions have
appeared in the intemational press; the more notable among them are those
by Müller (1978) , Golser (1979), Brown (1981), and Sauer (1988).
Müller (1978) considers tbe NATM as a concept tbat observes certain
principIes. Although he has listed no less than 22 principIes , there are seven
most important features on which the NATM is based:
1. Mobilization of the Strength of the Rock Mass. The method relies on

the inherent strength of tbe surrounding rock mass being conserved as the
main componen! of tunnel support. Primary support is directed to enable
the rock to support itself. It follows that the support must have suitable load-
deformation characteristics and be placed at the correct time.
2. Shotcrete Protection. In order lO preserve the load-carrying capacity
of the rock mass, loosening and excessive rock deformations must be min-
imized . This is achieved by applying a thin layer of shotcrete, sometimes
together with a suitable system of rock bolting, immediately after face
advance. It is essential tbat the support system used remains in full contact
with the rock and deforms with il. While the NATM involves shotcrete, it
does not mean that the use of shotcrete alone constitutes the NATM.
3. Measurements . The NATM requires the installation of sophisticated
instrumentation at the time the initial shotcrete lining is placed, to monitor
the deformations of the excavation and tbe buildup of load in the support.
This provides information on tunnel stability and permits optimization of
tbe forrnation of a load-bearing ring of rock strata. The timing of tbe placement
NATM CLASSfFfCATION 93
of the support is of vital importance. John (1980) provided a fine example

of the use of instrumentation during the construction of the Arlberg Tunnel.
4. Flexible Support. The NATM is characterized by versatility and adapt-
ability leading to flexible rather than rigid tunne! support. Thus, active rather
than passive support is advocated, and strengthening is not by a thicker
concrete lining but by a flexible combination of rock bolts , wire mesh , and
steel ribs. The primary support will partly or fully represent the total support
required and the dimensioning of the secondary support will depend on the
results of Ihe measurements.
5. Closing of Invert. Since a tunnel is a thick-walled tube, the closing
of the invert to form a load-bearing ring of the rock mass is essential. This
is crucial in soft-ground tunneling, where the invert should be closed quickly
and no section of the excavated tunne! surface should be left unsupported
even temporarily. However, for tunnels in rock, support should not be
instaJled too early since Ihe load-bearing capability of the rock mass would
not be fully mobilized. For rock tunnels , the rock mas S must be permitted
to deform sufficiently before Ihe support takes full effect.
6. Contractual Arrangements. The preceding main principIes of the NATM
will only be successful if special contractual arrangements are made. Since
the NATM is based on monitoring measurements, changes in support and
construction methods should be possible. This, however, is only possible
if the contractual system is such that changes during construction are permis-
sible (Spaun, 1977).
7. RockMass Classification Determines Support Measures. Payment for
support is based on a rock mass classification after each drill and blast round.
In sorne countries this is not acceptable contractually , and this is why the
method has received limited attention in the United States. Figure 6. 1 is an
example of the main ground classes for rock tunnels and the corresponding
support; these serve as the guidelines for tunnel reinforcement as well as
for payment purposes.
The NATM calls for all parties involved in the design and construction
of a tunneling project to accept and understand this approach and to cooperate
in decision-making and the resolution of problems. The owner, Ihe design
engineer, and Ihe contractor need to work as one team . The project should
be staffed wilh well-trained field engineers (competent to interpret the ob-
servations and act on them) and wilh designers (or consultants) who visit
the site frequently and are on call for difficult construction decisions. In
Austria, onJy highly quaJified contractors who can demonstrate Iheir expertise
in the use of shotcrete are employed .
94 OTHER CLASSIFICATlONS
CLASS I CLASS 11 CLASS 1110
CLASS IIlb CLASS IV CLASS V
ROCK 80LTS
STEEL ARCH
.....,_ t .~'.~O ;;::J,.-.;.... • _ .t O.1~~200 1. - ii~~~~ ~~= ~L~I,~N:E5~R¡,,';P~TES
777i77!1711l17Imz 7I77777/!7lllTI1lZ Z ==--
CONCRETE UNING
WIRE MESH
SHOTCRETE
Figure 6.1 Support measures according to the New Austrian Tunneling Method
for the Arlberg Tunnel. (Alter John, 1980.)
The European literature is full of descriptions involving successful ap-

plications of the New Austrian Tunneling Melhod, particularly in Austria,
West Germany, France, and Switzerland (Sauer, 1988). However, its ap-
plications have also spread to other countries, such as Japan, India, Australia,
Brazil, and, to a limited extent,lhe United States (Whitney and Butler,
1983).
In practice, lhe NATM Classification relates ground conditions, excavation
procedure, and tunnel support requirements. The classification, which forms
part of the contract, is adapted to a new project based on previous experience
and a detailed geotechnical investigation. A particular classification is lhus
applicable only to lhe one case for which it was developed and modified.
However, the system is highly adaptable and its development can be traced
back to Lauffer (1958).
An example of the NATM Classification based on lhe work of John (1980)
is given in Table 6.1. Note that the ground is described behaviorally and
lhe rack mass is allacated a ground class in lhe field , based on field observations.
Accordingly, the rock mass is classified without a numerical quality
rating; ground conditions are described qualitatively. The level of detail
depends on the information available from site exploration. There are few
SIZE-STRENGTH CLASSIFICATlON 95
published rules that allow the extrapolation to larger or smaller tunnels

outside the typical range of 10-l2-m width.
Austrian engineers (Brosch, 1986) believe that ground classification and
contract conditions are inseparable and that a simple qualitative ground
classification is preferable to one involving several parameters leading to
an overall rock quality number. Clearly, this could lead to disputes , but
since the contractor is paid on the basis of "as found" conditions, the conflict
is minimized; if needed, an expert "Gutachter" (appraiser) is usually available
to settle any disagreements by making a decision at the face.
6.2 SIZE-STRENGTH CLASSIFICATION
Franklin (1970, 1975) and Louis (1974) have developed a two-parameter

classification procedure based on the strength of intact rock and the spacing
of discontinuities in the rock mass, in relation to the size of the opening
and the overburden stress. In fact, Franklin and Louis worked together on
the initial development of this method, but subsequent investigations were
reported only by Franklin (1986).
According to Franklin (1986), the "size-strength" approach lO rock mas s
characterization has been found to be helpful in a variety of mining and
civil engineering applications, both at the initial stages of planning and for
the subsequent day-to-day design of underground excavations and ground
control systems.
The concept of block size is analogous to that of grain size, but on a
macroscopic scale. The rock mass is conceived as being made up of discrete
intact blocks bounded by joints, and its behavior is being governed primarily
by a combination of the size and the strength of a "typical" block.
In Figure 6.2, a plot of the size-strength classification is given, with
broken and weak rock masses plotting toward the lower left of the diagram.
Contours give a general-purpose rock quality index expressed as a decimal;
for example, size-strength quality = 2.6.
If the rock unit to be classified is uniform in size and strength, it plots
as a single point on the diagram. If the rock unit is variable, the scatter of
measured values leads to the unit plotting as a zone. Apparently, the rock
quality index may be correlated with the performance parameters relating
to excavation and support requirements.
"Block size" is defined as the average "diameter" of a typical rock block
in the unit to be classified; it is measured by observing an exposed rock face
at the surface or underground, or rock core obtained by drilling (block size
is closely related to RQD). Intact strength of the rock material may be
estimated by using simple hammer and scratch tests or the point-Ioad index
~
TABLE 6.1 Ground Classilicalion lor Ihe NATM'

Excavation
Ground Geomechanical Stand-Up Time
Class 8ehavior Indicators Seetían Round Lenglh Method (Guidelines)
Inlac! rack (freestanding) The stresses around Ihe Fullface Nolim it Smooth blasting Crown: weeks
opening are less than the Springline : unhmited
rack mass strength : thus,
the ground is standing.
Due lo blasting,
separations alon9
discontinuities are
possible. For high
overburden danger 01
popping rack
Lightly afterbreaking Tensile stresses in the Full face 3- 5 m Smooth blasting Crown : days
crown or unfavorably Springline: weeks
oriented discontinuities
together with blasting
eflects lead lo separations
Afterbreaking lo Full face with short Full face : 2-4 m Smooth blasting Crown and springhne:
"'
(formerly
lila)
overbreaking
Tensile stresses in the
crown lead lo rool faUs
Ihal are favored by
round lengths Several hours
unfavorably oriented
discontinuities. The
stresses at the springlines
do nol exceed Ihe mass
strength. However,
afterbreaking mayoccur
alon9 discontinuities (due
lO blasting)
IV Aflerbreaking lO lightly 1) The rack mass strength is Heading and benching Full face: 2-3 m Smooth blasting and C(Qwn and springline: a
(formerly squeezing subslanlially reducad due (Heading max 45 m 2 ) (heading 2-4 m) local Irimming with lew hours
IlIb) lo disconlinuilies, Ihus jackhammer
resulting in many
afterbreaks; or 2) Ihe rock
mass strength is exceeded
leading lo li9h! squeezing
V HeaV'ily afterbreaking lo Due lo low rack mass Heading and benching Heading : 1-3 m Smoolh blasting or Crown and springline:
squeezing slrength, squeezing (heading: max 40 m2) 8ench: 2-4 m scraping or hydraulic very shOrt Iree sland-
ground conditions Iha! are excavator up lime
substantially ¡nfluenced by
Ihe orientation 01 Ihe
discontinuities
VI Heavily squeezing After opening Ihe tunnsl, Heading, and benchin~ Heading: 0.5-1.5 m Scraping or hydraulic Very limited stand-up
squeezing ground is (headtng max 25 m ) bench: 1-3 m excavator time
observad on all free
surfaees; Ihe
disconlinuities are 01 minor
importance
VII Flowing Requires special techniques, 8.9., chemical grouting, freez ing, electroosmosis
(Table continues on p. 98.)
....co
Table 6.1 (Continued)
'"
Q)
Support Procedure
Construction
Class Procedure Principie Crown Springline Invert Faca
Check crown lor loose rock Support against dropping Shotcrete: 0 - 5 cm
rack blocks
When popping rock is Bolts: cap = 15 t BoJIS: cap = 15 t No No
presan! placemenl 01 length = 2-4 m Lenglh = 2-4 m locally
support aftar each round locally as needed
11 Crown has lo be supported Shotcrete support in crown Sholcrele: 5 - 10 cm wilh Shotcrete : 0-5 cm 80115 L = 3.5 m il
after each round wire fabric (3.12 kg/m2 ) necessary
Solted arch in crown 8011s : cap = 15 t Bolts:
Lenglh :: 2 - 4 m length = 2-4 m locally
Dne per 4-6 m
111 Shotcrete after 8ach round; Combinad sholcreta- Shotcrele: 5-15 cm with Shotcrele: 5-15 cm Adapt invert support lo Adapt lace
other supporl can be bollad round in crown wire labric (3.12 kg/m 2 ) 8011s : 15-25 I local condilions support lo
placed in slages and al springline 8011s: cap = 15 - 25 I langlh: 3-5 m local
lenglh = 3-5 m One per 3 - 5 m 2 condilions
IV Sholcrele afler each round Combined sholcrele - Sholcrele: 10-15 cm wilh Sama as crown Slab: 20-30 cm
bolled arch in crown and wire fabric (3.12 kg/cm 2 )
80lts in Ihe heading haya springlina, il necessary 8011s: fully grouted
lo be placed al leasl closed inyert Cap = 251
afiar each second round length = 4-6 m
One par 2-4 m 2
V AII opened seclions haya Support ring 01 sholcrele l ocally linarplates Same as crown bul no Invert arch ;1:40 cm or bolts Sholcrele
lo be supported with bolted arch and Shotcrete : 15- 20 cm wilh linerplales necessary L = 5 - 7 m il necessary 10 cm in
immedialaly afler sleel seIs wire fabric (3.12 kgl m2 ) . heading (il
opaning. Al! support Sleel seis: TH21 spaeed: necessary)
plaeed alter each round 0.8-2.0 m
8011s: fully grouled 3 - 7 cm in
Cap=251 bench
lenglh = 5-7 m
One par 1-3 m
VI As Class V Support ring of sholcrele linerplales where Same as crown Invert: ;0:50 cm Shotcrete
wilh steel seIs, including necessary, shotcrete : 20 8011s: 6-9 m long il 10 cm and
iny~ rt arch and densely - 25 cm with wire fabrico necessary additional
bolted areh Stael seis: TH21: 0.5- faee
1.5 m breasting
801ls: cap = 25 t
L = 6-9 m
One per 0.5 - 2.5 m2
- Afler John (1978); arrangement by Sleiner and Einstein (1980) .

SIZE-STRENGTH CLASSIFICATlON 99
E
~
•
N
¡¡; 10
~
"
o
¡¡;
.01 .1 10
Polnt load Strength (MPa)
Figure 6.2 Strength-size classification. (Alter Franklin, 1975.)
test. Although measuring inaccuracies are inevitable both for block size and
!he intact strength determined in such fashions , this is not serious since the
values are plotted on logarithmic scales in the classification diagram . Thus,
an error of even 20% is usually insignificant.
Figure 6.3 shows a way of applying the concept of !he size-strength
classification to a preliminary evaluation of tunnel stability and failure mech-
anisms. In that figure , the zones ofrock quality are first plotted in the upper-
right quadrant according to the size-strength classification. Ratios of the
excavation span to block size and of intact strength to the major principal
stress are then examined.
The upper-left quadrant is used to examine the stability of blocks. When
the ratio of block size to excavation size is greater !han 0.1, blocks should
100 OTHER CLASSIFICATIONS
Block Slzo
IF (cm)
¡ y I
5 MPa
a
r---------------~~~~- -------~~
A
100 :
e 10 ] ~:
,----- ~----'-~-- I ' Sandstone
1----------~----j-i--
, I
Compresslve
I I :
Excavatlon , I Strength
Dlameter D(m) I I ' ,
Oc MPa
4-~~--_r--,__r~--~--~--~0~.1~~~+'~--~--~:-r-'
30 20 15 10 5 3 0.5 I 5 150 500
0.1 I
I
10
Depth
I 1:
h(m)
(If 0"1 vertical) 100 ---- ~~ . - - - -'--1
10
1000
100
10000
Principal Stress 2
0"1 (MPa)
3
Figure 6.3 Diagram lor preliminary evaluation 01 tunnel stability and potential lailure
mechanisms. (After Franklin, 1975.)
remain stable; when the ratio is less than 0.01, progressive raveling is likely.
The lower-right quadrant provides information on the possibility of rock
bursting or ground squeezing. When the strength-stress ratio is greater than
5, no fracture or flow is likely. When this ratio is les s than 1, fracture or
flow will occur depending on the ratio value: if the rock strength is low,
failure will be by squeezing; if rock strength is high, failure will be by rock
bursting.
Next, the excavation and support requirements are considered using empirical
design procedures. Figure 6.4 enables selection of tunnel support by a
variable combination of bolts, shotcrete, mesh, and ribs. The "degree of
support number" plotted along the horizontal axis indicates an increasing
ISRM CLASSIFICATlON 101
intensity of support. Note that the size-strength contour numbers in Figure

6.2 correspond to those given in Figure 6.4.
6.3 ISRM CLASSIFICATION
The lntemational Society for Rock Mechanics (ISRM, 1981) developed a

general geotechnical description of rack masses aimed at characterizing and
089r88 01 Support Number

2 345 6 7 8
•
7
I
~ f:::: r--
6
BolI 5
Spacing
r
4
(m)
3
2
1
r-- r--
.0
Clrcumf.tence O
Boltad
(o/. )
SO
100
O'
I
- r-- - _1
I
5
::::
:::::::
Shotctete
Thlckness
(cm)
10
15
P:::t::: I
~ '-......
20
25
...........
30
Clrcumf.renC8 O
Shotcreted
(01. )
SO
r---
100
200
---
Ribs per
150
V /
100m 01
Tunnel
100
SO
O V t;:: V
Figure 6.4 Relationship between "degree 01 support number" (derived lrom Fig.
6.2) and requirements lor support quantities. (Alter Franklin, 1975.)
102 OTHER CLASSIFICATIONS
classifying, in simplified form, the various regions that constitute a given

rock mass. The ISRM classification is not considered an exhaustive description
and needs to be supplemented by additional, more detailed, information.
lts value lies in presenting unambiguous terms as well as the standard interval
limits for the parameters considered.
It was recommended that the following characteristics be taken into account
when describing a rock mass:
l. Rock name, with a simplified geological description.

2. Two structural characteristics, namely, layer thickness and discontinuity
spacing (fracture intercept).
3. Two mechanical characteristics, namely , the uniaxial compres si ve
strength of the rock material and the angle of friction of the fractures.
The appropriate intervals of values and their descriptions are as follows:
DISCONTINUITY SPACING
Intervals (cm) Terms

>200 Very wide
60-200 Wide
20-60 Moderate
6-20 Close
<6 Very close
UNlAXIAL COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF ROCK MATERIAL
Intervals (MPa) Terms

>200 Very high
60-200 High
20-60 Moderate
6-20 Low
<6 Very low
ANGLE OF FRICTION OF THE FRACTURES
Intervals (deg) Terms

>45 Very high
35 - 45 High
25-35 Moderate
15-25 Low
<15 Very low
REFERENCES 103
The standard intervals of parameters Iisted above have been incorporated

in sorne rock mass c1assifications, for example, in the RMR system.
6.4 SPECIALlZED CLASSIFICATION APPROACHES
Important contributions have been made by many investigators who either

modified the existing c1assifications or developed specialized c1assification
approaches to meet a particular engineering application. The work of these
contributors, who are Iisted in Table 3.1, is discussed in the following
chapters under the appropriate applications.
REFERENCES
Bieniawski , Z. T. "Rock Mass Classification as a Design Aid in Tunnelling."

Tunnels Tunnelling 20(7) , July 1988, pp. 19- 22.
Brosch , F. 1. "Geology and Classification ofRock Masses- Examples from Austrian
Tunnels." Bull. InI. Assoc. Eng. Geol., no. 33, 1986, pp . 31-37.
Brown, E. T. "Putting the NATM in Perspective." Tunnels Tunnelling 13(11), Nov.
1981, pp. 13- 17.
Einstein, H. H., W. Steiner, and G. B. Baecher. "Assessment of Empirical Design
Methods for Tunnels in Rocks." Proc. Rapid Excav. Tunneling Conj., ArME,
New York, 1979, pp. 683 - 706.
Einstein, H. H., A. S. Azzouz, A. F. McKnown, and D. E. Thompson. "Evaluation
of Design and Performance- Porter Square Transit Station Chamber Lining."
Proc. Rapid Excav. Tunneling Conj., ArME, New York, 1983, pp. 597- 620.
Farmer, l. W. "Energy Based Rock Characterization." Application of Rock Char-
acterization Techniques in Mine Design, ed. M. Karmis, AIME, New York,
1986, pp. 17- 23.
Franklin, 1. A. "Observations and Tests for Engineering Description and Mapping
of Rocks." Proc. 2nd InI. Congo Rock Mech., ISRM, Belgrade, 1970, vol. 1,
paper 1- 3.
Franklin, J. A., C. Louis, and P. Masure. "Rock Material Classification." Proc.
2nd Int . Congo Eng. Geol., IAEG, Sao Paulo, 1974, pp. 325 - 341.
Franklin , J. A. "Safety and Economy in Tunneling." Proc. 10th Can. Rock Mech.
Symp., Queens University, Kingston, Canada, 1975, pp. 27 - 53.
Franklin, J. A. "Size-Strength System for Rock Characterization." Application of
Rock Characterization Techniques in Mine Design, ed. M. Karmis, AIME, New
York, 1986, pp. ll - 16.
Golser, J. "Another View of the NATM." Tunnels Tunnelling 11(2), Mar. 1979,
pp. 41 - 42.
104 OTHER CLASSIFICAT/ONS
Gonzalez de Vallejo, L. I. "A New Rock Classification System for Underground

Assessment Using Surface Data." Proe. InI. Symp. Eng. Geol. Underground
Constr., LNEC, Lisbon, 1983, pp. 85-94.
Hwong, T. "Classification of the Rock Mass Structures and Determination of Rock
Mass Quality." Bull. InI. Assoe. Eng. Geol., no. 18, 1978, pp. 139-142.
Intemationa! Society for Rock Mechanics. "Basic Geotechnical Description of Rock
Masses." InI. J. Roek Meeh. Min. Sei. 18, 1981, pp. 85-110.
John, M . "Investigation and Design for the Arlberg Expressway Tunnel." Tunnels
Tunnelling 12(4), Apr. 1980, pp. 46-51.
Kirsten, H. A. D. "A Classification System for Excavation in Natural Materials."
Civ. Eng. S. Afr. 24, 1982, pp. 293-308.
Kirsten, H. A. D. "The Combined Q/NATM System- The Design and Specification
of Primary Tunnel Support." S. Afr. Tunnelling 6, 1983, pp. 18-23.
Kirsten, H. A. D. "Case Histories ofGroundmass Characterization for Excavatability."
Proe. Symp. Rock Class. Eng. Purp., ASTM SpeciaJ Technical Publication 984,
Philadelphia, 1988, pp. 102-120.
Lauffer, H. "Gebirgsklassifizierung für den Stollenbau." Geol. Bauwesen 74, 1958,
pp. 46-51.
Le Bel, G., and C. O. Brawner. "An Investigation on Rack Quality Index." Min.
Sei. Tech. 5, 1987, pp. 71 - 82.
Louis, C. "Reconnaissance des Massifs Rocheux par Sondages et Classifications
Geotechniques des Roches." Ann. Inst. Techn. Paris, no. J08, 1974, pp. 97 -
122.
Müller, L. "Removing Misconceptions on the New Austrian Tunnelling Method."
Tunnels Tunnelling 10, Feb. 1978, pp. 29- 32.
Olivier, H. J. "A New Engineering-Geological Rock Durability Classification."
Eng. Geol. 14, 1979, pp. 255-279.
Rabcewicz, L. "The New Austrian Tunnelling Method." Water Power, Nov. 1964,
pp. 453-457.
Rabcewicz, L., and T. Golser. "Application of the NATM to the Underground
Works at Tarbela." Water Power, Mar. 1972, pp. 88-93.
Rodrigues, J. D. "Proposed Geotechnical Classification of Carbonate Rocks based
on Portuguese and Algerian Examples." Eng. Geol. 25, 1988, pp. 33 - 43.
Sauer, G. "When an Invention Is Something New: From Practice to Theory of
Tunnelling." Tunnels Tunnelling 20(7), July 1988, pp. 35-39.
Schmidt, B. "Leaming from Nuclear Waste Repository Design: The Ground Control
Program." Proc. 6th Aust. Tunneling Conf., Melboume, 1987, pp. 1- 9.
Singh, R. N., B. Denby, I. Egretli, and A. G. Pathan. "Assessment of Ground
Rippability in Opencast Mining Operations." Min. Dept. Mag. Univ. Nottingham,
38, 1986, pp. 21 - 34.
Spaun, G. "Contractual Evaluation of Rock Exploration in Tunnelling." Exploration
for Roek Engineering, ed. Z. T. Bieniawski, A. A. Balkema, Johannesburg,
1977, vol. 2, pp. 49-52.
REFERENCES 105
Steiner, w., and H. H. Einstein. /mproved Design of Tunnel Supports, vol. 5,

Empirical Methods in Rack Tunneling - Review and Recommendations, U.S.
Dept. ofTransportation Report no. UMTA-MA-06-0JOO-80-8, Washington, OC,
June 1980.
Weaver,1. M. "Geological Factors Significan! in the Assessment of Rippability."
Civ. Eng. S. Afr. 17, 1975, pp. 3\3-316.
Whitney, H. T. , and G. L. Butler. "The New Austrian Tunneling Method-a Rock
Mechanics Philosophy." Proc. 24th U.S. Symp . Rock Mech., Texas A&M Uni-
versity, College Station, TX, 1983, pp. 219-226.
Williamson, D. A. "Unified Rock Classification System." Bull. Assoc. Eng. Geol.
21, 1984, pp. 345 - 354.
Wojno, L. Z., and Jager, A. 1. "Support ofTunnels in South African Gold Mines."
Proc. 6th/ni. Con! Ground Control Min., West Virginia University, Morgantown,
1987 , pp. 271-284 .
7
•
Applications ln Tunneling
It is not who is right, bUl what is right,
tha! is of importance.
- Thomas Huxley
The manner in which rock mass classifications are applied in tunneling is

demonstrated in this chapter on the basis of three selected case histories;
the first two involve tunnels, and the third a large chamber. Each of Ihe
projects deserves special attention from the point of view of rock mass
classifications. One tunnel demonstrates the role of rock mass c1assifications
in tunnel design specifications, while the other makes comparisons of clas-
sifications with monitoring data. The example of the chamber illustrates the
effect of large spans. Additional relevant case histories are referenced.
7.1 PARK RIVER TUNNEL
Nicholson (1988) reviewed this informative case history, previously discussed

by Engels et al. (1981), Blackey (1979), Bieniawski (1979), and Bieniawski
et al. (1980).
The Park River Auxiliary Tunnel is a water-supply tunnel in the city of
Hartford , Connecticut. lts function is flood control; it can divert the overflow
of water from one river to another. The tunnel , whose inside diameter is
--
6.7 m, extends 2800 m between the intake and the outlet. It is excavated
107
108 APPLlCATlONS IN TUNNELlNG
through shale and basalt rock at a maximum depth of 61 m below the surface.
Located beneath a business district in the city , it is of an inverted siphon
shape. The tunnel invert at tbe oullet is 15 .9 m below the intake invert,
with the tunnel slope at about 0.6%. A minimum rock tbiekness of ap-
proximately 15.3 m remains aboye the erown excavation at the outle!.
The bid prices for the tunnel ranged from $33.37 million for the drill and
blast option to $23.25 million for machine boring with preeast lining. The
unit eost was $8303 per meter, based on tunnel boring machine (TBM) bid
priees in 1978 .
7.1.1 Tunnel. Geology

Figure 7.1 shows a longitudinal geologieal seetion of the tunne!. The roeks
along the alignment are primarily easterly dipping red shales/siltstones in-
terrupted by a basalt dike and two fault zones .
Three major geological zones were distinguished along the tunnel route
during preliminary investigations (Blaekey, 1979):
1. Shale and basalt zones, eonstituting 88 % of the tunne!.

2. Fractured rack zones (very blacky and searny) , between stations 23 + 10
and 31+ 10.
3. Two fault zones, one near station 57 + 50 and the other between stations
89 + 50 and 95 + 50.
Bedding and jointing are generally northlsouth , whieh is perpendicular

to the tunnel axis (tunnel runs west to east) . The bedding is generally dipping
between 15° and 20°, whereas the joints are steeply dipping, between 70°
and 90°. The joints in the shale have rough surfaees and many are very thin
and healed with ealcite.
Groundwater levels measured prior to eonstruetion of the tunnel indicated
that the piezometric level in the bedroek was norrnally 47 - 58 m aboye the
invert of the tunne!.
7.1.2 Geological Investigations

Site investigations included diarnond eore drilling, various tests in the boreholes ,
and a seismie survey. Tests in the boreholes featured borehole photography,
water pressure testing , piezometer installation , observation wells , and pump
tests.
Roek eores from 29 boreholes were used to determine the tunnel geology.
Of these , 18 were NX (54-mm dial and 11 were 100 mm in diameter. Ten
ElEV.&.TION, FT MS\.
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112
PARK RIVER TUNNEL 113
boreholes did not reach the tunnel leve!. AlI · cores were photographed in
lhe field immediately upon remo val from the core barrel and logged, classified,
and tested.
Borehole photography was employed in 15 boreholes to determine the
discontinuity orientations and rock structure.
eore samples were selected from 21 localities within the tunnel, near the
crown and within one-half diameter aboye lhe crown to determine lhe density,
uniaxial compressive strenglh, triaxial strenglh, modulus of elasticity , Poisson 's
ratio , water content, swelling and slaking, sonic velocity, and joint strength.
The results are given in Table 7.1.
ln-situ stress measurements were conducted in vertical boreholes ; out of
15 tests , only three yielded successful results. Eight tests could not be
completed due to core breakage and four others failed-due to gage slipping
and two to equipment malfunction. The measured horizontal stress was found
to be 3.1 MPa ± 0.9 MPa . For the depth of 36.6 m, lhe vertical stress was
calculated as 0.91 MPa. This gave the horizontal to vertical stress ratio as
3.4.
7.1 .3 Input Data for Rock Mass Classifications

Input data to perrnit rock mass c1assifications have been compiled for all
the structural regions anticipated along lhe tunnel route; in Figure 7.2, for
example, they are depicted for the outlet region. It should be noted that all
the data entered on the c1assification input sheets have been derived from
the boreholes, inc1uding the information on discontinuity orientation and
spacing. This was possible because borehole photography was employed
for borehole logging, in addition to the usual core-Iogging procedures.
7.1.4 Tunnel Design Features

Three different tunnel sections were designed and offered as bid options:
l . Drill and blast with a reinforced, variable-thickness, cast-in-place liner

designed to meet three ranges of rock loading .
TABLE 7.1 Summary 01 Rock Properties al Ihe Park River Tunnel

No. 01 Uniaxial Compressive No. 01 Modulus 01 Elasticity
Rack Material Tests Strength (MPa) Tests (GPa)
Shale 19 22.4-90.3 (av 53.4) 7 1.38-34.5 (av 14.5)
Basalt 11 38.2-94.8 (av 70.8) 9 6.14-68.9 (av 31 .9)
Sandstone 2 64.5-65.8 (av 65.1)
-... NI"'" ot PtOtt<t Par-1( River- 1'Ic1rte l
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Conc!uc'ld bJ:
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CONOl llON Of OISCONTINumES
Dile Ju.ly 15, 1978 ,J+~EOG~~:1 0 ShaZe tJith inurbedded
PERSISTENCE (CO"lT1NUITYI Sel 1 $41 2 $o"
Ba>ldstone
oqlLL COIlE OUAllTY ROO: W"'Ll ROC,; O~ OISCONTtNUIltES
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10 ·200"'", " SClJ€rai amaZZ ;ructure zoncs Were found in eore tOgB, Zor.es
rC'l1ge fro"" 100 r:TII ro O.J r: in thie1(lless arld occur bct:..;€er.
VIfy elo.. < 00 mm sta. j6+{)O-l J+50.
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Figure 7.2 Input data sheet lar struetural region I(e) 01 the Park River Tunnel.
2. Machine excavation with a reinforced cast-in-place lining.

3. Machine excavation with a reinforced precast lining.
Table 7.2 gives the recornmended support and rock loads as based on
the Terzaghi method.
The support recornmendations were also prepared from olher rock mass
classification systems and are included in Table 7.3 (Bieniawski, 1979).
The main conclusion to be drawn from this table is that the Terzaghi method,
which recommends the most extensive support measures, clearly seems
excessive by comparison with the recornmendations of the other three clas-
sification systems. The reason for this is threefold. Firstly, the current
permanent lining design does not account fully for the action of the temporary
support, which in itself may be sufficient for lhe structural stability• of the
tunnel. Secondly, the original modifications of the Terzaghi method by Deere
et a!. (1970) were based on 1969 technology, which is now outdated.
Thirdly, not enough use is made in lhe Terzaghi method of the ability of
the rock to support itself. The Terzaghi melhod uses such qualitative rock
mass descriptions as "blocky" and "seamy," which do not fully utilize all
the quantitative information available from the site exploration program o
Tunnel instrumentation was planned to provide for design verification,
future design applications, and monitoring of construction effects (Engels
et a!., 1981). Ten test sections at locations of different geologic conditions
were selected in the tunne!. These sections consisted of extensometers (MPBXs)
installed from the surface, as well as pore pressure transducers, rock bolt
load cells, convergence points, and surface and embedded strain gages
installed within the tunne!. Further, in-situ stress measurements were also
considered. Since the precast liners were designed for the worst ground
conditions (10% of the tunnel) but were utilized throughout the tunnel, they
were in effect overdesigned for the major portion of the tunne!. The purpose
of the instrumentation program was to validate design assumptions and to
refine the calculations for future designs.
7.1.5 Construction
The greatest number of bids was made on the precast liner option, with fi ve
of the seven acceptable bids ranging in price from $23,248,185 to $28,551 ,497.
The highest bid for lhe drill and blast oplion was $33,374,140 (Blackey,
1979).
The tunnel was advanced upgrade from the outlet shaft. Upon completion
of the outlet shaft, approximately the first 72 m of the tunnel was advanced
~
~
'"
TABLE 7.2 Park River Tunnel: Tunnel Design Rock Loads and Support Based on Terzaghi's Melhod
Drill and Blasl Conslruclion: Diameler 26 ft Machine Boring : Diamelar 24 fI
Rock Rock
Lenglh 01 Load Temporary Permanent Load Temporary Permanent
Rock Condilion Zone (ft) (lsI) Support Lining (lsI) Support Lining
Best average quality : 8000 1.1 11·11 bolts al 4% ft, Reinforced concrete 0.5 10·ft bolls Reinlorced precasl
massive, moderately shotcrete 1 in. 14 in Ihick plus 8· occasionally al 6 liner 9 in. Ihick,
¡oinled ROO> 80 Ihick in. Qverbreak ft, shotcrete 2 in . grouled
il needed
Worsl average qualily: very 800 2.2 11·ft bolls al 2 ft, Reinforced concrete 1.4 10·ft bolls al 3-5 As above
bIocky, seamy ROD ~ 40 shotcrete 2 in. 15 in. Ihick plus ft , shotcrete 2 in .
Ihick 8~in. overbreak il needed
Fault zones: complelely 300 4.8 W8 sleel beams al Reinforced concrete 3.5 10·1t bolts al 3 It, As above
crused ROD ~ 30 2-4 ft, sholcrele 22 in , Ihick plus sholcrele 3 in.
3 in . Ihick 8-in . overbreak Ihick
",------ ~
TABLE 7.3 Park River Tunnel: Comparison 01 Support Recommendations
Support System
Rock Conditions Terzaghi's Method RSR Concept Geomechanics Classilication Q·System
Best average conditions : Rock load : 1.1 tst RSR = 76 RMR = 72 .' Rock load: 0.5 tst Q = 20
regions t and 2 Reintorced concrete 14 in. Permanent: NA' Locally, rack bolts in root 10 Untensioned spot bolts 9 ft
thick plus B-in. Temporary: ft long at B-ft spacing plus long spaced 5-6 ft . No
overbreak none occasional mesh and shotcrete or mesh
Temporary: ll-ft bolts at shotcrete 2 in . thick
4 V, ft, shotcrete 1 in.
thick
Worst average Rock load : 2.2 tst RSR = 26 RMR = 37 Rock load: 1.1 tst Q = 2.2
conditions: sta. Reintorced concrete 15 in. Permanent: NAa Systematic bolts 12 ft long Untensioned systematic bolts 9
23+ 00 to 31 + 00 thick plus B-in. Temporary: at 5-tt spacing with wire ft long at 3-ft spacing plus
overbreak BW40 steel mesh plus shotcrete 5 in. shotcrete 1- 2 in. thick
Temporary: ll-ft bolts at ribs at 2 tt thick Primary: spot bolt;;
2 ft , shotcrete 2 in . thick
Fault zones: region 3 Rock load : 4.B t~ 23 RMR = 16 Rock load: 2.7 tst Q = 0.14
Reintorced concrete 22 in. Permanent: NA' Steel ribs at 2'12 ft , 15 ft with Reintorced concrete B16 in.
thick plus B-in. Temporary: wire mesh plus shotcrete thick plus tensioned 9-ft bolts
overbreak BW40 steel B in . thick at 3 ft
Temporary: steel ribs : WB ribs at 2 ft Primary: shotcrete 6- 10 in .
ring beams at 2-4 ft , with mesh
shotcrete 3 in.
a Not applicable.
~
~
'"
118 APPLlCATfONS IN TUNNELlNG
using dril! and blast excavation techniques to form a U-shaped chamber

about 7.9 x 7.9 m in cross section. The roof of the tunnel in the drill and
blast section of the project was supported witb 3-m-Iong fully resin-grouted
rock bolts instal!ed on approximately 1.2-1 .5-m centers and shotcreted.
After completion of the drill and blast section, the tunnel boring machine
(TBM) was assembled in the excavated chamber, and the tunnel advance
using the TBM began. The TBM was a fully shielded, rotary hard-rock
machine manufactured by the Robbins Company of Seattle, Washington,
which cut a 7.4-m diameter bore. The lemporary support and final lining
were provided by four-segment precast concrete liner rings that were erected
in tbe tail shield of the TBM about 11-12 m behind tbe cutter face. Each
of the four segments was 22.9 cm thick and about 1.8 m wide. A completed
ring provided a finished inside diameter of 6.7 m. Circumferential sponge
rubber O-rings were provided between rings, and neoprene pad gaskets and
a hydraulic cement sealant were used between segments (En gel s et al.,
1981).
7.1.6 Examples of Classification Procedures

Item 1: Classification of Rock Mass Conditions
a. Terzaghi: "moderately blocky and seamy" (RQD = -72%)

b. RSR Concept:
- Rock type: 50ft sedimentary rock;
-Slightly faulted and folded;
-Parameter A = 15;
-Spacing: moderate to blocky;
-Strike approximately perpendicular to tunnel axis, dip 0-20°;
-Parameter B = 30;
- Water inflow: moderale;
-Joinl conditions: fair (moderalely open, raugh, and weatbered);
-For: A + B = 45, parameter C = 16;
- Therefore: RSR = 15 + 30 + 16 = 61.
c. Geomechanics Classification (RMR):
-Intact rack strength, U c = 50 MPa
Rating = 4;
-Dril! core quality, RQD = 55-58%; av 72%
Rating = 13;
-Spacing of discontinuities, range 50 mm to 0.9 m

Rating : 10;
-Condition of discontinuities; separation 0.8 mm to 1.1 mm, slightly
weathered, rough surfaces
Rating: 25;
-Groundwater: dripping water, low pressure, f10w 25-125 Umin
Rating 4;
-Basic RMR: 4 + 13 + 10 + 25 + 4 = 56 without adjustment
for orientation of discontinuities;
-Discontinuity orientation: strike perpendicular to tunnel axis, dip
20°;
Fair orientation, adjustment: -5, adjusted RMR = 56 - 5 =
51 ;
-RMR = 51, represents Class III; fair rock mass.
d. Q-Syslem:
-RQD = 72% (average);
-Jn = 6, two joint sets and random;
-J, = 1.5, rough , planar joints; : /
-Ja = 1.0, unaltered joint walls, surface staining only;
-J w = 0.5, possible large water inflow;
-SRF = 1.0, medium stress, el1 = 5010.91 = 55.
Q = RQD/Jn x J,/Ja x Jw/SRF = 9.0 Fair rock mass.
Summary
Classification Result
Terzaghi Moderately blocky and seamy
RSR 61
RMR 51 Fair rock mass
Q 9.0 Fair rock mass
ltem 2: Rock Loads
Drill and blast diameter: 7.4 m + 0.6 m overbreak = 8.0 m

Machine-bored diameter: 7.4 m
Shale density: 2660 kglm3 (166 Ib/ft3).
Method Drill and Blast TBM

Terzaghi hp = 0.35C = 0.7B = 0.7 x 8.0 = 5.6 m hp = 0.45B = 3.3 m
Rock load P = ~hp = 0.146 MPa (I .52 tlft') P = 0.09 MPa
(0.9 tlft')
RSR = 61 From Figure 3.3, P = 0.067 MPa T8M adjustment,
(1.2 kip/ft') RSR = 69.5,
P = 0.034 MPa
(0.7 kip/ft')
RMR = 51 100 - 51 T8M adjustmem via
h= 100 B = 392m
.
p conversion to RSR
RMR = 74, P =
P = ~h, = 0.102 MPa 0.049 MPa
Q =9 TBM adjustment via
P = 2.0 Q-In = 2 .0(9) - 1" = 0.64 kgicm'
J, 1.5 conversion to RSR
Q = 54
= 0.0628 MPa P = 0.0321 MPa
or
P
2}1<'
=- ' Q- In = _2\1'6 (9) - 1"
3J, 31.5
= 0.52 kgicm' = 0.0513 MPa
Summary 01 Rock Loads in kPa (1 MPa = 1000kPa);
Method OriU and Blast TBM

Terzaghi 146 90
RSR 67 34
RMR 102 49
Q 63 32
Item 3: Self-supporting Span and Maximum Span: by RMR

and Q Systems
Use Figure 4.1: span versus stand-up time
RMR = 51 Q = 9 (ESR = 1. 6)
Self-supporting span 2.4 m
Maximum span 10.5 m 8 m [D = 2(1.6) X 9°4]
Item 4: Stand-Up Time, Deformability and e, <!> Values

For RMR = 51 and span = 8 m;
Stand-up time: approximately 70 h or 3 d;
Oeformability, RMR = 56 (no adjustment for joint orientations);
OVERVAAL RAfLROAD TUNNEL 121
E = 2 RMR - 100 = 12 GPa(1. 74 x 106 psi);

e = 192 lePa;
<!> = 39° (Table 4.1).
Item 5: Support Recommendations

Terzaghi: Drill and blast-light to medium steel sets spaced 1.5 m.
Concrete lining.
RSR: Drill and blast-6H25 ribs on 2-m centers plus concrete lining.
RMR: DriU and blast- systematic bolts 3.5 m long spacedJ.5 m, shotcrete
50 to 100 mm in roof and 30 mm on walls, \vire mesh in crown.
Q-System: Drill and blast-3 m long rock bolts spaced 1.5 m and 50
mm thick shotcrete.
Item 6: Tabulation of Results from Items 1-5

Item Terzaghi RSR RMR Q
Shale quality Moderalely blocky 61 51 9.0
J
and searny
Rock load 5.6 N/A" 3.9 N/A"
heighl (m)
Rock load 146 67 102 63
(kPa)
Stand-up time N/A" N/A" 3d N/A"
Support Ribs at 1.5 m Ribs al 2 m 3.5 m bolts al 3 m bolts al 1.5
Concrete lining Concrete 1.5 m, m, shotcrete
shotcrete 50 50 mm thick
lo 100 mm ,
wire mesh
aNOI applicable .
7.2 OVERVAAL RAILROAD TUNNEL
Discussed by Davies (1976) and by Bieniawski and Maschek (1975) , the

Overvaal Tunnel is a good example how reliability of rack mass classifications
can be cross-checked by in-situ monitoring of tunnel behavior during con-
struction.
7.2.1 Geological Features of the Tunnel

The sedimentary rocks in the vicinity of Ihe tunnel are essentiaUy horizontaUy
bedded sandstones and shales. A dolerite (di abase) sill of undetermined
122 APPUCATlONS IN TUNNEUNG
thickness has intruded these sedimentary rocks. Subsequent faulting of aU

Ihe rock types has disturbed the structure to sorne extent.
The tunnel itself lies entirely in dolerite, which consists of feldspars,
augite, and sorne accessory minerals. The rock material is hard to very hard
and generaUy shows no weathering. The rock mass is extensively jointed.
Difficult water conditions were encountered in sorne sections of the tunnel.
A longitudinal section of the geology of the tunnel is given in Figure
7.3. The geological investigations during Ihe construction of Ihe tunnel
involved detailed joint surveys in the excavated portions of the tunnel and
provided data on joint orientations, spacing, and condition as well as on
groundwater conditions. Measurements of strike and dip of the main dis-
continuities were made throughout Ihe lenglh of the tunnel.
Rock quality designation (RQD) was determined from drill cores, and
uniaxial compression strenglh tests on rock samples were made. Finally,
thin sections for petrographic analyses were prepared and analyzed.
7.2.2 Rock Mass Conditions

Sixteen measuring stations were installed in representative or critical rock
mass conditions in each heading . The rock mass conditions were determined
1665 11 ABon StA lEHl
110. 1 SH~F1
"ESi r r e3 t 5
"500 f
,"o
f3 f4 C4 fS
,"o
XII. 15 • COD 16+ 000 27 + 000 1a • 000
ROCK el_SS 11 tl l SS l!
MASS
RUIIIC 62 U1 I NG 10
YQ~I'I
~
~~ ~
Il
IN 1Tl Al
SUPPORT
1'"
BOlTS/l 2 6 WiJ f ::r.,
HEAOING "'
AOVANtE
"
BENCH
'"'"
JO
AOV ANCE 00
FINU 200 1M
SlHl lRCH RE INfORCUI(NI
lI NING UNR! INrO~CEO
Figure 7.3 Geotechnical data for a railroad tunnel. (After Oavies, 1976.)
LARGE UNDERGROUND CHAMBERS 123
in terms of lhe Geomechanics Classification, with each station being indi-

vidually mapped. The rack mass classes and the classification ratings for
each heading at the Overvaal Tunnel are shown in Figure 7.3.
7.2.3 Site Exploration

Geological exploration consisted of 18 boreholes supplemented by 16 per-
cussion holes, together with resistivity and seismic surveys .
The boreholes showed that the complete tunnel would be in dolerite, wilh
possibly three difficult sections. One of these was where the tunnel raof
was close to the overlying sandstone contact and where shattered dolerite
could be present. The second was where a zone of laminated dolerite was
discovered, and lhe lhird was brecciated material associated wilh an intrusion
along a fault lineo The geological section along the tunnel is shown in Figure
7.3.
The borehole data were supplemented by resistivity surveys and by per-
cussion holes drilled to clarify water prablems. These additional methods
al so helped to locate, with greater accuracy, faults indicated by lhe seismic
surveys.
A comparison of lhe support recornmendations by six different classification
systems is given in Table 7.4.
7.3 ASSESSMENT OF UNDERGROUND CONDITlONS

FROM SURFACE ROCK EXPOSURES
Gonzalez de Vallejo (1983) presented an approach for classifying underground

rack conditions based on surface rack exposure data. Using lhe Geomechanics
Classification, he introduced corrections to lhe RMR ralings and demonstrated
their use in tunnels and mines in Spain.
The classification pracedure used in lhis appraach is depicted in Tables
7.5 and 7.6 , which are self-explanatory.
7.4 LARGE UNDERGROUND CHAMBERS
The value of rack mass classifications in lhe design of 1arge underground

chambers lies in lheir potential to identify possible instability problems and
permil correlations of in-situ testing and monitoring data with rack mass
quality for future uses. This may lead lo estimates of rack mass deformability
on the basis of rack mass classifications and may provide effective planning
of the excavation sequence in trial enlargements.
-
~
TABLE 7.4 Comparison 01 Rock Mass Classilicallons Applied al Ihe Overvaal Tunnel (Widlh: 5.5 m)
Geomechanics Classification O·System
Locality Class Support Class Support
Occasional spot bolting Good rock Spot bolting only
H6 Very good rack Q = 33.0
RMR = 83
11 Locally. grouted bolts (20-mm dial spaced Good rock Systematic grauted bolts (20-mm dial spaced
H4 Good rock 2-2.5 m. length 2.5 m plus mesh; Q = 12.5 1-2 m, length 2.8 m
RMR = 67 sholcrele 50 mm Ihick if required
111 Systematic grouted bolts spaced 1.5-2 Fair rock Systematic grauted bolts spaced 1.5 m.
H2 Fair rock m. length 3 m plus mesh and 100-mm- Q = 8.5 length 2.8 m, and mesh
RMR = 52 thick shotcrete
IV Systematic grauted bolts spaced 1-1 .5 Poor rock Shotcrete only: 25-75 mm thick or bolts at 1
H3 Poor rack m, length 3 m. mesh plus 100-150-mm Q = 1.5 m, 20-30-mm shotcrete and mesh
RMR = 29 shotcrete (ribs at 1.5 m)
V Systematic grauted bolts spaced 0.7-1 Extremely poor rock Shotcrete only: 75-100 mm thick or
H5 Very poor rock m, length 3.5 m, 150-200-mm Q = 0.09 tensioned bolts at 1 m plus 50-75-mm
RMR = 15 shotcrete and mesh plus medium steel shotcrete and mesh
ribs at 0.7 m. Closed invert
RSR Concepl ROO Index
H6 RSR = 68 Bolts 25-mm dia at 2 m (Iength not given) Excellent Occasional bolts only
ROO < 90
H4 ASA ~ 60 Bolts spaced 1-4 m, shotcrete 35-45 Good Bolts 25-mm dia, 2-3 m long, spaced 1.5- 1.8 m and
mm or medium ribs at 2 m AOO: 75 - 90 sorne mesh or 50-75-mm shotcrete or light ribs
H2 ASA ~ 57 Bolts spaced 1.2 m and 50-mm shotcrete Fair to good Bolts 2-3 m long at 0.9 - 1 m plus mesh or 50 - 100-
or ribs 6H20 at 1.7 mm AOO: 50 - 90 mm shotcrete or lighVmedium ribs at 1.5 m
H3 ASA ~ 52 Bolts spaced 1 m and 75-mm shotcrete Poor Bolts 2-3 m long at 0.6 - 1.2 m with mesh or 150-
or ribs 6H20 at 1.2 m AOO: 25 - 50 mm shotcrete with bolts at 1.5 m or medium to
heavy ribs
H5 ASA ~ 25 NA' Very poor 150-mm shotcrete aH around plus medium to heavy
AOO < 25 circular ribs at 0.6-m centers with lagging
NATM Classification Size-Strength Classification
H6 Bolts 26-mm dia, 1.5 m long, spaced 1.5 m A 50-mm shotcrete or 3-m-long bolts at 3.1 m
Stable in rool plus wire mesh.
H4 11 Bolts 2-3 m long spaced 2-2.5 m, B 100-mm shotcrete with mesh and 3-m bolts
Overbreaking shotcrete 50 - 100 mm with mesh at 2.8 m
H2 111 Perlo-bolts 26-mm dia, 34 m long, spaced C 150-mm shotcrete with mesh and 3-m bolts
Fractured to very Iractured 2 m plus 150-mm shotcrete plus wire at 2.5 m
mesh and steel arches TH16 spaced 1.5
m
H3 IV Perlo-bolts 4 m long, spaced 1 m x 2 m o 210-mm shotcrete with mesh and 3-m bolts
Stressed rock and 200-mm shotcrete plus mesh and at 2 m and steel ribs
steel arches TH21 spaced 1 m.
Concrete lining 300 mm
H5 V Perlo-bolts 4 m long spaced 1 m and 250- E 240-mm shotcrete with mesh and 2-m bolts
Very stressed rack mm shotcrete plus mesh and steel at 1.7 m, steel ribs at 1.2 m. Closed
arches TH29 spaced 0.75 m. Closed invert
invert. Concrete lining 500 mm
-'"
U1
a Not applicable.
/
~
TABLE 7.5 Geomeehnies Classlfiealion from Surfaee Exposures'
Rack Ouality
Indexes Range 01 Values
1. Intact rack
strength
Point-load test
(MPa) >8 8-4 4-2 2-1 NAb
Uniaxial
compressive
strength (MPa) > 250 250-tOO tOO-SO 50-25 25-5 5-1 <1
Rating 15 12 7 4 2 1 O
2. $pacing or RQO
Spacing (m) <2 2-0.6 0.6-0.2 0.2-0.06 < 0.06
ROO (%) 100-90 90-75 75-50 30-25 < 25
Rating 20 17 13 8 3
3. Conditions 01 Very rough surlaces Slightly rough Slight rough Slickensided Slickensided
discontinuities C Not continuous joints surfaces surfaces surfaces surfaces
No separatian No! continuous joints Not continuous joints Continuous joints Continuous join!s
Hard joint wal l Separation > 1 mm Separation 1 mm Joints open 1-5 mm Joints open < 5 mm
Hard joint wall Soft or weathered Gouge materials Gouge material s > 5
joint walls mm thick
Rating 30 25 20 10 O
4. Groundwater
Inflow per 10-m
lunnel lenglh (4
min) None <10 10-25 25-125 > 125
General
conditions Dry Slighlly moisl Occasional seepage Frequenl seepage Abundanl seepage
Raling 15 10 7 4 O
5. State 01 Stresses
Compelence
faclor (vertical
stress/intact
slrenglh) < 10 10-5 5-3 <3
Raling 10 5 - 5 -10.
Teclonic hislory Zones near Ihrusls/faulls of regional Compression Tension
importance
Raling -5 - 2 O
Neotectonic None or unknown Assumed Confirmed
aclivily
Raling O 5 - 10
6. Rock Mass
C/asses
Class number I 11 111 IV V
Rock qualily Very good Gocd Fair Poor Very poor
Raling 100- 81 80-61 60-41 40 - 21 "'20
~
CAdjustment for orientation as in Bieniawski (1979) .
'"....
•
TABLE 7.6 Adjustment to Ratings for the Geomechanics Classlfication

Based on Surface Data'
The Total Rating from Table 7.5 must be adjusted for the following factors:
Excavation Methods
Tunneling boring machines, continuous miner, cutter machines, + 10
roadheaders, etc.
- Controlled blasting, presplitting, soft blasting, etc. +5
Poor·quality blasting" - 10
Support Methods'
Class I O
Class 11
< 10 d 5
> 10 d < 20 d - 5
> 20 d -20
Class 111
<2 d 5
>2d < 5 d O
> 5 d < 10 d - 5
> 10 d -20
Class IV and V
<8 h O
> 8 h < 24 h - 10
> 24 h -20
Distance to Adjacent Excavation d
AEF < 2.5 -20
2.5 < AEF < 10 - 10
AEF > 10 O
Porta/s, Accesses, and Areas with Small Overburden Thickness·
PF > 5 - 20
5 > PF > 10 -10
PF < 10 O
8 After Gonzalez de ValleJO (1983) .
bConventional blasting: EMF = Q.
cSased on Bieniawski (1979) graphic representation of the stand-up-time and the unsupported
span, the ratings are applied in relalian to the maximum stand-up time.
d AEF is the adjacent exc8vation factor, defined as the ratio between the distance to an adjacent
excavation , in meters , from the main excavalion under design, and the span of that adjacent
excavation, in meters.
epF is the portal factor, defined as the ratio between the thickness of overburden and the span
01 the excavation, both in meters.
LARGE UNOERGROUND CHAMBERS 129
One of lhe best documented case histories available to the author is the
Elandsberg Pumped Storage Scheme (Bieniawski, 1976; 1979). The role
that rock mass c1assifications played in this project is described below.
Examination of rock conditions at Elandsberg by means of the Geomechanics
Classifications revealed that lhe 22-m span needed for the 1000-MW un-
derground power station fell outside the limits of accumulated experience
(from the relevant case studies), even if the rock masses at Elandsberg were
"good" to "very good" (Classes I and n, respectively). As the c1assification
estimates (see Fig. 4.1) revealed "fair rock" (Class 1II) at best, only a full-
sized trial test enlargement having a span of 22 m could reliably establish
lhe feasibility of construction and the most suitable means of excavating
and stabilizing such a large span.
7.4.1 Site Investigations ~
AIl the tests were conducted in the exploratory tunnels and enlargements.
The rock strata within the site area consisted of vertically bedded graywacke
which included minor amounts of phyllite. The geological conditions at the
site were thoroughly explored both by over 1500 m of underground diamond
drilling and long boreholes, diamond drilled from lhe surface, giving nearly
5000 m of coreo Furthermore, detailed geological mapping and airphoto
interpretation were also carried out. Groundwater conditions were assessed
by a network of piezometers and by water pressure testing in boreholes.
The graywacke rock was of good quality (RQD = 75 - 85%), while lhe
phyllite was of fair quality (RQD = 65-75%). Apart from the vertical
bedding foliation that represented the main jointing feature, three further
joint sets were identified as well as minor faulting. Water inflows of between
70 and 250 L/min were recorded. The area is earthquake-prone, with earth-
quakes between 5.0 and 6.3 on lhe Richter scale registered recently. The
Geomechanics Classification was used to assess the overall rock mass con-
ditions. The graywacke rock mass was predominantly Class 1I (good rock),
having an RMR = 66 to 87 (av: 75). The phyllite rack mass was of Class
III (fair rock), with RMR = 43 to 60 (av: 57).
Far cross-checking purposes, the graywacke rock mass was also c1assified
using the RSR concept and the Q-system. It was found that the RSR = 62
(range: 60 to 68), whereas Q = 30 (range: 18 to 35).
During the investigations, the results of all the in-situ deformability tests
were analyzed with reference to lhe Geomechanics Classification rock mass
rating of lhe localities where the tests were conducted. The results are
depicted in Figure 7.4.
Based on over lOO results from 37 in-situ tests, lhe following correlation
was obtained:
100
90
.
a.
C)
80
Oynamic
LAS
1 /
/
~ 70 Static
w .~.
r::
.9 60
16
E
(; 50
'lii
O
'O 40
U>
::>
:; 30
'"o
:;
= 20
¡¡;
GOODMAN
JACK
E = 2 X RMR -lOO
.5
10
O
40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Geomechanics Rock Mass Rating RMR
Figure 7.4 Experimental data relating RMR to in-situ modulus of deformation in
the Elandsberg project. (Alter Bieniawski, 1979.)
EM = 1.8 RMR - 88.4 (7.1)
with a corre1ation coefficient of 0.8787 and a prediction error of 15.9%,

which was defined as the difference between the observed value and the
predicted value expressed as a percentage of the predicted value.
In view of the high correlation, the coefficients in the aboye equation
were raunded off since the aim was to estimate the in-situ modulus for a
preliminary assessment of rack mass deformability. This resulted in the
following equation:
EM = 2 RMR - lOO (7.2)
This simple equation has a prediction error of 18.2%, which is sufficient

for practical engineering purposes.
MAXIMUM SPANS AND SAFETY FACTORS FOR UNSUPPORTED EXCAVATlONS 131
7.5 MAXIMUM SPANS ANO SAFETY FACTORS

FOR UNSUPPORTEO EXCAVATIONS
Barton et al. (1980) discussed applications of the Q-system to estimating

optimal cavern dimensions. An interesting aspect of the Q-system is its
ability to recognize rock mass characteristics required for safe operation"of
permanently unsupported openings, A detailed analysis of all the available
case records of unsupported exacavations revealed Ihe following requirements:
General Requirements for Permanently Unsupported Openings

1. J n < 9, J, > LO, J w = LO, SRF < 2.5.
Conditional Requirements /
2, If RQD < 40, should have J n ,,; 2,
3, If J n = 9, should have J, > 1,5 and RQD > 90,
4, If J, = 1, should have Jn < 4 ,
5, If SRF > 1, should have J, > 1.5.
6. If span > 10 m, should have J n :¡SÍ¡, ¿
7. If span > 20 m, should have J n < 4 and SRF < 1
Existing natural and man-made openings indicate Ihat very large unsupported
spans can be safely built and utilized if the rock mass is of sufficiently high
quality. The case records that describe unsupported man-made excavations
have spans ranging from 1.2 to 100 m. If Ihere are only a limited number
of discontinuous joints and the rock mass quality Q is up to 500 to 1000,
Ihe maximum unsupported span may only be limited by Ihe ratio of rock
stress/rock strenglh (Barton et al., 1980),
AH the available case records of unsupported spans are plotted in Figure
7.5, The tentative curved envelope is the assumed maximum design span
for man-made openings based on Ihese available cases , The tive square data
points plotting aboye this curve were obtained from the huge natural openings
of Ihe Carlsbad limestone caverns in New Mexico . If the data for man-made
and natural openings are combined, it is seen that the limiting envelope is
approximately linear and can be represented by Ihe following simple equation:
Span = 2Q066 (7.3)
For design purposes, the suggested maximum design spans for different
types of excavations are based on the curved envelope.
VERY EXT . EXC .

POOR FAIR GOOD 00 00 GOOD GOOD
200
, !, ¡
100
, , 50
!/
~/
,
20
A /~ •• •• 10
5
l'
2
1
4 10 40 100 400 1000
Rock Mass auality (a)
Figure 7.5 Excavation span versus rock mass quality Q . Gircles represent the mano
made unsupported excavations reported in the literature. Squares represent natural
openings lrom Garlsbad Gaves, New Mexico. The curved envelope is an estimate
01 the maximum design span lor permanently unsupported man-made openings.
(Alter Barton et al., ¡980).
7.5.1 Estimating Support Requirements

To test the aboye correlation, nine locations were selected in and around a
power station under construction (Barton et aL , 1980). The roof arch was
shotcreted at lhat time, though sorne 3-6 m of the walls were excavated
and parts were not shotcreted. Bolh end walls were bare. Other unsupported
locations were selected in lhe immediate vicinity of the powerhouse in an
attempt to predict conditions likely to be encountered when the cavem height
was increased to the maximum 31 m.
The six c1assification parameters of lhe Q-system were estimated and fel!
into three groups :
RQDIJ, J,/J, Q
Best zones 98/4.3 1.7/ 1.0 l/l 39
Poorer zones 7217 1.9/1.8 l/l 11
Worst zones 40/9 2/6 1/2.5 0.6
lt was estimated that more lhan 90% of lhe excavated rock in the powerhouse
(including roof and walls) would be of "best" quality, less than 10% of
" poorer" quality, and probably only 1 or 2% of "worst" quality.
MAXIMUM SPANS ANO SAFETY FACTORS FOR UNSUPPORTEO EXCAVATIONS 133
The mean ratings for Ihe majority of the rock mass (best , Q = 39) were
translated into Ihe following descriptions :
1. RQD = 98 (excellent).
2. J n = 4.3 (approx two joint sets).
3. J, = 1.7 (rough-planar to smoolh-undulating).
4. J a = 1.0 (unaltered joints, surface staining) .
5. J w = 1.0 (dry excavations).
6. SRF = 1.0 (medium stress, no rock bursting).
The support recommendations based on the Q-system were as follows:
Best conditions: ca 90% Q = 39 Roof: B 1.7 m center-to-center +

clm
Walls: sb ~
Poorer conditions: ca 10% Q = 11 Roof: B 1.5 m c/c + S(mr) 7 cm '-.
Walls: B 1.6 m c/c + clm
Worst conditions: 1- 2% Q 0 .6 Roof: B 1.0 m c/c + S(mr) 15 cm
Walls: B 1.2 m c/c + S(mr) 12 cm
where B = systematic bolting with given c/c spacing ,

sb = spot bolts,
S(mr) = mesh-reinforced shotcrete,
clm = chain link mesh or steel bands.
The aboye recommendations for support, especially those for the majority
of the rock mass (Q = 39) , will obviously appear grossly inadequate in
countries where a concrete lining has been a common feature of final tunnel
support. However, it should be noted that the support recommendations
obtained from the Q-system were based on the analysis of about 200 case
records , 79 of them in the powerhouse category.
In Figure 7.5 , it will be seen that Q = 39 (best) and the span of 19 m
lie sorne 3-4 m aboye the maximum design span for permanently unsupported
openings . BarlOn et al. (1980) observed thatlhe recommended systematic
bolting (spacing 1.7 m) and the steel banding (a single layer of shotcrete
might be preferred for aeslhetic reasons) seemed to be overdesign, considering
Ihat Ihe joint spacing was 1-2 m and the existingjoints relatively discontinuous.
In addition, the mean ratings of the six rock mass parameters for Ihe best-
quality (Q = 39) rock satisfied all the conditional factors apparently needed
for an excavation to be left permanently unsupported.
ROCK MASS QUALlTY Q

001 '0 1 04 10 4 10 40 100 400
,
100 --, 00
I
50
F~C re ~s F V
¿
./
---- ::::--
./
50
f-' .......--: ::::

20
S~F ::' ~
v --- ---- v
¡..--- r-- ::::: :;:::::::..-
20
Z
""
O-
10
6m V ~v
----
1---: ::::-::: ...- 6m
10
U)
5 5
e
...a:w ...-
V f;::: ~ ~
4m V 4m
~ V
O
O-
2 V _____ 1-;:::: :::: :::: r---- \~
2
O-
:>
U)
z
:> 0.5
v~ ¡;::C/
0.5
~
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
ROCK MASS RATING RMR
Figure 7.6 Estimated lactors 01 salety lor unsupported undergraund excavations

as a lunction 01 excavation span and rack mass quality. (Rearranged after Houghton
and Stacey, 1980).
7.5.2 Assessing Stability 01 Unsupported Excavations

Houghton and Stacey (1980) suggested a quantitative assessment, based on
rack mass classification, for tbe factor of safety of unsupported excavations.
This is depicted in Figure 7.6. They noted that due to different purposes of
excavations, foc civil engineering applications, factors of safety greater than
1.2 will be required when considering omission of support.
REFERENCES
Barton, N., F. Loset, R. Lien, and 1. Lunde. "Application of Q-System in Design
Decisions." Subsurface Space, ed. M. Bergman, Pergamon , New York, 1980,
pp. 553- 561.
Bieniawski, Z. T., and R. K. Maschek. "Monitoring Ihe Behavior of Rock Tunnels
during Construction." Civ. Eng . S. Afr. 17, 1975, pp. 255- 264.
Bieniawski, Z. T. "Elandsberg Pumped Storage Scheme- Rock Engineering In-
vestigations ." Exploration for Rock Engineering , ed. Z. T. Bieniawski, A. A.
Balkema, Johannesburg, 1976, pp. 273- 289.
REFERENCES 135
Bieniawski, Z. T. "A Critical Assessment of Selected In Situ Tests for Rock Mass
Deformability and Stress Measurements." Proc. 19th U.S. Symp. Rack Mech.,
University of Nevada, Reno, 1978, pp. 523 - 535.
Bieniawski, Z. T. Tunnel Design by Rack Mass Classifications, U.S. Army Corps
of Engineers Technical Report GL-799-19, Waterways Experiment Station,
Vicksburg, MS, 1979, pp. 50-62.
Bieniawski, Z. T., D. C. Banks, and G. A. Nicholson. "Discussion on Park River
Tunnel." J. Constr. Div. ASCE 106, 1980, pp. 616-618.
Blackey, E. A. "Park River Auxiliary Tunnel." J. Constr. Div. ASCE 105 (C04),
1979, pp. 341-349.
Boniface, A. A. "Cornmentary on Tbree Methods of Estimating Support Requirements
for Underground Excavations." Design and Construction 01 Large Un rground
Openings, ed. E. L. Giles and N. Gay, SANCOT, Johannesburg, 19 4, pp.
33 - 39.
Davies, P. H. "Instrumentation in Tunnels to Assist in Econornic Lining." Explo tion
for Rack Engineering, ed. Z. T. Bieniawski, A. A. BaIkema, Johannes urg,
1976, pp. 243-252.
Deere, D. U., R. B. Peck, H. Parker, J. E. Monsees, and B. Schmidt. "Design of
Tunnel Support Systems." High. Res. Rec., no. 339,1970, pp. 26- 33.
Einstein, H. H., A. S. Azzouz, A. F. McKnown, and D. E. Thomson. "Evaluation
of Design and Performance-Porter Square Transit Station Chambers Lining."
Proc. Rapid Excav. Tunneling Conf., AIME, New York, 1983, pp. 597-620.
Engels, J. G., J. T. Cahill , and E. A. Blackey. "Geotechnical Performance of a
Large Machined-Bored Precast Concrete Lined Tunnel. " Proc. Rapid Excav.
Tunneling Conf., AIME, New York, 1981, pp. 1510-1533.
Gonzalez de Vallejo, L. I. "A New Rock Classification System for Underground
Assessment Using Surface Data." Proc. 1n/. Symp. Eng. Geol. Underground
Const., LNEC, Lisbon, 1983, vol. 1, pp. 1185-1194.
Houghton, D. A., and T. R. Stacey. "Application of Probability Techniques to
Underground Excavation." Proc. 7th Regional Corif. for Africa on Soil Mech.
and Found. Eng., A. A. Balkema, Acera, vol. 2, pp. 879-883.
Kaiser, P. K., C. MacKay, and A. D. Gale. "Evaluation of Rock Classifications
at B. C. Rail Tumbles Ridge Tunnels." Rack Mech. Rack Eng. 19, 1986, pp.
205-234.
Klaassen, M. J., C. H. MacKay, T. J. Morris , and D. G. Wasyluk. "Engineering
Geological Mapping and Computer Assisted Data Processing for Tunnels at the
Rogers Pass Project, B.C." Proc. Rapid Excav. Tunneling Conf., AIME, New
York, 1987, pp. 1309- 1323.
Nicholson, G. A., "A Case History Review from a Perspective of Design by Rock
Mass Classification Systems." Proc. Symp. Rack Class. Eng. Purp., ASTM
Special Technical Publication 984, Philadelphia, 1988, pp. 121 - 129.
0livier, H. 1. "Applicability of the Geomechanics Classification to the Orange-Fish
Tunnel Rock Masses." Civ. Eng. S. Afr. 21, 1979, pp. 179-185.
8
Applications in Mining
J/ is nol /he /hings you don' / know /lu1I gel you . /0 trouble.
J/ is /he things you think you kno f or sure.
- Casi ir PUÚlSki
Mining case histories featuring applications of rock mass classifications

demonstrate their potential in Ihe design of deep underground excavations,
and hence the effects of high in-situ stresses . This is particularly true of
hard-rock metal mining , which is generally performed at greater depth than
coal mining . Nevertheless , coal mining applications are also informative
due to the changing stress conditions imposed by abutment loadings such
as experienced in longwall mining.
Significant contributions to mining app1ications of rock mass classifications
were made by Laubscher (1977 , 1984) and Cummings et al. (1982) for
hard-rock mining , and by Unal (1983) and Venkateswarlu (1986) for coa1
mining . Other valuable work was performed by Brook and Dharmaratne
(1985) , Newman (1985), and Sandbak (1988).
8.1 HARD ROCK MINING: AFRICA
Laubscher (1977, 1984) modified Ihe Geomechanics Classification developed

by Bieniawski (1976, 1979) for mining applications involving asbestos mines
in southem Africa. This modification featured a series of adjustments for
137
-
'"
Q)
TABLE 8.1 Geomeehanles Classlfieation in Ha,d-roek Mlnlng Appllealions: Basle Roek Mass Ratings·
1 2 3 4 5
Class A B A B A B A B A B
Rating 100-81 80 -6 1 60-41 40-21 20-0
Oescription Very good Good Fair Poo, Very poo,
Parameter Range of Values
1 ROO 100- 97 96-84 83-71 70-56 55-44 43-31 30-17 16-4 3-0
Rating (= ROO x 15/100) 15 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 O
b
2 UCS (MPa) 185 184-165 164- 145 144-125 124-105 104-85 84- 65 64-45 44-25 24-5 4-0
Rating 20 18 16 14 12 10 B 6 4 2 O
3 Joint spacing Refer to

Rating Table 8.2
Joint condition, including
Refer to Table 8.3
4 groundwater
Rating 40 O
• Afier Laubscher (1977).
bUniaxial compressive strength.
HARD ROCK MINING: AFRICA 139
RMR values to accommodate the effects of the original (virgin) and induced
stresses , changes in stress, as well as the effects of blasting and weathering.
Full details are apparent from Tables 8.1 - 8.5:
Table 8.1 : Basic rock mas s ratings

Table 8.2: Ratings for multijoint systems
Table 8.3: Adjustments for joint condition and groundwater
Table 8.4: Total possible adjustments
Table 8.5: Support guide for mine drifts
Brook and Dharmaratne (1985) proposed further simplifications of

Laubscher' s modifications lo the RMR system on the basis of mining and
tunneling case histories in Sri Lanka. However, they found the log- log
graph for joint spacing rating of multijoint systems was confusing and
advocated a simpler representation; the graph, in Table 8.2, although again
modified, would benefit from further improvements.
TABLE 8.2 Geomechanlcs Classilicatlon lo, Ha,d-Rock Mining Appllcatlons:

Ratlngs lo, Multljoint Systems'
MINIMUM SPACING, m
0.06 0. 1 0.2 0 .61 .0 2.0
f ----1\--""""""I---'i,:¡...-\--"~....:>+'---'j 2 . 0
E
c5 1.0 1.0
z
..
Ü
Q.
In
f--\---t--\-Ir-:-'..---,I'--"'""<:;:"+---:".:"",=- j 0. 6
.c
W
....
~ 0 .1
5
0.1
a: 5
w
.... 0 .06
~
0.01 "-~~~~~L--'~~"""'~,:--'~~~""""0 . 01
0.01 0 .060.1 0.2 0 . 61 .0 2.0 10
MAXIMUM SPACING, m
8Modified after Laubscher (1981) and Breok and Dharmaratne (1985).
b Example: joint spacing A = 0.2 m, a = 0.5 m, and e = 1.0 m; rating A = 15. Aa = 11 , and
ABe ~ 7.
-...
C)
TABLE 8.3 Geomechanics Classification in Hard-Rock Mining Applications: Adjustments for Joint Conditlon and Groundwater'
Wet Conditions
Dry Moderate Pressure Severe Pressure
Parameter Description Condition Moist 25 - t 25 I/min > 1251/min
Multidirectional 100 100 95 90
Wavy
95 95 90 80
A Joint expression Unidirectional 90 75
90 85
(Iarge-scale
irregularities) 89 85 80 70
Curved 80 75 70 60
79 74
Straight 70 65 60 40
Very rough 100 100 95 90
99 99
B Joint expression Striated or rough 85 85 80 70
(small-scale
irregularities or 84 80
roughness) Smooth 60 55 60 50
59 50
Polished 50 40 30 20
Stronger thari wall roek 100 100 100 100
C Joint-wall alteration
No alteration 100 100 100 100
zone
Weaker than wall raek 75 70 65 60
No lill-surlaee staining only 100 100 100 100
Nonsoftening and Coarse sheared 95 90 70 50
sheared material Medium sheared 90 85 65 45
(elay- or tale-Iree)
Fine sheared 85 80 60 40
Coarse sheared 70 65 40 20
D Joint filling Soft sheared material
(e.g., tale) Medium sheared 65 60 35 15
Fine sheared 60 55 30 10
Gouge thiekness < amplitud e 01
irregularity 40 30 10
Gouge thiekness > amplitude 01 Flowing material
irregularity 20 10 5
8 After Laubscher (1977) .
--...
~
TABLE 8.4 Geomechanlcs Classification In Hard-Rock Mining Applications:
Total Possible Adjustments (in Percentages)'
Condition
Parameter ROD IRS· Joint Spacing 01 Joints Total
Weathering 95 96 82 75
Virgin and induced
stresses 120-76 120-76
Changes in stress 120-60 120-60
Strike and dip
orientation 70 70
81asting 93 86 80
'After Laubscher (1977).
blRS = ¡ntacl rock strength .
TABLE 8.5 Geomechanlcs Classlflcation in Hard-Rock Mlning Appllcatlons:

Support Guide for Mine Drifts·'·
Adjusted In-Situ Classes

Classes lA 18 2A 28 3A 38 4A 48 5A 58
1 and 2
3A a a a a
38 b b b b
4A c, d e, d e, d, e d, e
48 9 1, 9 1, g, j h, f, j
5A i i h, i, j h, j
58 k k I I
aAfter Laubscher (1977).
b Key : a generally no support bul locally joínt interseClions might require belting;
b patterned grouted bolts al l -m collar spacing;
e patterned grouted batts al O.75-m collar spacing;
d patterned grouted batts al 1-m collar spacing and shotcrete 50 mm thick ;
e patterned grouted bolts al 1-m collar spacing and massive concrete 300 mm thick
and only used i1 stress changes nol excessive;
f patterned grouted batts al 0.75-m collar spacing and shotcrete 100 mm th ick ;
9 patterned grouted batts al O.75-m collar spacing with mesh-reinforced shotcrete
100 mm Ihick;
h massive concrete 450 mm thick with patterned grouled bolts al 1-m spacing if
stress changes are not excessive;
grouted bolts al 0.75-m collar spacing if reinforcing potential is present, and 100-
mm reinforced shotcrete, and then yielding steel arches as a repair technique if
stress changes are excessive;
stabilize wilh rape cover support and massive concrete 450 mm thick is stress
changes nol excessive;
k stabilize with rape cover support followed by shotcrete to and including face if
necessary, and then cJosely spaced yielding arches as a repair lechnique where
stress changes are excessive;
avoid development in this ground, otherwise use support systems "( or M k."
142
HARD ROCK MINING: USA 143
8.2 HARD ROCK MINING: USA
Cummings et al. (1982) and Kendorski et al. (1983) also modified the
Geomechanics Classification (Bieniawski, 1979) for mining applications in
U. S. block caving copper mines.
The MBR (modified basic RMR) system, depicted in Figure 8.1, uses
the basic RMR approach of Bieniawski (1979) with sorne of tbe concepts
of Laubscher (1977). Key differences lie in tbe arrangement of tbe initial
rating terms and in the adjustment sequence. In the MBR system, the inputs
are selected and arranged so that a rational rating is still possible using very
prelintinary geotechnical information from drill holes. The MBR is also a
multistage adjustment; the output at each stage can be related to support for
various ntining conditions. The MBR rating is the result of the initial stage
and is tbe simple sum of tbe element ratings.
The MBR is an indicator of rock mass competence, witbout regard to;
the type of opening constructed in il. This MBR value is used in the same
fashion as tbe RMR for determining support requirements by consulting
support cbarts or tables. Tbe MBR recommendations are for isolated single
tunnels tbat are not in areas geologically different from production areas.
Tbe second stage is tbe assignment of numerical adjustments to tbe MBR
tbat adapt it to tbe ore block development process. Witb regard to support,
tbe principal differences between production drifts and civil tunnels (in
development only) are tbe excavation tecbniques and the need for multiple,
parallel openings. Unfavorable fracture orientation may also strongly inftuence
stability. Input parameters relate to excavation (blasting) practice, geometry
(vicinity, size, and orientation of openings), deptb, and fracturing orientation.
OE:VELOPMENT PROOUCTION
AOJUSTMENTS AOJUSTMENTS
AOJUSTED MBR·I-- - - - - -..j FINAL MBR -
MBR.A8,As .Ao AMBR.DC.PS.S
SUPf'ORT RECOMMENOATIONS SUPPORT RECO"'MENOATIONS

SUPPORT RECOMMENOATIONS
FOR ORIFTS FOR DRIFT!
FCA SERVICE AREAS QURlNG QEVELOf'M ENT OURlNG PROOUCTION
Figure 8.1 The overall structure 01 the MBR system. (Alter Cummings et al., 1982.)
144 APPLlCATlON$ IN MINING
The adjustment values are obtained from tables and charts , and the MBR
is multiplied by the decimal adjustment to obtain the adjusted MBR. Drift
support charts are consulted to give a range of supports for drift development
(initial support). The user may select support according to the performance
period desired, since lighter support will be adequate in sorne rock for short
periods. The objective is to stabilize initially the opening during development
so that the permanent support may use its full capacity to resist the abutment
loading increment.
The third and last cJassification stage deals with the additional deformations
due to abutment loadings. As stated before, caving deformations will also
be accounted for if proper undercutting and draw control practices are followed.
The most significant identified factors inftuencing abutment load are the
location and orientation of the drift with respect to the caved volume, the
size of the caved volume, the ability of the rock mass to withstand stress,
the tendency of the lining to attract stress, and the role of any major structural
trends that may serve to localize or transfer the abutment deformations.
Input variables relate to block or panel size, undercutting sequence, level
layout, MBR, and general structural geology of the area. The adjustment
values, obtained from tables and graphs , are used as multipliers to the
adjusted MBR and result in the final MBR . This value, together with an
assessment of repair acceptability (depending on the type of opening) is
correlated with recommendations for permanent support at intersections and
in drift sections.
8.2.1 Approach
The firsi step in using the MBR system is the collection of representative
data on geology and mining altematives. Data sheets, such as those in Figures
8.2 and 8.3, are helpful in organizing these data.
Once the basic data have been assembled, the analysis proceeds according
to the flow chart presented in Figure 8.1. Ratings are applied to the intact
rack strength, discontinuity density and condition, and groundwater conditions.
Intact rock strength is rated according to Figure 8.4. The shaded region
perrnits adjustment of ratings to allow for a natural sampling and testing
bias .
The discontinuity density, which is related to blockiness and is the sum
of ratings for RQD and discontinuity spacing, is depicted in Figure 8.5. If
either type of data is lacking, it can be estimated through the use of Figure
8.6.
Table 8.6 is used for rating the discontinuity condition. The most rep-
resentative conditions are assessed for this step. The degree or type of
alteration can be a useful index for this as well .
MBR Input Data Sheet: Geologieal Data
Projeet Name Sit e of Survey By Da te _ _ _ _ __
l. Geologie Region: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Roek Type Loeation
2. Compressive Strength: Average _ _ _ _ _Range _ _ _ _ __ Method Comment
3. Core Reeover y: Interval Average Range
4. RQD: Inte r val _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Average Range
5. Diseontinuity Spacing: Average Range Comment _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
6. Diseo ntin u ity Condition Wall Roughness Wall Separation Joint Filling Wall Weathering
Most Common
Intermediate
Least Common
Consensus
7. Water Condition Dry Damp Wet Dripping Flowing
8. Fracture Orientations Set 1 Set 2 Set 3 Set 4 Set 5

Strike
Dip/Dir
Rank
9. Major Structures Strike Dip Oip Oir. Width Loca t ion ICorrunent
Name: Location/Comment
Name:
Name:
10 . Stress Field 01: Direction Magni tude I Measured?
°3: Oir e ction Magnitude --¡f------- Measured?
i
.-
<JI
11. Souree of Geologieal Data
• Figure 8.2 Input form : geological data. (Alter Cummings et al., 1982.)
,
MBR Input Data Sheet: Engineering Data

...
~
Project Name Site of Survey By Date________

'"
l. Type of Drift(s) 2. Orientation(s) 3. Design Life
4. Design Dimensions Width Width variation
Height Height variation
5. Drift Spacing (Horizontal)

Other Openings Type ________________________S
, ize _______________ Spacing
6. Extraction Ratio
Multiple Openings: Excavated Area Unexcavated er____________________
Single Opening: 1.5 (width) __________________ Excavated Unexcavated e __________
r
7. Distance below undercut - dríft floor to undercut floor
drift crown to undercut floor
8. Method of Excavation: Machine bored Controlled O & B Conventional D & B
9. Excavation conctitions:
Perimeter Hale Traces
Rib ar Crcwn Looseness
New ar Existing Cracks
10.
Overbreak & Bar.r~i~n:g~-_D==o~w~n~===================================================================================
Other Critería _
Intersections, turnouts: Type Location Max. Span
11. Block Dimensions! Side ________ Orientation End Orientation
12. Cave Line Direc tion Direction of Prog ress
13. Drift Location (in block, with respect to major structures and their dips , with r espect to cave)
Figure 8.3 Input form: engineering data. (After Cummings et al.• 1982.)
HARD RDCK MINING, USA 147
",.
13
12
"
10
9
el
z·
f-
«
a::
7
6
,
•3
RANGE OF POSSt8lE ROCK
STRENGTHS FOR SELCTED
RATtNGS
2
150
20 25 30
INTACT ROCK STRENGTH
Figure 8.4 Ratings lor intaet roek strength: MBR system. (Alter Cummings et al.,
1982.)
,.
20
,.
,.
16 ",16
z
¡::
:14
12 '"012
z
It
'"
z
~ 10
"
o:
e
o
o:
•
6
'">-'0
t:
:>
~
z>-
o
~6
.
i5
4
2 2
0.1 O., 1.0 1.!5 m
OL-~2~0~4~0~~60~~.~0~~'OO OL-~~~~2~--T-~~--~r---~
6ft
ROO,·;' DISCONTINUITY SPACING
Figure 8.5 Ratings lor diseontinuity density: MBR system . (Alter Cummings et al. ,
1982.)
148 APPUCATJONS IN MINING
100
90
80
70
60
"
o 00
"a: 40
30
20
10
I .Om
O~~-r~~~~~~-+~~
2 3 4 6 9 12 18 24 36 In
MEAN DISCONTINUITY SPACING
Figure 8.6 Theoretical relationship between RQO and discontinuity spacing. (After
Priest and Hudson, 1976.)
The groundwater condition rating is determined from Table 8.7.

To obtain the MBR, the fOUT ratings mentioned aboye are summed. The
ranges of the input parameters are given in Figure 8.1. At this point, !he
development support char! , given in Figure 8.7, provides support for service
areas aWay from production areas.
Having thus obtained the MBR and the applicable recommendations, the
adjusted MBR is computed for development adjustments as follows.
TABLE 8.6 MBR System: Discontinuity Condition Ratings'

Description 01
Discontinuity
Wall roughness b VR R-SR SR SM-SK SM
Wall separation None Hairline < lmm 1-5 mm >5mm
Joint Iilling None None Minor clay Stiff clay, Soft clay,
gouge gouge
Wall weatheringC F SL SO SO VS
Rating 30 25 20 10 O
' After Cummings et al. (1982).
bRoughness: VR very rough (coarse sandpaper) ,
R rough (medium or fine sandpaper),
SR smooth to slightly rough,
SM smooth but not polished,
SK slickensided, shiny.
CWeathering (alteration): F fresh, unweathered, hard;
SL slightly weathered , hard;
SO softened , strongly weathered;
VS very soft or decomposed.
HARD ROCK MINlNG: USA 149
TABLE 8.7 MBR System:

Groundwater Condition Ratinga
Condition Rating
Dry 15
Dump 10
Wet 7
Dripping 4
Flowing O
8After Cummings el al. (1982).
Firstly, the extraction ratio is computed for the mining layouts under
study. For single drifts wilh multiple intersections or those lhat are otherwise
affected by other openings, lhe extraction ratio may d~ll-..the-exrent
of the area considered. Only in such instances is lhe convention adopted
that all openings within 1.5 drift diameters of each rib are considered in
computing lhe extraction ratio. The ratio is computed at springline and
therefore ineludes lhe horizontal planimetric area of the finger or transfer
raises.
Blasting damage is next assessed according to lhe criteria of Table 8.8.
Both the blasting damage adjustment Ab and the descriptive term (moderate,
slight, severe, none) should be noted.
The induced stress adjustment A, is then determined. The horizontal (crh)
and vertical (cr ,) components of lhe stress field must be computed or estimated,
and the adjustment A, can then be read from Figure 8.8 for lhe appropriate
effective extraction ratio, deplh, and stress state. The extraction ratio is the
area of rock, after development, being effective in carrying the load .
Next, the adjustment for fracture orientation Ao is computed. If drift
exposures are available , Table 8.9 (top) is used. If no drift exposures exist
but fracturing trends are known, Table 8.9 (bottom) can be used. The basis
of Table 8.9 is that fractures perpendicular to the axis of lhe opening are
more favorable than fractures parallel to it; lhat both development and
support are facilitated by fractures that dip away from lhe heading ralher
than toward it; and that steep dips are preferable to shallow dips. If fracturing
trends are not known but core is available for examination, fully interlocking
core can be examined for the number of groups of discontinuities of similar
inelinations in lhe coreo
The three adjustments, A" Ab , A o , are multiplied, yielding for most
situations a decimal value between 0.45 and 1.0. The MBR is multiplied
by this value or by 0.5, whichever is greater, to yield the adjusted MBR.
The development support char1 in Figure 8.7 is lhen again consulted for
support recornmendations. lt should be decided what degree of support
150 APPLlCAT/ONS IN MINING
o 10 20 30 40 .0 60 70 90 90 100
POT BOLTING
WIDE PATTERN BOLTING
MEOIUM PATTERN BOlTING.
MESH CR STRAPS CLOSE PATTERN BOLTING,
MESH CR STRAPS
MEOIUM PATTERN BOlTING
WITH SHOTCRETE
CLOSE PATTERN BOLTING. SHOTCRETE WITH

MESH. MINIMAL OCCASIONAL STEEL CR
UGHT TIMBER
LlGHT STEEl CR MEDIUM TIMBER. LAGGING
MEOJUM STEEL,ORHEAVY TlMBER. FULL LAGGING
HEAVY STEEL, SHOTCRETE Al FACE CR SPtLlNG AS REQUIREO
O 10 20 30 40 '0 60 70 90 90 100
ROCK MASS RATING - AOJUSTEO

Figure 8.7 MBR support chart for iso/ated or deve/opment drifts. (After Cummings
et al., 1982.)
Explanations 01 the $upport Types

Spot Bolting: Bolting to restrain limited areas O( individual blocks 01 loase rack, primarily
far safety.
Wide Pattern Bolting: Bolts spaced 1.5-1.8 m, O( wider in very larga openings.
Medium Pattern BOlting, with or without Mesh or Straps: Bolts spaced 0.9-1.5 m, 23-cm
wide straps or lOO-mm welded wire mesh.
Close Pattern Bolting, Mesh, or Straps: Bolt spacing less than 0.9 m, 1oo-mm welded wire
mesh, 0.3-m straps, or chain link.
Medium paltern bolting with shotcrete: Bolts spaced 0.9-1.5 m and 80 mm (nominal) of
shotcrete. Ught mesh for wet rock to afleviate shotcrete adherence problems.
Close Paltern Bolting, Shotcrete with Mesh, Minimal Occasional Steel, or Light Timber: Bolt
spacing less than 0.9 m with 100-mm welded wire mesh or chain link throughout, and
nominal 100-mm of shotcrete. Localized conditions may require light wide-flange steel
sets or timber sets.
Ught Steel, Medium Timber, Lagging: BoIting as required for safety at the face-
full contact (grouted or split set) bolts only. Ught wide-flange steel sets or 0.25-m timber
sets spaced 1.5 m, with full crown lagging and rib lagging in squeezing areas.
Medium Steel, Heavy Timber, Full Lagging: Medium wide-flange steel sets orO.3-m timber
sets spaced 1.5 m, fully lagged across the crown and ribs. SUppOf1 lo be installed as
close lO the face as possible.
Heavy Steel, Shotcrete at Face or Spilling as Required: Heavy wide-flange steel sets spaced
1.2 m, fu/ly lagged on crown and ribs, carried directly to face. Spiffing or shotcreting
of face as necessary.
General: Bolting: bolts in spot bolting through close pattern bolting are considered to be
19 mm in diameler, fully grauted or resin-anchared standard rockbolts; mechanical
anchors are acceptable in material af MBR > 60. Spift-set use is at the discretion of
the operator.
HARD ROCK MINING, USA 151
TABLE 8.8 MBR System: Blasting Damage Adjustment A.

Conditions/Method Applicable T erm Adjustment A.
1. Machine boring No damage 1.0
2. Controlled blasting Slight damage 0.94-0.97
3. Good conventional blasting Moderate damage 0.90-0.94
4. Poor conventional blasting Severe damage 0.90-0.80'
5. No experience in this rock Moderate damage 0.90 b
aWorst: 0.80.
bNominal .
reliability is desired for development. It is recornrnende at tbe development

support be selected so as to stabilize the opening for as lo s it will take
to bring the block into production.
Next, the final MBR is computed. In this third and last stage, tbe role
of abutment loadings is accounted for. This is addressed through considerations
of structural geology and mining geometry (production adjustments).
Faulted and shattered zones disrupt the mining-induced stress pattem and
are dealt witb through the adjustment for orientation of major structures S
(use Table 8.9). Although any zone of significantly less competence is
eligible for adjustment, it is suggested that only the larger, nearby features
are worthy of consideration. The limiting width-distance relationship will
become clear for each mining property. Where information is too sparse or
preliminary, it may be possible to characterize blocks of ground according
to an expected or typical distribution of weakness zones.
0.7 r -----------------------------------~
/
0 .8
<
,.:
z
~ o.•
:o
~
~
=>
~
o 1.0
~ 0 .1 0 .4 0.5 0 .6 0 .7 0 .8
EFFECTIVE EXTRACTrON RATIO. f'ff f'r
1. 1
l..
Figure 8.8 Adjustment As lor induced stresses due to multiple openings. (Alter
Cummings et al., 1982.)
~
TABLE 8.9 MBR System: Fracture Orientalion Ratlng Aa'

Direct Observation in Drift
No. of Nonvertical Faces
No. of Fractures Defining Block 2 3 4 5 6
3 0.95 0.80
4 0.95 0.85 0.80
5 1.0 0.95 0.90 0.85 0.80
6 1.0 1.0 0.95 0.90 0.85 0.80
Indirect Observation 01 Fracture Statistics
Perpendicular
Strike
Heading Direction With Dip Against Dip Parallel Flat Dip
Dip amount 45-90 20-45 45-90 20-45 45-90 20- 45 0-20
Adjustment 1.0 0.95 0.90 0.85 0.80 0.90 0.85
8After Cummings et al. (1982) .
HARD ROCK MINING, USA 153
The adjustment for the proximity to the cave line De is computed from
Figure 8.9. This rating refers to the point of closest approach of Ihe cave
area. In sorne cases, Ihis means the vertical distance, and in others, the
horizontal. The term retlects the dissipation of abutment load away from
the point of application.
The block or panel size adjustment PS (see Fig. 8.10) retle s Ihe relationship
between magnitude of abutment stress and size of caved vo me. Smaller
panel or block sizes are associated with lower abutment load lev because
the caved volume is smaller. Blocks larger Ihan 60 m or so, as well as e el-
DISTAN CE (VERTICAL)
o 5 10 20 25 30 m
I ! i I ¡ ¡ ¡ I ¡ 'i I
O 10 20 30 40 50 60 90 100ft
80
70
60
o::
ID 50
VERTICAL DISTANCE
~ "'--~".__AOJUSTMENT CURVE
40
20
10L_--:~"--~rn-"""'""":"r::;-"";;:~-"';:¡~-~~...I...-,=-~~
:SO 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 f1
olsTANCE (HORIZONTAL)
Figure 8.9 Adjustment Oc for distance to cave fine. For drifts beneath the caving
area, the vertical distance is projected up to the single vertical distance adjustment
curve; the rating is read by interpolating between the multiple curves. For workings
horizontally removed from the caving area, the horizontal distance if projected up
to the MBR value and the rating is interpolated at that point from the multiple curves.
Far working both beneath and to the side, ratings are computed both ways and the
lowest value is taken. (After Cummings et al., 1982.)
154 APPL/CATfONS IN MINfNG
1.3
0.'" 1.2
>'
z
w
~
o-
~
o
..., 1.1
a
4
I.oL----,,-':o--:2'::.o--:3:'::o--:'4o':-----:5:'::o--"~60
BLOCK DlMENSION . m
Figure 8. fO Adjustment P, for block/panel size. (After Cummings et al., 1982.)
wide (mass) caving systems, receive an adjustment of 1.0. PS may also be

applied to blocks that are partially undercut.
These three adjustment values, S, De, and PS, are multiplied together
and then multiplied by the adjusted MBR rating to yield the final MBR,
which is used to obtain permanent drift support recommendations. The range
of values for lhe product of lhese adjustment ratings is 0.56 to 1.7; there
are no other restrictions on this range. In practice, lhe high end of this range
will seldom be reached because small caving blocks are uncommon in present
practice.
The recommended support is lhen arrived at for drift sections or intersections
through Figure 8.11. Por spans of more than 6 m, the rating scale for
intersections is used.
The degree of acceptable repair refers to the occurrence of cracking,
spalling , slabbing, or other unacceptable deformation of the lining, lhat
requires a production interruption while repairs are made. Repairs necessitated
by damage resulting from excessive secondary blasting, wear, and poor
undercutting or draw control were not addressed in developing lhe support
chart. A higher incidence of repair is tolerated in slusher or grizzly drifts
than in fringe drifts of haulageways.
In selecting a support type based on final MBR , the user should have in
mind lhe level of conservatism that was applied in selecting the development
support. A high degree of support reliability in development will perrnit up
to one repair category lighter support in production than might otherwise
have been selected. For lower final MBR values, lhe support charts indicate
a range of supports. This reflects lhe variability in conservatísm among mine
operators. Generally, lhe support used in such cases is the líghtest in the
range, although this depends on the acceptable amount of repair.
FINAL MBR - INTERSECTIONS
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
5POT BOLTING
__.:;;~~~;;;~~W~t:OE PATTERN .BOlTING
__ CLOSE PATTERN BDlTING
LOSE PATTERN BOLTING1.
STRAPS ORMESH,SHOTCti TE
PLAIN MASSIVE CONCRETE
UGHTLY REINFORCEO CONCRETE
HEAVllY REINFORCED CONCRETE
MEDIUM STEEL SETS
MEDlUM STEEL SErs PLUS

CONCRETE TO CDVER
HEAVV ST EEL SETS PLUS

HEAVILY REINFORCED CONCRETE
10 20 30 40 60 70 80 90
FINAL MBR- DRIFTS

Figure 8.11 MBR permanent support chart for produclion drifts. (After Cummings
el al., 1982.)
Explanatlon 01 the Support Types
Spot Bolting: Bolting to restrain limited areas or individual blocks o, loose rack, primarily
fer safety.
Wide Pattern Bolting: BoIts on spaced 1.2-1.8 m. May be wider in very large openings,
when longer bolts are used.
Close Pattern Bolting: Bolts spaced less than 0.9-1.2 m (practica/limit 0.6 m).
Close Pattern Belting, Mesh, or Straps, Shotcrete: Close pattern bolts with welded mesh
or chain link in raveling ground, and nominal 100 mm 01 shotcrete.
Plain Massive Concrete: Cast-in-pJace massive concrete lining, 0.3-0.45 m thick, may be
applied over bo/ts or bO/IS and mesh when necessary. Prior shotcrete, il not damaged,
may be considered part 01 this concrete thickness. Concrete should have a minimum
as-placed 28-d compressive strength 0121 MPa (3000 Iblin. 2.
lightly Reinforced Concrete: Massive, cast-in-place concrete lining 0.3-0.45 m thick as
above, lightly reinlorced with rebars on O.6-m centers or continuous heavy chain link.
Reinlorcement mainly in brows, crown, corners, and intersections.
Heavily Reinforced Concrete: Massive, cast-in-place concrete lining as above, heavily re-
inlorced with rebars on O.6-m centers or less, on ribs and crown.
Medium Steel Sets: Medium wide-I/ange steel sets on 1.2-m centers, lully lagged on the
crown and ribs.
Medium Steel Sets Plus Plain Concrete to Cover: Medium wide-f1ange steel sets on 1.2-
m centers, with plain, cast-in-place concrete (min strength 21 MPa) ot sufficient lhickness
to cover the seIs.
Heavy Steel Sets Plus Heavily Reinforced Concrete: Heavy wide-tlange steeJ sets on 1.2-
m centers, with mínimum O.3-m-lhick heavily reintorced concrete throughout.
General: Concrete: it is assumed that proper concrete practice is observed: neg/igible
aggregate segregation, fuJJ rack-concrete contact, adequate curing time.
Chain link or steel sets, trom development support, are considered reinforcement it
the concrete between the sets is also reinforced.
155
156 APPLlCATlONS IN MINING
8.2.2 Example
A mine, described in Table 8.10, uses a panel cave method with undercutting.
Ore is developed and caved in a blockwise fashion. Undercut pillars are
longholed and shot; there is no drift widening.
Slushers are used to move ore from the drawpoints to a drop point, through
which it falls directly into ore cars in the haulage level. There are no transfer
raises. Drift life is 1.5 yr or less, due to !he relatively short ore colurnns
(61 mor less). Slusher lanes are nominally 61 m in length, but may be less.
The type of drift considered in this example involves slusher lanes hich
pose ongoing support problems. Key data for slusher drifts glven In
Table 8.10.
So/ution Determine the MBR for slusher drifts in altered porphyry. From
data in Table 8.10, !he ratings are as follows:
Intact Rock Strength. Av: 64 MPa. From Figure 8.4, rating = 5.
Discontinuity Density. Wide range of RQD, 39% (av). Discontinuities

average spacing 18.3 cm (0 .6 fl). May nol be represenlative. From Figure
8.5, rating = 8 for RQD and rating = 10 for spacing. From Figure 8.6, a
check: RQD = 39% relates to spacing of 15 cm. Thus
Discontinuity density rating = RQD rating + Spacing rating = 8 + 10 = 18
(8 1)
Discontinuity Condition. Wall roughness: R -SR. Wall separation: "hairline"

lo less than 6 mm. Joinl filling: none lO minimal clay. Wall weathering: SL,
sorne SO. From Table 8.6 , rating = 25.
Groundwater Condition. Dry. From Table 8.7, rating = 15. Altered por-
phyry MBR:
MBR = inlact rock strenglh rating

+ discontinuity density rating
+ discontinuity condition rating
+ groundwater condition rating
= 5 + 18 + 25 + 15
= 63 (8.2)
HARD RDCK MINING: USA 157
Deve/opment Adjustments The application of development adjustments

involves combining the engineering data with the geologic status.
Blasting Damage. Expect poor to fair conventional blasting. Fram Table

8.8, for "moderate damage," rating Ab = 0.90.
Induced Stresses. Slusher la es are 3 m (10 ft) wide on 10.5-m (35-ft)

centers. The 1.5 X 1.5-m ti er raises are on 5.3-m (l7.5-ft) centers, so
the extraction ratio is gi by
3 X 5.3 = 2(1.5 X 1.5)

e, = 0.37 (8.3)
10.5 X 5.3
Fram Kendorski et al. (1983), for a 3-m wide drift, a basic e, = 0.37
and moderate blast damage generates an effective e, of 0.51. This value
reflects the area of rock remaining, after development, !hat is effective in
accepting load.
/ In the absence of measurements, it may be expected CTI = 1100 psi (7.6
MPa). The horizontal stress is assumed to be CTI(v/l - v) = CTh = CT3,
where v is assumed to be 0.25 in the absence of measurements. Thus,
CT v > 3 CTh and the top curve on Figure 8.8 is used. Thus, induced stresses
rating As = 0.88.
Fracture Orientation. For altered porphyry, there are four fracture ori-
entations. In order from most to least prevalent, !he sets are (strike, dip,
number of observations in set fram Schmidt plot clusters)
l. NE, vertical, 56 observations.

2. WNW, steeply dipping NE, 53 observations.
3. NE, shallow or moderate dip SE, 32 observations.
4. NW, steeply dipping SW, 22 observations.
Slusher lane development is fram NW to SE. Therefore, the sets are

oriented as follows:
Set l . Perpendicular
Vertical dip
Set 2. Parallel
Steep dip (45 - 90°)
TABLE 8.10 Geologlcal and Engineerlng Data for the Design Problem
~
l:: Geological Data

Project Name Example Mine Site 01 Survey Upper Level By ABC Date 2/25/88
1. Geologic region: Altered porphyry Rock type Alt. ppy, volcanic Location Block 1, access and slushers
2. Compressive strength: Average 9,300 psi Range 4,500-12,600 Method Point-Ioad Comment Many fractures-continuous
3. Core recovery: Interval 80-300 ft Average 83% Range 66-100%
4. ROD: Interval -do- Average 39% Range 14-90%
5. Discontinuity spacing: Average 0.6 ft Range 0.2-1.6 ft Comment Local/y 1.5-2 ft
6. Discontinuity condition Wall roughness Wall separation Joint lilling Wall weathering
Most common Rough Hairline None Slightly
weathered
Intermediate Slightly rough < 1/4 in. FeOx Softened
Least common Smooth None Clay Severe
Consensus R-SR Hai,line None/ay SL
7. Waler condilion
8. Fracture orientations
Slrike
B NE
Damp
Sel 1
Wel
Sel2
WNW
Dripping
Sel3
NE
Flowing
Set 4
NW
Set5
Dip/direclion Vert. Str./NE Mod./SE Str/SW

--
Rank 1(58) 2(53) 3(38) 4(88)
9. Major slruclures Strike Dip Dip dir. Widlh Localion/commenl
Name: Fault zone NE Mod. NW + 100 ft SE Boundary, Block 1, distance ~ 80-100
Name: _ _ __
Name: _ _ __
lO. Stress lield (T, Direction Vertical Magnitude 1100 psi Measured? ~o.
(T, Direction Horizontal Magnitude 800 psi Measured? No

11 . Source 01 geological data Mainly core with limited underground exposures
Engineering Data
Project Name Example Mine Site of Survey Upper Level By ABC Dale 3/10/88
1. Type of drift(s) : S/usher 2. Orientation(s) NW/SE 3. Design life About 7'/, yr max.
4. Design Dimension : Widlh 10 ft Widlh varialion _ -'n"'o"'n.::
e _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ __ __
e_ _ _ _ __ __ _ _ _ _ _~_ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _
Height 11 ft Height varialion _-'n":o"'n.::
5. Drift spacing (horizonlal) 35 ft center-to-center
Other openings Type fingers Size Sft x Sft Spacing 17.5 ft center-to-center
e, ~a,
6. Exlraction Ratio
Multiple openings: Excavated area 22S ft ' Unexcavated 388 ft' 0.37
Single opening : 1.5 (widlh) Excavated _ _ _ __ _ Unexcavated _______ ~ ________
7. Distance below undercu!: Drift floor lo undercut floor _1"S,-"
ft_ __
Drift floor lo undercut floor _ ..4..ft,,-_ _
8. Method of excavation : Machine-bored Controlled drilling and blasling
9. Excavation conditions
Perimeter hole traces Few seen. No blast holes remaining .
Rib or crown looseness Ribs drummy in places. Crown tight after barring down .
New or existing cracks Sorne new. Sorne old joints opened.
Overbreak and barring-down 0.8. = 1-2 ft. Barring: Sama, not major.
Olher criteria ______________ __ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ __ _ _ _ _ _ __ __ _ __
10. Inlerseclions, turnouts : Type Intersection Location Access, vent Max span 16 ft
11 . Block dimensions: Side 800 ft Orientation NW/SE End 200 ft Orientation NE/SW
12. Cave line Direclion ENE Direction of programs _ _ _.:.:N"N..W"-_ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ __ __
13. Drift location (in block, with respecl lo major struclures and their dips, with respect to cave) . Across block, beneath cave, fault zona
.... structure across ends opposite slusher
UI
'"
160 APPLlCATlON$ IN MINING
Set 3. Perpendicular, drive with dip

Moderate dip (20-45°)
Set 4. Parallel
Steep dip (45 - 90°)
From Table 8.9, the set ratings are: Set 1, \.0; Set 2,0 .8; Set 3, 0.95 ,
Set 4, 0.80. Weighting these according to the number of observations of
each ,
\.0 x 56 +- 0.8 x 53 + 0.95 x 32 + 0.8 x 22

Ao 0.90
- -- - c:-:-- c:-:---:--,-- -::-c-- - - - - = = (8.4)
56 + 53 + 32 + 22
Adjusted MBR Computation:
The adjustments are sumrnarized as follows:
Ab = 0.90 As = 0.88 Ao = 0.90 (8.5)
Checking Ab x As x Ao = 0 .713, which is greater than the 0 .5 minimum

value .
Thus, adjusted MBR = 0.713 (63) = 45, for altered porphyry in slusher
drifts.
Production Adjustments. In this step, the adjusted MBR, which is related

to development support, is further adjusted to allow for dynamic and transient
deformations related to caving. It should be pointed out that adequate un-
dercutting and draw control practice is assumed, so that loads developing
during routine production remain below the peak abutment levels. There is
no allowance in the MBR system for incomplete blasting of pillars during
undercutting in which stubs are left, or for caving difficulties such as hangups
or packed drawpoints, or other influences causing excessive weight 10 be
thrown onto the drift support .
Major Structures. Since a fault zone exists in the vicinity of the cave area,
this zone is considered a major structure. It is assumed that the fault zone
was c1assified as a separate structure having an MBR of 37. The altered
porphyry MBR is 63, as opposed to 37 for the fault zone, and this is a
significant contrast. In reality, a zone of any width can be regarded as a
major structure, so long as the zone is independently c1assifiable and of
significant contrast in MBR value.
HARD RDCK MINING: USA 161
From Table 8 . JO, the fault zone is along the southeastem Iimit of Block
1; the strikes are generally northeast and the dips moderately northwest.
The zone thickness is thought to be at least 30 m. Thus, W = 30 m.
The closest point of approach, of altered porphyry to the zone boundary,
within lhe slusher lanes, is 24-30 m (80- 100 ft).
The key information is thus:
Distance to the fault zone: 24 m = 0.8W.

Fault strike versus heading direction: perpendicular.
Dip direction: toward the drifts. Dip amount: moderate.
From Table 8.9, the adjustment S = 0.82.
Distance to Cave Une. The closest point of approach is used. The sense
of the distance, for slusher lanes, will be vertical, and amounts of lhe level
separation. For smalllevel separations, the height of the drift is significan!.
The distance from lhe slusher drift crown to lhe undercut floor is 4.5 m -
3 m = 1.5 m (5 ft). The vertical distance adjustment curve in Figure 8.9
considers separations only as low as 3 m, so 3 m is used.
The adjustment OC = 0.80. Note that the MBR does not figure in lhis
adjustment, where vertical distance is being considered.
Block Panel Size. The panel size dimension is taken perpendicular to lhe
advancing cave line. The most unfavorable condition is selected, which in
this base will be the maximum void opened up.
For a 61 x 61-m block, using diagonal retreat caving, the distance used
will be well in excess of 61 m.
Adjustment PS = J .0.
Final MBR Computation:
The adjustments are as follows:

Major structures S = 0.82
Cave line distance DC = 0.80
Block/panel size PS = 1.0
The final MBR is thus
Adjusted MBR x S x DC x PS = 45 x 0.82 x 0.80 x 1.0

= 29.52 = 30 (8.6)
162 APPUCATlON$ IN MINING
Support Recommendations
Isolated Orifts. From the support chart in Figure 8.7, it is readily seen that
an isolated drift in altered porphyry (MBR = 63) would require rock bolts
in either a wide or medium pattern; mesh may occasionally be required.
Oevelopment Support. From the same chart in Figure 8.7 and an adjusted
MBR of 45, one would recommend close pattern bolting with mesh in better
sections. Elsewhere, bolts and shotcrete, or occasional light steel, will be
needed to stabilize the opening prior to final lining.
Production Support. The final MBR is 30. For slusher lanes, repair is
fairly routine because of brow damage. The recornmended support from
Figure 8.11 corresponds to reinforced concrete oyer bolts or oyer bolts and
mesh. For service life that is intended to be short, selection of lighter support
may be feasible.
For intersections, additional concrete reinforcement should be proyided.
8.3 COAL MINING: USA
Unal (1983, 1986) deyeloped an empirical equation relating the rock load
height h, to the RMR from the Geomechanics Classification (Bieniawski,
1979) and to roof span B in coal mines as follows:
lOO - RMR
B (8.7)
lOO
He showed that the roof bolt length can be estimated as one-half of the
rock load height (h,) and on this basis prepared a series of design charts for
mechanically tensioned and resin grouted bolts for applications in U. S. coal
mines. Examples of the charts are giyen. The key at the bottom of Chart
8.1 applies to Charts 8.2-8.5 as well.
8.3.1 Example
A roof strata is to be classified for a 6.1-m-wide coal mine entry to facilitate

selection of mechanical or resin grouted rack bolts. The coal seam, the
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163
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CHART 8.2 Rool Support Design Chart #2 lo. Coal Mines
~
ENTRY WIDTH; 18-fT
ALTERNA TE SUP PQRT PATTERNS SPECIFICATIONS

Foe
RO CK CLASS POSTS
90
VERY GODO
80
II
70
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166
CHART 8,5 Rool Support Design Chart #5 lar Coal Mines
RQCK ~g¡~ ISU¡'PORT SPEC1F1CAT!ONS I ALTERNATE S\'ppI)1T • PATTERNS

RaCK CLASS I R~~f~G HE~GHT
RMR H n)
R
IIJ
50 14,2
FA] R
40 17 ,0
IV
~
1 19,8
POOR
12.0'
20 I 22,6
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-....
O>
6.5" ) : l"
L", Ru i n Lcngt h/ aolt Lcngth

168 APPLlCATlONS IN MINING
overlying and underlying strata, and the geometry of the opening are as
follows:
Depth of Coal Seam Below Surface: 152 m

Stratigraphic Column:
Immediate roof: soft shale-4.5 m thick; average thickness of the
layers in the roof 150 mm
Coal seam: 3.0 m thick
Floor: Fire clay
Tests have been carried out on the roof strata and the coal seam yielding
the following property data:
Data Coal Soft Shale Hard Shale

Thíckness (m) 3.0 4.5 27.5
Unít weíght (kN/m') 12.5 25 . 1 26.7
Compressive strength 17.00 40.00 81.00
(MPa)
Roof strata conditions Not applicable Separation < 1 mm; slightly
weathered, slightly rough
surfaces; no infilling
RQD = 60%
Groundwater Damp Damp Damp
conditions
In-situ stresses Horizontal stress = 2.5 x (vertical stress)
Solution Determination of the rack mass rating (RMR) for roof strata. In
accordance with the Geomechanics Classification, the following ratings are
obtained for the classification parameters:
Strength of intact rock (soft shale): 40 MPa Rating = 5

Spacing of discontinuities: 150 mm Rating 7
Rock quality designation (RQD): 60% Rating 12
Condition of discontinuities: separation < 1 mm,
slightly weathered and slightly rough surfaces Rating = 17
Groundwater conditions: damp throughout Rating = 10
Basic RMR = 51
Adjustment for discontinuity orientation: -5
(horizontal bedding = fair orientation)
Adjustment for in-situ state of stress: Fram the overburden depth, the
vertical stress is 3.8 MPa and the horizontal stress (being 2.5 times this
value) is 9.5 MPa. The ratio of the horizontal stress to the uniaxial
compressive strength is 0.24. Using data fram Newman and Bieniawski
COAL MININGe INDIA 169
(1986), the stress adjustment multiplier is 0.9 . Hence, the adjusted

RMR value is calculated as 0.9(51 - 5) = 41.
Thus, RMR = 41 , and this value is used to select rock bolting parameters
from Chart 8. l or, better still, using the microcomputer program given in
the Appendix. The computer graphics output from the program is also
provided in the Appendix.
8.4 COAL MINING: INDIA
Venkateswarlu (1986) of the Central Mining Research Station (CMRS) of

India modified the Geomechanics Classification (Bieniawski, 1979) for es·
timating roof conditions and support in lndian coal mines. The modification
was called the CMRS Geomechanics Classification.
The Geomechanics Classification used in India is a simple and practica!
method of estimating roof conditions in a mine . The tive classitication
parameters and their ratings are given in Table 8.11. Note that the point-
load index I pi obtained from an irregular piece of rock is converted to estimate
the uniaxial compressive strength C o using the empirical relation: C o = 14
I pl ' Weatherability is determined by the ISRM slake durability index test,
with the first cycle taken for the classitication. Groundwater seepage rate
is measured by drilling a 1.8-m-Iong hole in the roof and collecting the
water percolating through the hole. This water flow is expressed in mL!
mino All the geological features are recorded through standard geotechnical
mapping.
Based on the RMR obtained from Table 8. 11, the support systems are
selected from Table 8. 12. An empirical relation has been established to
estimate the rock load as follows:
Rock load = span x rock density

x (1.7-0.037 RMR + 0.0002 RMR2) (8.8)
This RMR classification system has so far been tried in 47 lndian coal
mines. Majority of the roof strata experiencing ground control problems
come under the category of RMR Class III (Fair) and Class IV (Poor).
8.4.1 Example
A coal mine in India has seam workings at a depth of about 140 m. The
3 .5- 5-m-thick seam is being developed by the room and pillar method . The
seam is characterized as follows:
~
TABLE 8.11 Geomechanics Classlficatlon 01 CMRS, India: Rallngs lor Paramelers'

Parameter Range 01 Values
1. Layer thickness (cm) < 2.5 2.5-7.5 7.5-20 20-50 > 50
Rating 0-4 5-12 13-20 21-26 27-30
2. Structural leatures Description Highly disturbed Disturbed with Moderately Slightly Not
with laults numerQUS slips disturbed disturbed disturbed
Rating 0-4 5-10 11-16 17-21 22-25
3. Weatherability (/,,_,) ('lo) < 60 60-85 85-97 97-99 > 99
Rating 0-3 4-8 9-13 14-17 18-20
4. Strength 01 the rock (kg/cm 2 ) < 100 tOO-300 300-600 600-900 > 900
Rating 0-2 3-6 7-10 11-13 14-15
5. Groundwater flow (mUmin) > 2000 2000-200 200-20 20-0 Dry
Rating 0-1 2-4 5-7 8-9 10
RMR 0 - 10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 SO-60 60-70 70 - 80 80-90 90-100
CLASS VA VB IVA IVB lilA IIIS IIA IIB lA lB
DESCRIPTION VERY PODR PCOA FAIA GCOD VERY GOOO
aAfter Venkateswarlu (1986).

TABLE 8.12 Design Guidelines lor Rool Support in Indian Coal Mines: Rool Span 4.2-4.5 m (14-15 11)'
Permanenl Openlngs (lile more Ihan 10 yr)

Estimated
Rock Load
RMR (11m') Support Description b Recommended Supports
2 3 4
0-20 >tO Type A: yielding steel arches of 28 kg/m section
20-30 7-10 Type B: full-column quick·setting grouted bolts with wire

netting, W·straps and props; I = t.8 m, Sb =
S, = t.O m
or
Type C: rigid steel arches; spacing 1.2 m
30-40 5-7 Type D: resin bolting with W·strap and steel props (10 cm
q" 5·mm wall thickness); I = 1.8 m, Sb = 1.0 m,
S, = 1.2 m
or
Type E: brick walling (40 cm thick) with steel girders (200
x 100·mm section) at 1.2·m spacing, and
concrete sleepers
--.... (Table continues on p. 172.)

-
¡;j
Permanen! Openings (lite more than 10 yr)

Estimated
Rack Load
RMR (Vm') Support Description b Recommended Supports
2 3 4
40-50 3-5 Type F: rool truss supplemented with grouted bolts and
wooden sleepers (01 treated timber) : I ~ 1.5 m,
Sb ~ 1.0 m, S, ~ 1.2 m
or
Type G: rectangular steel supports (110 x 110·mm
section) rigidly lixed at the endswith tie rods;
timber lagging
50-60 3- 3 Type H: lull·column cement grouted bolts; I ~ 1.5 m, Sb ~

S, ~ 1.2 m
or
Type 1: steel props on either side 01 gallery at 1.2·m
spacing
60-80 0.5-2 Type J: supports in disturbed zones wherever necessary

(rool struss and bolting)
80-tOO < 0.5 Generally supports not required

Temporary Openlngs (life less than 10 yr)
Estimated
Rack Load General Supports Recommended b
RMR (tlm' )
0-20 > 10 TypeC: steelarches
20-30 7-10 Type K: rool truss using quick-setling grout (spacing 1.0
m) and wooden props (15 cm <1»
30-40 5-7 Type L: rape truss system (spacing 1.2 m) with bolting;
I ~ 1.8 m, Sb ~ 1.0 m, Sr ~ 1.2 m
40-50 3-5 Type M: rool truss supplemented with rape dowelling and
timber lagging; I ~ 1.5 m, Sb ~ 1.0 m, Sr ~ 1.2 m
50-60 2-3 Type N: rool truss with a single rape dowel; I ~ 1.5 m
60-80 0.5-2 Rool bolting in disturbed zones only
80-100 < 0.5 Generally no supports

a After Venkatesvarlu (1986).
~ bBolting parameters: bolt-dowel length 1, bolt-dowel spacing Sb, row spacing Sr.
C:l
174 APPUCATlONS IN MINlNG
Main roof: massive sandstone

lmmediate roof: carbonaceous shale- 2.4 m
Top coal: 1. 2 m
Main coal: 2.5 m
The span of the entries is 3.5 m and the mean density of the roof rocks
is 2.0 g/cm3 The parameter values and the allotted ratings for the two roof
types of coal and shale are given in Table 8.13. The two RMR values have
been combined by the weighted average method. An adjustment of 10%
reduction is made to this combined RMR to account for the stresses induced
by the overlying seam workings. The final RMR of 44.5 cJassifies the roof
strata as Class IlLA (Fair Roof).
Roof support is selected on the basis of the aboye cJassification from
Table 8.12. It can be seen Ihat Class lIlA roofs require systematic roof
TABLE 8.13 Appllcalion 01 Ihe Geomechanics Classilicatlon al an Indian

Coal Mine
Coal (1 .2 m thick) Shale (2.4 m thick)
Parameter Value Rating Value Rating
1. Layer thickness 2.9 cm 4 6.8 cm 13
2. Rack strength 250-275 kg/cm' 7 232 kg/cm' 5
3. Weatherability
Swelling strain 3.4% }
16 5
Slake durability 98.5% } 92.9%
4. Groundwater Wet rool 9 Wet rool 9

5. Structural Cracks, minar cleats 18 Cracks, two
leatures sets 01
joints
RMR 54 47
Weighted (combined) RMR

(1.2 x 54) + (2.4 x 47)
3.6
49.3
Adjusted RMR 49.3 x 0.9 ~ 44.5

Rack load 3.5 m x 2.007 tlm' x [1.7 - (0.0037 x 44.5)
+ (0.0002 x (44.5)')]
3.16t1m'
Support load 8 + (2 x 6) ~ 5.7 tlm'
1.0 x 3.5
(Rool truss + 2 bolts ; 1-m row spacing)
Salety lactar ~ 1.8
REFERENCES 175
support in combination with two grouted bolts. Spacing between the rows
should be 1.0 m.
REFERENCES
Bieniawski, Z. T. "Rock Mass Classifications in Rock Engineering." Exploration
for Rack Engineering, A. A. Balkema, Johannesburg, 1976, pp. 97-106.
Bieniawski, Z. T. "The Geomechanics Classification in Engineering Applications."
Proc. 4thlnl. Congr. Rack Mech. , ISRM, Montreux, 1979, vol. 2, pp. 41 -48.
Brook, N., and P. G. R. Dharmaratne. "Simplified Rock Mass Rating System for
Mine Tunnel Support." Trans. Inst. Min. Mel/al/. 94, 1985, pp . AI48 - AI54.
Curnrnings, R. A., F. S. Kendorski, and Z. T. Bieniawski. Caving Rack Mass
Classification and Support Estimation, U .S. Bureau of Mines Contract Report
#JOlooI03, Engineers lntemational, lnc., Chicago, 1982, 195 pp.
Kendorski , F. S. , R. A. Cumrnings, Z. T. Bieniawski, and E. Skinner. "A Rock
Mass Classification Scherne for tbe Planning of Caving Mine Drift Supports."
Proc. Rapid Excav. Tunneling Conf., AlME, New York, 1983, pp. 193-223.
Applications." Trans. Inst. Min. Me/al/. 86, 1977, pp. Al-A 7.
Laubscher, D. H. "Selection of Mass Underground Mining Metbods." Design and
Operation of Caving and Sublevel Stoping Mines, ed. D. R. Stewart, AlME,
New York, 1981, pp. 23- 38.
Laubscher, D. H. "Design Aspects and Effectiveness of Support Systerns in Different
Mining Situations." Trans. Inst. Min. Metal/. 93, 1984, pp. A70-A81.
Newrnan, D. A. "The Design of Coal Mine Roof Support for Longwall Mines in
tbe AppalaclUan Coalfield," Ph.D. tbesis, Pennsylvania State University, University
Park, 1985,400 pp.
Newrnan, D. A., and Z. T. Bieniawski. "Modified Version of the Geomechanics
Classification for Entry Design in Underground Coal Mines." Trans. Soc. Min.
Eng. A1ME 280, 1986, pp. 2134-2138.
Priest, S. D., and J. A. Hudson. "Discontinuity Spacings in Rock." InI. J. Rack
Mech. Min. Sci. 13, 1976, pp. 135-148.
Sandbak, L. "Rock Mass Classification in LHD Mining at San Manuel." A1ME-
SME Ann. Mee/., Phoenix, AZ, 1988, preprint #88-26.
Unal, E . "Design Guidelines and Roof Control Standards for Coal Mine Roofs,"
Ph.D. tbesis, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, 1983,335 pp.
Unal, E. "Ernpirical Approach to Calculate Rock Loads in Coal Mine Roadways."
Proc. 5th Con! Ground Control Coal Mines, West Virginia University, Mor-
gantown, 1986, pp. 234- 241.
Venkateswarlu, V. "Geornechanics Classification of Coal Measure Rocks vis-a-vis
RoofSupports," Ph.D. tbesis, lndian School ofMines, Dhanbad, 1986,251 pp.
9
Other Applications
Discoveries and inventions arise from
observa/ions of liltle /hings.
-Alexander Bell
Rack mass classifications have played a use fuI role in estimating the strength
and deformability of rock mas ses and in assessing tbe stability of rock slopes .
They were also shawn to have special uses for serving as an index to rack
rippability , dredgeability, excavatability, cuttability, and cavability.
9.1 ESTIMATING ROCK MASS STRENGTH
As discussed in Chapter 4, tbe empirical criterion proposed by Hoek and

Brawn (1980) enables estimation of the strength of rack masses using the
expression (eg . 4.4)
-(J I = -(J 3 +
(fe O'c
V (J 3
m -+
(Te
s (9.1)
where (J I = the major principal stress at failure ,

(J3 'the applied minor principal stress ,
(J, = the uniaxial compressive strength of the rack material
m and s = constants dependent on tbe properties of the rock and
177
178 OTHER APPLlCATlONS
the extent to which it was fractured by being subjected to al

and a3.
For intact rack material, m = mi is determined fram a fit of the aboye

equation to triaxial test data from laboratory specimens, taking s = 1. For
rock masses, use is made of the RMR, as suggested by Hoek and Brawn
(1988):
When Rack Mass Is Undisturbed (e.g., carefully blasted or machine

excavated rack):
m mi exp (
RMR -
28
100)) (9.2)
s = exp (
RMR -
9
100) (9.3)
When Rack Mass Is Disturbed (as in slopes or blast-damaged rack):
m mi (RMR 14- 100)

exp (9.4)
RMR - 100)
s = exp ( 6 (9.5)
where RMR is lhe basic (unadjusted) rack mass rating from lhe Geomechanics
Classification (Bieniawski, 1979).
The typical values for m and s for various rack types and corresponding
to various RMR as well as Q values are listed in Table 9.1 (Hoek and
Brawn, 1988).
It has recently been suggested that lhe aboye Hoek-Brown criterion may
underestimate the strenglh of highly interlocking rack mas ses such as lhose
featuring high-strength basalt (Schmidt, 1987).
For weak rack masses, lhe latest contribution was made by Robertson
(1988), who modified lhe RMR system (for ratings < 40) on the basis of
back analysis fram case histories involving pit slope failures in weak rack
strata. This modification of the Geomechanics Classification is presented in
Table 9.2, which shows lhat the maximum value for lhe groundwater parameter
(15) has been added to the fírst parameter: strength of intact rack.
6i1
¡; z ~
m ~
g :;! (1)
u
3 ~c: al
r-
ro ~: g m
~
-?en ~ 13
O
JJ '"
~3~ .9 _ a.
e!.
<D
:..
() a.
:;¡ 11 11 11
~ ~ ~
fJ' ~ c: 3 3
. 5·~. ~ c: n :::r
U>
U
'"(j) '"'"ro -g... 02~.........
»
>00 +
ro '"
Q ;;:: » '"
:r
;:¡: -u
~
¡l)
JJ
(1)
o ;;::
3
(1)
o
~"'C "O
:::l.:::l.
3' (1)
~.
en
ti) -u
3
~
-U JJ
;;:: (1)
~ "2. ~~.~. g 3 o al
OJJ
11 11
:;¡
U>
en ~ ~
U> ~~
__ + 'a."
:;¡ ~
;;::
o:lO
~ <t> U> en
"'~
0
00
0
(1)
2-
g:;¡ U> ~
< U> en
~
_ . ro ro
(1) en U>
'"
n~ '"
<
~
m "~
e!.
a. ~ ~ - - ~ c: JJ
m e
~r 'in"
:;¡
~
lJ¡ ¡;
:;¡ <g
:::r
~ (")
~
g
c: 2-
6
z ;:
~
(j)
o'
m 5'
i»
I
'O "JJ
~
ro
'"
'" 3 en 3 ~
m
!:
o·
m
z ":::r
In
- ....... CARBONATE ROCKS WITH WELL·

JJ
;S'
f
~.....,. O
0000
0000
DEVELOPED CAYSTAL CLEAVAGE ()
DoIomlle, Umssrone, ano Marble
'";;::
»
(j)
(j)
"3
DI
O
~
_0-'"0
~
LlTHIFIED AAGllLACEOUS RQCK$ ¡¡; "a.
0600 MudstOflfl, Siltstone, SlJaJe, (lIld Slate r
'"g
ceoo
~
(N«mtJ/1D Cteavage)
»
z "
~
O
ARENACEOUS ROCKS WITH Ic: ;;:: "
¡¡r
~
~ ~ DI
_0l-'"U1 STRONG CRYSTALS ANO POORlY :J
8888 DEVElOPEO CAYSTAL CLEAVAGE ~ m

JJ
"a.JJ
~
SanáslM8 and Quartzlle
'¡;
r ,..no
------------+---------------I~ ()
O ~
~ z DI
¡;;< ~ FINE.QAAINED PQlYMINERALLlC (j) In
O- ....
~..., ~ IGNEDUS CRYSTALLlNE ROCKS
"" :;!
In
oc:
es 88 0
00
0
Andesl16, DoIente, O/abase,
~ Z
-<
"g and AhyoNte
~ (j)
!.
g. ~
13 •
~ CQARSE·GAAINEO POLYMINERAlLlC Q. I
!g
g '" '" IGNEDUS ANO METAMOAPHIC
_O'I-"U'I
6600
." c e o o
CRY$TALUNE ROCKS '"~
Amphíbolit&, Gabbro, Gneiss, Glanile,
~
Norite. ana Quattz -DiOrite c:
~ g:
a; TABLE 9.1 (Continued)
'"
APPROXIMATE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ROCK MASS QUALlTY ANO MATERIAL CONSTANT
Oisturbed Rock Mass m and S Values Undisturbed Rock Mass m and s Values
VERY GOOO QUALlTY ROCK MASS
Tightly interlocking undisturbed rock with

unweathered joints at 1-3 m
m 2.40 3.43 5.14 5.82 8.56
RMR = 85 s 0.082 0.082 0.082 0.082 0.082
Q = 100 m 4. 10 5.85 8.78 9.95 14.63
s 0. 189 0.189 0.189 0.189 0. 189
GOOO QUALlTY ROCK MASS
Fresh to slightly weathered rock , slightly disturbed

with joints at 1-3 m
m 0.575 0.821 1.231 1.395 2.052
RMR = 65 s 0.00293 0.00293 0.00293 0.00293 0.00293
Q = 10 m 2.006 2.865 4.298 4.871 7.163
s 0.0205 0.0205 0.0205 0.0205 0.0205
FAIR QUALlTY ROCK MASS
Several sets 01 moderately weathered joints spaced

at 0.3-1 m
m 0.128 0.1 83 0.275 0.311 0.458
RMR = 44 s 0.00009 0.00009 0.00009 0.00009 0.00009
Q = 1 m 0.947 1.353 2.030 2. 301 3.383
s 0.00198 I 0.00198 0.00198 0.00198 0.00 198
-
~
TABLE 9.2 Geomechanics Classllicalion lor Rock Slopes···
Parameter Ranges 01 Values
Strength 01 Point-Ioad
intact rock slrenglh index
material (MPa) > 10 4-10 2-4 1-2 For Ihis low range, uniaxial compressive test is preferred
1 Uniaxial
compressive
strength R5 R4 R3 R2 Rl Rl <1
(MPa) > 250 100-250 SO-lOO 25 - 50 5 -25 '-5 S5 54 S3 S2 SI
Aating 30 27 22 19 17 15 10 I 6 I 2 I 1 I O
Drill core quality RQO (%) 90-100 75 -90 50-75 25 - 50 <25

2
Rating 20 17 13 8 3
Spacing 01 discontinuities >2m 0.6-2 m 200-600 rTVTl 60 -200 mm < 60 mm
3 ,
Raling 20 15 10 8 5
Rock > Al Rack> Al Rack> Rl Rack ~ Al
Very rough Sl!ghlly Slightly Slickensided
su rfaces rough rough surfaces Rock < Rl
Nol surfaces surfaces 0'
Soft gouge > 5 mm thick
continuou$ Separation Separation Gouge < 5
4 Condition 01 discontinuities o,
No < 1 mm < 1 mm mm thick
Separation > 5 mm
separation Slighlly Highly 0'
Continuous
Unweathered weathered weathered Separation
wall rock walls walts 1-5 mm
Continuous
Ratlng 30 25 20 10
· After Robertson (1988).
o Key: A 1 == very weak rock S1 = very 50ft soíl
R2 := weak rock S2 = soft 5011
A3 "" medium strength rock S3 = flrm 5011
R4 == strong rock S4 = 5tlft soil
A5 = very strong rock S5 = very stlft soil.
ESTlMATlNG ROCK MASS STRENGTH 183
Using this approach , when RMR > 40 , slope stability is determined by

the orientation of and the strength along the discontinuities . Where the rating
is less than 30, failure may occur through the rock mass at any orientation,
and the rock mass strength is estimated from rating- strength correlation,
as shown in Table 9.3. Robertson (1988) cautions that more case histories
are needed before the correlation in Table 9.3 can be considered as typical.
Modifications to the shear strength estimates from the RMR values were
also provided by Serafim and Pereira (1983) and are depicted in Table 9.4.
Most recently, Trunk and H6nisch (1989) confirmed the friction angle estimates r
for rock masses, given in Section D of Table 4.1 (<1> = 0.5 RMR + 5) and,
on the basis of 40 case histories, suggested this refinement: <1> = 0.5 RMR
+ 8.3±7.2. -
Another approach to rock mas s strength determination was proposed by
Laubscher (1984). Using the Geomechanics Classification, the procedure is
as follows: ~
l . The intact rock strength (IRS) rating is subtracted from the total rating
RMR, and the balance is a function of the remaining possible rating of 85,
since the maximum rating for the strength of intact rock is 15 .
2. The IRS rating, which represents the strength (J" in MPa , of the rock
material , must be reduced to 80% of its value since it is assumed that large
(hard-rock) specimens have a strength equal to 80% of the standard core
sample tested in the laboratory. This is a constant scaling factor. Thus
RMR - IRS 80
85 x (J c x lOO = basic rock mass strength (BMRS) (9 .6)
TABLE 9.3 Geomechanics Classilicalion lor Rock Slopes: Slrenglh

Correlalion'
Strength Parameters
Rating Island Copper Mine Getchell Mine
Rack Mass Class (RMR) C' (psi) <1> ' C' (psi) <1> '
IVa 35-40 12.5 40
30-35 10.5 36
IVb 25-30 10.0 34 7.0 30
20-25 20.0 30 7.0 26
Va 15-20 9.0 27.5 7.0 24
Vb 5-15 7.5 24 2 .0 21
• After Robertson (1988) .
TABLE 9.4 Geomechanics Classificalion for Rock Foundalions: Shear

Slrenglh Dala'
Rack Mass Properties
RMR 100-81 80-61 60-41 40-21 <20
Rack class I 11 111 IV V
Cahesion, kPa > 400 300-400 200-300 100-200 <100
Friction, deg > 45 35-45 25-35 15-25 <15
Modulus, GPa > 56 18-56 5.6-18 1.8-5.6 <1.8
Shear Strength 01 Rock Material

Cohesion, MPa > 25 15-25 8.5-15 4.5-8.5 <4.5
Friction, deg > 65 55-65 48-55 41-48 <41
Frictional Shear Strength 01 Oiscontinuities, deg

Rating lor Condition
of Discontinuíties : 30 25 20 10 I O
Completely dry 45 35 25 15 10 v
Damp 43 33 23 13 <10
Wet 41 31 21 11 <10
Dripping 39 29 19 10 <10
Flowing 37 27 17 < 10 <10
sAfter Serafim and Pereira (1983).
3. The design rock mas s strength is obtained by incorporating a variable

reducing factor due to adjustments for weathering (90%), favorability of
joint orientation (80%), and blasting effect (90%). Thus
DRMS = 90% x 80% x 90% BRMS = 0.65 BRMS (9.7)
In addition , an averaging factor is employed where a rock mass contains

weak and strong zones.
In another study, Stille et al. (1982) provided a direct correlation between
the RMR and the uniaxial compressive strength of rock mass O",M on the
basis of back-calculations featuring the finite element method and Swedish
case histories. They suggested the following relationship:
RMR 100- 81 80-6 1 60-41 40- 21 <20

(MPa)
O",M 30 12 5 2.5 0.5
Finally, Yudhbir (1983) suggested a rock mass criterion of the form

discussed by Bieniawski (1974), namely
ESTlMATlNG ROCK MA SS MODULUS 185
(J I
= A + (9.8)
where ex = 0.75 and A is a function of rock mass quality (note that A = 1

for intact rock), namely
A = exp(0.0765 RMR - 7.65) = 0.0176Q0 65 (9.9)
and B depends on rock type as determined by Bieniawski (1974) for these

rock types:
Shale and limes tone B = 2.0

Siltstone and mudstone B = 3.0
Quartzite, sandstone , and dolerite B = 4.5
Very hard quartzite B = 4.5
Norite and granite B = 5.0
The aboye criterion requires experimental validation of the expression

for parameter A.
9.2 ESTIMATING ROCK MASS MODULUS
The RMR from the Geomechanics Classification was related (Bieniawski,

1978) to the in-situ modulus of deformation in the manner shown in Figure
4.3.
The following relationship was obtained:
EM = 2 x RMR - 100 (9.10)
where EM is the in-situ modulus of deformation in GPa and RMR > 50.
For poorer-quality rock masses, Serafim and Pereira (1983) extended the
aboye relationship in the range RMR < 50 as well as confirmed the equation.
They also proposed this overall correlation:
EM = IO(RMR - 10)/40
(9.11)
. Using the well-known correlation RMR = 9 In Q + 44, Barton (1983)

supplemented the data of Bieniawski (1978) with his own results and plotted
the range of the measured values as depicted in Figure 9.1. He found a
useful approximation :
186 QTHER APPLlCATlQN$
Q-index
0.1 4 10 40 100 400 1000
80
E =2 AMR· 100
70
•
o.
",• 60
.,
'C 50
o
•'1i"
e
40
=
E 40 I09 ,o Q O
E (max) O
S 30
e• •O
"
¡¡;
E
20
d O 1----
10
O
9, T
50 60 70 80 90 100
Rock Mass Rating
Figure 9.1 Estimation of in·situ modulus of deformation from two classification

methods: squares represent Q case histories. dots are RMR cases. (After Barton,
1983.)
E mean = 25 log Q and E m", = 40 log Q (9 . 12)
(E mio = 10 log Q) and confirmed Ihat careful double classification at a

potential test site might eliminate the need for expensive tests or reduce
their numbers.
9.3 ASSESSING ROCK SLOPE STABILITY
Romana (1985) made an important contribution in applying rock mass clas-

sifications to the assessment of Ihe stability of rock slopes. He developed
a factorial approach to rating adjustment for the discontinuity orientation
parameter in t!le RMR system, based on field data. Recognizing that rock
slope stability is g€1verned by Ihe behavior of Ihe discontinuities and that in
Ihe original RMR system (Bieniawski , 1979) specific guidelines for favorability
of joint orientations were lacking, his modification of the RMR system
involved subtracting the newly proposed adjustment factors for discontinuity
orientation and adding a new adjustment factor for lhe method of excavation.
This approach is suitable for preliminary assessment of slope stability in
rock, including very soft or heavily jointed rock masses.
SPECIAL USES 187
The new adjustment rating for joints in rock slopes is a product of three
factors:
F¡ reflects parallelism between the slope and the discontinuity strike.

F 2 refers to the discontinuity dip in lhe plane mode of failure.
F) relates to the relationship between the slope angle and the discontinuity
dip.
The adjustment factor for the method of excavation F. depends on whether

one deals with a natural slope or one excavated by presplitting, smooth
blasting, mechanical excavation, or poor blasting.
The appropriate ratings are given in Table 9.5 . The final calculation is
of lhe form
Adjusted RMR slope = RMR b,,;, - (F¡ X F 2 x F) + F. (9.13)
Romana (1985) applied this procedure to 28 slopes with varying degrees

of instability, including six completely failed ones, and found good agreement
with stability assessment (rock mass quality) predicted by lhe RMR system.
He listed all lhese case histories and stated that funher work is under way
on several olher slopes.
9.4 SPECIAL USES
9.4.1 Rippability
This was lhe first excavation index to be evaluated by a rock mass classification
approach. Based on the Geomechanics Classification, Weaver (1975) proposed
a rippability rating chan as a guide for the case of excavation by tractor-
mounted rippers of the Caterpillar type. In this approach, seismic velocity
was a parameter selected to replace two standard parameters in the RMR
system: the intact rock strenglh and the RQD.
Over a decade later, Smith (1986) modified the chart by Weaver (1975)
by omitting seismic velocity, while Singh et al. (1986) discussed ground
rippability in open cast mining operations and pointed out that the use of a
single value of lhe seismic velocity can be a misleading parameter in the
assessment of the rock rippability. The chart by Weaver (1975), and hence
by Smith (1986), while based on many pertinent parameters, was considered
of limited value because sorne parameters might not be easily quantified at
the initial stage of designo Accordingly, an alternative rippability rating chart
was suggested by Singh et al. (1986) and tested in a number of case histories
-""""
TABLE 9.5 Modilicalion 01 the Geomechanics Classilication lor Rock Slopes'
Bieniawski (1979) Ratings lor RMR

Parameter Ranges 01 Values
Point-load
For this low range, uniaxial
Strength 01 strength
eompressive strength test is
intaet roek index
prelerred
material (MPa) > 10 4-10 2-4 1-2
Uniaxial
compressive
strength
(MPa) > 250 100- 250 50-100 25-50 5-25 1- 5 <1
Rating 15 12 7 4 2 O
Drill eore quality RQD ('lo) 90-100 75-90 50-75 25 - 50 < 25
2
Rating 20 17 13 8 3
Spaeing 01 diseontinuities > 2m 0.6- 2 m 200-600 mm 60-200 mm < 60 mm
3
Rating 20 15 10 8 5
, !
Slightly rough
surfaces.
Very rough surfaces. Separation Slickensided surfaces. Soft gouge >
Condition of
Not continuous. < 1 mm. Slightly rough surfaces. Or Gouge < 5 mm 5 mm or
discontinuities
No separation. Slightly Separation < 1mm. thick. Or Separation Separation
Unweathered wall weathered Highly weathered 1- 5 mm > 5mm
rock walls walls Continuous Continuous
4
Rating 30 25 20 10 O
Groundwater in joint Completely dry Damp Wet Dripping Flowing
5
Rating 15 10 7 4 O
Joint Adjustment Rating lor JOints b

Very
Case Very Favorable Favorable Fair Unfavorable Unfavorable
P lai - a, 1 > 300 30-20' 20-10' 10-5' < 5'
T laj - a, - 180'1
PrT F, 0.15 0.40 0.70 0.85 1.00
P I ~JI < 20' 20-30' 30-35' 35-45' > 450
P F2 0.15 0.40 0.70 0.85 1.00
T F2 1
P ~j - ~, > 10 0
10- 0' O' 0' -( - 10' ) <- 10°
T ~j + ~, < 110' 110-120' > 120'
PrT F, O - 6 - 25 - 50 - 60
P == plane failure. a s = slope dip direction. a¡ == joint dip direction.
T == toppli ng failure. f3s = slope dip. I3j == joint dip.
.,
~
Q)
(Table continues on p . 190.)
-
~
Adjustment Rating lor Methods 01 Excavation 01 S/opes

Regular Delicient
Method Natural Slope Presplitting Smooth Blasting Blasting Blasting
F, + 15 + 10 +8 o -8
SMR ~ RMR - (F, X F, x F, ) + F,
Tentative Description 01 SMR C/asses

Class No. V IV 111 11
SMR 0-20 21-40 41-60 61-80 81-100
Description Very poor Poor Fair Good Very good
Stability Very unstable Unstable Partially stable Stable Fully Stable
Failures Large planar or soil-like Planar or large wedges Sorne joints or many wedges Sorne blocks None
Support Reexcavation Extensive corrective Systematic Occasional None
• By Romana (1985).
SPECIAL USES 191
in Oreat Britain and Turkey. This chart is depicted in Table 9.6. based on
a later publication (Singh et al., 1987) which demonstrated the application
of this appraach to the selection of rippers for surface coal mines.
9.4.2 Dredgeability
Dredgeability as applied to rock was defined by Smith (1987) as the ability
to excavate rack underwater witb respect to known or assumed equipment,
metbods , and in-situ characteristics. Dredging is a multimillion dollar operation
in which breaking up or cutting the rack underwater requires an assessment
ofthe rack mas s quality in a similar way to rippability assessment. However,
while tbe same parameters may be expected to govem, a given rack mass
ripped underwater will usually be weaker than the same rack encountered
in dry conditions due to the influence of water on the strength of rack.
Smith (1987) praposed an underwater rippability rating chart modifying
tbe work of Weaver (1975) , whose proposal , in tum , was based on the
Oeomechanics Classification. Smith's modification omitted not only the
seismic velocity parameter used by Weaver, but also the joint continuity
and joint gouge parameters, which, unlike for surface excavations , are not
readily available in dredging applications. Table 9.7 depicts Smith's dredge-
ability chart, which, due to tbe aboye omissions, features the maximum
underwater rippability (RW) rating of 65, compared witb a maximum possible
RMR of 100. This system pravides a quantitative estimate of relative ripping
difficulty, with the lower ratings corresponding to easier ripping and higher
ratings to harder ripping or blasting . Since RW does not involve seismic
velocity observations, it can be used as a means of independent comparison
with tbe refraction method.
9.4.3 Excavatability
Excavatability , a terrn denoting ease of excavation, was extensively discussed
by Kirsten (1982), who pointed out that seismic velocity was in general
poorly correlated to the excavatability of a material because a whole range
of the basic material characteristics that affect excavatability were not rep-
resented in tbe seismic velocity. Moreover, seismic velocity could not be
determined to an accuracybetter than about 20% , and it might have a
variance of the order of IODO mis in apparently identical materials.
Kirsten praposed a c1assification system for excavation in natural materials
in which tbe excavatability index N is given by
(9.14)
-:s
TABLE 9.6 Rlppabllily Classlficallon Chart'

Parameters Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4 Class 5
Uniaxial tensile strength (MPa) <2 2-6 6-10 10-15 > 15
Rating 0-3 3-7 7-11 11-14 14-t7
Weathering Complete Highly Moderate Slight None
Rating 0-2 2-6 6-10 10-14 14-18
Sound velocity (mis) 400-1100 1100-1600 1600-1900 1900-2500 > 2500
Rating 0-6 6-10 10-14 14-18 18-25
Abrasiveness Very low Low Moderate High Extreme
Rating 0-5 5-9 9-13 13-18 18-22
Discontinuity spacing (m) < 0.06 0.06-0.3 0.3-1 1-2 >2
Rating 0-7 7-15 15-22 22-28 28-33
Total Rating < 30 30-50 50-70 70-90 > 90
Ripping Assessment Easy Moderate Difficult Marginal Blast
Recommended Dozer Light duty Medium duty Heavy duty Very heavy duty
• After Singh (19B7).
TABLE 9.7 Underwater Rlppability (Dredgeabillty) Ratlng Char!'
Descriptive Classification Rock Hardness b (MPa) Rock Weathering Orientation Joint Spacing C
Very hard ripping or blasting > 70 Unweathered Very favorable > 3D
Rating 10 10 15 30
Hard ripping 25-70 Slightly weathered Unfavorable Dto 3D
Rating 5 7 13 25
Average ripping 10-25 Weathered Slightly unfavorable D/3 to D
Rating 2 5 10 20
Easy ripping 3-10 Highly weathered Favorable D/20 to D/3
Rating 1 3 5 10
Very easy ripping <3 Completely weathered Very favorable < D/20
- - -- -
Rating O 1- - - -
3 5
• After Smith (1987).
bCorresponding to uniaxial compressive strength.
e Expressed as function of depth D.
~
where Ms =mas s strength number, denoting !he effort to excavate

!he material as if it were homogeneous , unjointed ,
and dry. Thus, M, approximates the uniaxial com-
pressive strength of rock in MPa;
RQD rock quality designation (see Chapo 3);
Jo andJ, = the parameters from the Q-system (see Chapo 5);
J, relative ground structure number, representing the rel-
ative orientation of individual blocks to the direction
ripping. For intact material, J, = 1.0.
Once the excavatability index N is obtained from the aboye equation, it

serves to classify !he ease of excavation in rack as follows:
I < N<IO Easy ripping

IO < N<100 Hard ripping
100 < N < 1,000 Very hard ripping
1,000 < N < 10,000 Extremely hard ripping/blasting
N> 10,000 Blasting
Ease of excavation was also studied by Abdullatif and Cruden (1983),

who investigated methods of excavation featuring digging , ripping, and
blasting at 23 sites and classified rock mass quality in terms of RMR and
Q. )'heir findings are shown in Figure 9.2, which indicates quite distinct
clusters of points for different methods of excavation. For example, it can
be seen that rock mass can be dug up to an RMR of 30 and ripped up to
an RMR of 60. Rock masses rated as "good" or better by the RMR system
must be blasted.
There is also a distinct gap between the Q values of rock masses that can
be dug, Q up to 0.14, and those requiring ripping, Q aboye 1.05 . Abdullatif
and Cruden (I983) observed !hat there was an overlap in Q values between
3.2 and 5.2 of rock masses that could be ripped and rock masses requiring
blasting. They suggested that !he reason !he Q-system appears to present
problems as a guide for excavatability of rock was !hat !he active stress
parameter Jw/SRF, while important in tunneling, shows little variation in
rock masses at !he surface.
9.4.4 Cuttability
Cuttability of rock is particularly important when using roadheaders- boom-
type tunneling machines . According to Fowel\ and Johnson (I982), inter-
pretation of borehole information at the site-investigation stage for predicting
roadheader cutting rates was facilitated by !he use of rack mass classifications.
SPECIAL USES 195
o DIGGING
.. RIPPING
100 O BL.ASTING
50
O
o O
••
10
.0008 O O
..
"
~
5 .0
",
O
O
0.1 O
O
O 0 0
O
0 ,01
O 20 40 60 so 100
Rock Mass Ratlng . RMR
Figure 9.2 Rock mass qualily classification diagram (based on RMR and Q indexes)
depicting various excavation methods on sites. (Alter Abdullatif and Cruden. 1983.)
Based on 20 field results, Fowell and Johnson (1982) derived a relationship

between the RMR values and !be cutting rate in m3/h for the heavyweight
class of boom tunneling machines. The results are given in Figure 9 .3, and
the authors report that the only modification they made in !be use of the
Geomechanics Classification was in !be rating for orientation , since, for
excavation in general , an inverse relationship exists between support re-
o
o
120 o
€
"e
o
•
'ii 80
a:
~
'" ~'b ti'
"5 40
o o
o o
o
o
o
o 20 40 60 80 100
Rock Mass Rating
Figure 9.3 Relationship between RMR and rack cutting rateo (Alter Fowell and
Johnson, 1982.)
100 ,-----r -- ---r-----r-----r -----r -----ro,

g
o
o
90
80 ,.... _-p O _--_-O-

~ " . ... '..:.<:.-------- e
o
e
.2
~ 70 O'""" "\ ... .....-.. ....... g c.
z
c: I
'0',
I . ..
..., &
9 60
;¡ I
I 0'
I
6 '\.
, &,
" e•
g 50 ,+>0 q A tJ. .~. ~ .ª
"5 s:5 ~I / 6 ........ '., ... ~
Ü
lfI
40 o~~
O
IU
8 11s trOlen • IKk 01
,OI.lIon
' . ·t" ' . - . -.......
\ ..
.. t--
a::
'¡¡¡
""
111 Q ,.-\. .... o..!!!
~30f3¡ .. " ............. f ~
.J/l. . .. (J
g 20 ..... f--ii- o
a:: .......... .......... - _ 8 ti:
10 •>
OL-____L -____L -____L -_ __ _L -____L -____ ffi ~
>
O 2 3 4 5 6
Bits/Foot (O) and FeetlHour o, Machine Cutting ( .. )
Figure 9.4 Roadheader performance data, bitslft and Itlh of machine cutting at
San Manuel Mine in Arizona, 2375-1t level, P21A and P21B test. (Alter Sandbak,
1985.)
quirements and ease of excavation . lt can be coneluded that (he RMR system
pravided a remarkably consistent relationship with (he raadheader cutting
rate.
Sandbak (1985) al so evalualed rack cutting performance by a roadheader
relating it to the rock mass quality described in lerms of the Geomechanics
Classification. This was an extensive investigation conducted al the San
Manuel copper mine in Arizona, and on the basis of 1430 ft (436 m) of
drift excavation in variable rack conditions, the advance rates by the roadheader
(DOSCO SL-120) were shown to be predictable from RMR values.
The results are given in Figure 9.4. It is apparent that the bits per foot
rate and the feet per cutting hour rate can be effectively related to RMR
values and rack mass elasses. More recently, Stevens el al. (1987) presented
RMR zoning plans of the San Manuel Mine, while Sandbak (1988) built
on the success of the RMR-based evaluation of roadheader drift excavation
and upgraded the approach to inelude it in the LHD (load- haul - dump)
system design and in pillar sizing.
9.4.5 Cavability
Cavability of rack strata is an important aspect in longwall mining of coal
as well as metal mining operations involving block caving.
SPECIAL USES 197
TABLE 9.8 Cavabillty Estimates'

RMR Class
2 3 4 5
Area undereut as "hydraulie
radius" NA' 30 m 20-30 m 8-20 m <8 m
Cavability NiI Poor Fair Good Very Good
Fragmentation Nil Large Medium Small Very Good
"After Laubscher (1981) .
bNot applicable.
Rock classifications have been used for this purpose (Laubscher, 1981 ;
Bieniawski, 1987). Most recendy, an important contribution was made by
Ghose and Gupta (1988).
Laubscher (1981) used the Geomechanics Classification to assess cavability
in asbestos mines and suggested a correlation between the RMR classes and
caving as well as fragmentation characteristics. He also included estimates
of the "hydraulic radius" in caving operations, which is defined as the caving
area divided by the perimeter and serves to define the undercut area. The
guidelines are summarized in Table 9.8.
Kidybinski (1982) and Unrug and Szwilski (1983) described a cavability
classification used by coal mines in Poland. This classification is depicted
in Table 9.9.
TABLE 9.9 Roo! Cavabilily Classi!icatlon Based on Polish Studles'

Allowable Area o! Roo! Exposure
Roo! Class Roo! Quality Index· (m')
Very weak L < 18 1
11 Little stable 18 < L < 35 1-2
111 Medium stable 35<L<60 2-5
IV Stable 60 < L < 130 5-8
V Very strong L> 130 >8
'After Kidybinski (1982) and Unrug and Szwilski (1983).
bRoof quality index L = 0.016 (TMd,
where UM = in-situ compressive strength 01 rack strata (kg/cm 2 ) = IJc K 1 K 2 K3 ,

(fe= uniaxial compressive strength,
K1 = 0.4 (coefficient 01 strength utilization),
K 2 = 0.7 (coefficient of creep).
K3 = 50% (coefficient of moisture centent),
. ,
d = mean thlckness 01 roof strata layers (cm).
TABLE 9.10 Cavability Classificatlon for Coal-Measure Strata'

Class Cavability Cavability Rating b Caving Behavior
I Extremely high 0-30 Very easy caving
11 High 31-45 Easy caving
111 Moderate 46-60 Moderately caving, poor in big blocks
IV Low 61-70 Difficult caving, overhanging roo!
V Extremely low 71-100 Very difficult caving, large overhang
8 Afier Ghose and Gupta (1988) .
b Roof caving span S = 0.87 R - 10.1, where R is the cavability value.
Cavability can also be evaluated by the RMR classitication from the

relationship between the rock stand-up time versus the unsupported span
for the five rock mass classes, as shown in Figure 4.1.
Ghose and Gupta (1988) outlined a classification system for roof strata
cavability using fuzzy-set methodology to assign ratings for four individual
parameters: uniaxial eompressive strength, average core size, thickness of
roof beds, and depth below surface.
This classification model was applied to ten longwall case histories from
Indian coal fields and resulted in the deseription given in Table 9.10 .
9.5 IMPROVING COMMUNICATION: UNIFIED ROCK

CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
Williamson (1980 , 1984) proposed the Unitied (initially called "Uniform")

Rack Classification System (URCS) as a reliable and rapid method of com-
municating detailed information about rack conditions for engineering purposes.
The system has been used extensively by the Soil Conservation Service of
the U.S. Department of Agriculture for classifying and describing information
on rock materials (Kirkaldie et al., 1988).
The URCS consists of four physical properties: a) weathering, b) strength,
e) discontinuities, and d) density. A general assessment of roek performance
is then based on a grouping of these key elements to aid in making engineering
judgments. These individual properties are estimated in the field with the
use of a hand lens, al-lb (0 .5-kg) ball peen hammer, a spring-Ioaded "tish"
scale, and a bucket of water. Eaeh property is divided into tive ratings whieh
convey uniform meaning to geologists, engineers, inspectors, and contractors
as well as contract-appeal board members.
Subjective terminology, such as "slightly weathered , moderately hard ,
highly fractured, and lightweight, " varies widely in meaning, depends on
individual and professional experience , and cannot be quantitied with any
TABLE 9.11 Unified Rock Classification System'
Degree 01 Weathering
Weathered
Representative Altered > Gravel Size < Sand Size
Visually Iresh
Micro Iresh state state Stained state Partly decomposed state Completely decomposed
(MFS) (VFS) (STS) (PDS) state (CDS)
A S C D E
Compare to
Unit Weight Relative Absorption Fresh State Nonplastic I Plastic Nonplastic I Plastic
Estimated Strength b
Reaction to Impact 01 1 lb Sall Peen Hammer Remolding C

"Rebounds" '"Pits" "Dents" "Craters" Moldable
(elastic) (tensional) (compression) (shears) (Iriable)
(RO) (PO) (Da) (CO) (MO)
A S C D E
> 15,000 psi 8,000-15,000 psi 3,000- 8,000 psi 1,000-3,000 psi < 1,000 psi
> 103 MPa 55- 103 MPa 21-55 MPa 7- 21 MPa < 7 MPa
-'"'" (Table continues on p. 200.)

'"g TABLE 9.11 (Continued)
Discontinuities
Very Low Permeability May Transmit Water

Solid Solid Solid Nonintersecting open
(random (preferred (Iatent planes planes Intersecting open planes
breakage) breakage) of separation) (2-D) (3-D)
(SRB) (SPB) (LPS) D E
A -
B - --
e -- _L --
Altitude---- - --
Interlock
-- - - -
Unit Weight
Greater than 160 pcf 150-160 pcf 140-150 pcf 130-140 pcf Less than 130 pcf
2.55 g/cm 3 2.40-2.55 g/cm 3 2.25-240 g/cm 3 2.10-2.25 g/cm 3 2.10 g/cm 3
A B e D E
Design Notation
Weathering Weight
LB IA-E I I A-E I I A-EI~

Strength "\ / Discontinuity
I After Williamson (1980, 1984).

bStrenglh estimated by soil mechanics techniques.
e Approximate unconfined compressive strength.
REFERENCES 201
reliability. The URCS is not intended to suppIant the existing rock mass
classifications but assists when descriptive terminoIogy is ambiguous.
The URCS is depicted in TabIe 9.11.
REFERENCES
Abdullatif" o. M. , and D. M. Cruden. "The Relationship between Rock Mass
Quality and Ease of Excavation." Bull. InI. Assoc. Eng. Geol., no. 28, 1983,
pp. 183-187.
Barton, N. "Application of Q-System and Index Tests to Estimate Shear Strength
and Deformability of Rock Masses." Proc. In/. Symp. Eng. Geol. Underground
Cons/r. , A. A. Balkema, Boston, 1983, pp. 51 -70.
Afr. Ins/. Civ. Eng. 15, 1973 , pp. 335-344.
Bieniawski, Z. T. "Estimating the Strength of Rock Materials ." J. S. Afr. Ins/.
Min. Me/al/. 74(8), 1974, pp. 312-320.
Bieniawski, Z. T. "Determining Rock Mass Deformability-Experience from Case
Histories." In/. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 15, 1978, pp. 237- 247.
Bieniawslci, Z. T. ''TIle Geomechanics Classification in Rock Engineering Application."
Proc. 4thlnl. Congr. RockMech., ISRM, Montreux, 1979, vol. 2, pp. 51-58.
Bieniawski, Z. T. Strata Control in Mineral Engineering , A. A. Balkema, Boston,
1987, pp. 120- 121.
Brown, E. T., and E. Hoek. "Discussion on Shear Failure Envelope in Rock
Masses." J. Geo/ech. Eng. ASCE 114, 1988, pp. 371 - 373.
Fowell, R. J., and S. T. Johnson. "Rock Classification and Assessment for Rapid
Excavation." Proc. Symp. S/ra/a Mech., ed . J. W. Farmer, Elsevier, New York,
1982, pp. 241 - 244.
Ghose, A. H., and D. Gupta. "A Rock Mass Classification Model for Caving
Roofs." In/ . J. Min. Geol. Eng., S, 1988, pp. 257 - 271.
Hoek, E., and E. T. Brown. "Empirical Strength Criterion for Rock Masses. "
J. Geo/ech. Eng. ASCE 106(GT9), 1980, pp. 1013-1035.
Hoek, E. "Rock Mass Strength ." Geo-engineering Design Parame/ers, ed. C. M.
SI. John and K. Kim, Rockwell Hanford Operations Report no. SD-BWI-TI-
229, Richland, WA, Dec. 12, 1985, p. 85.
Hoek, E., and E. T. Brown. "The Hoek-Brown Failure Criterion- a 1988 Update."
Proc. 15/h Can. Rock Mech. Symp., University of Toronto, Ocl. 1988.
Kidybinski, A. "Classification of Rock for Longwall Cavability." S/a/e-of-the-Art
ofGround Con/rol in Longwall Mining, AIME, New York, 1982, pp. 31-38.
Kirkaldie, L., D. A. Williamson, and P. V. Patterson. Rock Material Field Clas-
sifica/ion Procedure. Soil Conservation Service, Technical Release no. 71 (210-
VI), Feb. 1987,31 pp. Also in: ASTM STP 984, ASTMaterials , Philadelphia,
1988, pp. 133- 167.
Kirsten, H. A. D. "A Classifieation System for Exeavation in Natural Materials."

Civ. Eng. S. Afr., July 1982, pp. 293-307.
Laubseher, D. H. "Seleetion of Mass Underground Mining Methods." Design and
Operation 01 Caving and Sub-Level Stoping Mines, ed. D. R. Stewart, AJME,
. New York , 1981, pp. 843-851.
Laubseher, D. H. "Design Aspects and Effectiveness of Support Systems in Different
Mining Conditions." Trans. Inst. Min. Me/all . 93, 1984, pp. A70-A81.
Robertson, A. M. "Estimating Weak Roek Strenglh ." AlME - SME Annual Meeting ,
Phoenix, AZ, 1988, preprint #88-145.
Romana, M. "New Adjustrnent Rating for Applieation of lhe Bieniawski Classifieation
to Slopes." Proc. Int. Symp. Rack Mech. Min . Ov. Works , ISRM , Zacatecas,
Mexico, 1985, pp. 59-63.
Sandbak, L. A. "Roadheader Drift Excavation and Geomechanics Rock Classification
at San Manuel Mine, Arizona." Proc. Rapid Excav. Tunneling Conf. , AIME,
New York, 1985, pp. 902-916.
Sandbak, L. A. "Rock Mass Classification in LHD Mining at San Manuel, Arizona. "
SME-AlME Annual Meeting, Phoenix, AZ, 1988, preprint #88-26 .
Schmidt, B. "Leaming from Nuclear Repository Design: The Ground Control Plan. "
Proc. 6th Aust. Tunneling Conf., Australian Geomechanics Society , Melboume,
1987, pp. 11-19.
Serafim,1. L., and 1. P. Pereira. "Considerations ofthe Geomehanical Classifieation
of Bieniawski." Proc. Int. Symp. Eng. Geol. Underground Constr., A. A.
Balkema, Boston, 1983, pp. 33-43.
Singh, R. N., B. Denby, 1. Egretli, and A. G. Pathon. "Assessment of Ground
Rippability in Opencast Mining Operations." Min. Dep/. Mag . Univ. Nottingham
38 , 1986, pp. 21-34.
Singh , R. N., B. Denby, and 1. Egretli . "Development of a New Rippability Index
forCoal Measures." Proc. 28th U.S. Symp. Rack Mech. , A. A. Balkema, Boston,
1987, pp. 935 - 943 .
Smith, H. J., "Estimating Rippability by Rock Mass Classifieation ." Proc. 27th
U.S. Symp. Rack Mech., AJME, New York, 1986, pp. 443 - 448.
Smith, H. J. "Estimating lhe Mechanical Dredgeability of Rock." Proc. 28/h U.S.
Symp. Rack Mech., A. A. Balkema, Boston, 1987, pp. 935-943.
Stevens, C. R., L. A. Sandbak, and J. J. Hunter. "LHD Production and Design
Modifications at the San Manuel Mine." Proc. 28th U.S. Symp. Rack Mech.,
A. A. Balkema, Boston, 1987, pp. 1175-1185.
Stille, H., T. Grolh, and A. Fredriksson. "FEM Analysis of Roek Mechanics
Problems by JOBFEM. " Swedish Rack Engineering Research Foundation Pub-
lica/ion, No. 307, 1982, pp. 1-8.
Trunk, U. , and K. H6nisch. Private cornmunication, 1989. To be published in
Felsbau.
Unrug, K., and T. B. Szwilski. "Strata Cavability in Longwall Mining." Proc.
REFERENCES 203
2nd. In/. Conf. S/ability Underground Min. , AIME, New York, 1983, pp.
131-147.
Weaver, J . M. "Geological Factors Significant in the Assessment of Rippability."
Civ. Eng. S. Afr. 17, Dec. 1975, pp. 313-316.
Williamson, D. A. "Uniform Rock Classification for Geotechnical Engineering
Purposes." Transp. Res. Rec., no. 783, 1980, pp. 9- 14.
Williamson, D. A. "Unified Rock Classification System." Bull. Assoc. Eng. Geol.
21(3), 1984, pp. 345-354.
Yudhbir. "An Empirical Failure Criterion for Rock Masses." Proc. 5/h In/. Congo
Rock Mech. , lSRM, Melboume, 1983, pp. 81 - 88.
10
Case Histories Data Base
lt is truth very certain tha! when ir is in our power 10
determine what is true,
we oughl lo follow whal is mosl probable.
- René Descarles
The case histories used in lhe development and validation of the Geomechanics
Classification (RMR system) ate tabulated in this chapter. Originally, 49
case histories were investigated in 1973, followed by 62 coal mining case
histories that were added by 1984 and a further 78 tunneling and mining
case histories collected by 1987. To date, the RMR system has been used
in 351 case histories.
To assist lhe readers in deciding whether their patticulat project site
conditions fall within the range of data applicable to the RMR system, a
surnmary of the case histories, featuring the principal data , is presented.
Names ofprojects have been omitted at lhe owners' request. However, since
this is abbreviated information, an example of lhe actual data sheet used in
record keeping is shown in Figure 10.1. This data sheet is accompanied by
lhe details of the geological conditions encountered and the support installed.
The tabulated RMR case histories are presented here in order of the RMR
magnitude, from the highest to the lowest. However, all the records ate
stored using the Mac Works data base softwate for a Macintosh personal
computer and can be retrieved and sorted by any item appeating in the
heading of the tabulation (i .e. , project type, span depth, etc .).
205
206 CASE HISTORIES C\<\TA BASE
Accordingly, to demonstrate the RMR data base ranges , histograms are

given in Figures 10.2- 10.4 depicting the ranges of the RMR values, spans
of excayations, and depths below surface applicable to tbe case histories
on the basis of which tbe RMR system was developed.
Case No Rock ISha!e 1 Span, m 17 .80 1

~ I~ARK RIVER WATER TUNNEL
Hartford, Connecl icut
Stand-uP Time, Ilr 18 ,7S91
ProJect Depth, m IS1 .0 1
Country l USA Ilnterbedded shale wilh
sandslone, 3 struclural
RMR
I 70
I Q I
19 .9
I
reg io ns . Monitoring and
classification dala .
Rehre nu
Publicatians and report s
Blackey, E.A . Parl( River Auxi!iary
issued. CasI analysis
Tunne!' J. Construcli on Division, ASCE,
available on requesl. Design
vo1.105, no .C04, 1979, pp. 341 -349 .
report published .
¡Cose NO ! Lft~7..~ ... ¡ IRoe\( Type I L~.P.~~~.!!!_n": Ispon, m I
IReferences
Figure 10.1 A record·keeping form for RMR case histories.

Llsting 01 RMR Case Histories
Cne'
2
,.
Rack TYIM
¡gneiss
ProJect Typ.
chamber ."
RMR a
200.000
Span m Stand up lime nr
20.0
Deplh m
18
256
limeslone
lava
limaslone mine
melal mine . 13.1
16.8
403000 6.'
'.385
00
,
334
250
dunite
Shale
quarlzHo
hard rodl. mine
Aailroad lunner .,.,
86
103.000
25.0
7.4
16.5
175200
87590 28
rnetallTine 1494
.
284
264
sinslone
doledt •
gneiss
tunnel
tunoel
chamber
85
"
.2
33.300
6.0
'.5
33.0
200
51
'SO
76
283
",
sa~s~on8
charrber
tunnel
----_.
.2
.2
44.0
6.0
33.
200
248 c:folttlite charrber 80 25.0 30
s.• ndy shale loundalion 80 54.600 5.5 350
'"
4. argmite chambar 79 21.7 25
3" ,¡hlone tunner 79 6.0 298
16 granite & gneiss lunnel 7. 16.700 14.6 442
~~.~.'E~_e 12.0 2378
'"
2.5
metal mine
!~~!~~~~----- tunnel
78
78 6.0 200
253 uarlzrte metal mine 77 4.9 2650
57
10.
dolom~e
gneiss
sewage lunner
tunner
76
76 12.000 ..,
10.8 67
26
~~
254 9.~~~i1 e
seriei!e
melar mine
metal mine
76
76 22.600
7.'
4.0 ,.,
2100
~~5 .gneiss chamber 75 29.0 17'

22.0
2~~ greywacke
'mei~phy;e
chamber 75
- 15'
229
103 metaphyre
rock slope
tunnel
75
75 5.300 ,., 35040 '"
217
252 quarlzite melal mine 75 9.' 2073
224 basalt tunnel 74 11.250 7 .• 61
3 .9.ranite chamber 74 50.000 t2.0 100
26' greywacke chamber 74 33.5 300
quarlzite 4.6 3936 41
~ '"
255 quarlzite
IUMel
metal mine
74
74 10.0 1700
.....
'"
lS Llsting 01 RMR Case Histories (Continued)
-Case' Rock Type PraJeel Type RMR O Span m Stand up time hr Depth m
26J greywacke chamber 74 33.5 JOO
320 siltslone lunnel 74 6.0
2~J
71 oil shaJe oil shale mine 7J 4.800 18.0 290
~~
schisl chamber 7J 12.0 150
sittslon.
"53 coal
water lunne!
coal mine
72
72
3.4
3.2
671
28
8J gneiss '" granil. lunnel 72 11 ,300 15.5 70
182 doler¡!. lunnel 72 5.0 720 29
209 granile lunnel 72 12.0 460 70
210 gneiss lunne! 72 ----_._ .•. ~
3.0 1440 6.
_2:~~ basal! chamber 72 - - _ ....2.810
_ . ~".
6.0 924
219 <off chambar 72 10.000 6.' 364
258 quartz~. melal mine 72 16,0 2092
260 gneiss chamber 72 23.0 60
14 granite charroer 7' so.ooo 23.5 335
'O. dolerite foundation 71 2.800 23
'90 gneis!! tunnel 71 ---_.__. 2 .5
,,,
67
237 monzonite melal mine 71 3.900 4 .0
26' mudstone chamber 71 13.7 152
J19 sandslone lunnel 71 6.0 210
337 argilllte chamber 71 21.5 25
97 dolerile lunoe' 70 12.500 5.5 46
'28
~~
shale
sha\e
coal mine
coal mine
70
70 __._-_.
.
15.3
9.3
2136
3000
'43
152
~~
shale coal mine 70 9.' _ : 9 5 6 168
22J shale tunnel 70 19.900 7.8 8759 51
'"
247
porph ry
gneiss
metal mine
chambet
70
70
5.000 4.3
16.0
21'
140
257 ~uartz~e metal mine 70 16.6 27SO
2S9 llranite charrber 70 23.0 335
270 greywacke tunnel 70 3.0 150
~p.- gterWa~kB tunnel 70 35.000 3.0

-- 150
275 grey wacke tunnel 70 3.0 ISO
Casel Rack Type Prolec! Type RMR e Spen m Stand up time hr Oep'h m
55 amphibolite chamber
•• 21.7 '2
."
'" >off ch amba r
•• 0 .700 ' .1
••
..
273 greyw8cke
.
tunnel 3.0 150
m greywacke tunne!
•• 3.0 150
. "60
granite chamber 20.000 10.0 102
127 shala coal mine ' .0 2568 154
133
14'
shala
sha\a
coal mine
ccal mine 68
•••
8.'
2424
4944
152
171
156 shale coal mine 68 ' .0 3096 193
-ª~
pophy.!y melal mine 68 0.800 3.7 275
_2~~_ Quartde chamber 68 22.0 200
329
345
126
~~zonile
schist
shale
metal mine
melal mine
coal mine
.
68
67
20.0
6.0
12.0
240
2136
706
76
154
135 shala coal mine 67 '.0 1632 160
shala 7.8 1224
~~
coal mine 67 152
246 mudstone chamber 67 16.3 150
61 sandslone coa l mine
~~ . ' .5
1488
150
138 shale coal mine 66 10.8 157
220 >off chambar 66 4.300 6.1 545
287 sandstone lunnel 66 6.0 200
290 shale tunnel 66 6.0 200
grani1. chambe, 16.900 19.0 3600 108
"
131 shale coal mine
65
65 6.0 4824 152
shale 1440 171
_1:~~ coal mine 65 ' .6
217 basatl chamber 65 0.190 6.0 897
267 reywacke tunne! 65 3.0 150
8. quartzite lunnel 64 0.900 14.3 41
-'~~
shale coal mine 64 6.0 2160 154
136 shale coal mine 64 8A 254' 160
-_._--
14'
146
shala
shale
coal
coal
mne
mna
-~
64
.
9 .0
9.9
1320
1344
156
159
~
158 shale coal mine 64 9.9 1032 125
'"
~
o Listing 01 RMR Case Histories (Continued)
Case. Rack Type ProJect Type RMR a Span m Stand up lime hr Depth m
289 shale tunnel 64 10.0 225
~~ ~_~~iss chamber 63 31.600 19.5 305

17 gneiss chamber 63 31.600 24.7 299
r;~i dele/ita rock slope 63 3.000 73
124 shale coal mine 63 11.4 792 15'
152 shale coal mine 63 12.0 600 122
227 dole/ita rock slo~ 63 31
'::~~~Iona 6.0
~~
tUMeJ 63 200
~~
sandstone coal mine
._------ --_._0.800
63 .. 3.6
_·_ _ _ _ u'_··· 54
------- --_.•.6.600
".~~
77 .~~~~!one tunnel 62 __ .-._---_15.0

.. -- 200
79 sandstone chamber 62 30.0 101
94 doladle lunnel 62 13. 200 5.5 82
109 quartz·mica schist luonal 62 7.500 3.7 27
119 shale coal mine 62 11.4 792 154
shale 1200
~~'
coal mine 62 8' 137
192 gneiss chamber 62 ._---_._18.0
.... 3600 108
~?
203
mudslone
mudstone
"--_._,--------
chamber
chambet
62
62
3.0
2.0
96
168
100
100
208 sandstone lunnel 62 11.4 72 200
241 porphyry metal mine 62 1.300 3.7 330
288 shale tuonal 62 10.0 225
.~nei ss ..~.~?~?Y..~~'!~t____ 6.1 19
~'
49
59 ~~rtzite
2~1 shale
..railload -
_._-_... tunneJ 61 6.0 457
-=;0'- Jeptite _.._._... _-------

tu nnel
tun nel
61
60 35.000
----_ _- 6.0
...
9.0
200
9
92 diabase tunnel 60 2.160 14.3 40
142 shale coal mine 60 11.4 384 152
5.8 102
~~
phyllite tunnel 60
344 gneiss tunne! 60 3.0 100
7.2
f--~~_'_ andesite water tu nnel 59 229
186 gneiss tunnel 59 3.0 1440 67
189 gneiss
- --- ---
tunnel 59 2.8 2160 67
Case' Rack Type PraJecl Type RMR a Span m Stand up time hr Depth"
'"
308
IUII
mudstone
chamber
lunne!
SO
SO
0.600 6.1
6.0 66
76:
41
324 ,illslone IUnne! SO 6.0 30'
37 gnein lunnal 0.1
""
2.800 2'
56 s¡lIslone shah 0.400 3.7 68'
130 shale coa! mine S8 7.8 600 15;
143 shale coa! mine S8 12,3 240 IS'
188 fanite lunnel S8 2.8 4300 6;
101 gneis$ tunnel 58 2.8 720 6;
!~~ ,9reywacke tunnel lSe

.greywacke tunner
" 3.0
lSe
278
22 shale coal mine "
57
3.0
' .2
-_ . _~--~~~
se
28 sandslone coat mine 57 ' .0 16e
30 sandstone coal mine 57 3.6 lSe
187 biot~8 tUMel 57 3 .0 4320 61
", andesita melal mine 57 0,300 3.7 27~
", phyllite shall 57 30 ._.- 10:;

338
351
shale
graníl.
coal mine
lunnel
57
57 1.740
2.S
6.0 168 -- 30e
<oe
4 lanile lunnel 56 12.000 8.0 1!
86 sandstone IUMel 56 1.650 15.5 7C
107 gneis! lunnel 56 1.000 3 .0 2C
- 132
.~~ ~~Ie
shale
-2~ sandstone
coal mine
_---------- ~6
coat mine
..
tunnel
56 6.0
6.0
- - _.-,
62'
.. 15.
14~
71
274 'gfeywacke
-----------
lunne!
~6
56
5.0
3.0
'8
lSe
16
306
312
mudstone
mudstone
lunnel
lunne!
56
56
6 .0
6.0 10 .. ",
323 sihlnoa lunnel 56 6.0 36~
326 mudstone tunne! 56 6.0 17~
327 mudstone tunne! 56 6.0 O,
34. sha!e coa! mine 56 3.8 Ble
--'" 34 shale coal mine SS 4.5 se

-"" Lisling 01 RMR Case Histories (Continued)
, e - ,- ,,- - -,..._ .. _._ . . - -,... ..... - --,... ..

35 shaJe coal mine 55 4.5 40
36
44 ,,.
shale coal mine
charrber
55
55 1.500
3.2
30.5
30
401
"6 basalt chambet 55 2.330 6.0 924
243 langlolTlElrite melal mine 55 0.200 3.7 330
295 shale tunnsl 55 6.0 200
20 neiss chamber 54 5.200 19.5 295
33 gneiss cl1amber 54 5.200 24.7 300
.~.~njI8
-~~-
tunnel 54 1.900 14.6 442
47 coal coal mine 54 3 .5 141
l~i- shale coal mine 54 5.4 408 146
279 greywacke lunnel 54 3.0 ISO
296 shale IUMal 54 6.0 200
-~~-
43
shale
sandstone
coal mine
coal mine
53
53
3.2
4.2
20
390
50 sandslone taitroad lunnel 53 7.4 58
155 shale coal mine 53 6.0 120 92
ISO
'"
309
fe wacke
mudstone
tunnal
tunne!
53
53
3.0
6.0 168 52
313 si~stone lunnel
+--~~ 6.0
-----_.- 456 9
315 mudslone lunnel +_ _ 03 60 12
_ _ _ _ o
16'
3H
'22
mudstone
sillslone
lunnel
tunnal
53
53
6.0
6.0
----------
26280
._------
159
310
325 sillstorle lunnel 53 6.0 2t1
328 mudslone lunnel 53 6.0 56
84 granito tunnel 52 0.690 15.5 65
95 dolerite lunnal 52 10.000 5.5 56
f-~~ granita tunnel 52 5.0 24 69

'31 porphyry metal mine 52
'36 a¡gill~e chamber 52
1.250 3.7
21.5
--- 755
25
341 sandstone tunnel 52 6.0 210
Cue' Rock Typ. Prol.el Type RMR o Span m Stand up tIme hr Oepth m
21 coal & shale coa! mine 92
coal mine " 3.'
67 sandslone
shale coal mine
" 4.2 220
123
" 4.' 124 154
.
,hole lunnel
294
6 granile lunnel "
50 2.600
6.0
7.0
200
20
shale coal mine 50 4.5 225
114 c1ayslone foundation 50 1.950 4.' 232
118 sandy shale loundation 50 1.950 6.1 60'
coal mine 50 67
_',~~ shale '.2 15'
193 mudstone tunnel 50 1.5
._---
5 . 175 ..
._-_
_ .~
_'~_ mudstone lunoel 50 4.0 5 .•.•.. _ __ 2.~
195 mudstone tunnel 50 5.5 15 171

249 shale charrber 50 20.0 45
311 mudslone lunoel 50 6.0 6 69
mudslone lunnel 50 6.0 312
'"
349 sandston. coal mine 50 3.6
--- --_..
103
375
~.!1ejss
--!~ 9!l.!i$$
lunoel 49 5.300 6.1 ._---_.. -----_ 330
•...
_ 1'30 shale
chamber
coal mine
49
49
5.300 23.5
3.2
- --- 335
80
164 shale coal mine 49 7.6 67 156
...
232 granile metal mine 49 0.830 3.7 '15
metal mine 49 1.140 4.3 214
~~
pore!!vry
..
145 shale coal mine 6.3 72 159
163 shale coal mine 6.1 67 156
204
205
280
mudslone
mudstone
phy"itlt
chambe,
chambe,
lunnel ..
3.0
2.0
5.8
.
24 100
96
102
335 dunit. hard fock mine 2.8 295
" siMstone coal mine

" 3.2 300
~~~
shale coal mine
coal mine
" 5.4 72 145
'"
~
161 shale
298 shale lunnel "
47
5.6
10.0
67 152
225
'"
-.'"... Lisling 01 RMR Case Histories (Continued)
o,
Case' Rack Type P roJecl Type RMR Span mI Stand up time hr Depth m
310 mudstone lunnel 47 6.01 61
347 coal coal mine 47 4.2 145
~~~
coal coal mine 46 4.2 386
16" shale coal mine 4. 8.41 18 17!.
160 shale coal mine 4. 8.1 ~ 1~
199
60
mudslone
gneiss & schisl
lunnel
tunnel
4.
45 0.250 ·4'
.7 •
•
68
80
115
sandslone
sills10ne
;¡:;;;¡e
...•....•
coal mine
chamber
_------ lIoundation "

, ¡
45
"---
¡
3.300j
1.120
4.2!
3O.0~
6.1
46
' '.0
366
.. _...
,.,
122 .shale
H·._." _________·
shale
...
coal__ '. mine
coal mine ".
-
4.B 76 154
- - - - .._---_..._..
45 7.6 44 122
175 shale coal mine 45 7.6! 29 143
78 sandstone tunnel 44 0.400 15'01 19B!
112 shale foundation 44 1.000 5.5 \95
t=::.=~"'¡---¡¡-f---'?5
166 shale coal mine
168 ~h~!! . ~_e
. ____._________..I.~.~~.~.~_ 1 " 1
-~!.~..M._L~·h.~!!:-------·-·J·~·?·~·,-~~·---·--J--11--1---~==I--HF==*==F~~~--==¡¡l
L _ _ _ _ __ ._.
~~ ~
176 shale coali"TWna

21'
297
basah
shala
chamber
tunnal
44
44
0.100 6.01 B97 B97
10.01 225,
~!.~- sltstone_..
...............
mUdslOIlG
_----lunnel
tunllel 44
44 _ __
6.0
-"6.0 2B
131
~~;~ 176
p.?rphyry _._. _ _ _ . melal mina 44
::::··~~;------~F--~;--=-I·------ . ·_--::===~Hi
333
-~.~~.-.!.~~.~.?~~~._._----
40 !shale
:::
129 shale coal mine I 43 I 5.4 24 175
147
~~-I·!"!I'
!shale
.Jcoal mine
""m'"
43
PG===-~
5.41 264
39
152
157
~i~~_ ¡~~i~===~l¡~~¡===j==¡i==j~~-=~~~=~--I===i-----!~i ___¡¡ ._____.¡¡:

174
177
Case' Rack Type Pro/ec! Type RMR O Span m Stand up lime hr Oepth m
6.0 480 54
'"38 mudstone
sandslone
tu nnel
coal mine
"42 3.5 104
limasIona & schisl chamber
'""
42 0.370 30.5
.
mudstone & shale chamber 42 1.870 13.7 10'
, 179 shale
roywacke
coal mine
lunnel
42
42
5.0
3.0
28 154
150
coal mine 4.2
66
171
sihslone
shala coal mine
41
41 4.6 26
"
'60
m
,.
shale coal mine 41 ' .6 26 143
178
-;~
-_
shale
shale..
sihtone
_-_.. _--~
coal mine
tunnel
tunnal
-
41
41
41
...
' .7
10.0
6 .0
28
132
'54
225
43
granite water tvnnel 40 7.7 549
" 40 6.0
197 mudslone lunnel
tunnal 40 3.0
28
6
'"92
'" 7
mudstone
~ran1~e tunnal 39 1.300 5.9 24 as
29 sandstone coal mine 39 4 .2 410
3J1 sandstone lunnel 39 6.0 32.~
t- coal mine 38 ' .2 100
" sandstone
38
'DO
65 shaJe
dolerile
coal mine
tunnel 38 5.600
3 .6
5.5 "
81
~~
shale
.- coal mine
...
-~
~....
___ .. _~. ...tunnel

J!!'!.y'~acke __--
.~ .. 38
38 18.000
5.'
3.0
8
'"
150
-ª~
.~~ .~~~-,----_._. tunnel
" .•.•. ..
~
............. _----_.._-----_
38
. - - --_. -------
3.0 100
coal mine 37 3.8 150
"53 coal
. lo" chamber 37 0.390 30.5 400
,
15' shale coal mine 37 ••• 8
'"
.
mudstone tunnel 37 6.0 5 155
37 2.190 7.8 39
,
225 shale
bfeceia
lunnel
metal mine 37 0.030 3.7 330
lunnel 31 3.0 150
~.~9 greywacke
-
'"
'"
339 sandslone coal mine 37 2.5 400
...
~
Listing 01 RMR Case Histories (Continued)
'" Casel Rock lype ProJecl Type RMR o 5pan m Stand up time hr Depth m
27 coal & sllal. coal mine 36 3.0 310
36
~4 shale coal mir.e 5.' 7 145
117 shale loundation 35 0.370 6.1 152
121
302
shaJ.
sihstone
coal mine
tunnel
35
35
•••
6.0
• 154
200
12 m lonih'l chamber 34 1.300 12.5 24 60
105
200
2J4
quar1l· mica schist
mudslone
porphyry
lunoel
tu nnel
metal mine
34
34
34
0.210
0.210
'.5
3.0
4 .3
4 .29
21'
_!~- .2neiss
102 shale __..__ ·
._.
lunoel
..... _.•. __.._ ..
""~""-'-"."~'_~- "-"
rock slope ~._.

33
33
0.027
1.750
6.1 21
!.2.?
.
_
"
.
~
~
-
-
_
.
228 shale roc k stope 33 101
74 mudstone coat mine 32 4 .2 200
106 quar tz-mica sch ist tunnel 32 0.180 8.0 22
110
120
quallz-mica schist
_3.~g_ sandslone
shale
chamber
_.... ..•.•...
l unnel
"-
· coal........
mine _
__ _...
_- .......
.... _._.~
._._~-_.
•.. _--
32
32
31
0.180 93.0
6 .0
••• 2
21
200
1 ~~
31 0.020
f-l~~
330
breccia
pOlphyry
----------
metal mine
metal mine 31
' .0
' .5
183
706
73 coal coa! mine 30 3.7 275
90 quartzite tunneJ 30 0.067 14.3 90
5 gr3ywacke tuonel-...
· ........... __tunnel
.- .•... 29 1.700 5.9 100
11
96
quartzile
dole¡ite
._-------_.
headlace
tunnel
29
29
0.180
1.470
' .0
5.5
24 200
26
29
---;~~ ~stone chamber 2.0 1 100
207 mudstone chamber 29 1.0 2 100
31 shale coal mine 28 3 .2 30
91 quar1z~e tunnel 28 0.033 14.3 41
93 quartzÍle lunnel 28 0.067 14.3 39
304
8'
sihstone
siftstone
lunnel
chamber "
27 0.230
6.0
30.0
200
94
183 dalerita 1uonel 27 3.2 1 56
r--:; S4 dalerile IUnnel 27 2.0 2 83
Casel Rock Type ProJec\ Typ. RMR Spanm SI.nd up time hr Depth IT
185 doler it. tunnel 27 1.0 10
85 breccia "
213 breccia
tunne!
" 0.150 15.5
2.0 1 "
332 po!phyry
lunnel
melal mine
"26 '.5 70.
7(
10 schlst O
41 sha!e
lailrace lunnel
coal mne
"24 0.170 '.0
3 .6 "'
2S<
303 breccia tunne! 22 6.0 20C
342 gneiS! tunnel 22 3.0 IDO
•
233
schis\
porphyry
chamber
metal mine
21
21
0.100
0.020
6.5
4.3
" 21'
50
breccia
2~~ metal mine 20 0.010 3.7 603
331 porphyry melal mine 18 4.5 706
8
226
98
granite
breccia
dole ríle
Iunne!
lunnel
tunnel
17
16
15
0.017
0.140
0.090
S.,
7.8
5.5
O 100
..
116 coaly shale loundalion 10 0.040 6 .1 152
"
f--3~5 breccia tun nel 10 6.0 200
-;'-' ~ranile lunne1
• 0.090 15.5 71
214
72
breccia
granile
lunnel
•• 1.0 1 6e
75 granile
lunnel
highway luonel
•
0.011
0.001
14.6
14.6 '"
399
I
'".,.
~
218 CASE HISTORIES DATA BASE
80 ~
60
"'"'"
"
U
40
~
(;
•
~
,
"E" ,
Z
~
20
-
~
~
.',----"
o
<20 21 - 30 3' · 40 4 ' -50 5' -60 6'-70 7' · 80 81-90 >9 1
RMR Range
Figure 10.2 Distribution 01 RMR values in the case histories studied.
120
100
80
"
1ií
e
(; 60
.;
Z
40
20
o
<3 3·4 4·5 s·, 7-10 10 - 15 15 - 20 20-25 >25
Span Range, m
Figure 10.3 The range 01 spans encountered in the RMR case histories.
CASE HISTORIES DATA BASE 219
60
••
•
o•
15
"
~
,
E
Z
20
o
<25 25- 50 SO-IDO 100_150150·200200_250250_500500_1507$0_1 km 1-2 km 2-3 km
Depth Range, m
Figure 10.4 The range of depths encountered in the RMR case histories.
Appendix
Determination of
the Rock Mass Rating:
Output Example and
Program Listing for
Personal Computer
221
222 APPENDIX
-- -
Pennsylvania Slale Universily
Determl.nAtUm of &he 1Wd<. :Mass Rmi.nq

&c.sed on &he ~ ct..ssi.fi<:mion
of B~. 1 979
Program written by Claudio Farla Santos

RMR Syslem deueloped by Prof. Z. T. Hleniawskl
Summer 1968
Do you wlsh el printed output of this program ?

- pleese enswer "VES" OR "'NO" .
guestions·
What system of units ere you 901n9 to use?

- please onswer M (or metne or E tor English customory units
? M
Enter the unit weight of lhe rock mas s (i n kN/cubic meler): ? 25
How many femilles of discont1nuHies are presant in the rock moss ?

? 3
Which techniQue wos used lo delennine the compressive strength

of ¡nlocl rock in the loborotory (pleose answer 'P' for poinl laod or
'U' (or uniaxiol compreSSiYB test) ?
? U
Enter the unioxiol compressive strength of the rock malerial (i n MPo) : ? 40

OUTPUT EXAMPLE 223
AMA
Enter the ROD: ? 60
Enter the dis.contlnuity specing (ln melers): ? 0.150
Enter the disconUnuity persistence (in melers): ? lO
Enter the seperetion between dtscontlnuiUes (i n mm): ? 0 . 125
Enter the cenda;on of the jalnt surteee

- please enswer:
'VR' far very rough
'R' for rough
'SR' lor slight1y rough
'S' for smooth
'SK' far sl1ckensided
17 SR
IEnter the thickness 01 the joint Inli11ing (in mm): ? O, Fi
Enler the w8ethering condition of the well rack

- please enswer:
'UW' far unweethered
'SW' lor sllght1y we.thered
'MW' far moderetely weelhered
'HW' lor highly we.thered
'CW' for completely we8thered
? SW
Enler the genere! groundweter condaion

- piense enswer:
'CD' lor completely dry
'DM' lor d.mp
'WT' for wet
'OP' for dripping
'FW' for flowing
? DM O
224 APPENDIX
;$ the eHeet 01 the strike end dip orientetion

the crHicel sel 01 discontinuities ?
please enswer:
'VF' far . . ery feyoreble
'FV' for feyoreble
'FR' for 18;r
'UF' for unfevoreble
'VU' for very unfevoreble
FR
IEs;tilnolle the weetherebility 01 the rack mess ?

pleese enswer:
'HR' for high resistence lo weethering
'MR' 10r inlermediete resistence lo weethering
'tR' for low resistance lo weethering
DeterrninotiQn Qf RHR
Volue 01 bosic RMR: 50
Volue 01 odjusted RMR: 41
Velue 01 RMR for dry conditions: 55
eohesion (kPo): 250
Angle 01 inlerna! friction: 30 degrees
Il
OUTPUT EXAMPLE 225
:0 - - ROOF BOLTlNG/RMR '88 =--- - ~

-- -=----
Mechenic.! nx:kbolt : l ength. 6 ft; 'pací "9 - 3 ft

SCALE
Sft RMR (rool) - 41
B = 20 fl
H = 10 fl Plllor
Entry
- a1l0... , spaeing of 1 ft near the ribs, es 11ldicated

- specin~ 1s the ,ame both .'ong Ind acero,' the entrv
SCAlE
<) o o o CI o o
10ft
o o o o o o o
----'o"o~o o o o o o oL-______
00°000000
00°000000
00°000000
00°000000
00°000000
P[an"uw
226 APPENDIX
PROGRAM LISTING FOR PERSONAL COMPUTER
10 CLS
DIM Bl(2)
PRINT
CALL TEXTFONT (7)
CALL TEXTSIZE (1 8)
PA1NT lAS (7) • The Pennsylvan ia Slate University"
PAINT
CAlL TEXTFONT (5)
CALL TEXTSIZE (14)
PRtNT lAS (") "Delermination 01 Ihe Rock Mass Rating"
PAINT TAB (IQ) "basad on ,he Geomechanics Classification •
PRINT lAS (21) '01 Bieniawski, 1979"
CALL TEXTFONT (O)
CALL TEXTSIZE (12)
PRINT
PRINT
PR1NT TAB (11) "Program writlen by Dr. Claudio Faria Santos'
PRINT TAB (10) "AMR System developed by Pro!. Z. T. Bien iawski"
PRINT
CALL TEXTFONT (1)
PRINT TAB (24) "August 1988"
PRINT
PAINT
PRINT lAS (l a) "Do you wish a printed oulput 01 this program ?"
PRINT lAS (10) ". please answer "VES· OR "NO"."
PRINT
100 INPUT PR$
IF PR$. "YES' THEN GOTO 2000
IF PR$."NO' THEN GOTO 1SO
PRINT
PRINT TAB {10) "Please reenter the answer; use capital letters."
GOTO 100
150 ClS
CALl TEXTFACE (4)
PRINT TAB (10) "Questions:'
CAll TEXTFACE (O)
PRINT
200 PRINT ' What system 01 un its are you going to use 7"
PRINT ". please answer " M" for metric or "E" for U.S. cus tomary units"
INPUT SUS
IF SUS_MM" THEN GOTO 210
IF SU$.'E" THEN GOTO 220
PRINT
PRINT ". please reenter answer ' " M" or "E" (use capital lelterst
GOTO 200
210 PRINT
INPUT "Enter the unit weight 01 the rack mass (in kN/cubic meter): ";GAMA
PRINT
GOTO 230
220 PRINT
INPUT "Enter the unít weight of the rack mass (in poundslcubic 1001): ";PCF
GAMA_PCF/6.363
PRINT
230 PRINT "How many lamilias 01 disco ntinuities are present in the rack mass 7"
INPUT n
PR1NT
255 PRINT "Which technique wa s used to determ ine the compressi ve strength"
PRINT "01 intact rock in the laboratory (please answer 'P' lar point load or'"
PRINT " U' lor uniaxial compressive test) ?"
INPUT TT$
PRINT
IF TT$."P· THEN GOTO 265
PROGRAM LlSTlNG FOR PERSONAL COMPUTER 227
IF TT$."U" THEN GOTa 275

PRINT "Please reenter th e answer (P or U); use capital lellers"
GOTa 255
265 REM RMR queshon # la
IF SUS_RE" THEN GOTa 270
INPUT "Enter the point load inds)( (in MPa) : "; PL
GOTa 272
270 INPUT "Enter the point load index (in psi): "; PL
PL_PU1 45
272 PRINT
StGMA ..24· Pl
GOTa 280
275 REM Queslion # 1b
IF SUS."E" THEN GOTa 277
INPUT "Enter the unia)( ial compressive strength 01 the rock material (in MPa) : ";SIGM
A
PRINT
GOTa 280
277 INPUT "Enter the uniaxial compressille s!rength 01 Ihe rock material (in pSi): ";SIG
MA
SIGMA_SIGMA/145
PRINT
280 INPUT "Enter the RQD: '; RQD
PRINT
REM RM R queslion # 3
IF SU$_"E" THEN GOTa 283
INPUT "Enter Ihe disconlinuity spacing (in meters) : "; SP
PRINT
282 INPUT "Enter the discontinu ity persistence (in meters): "; L
PRINT
INPUT "Entar the separation between discontin uities (in mm): "; ZETA
PRINT
GOTa 285
283 INPUT ' Enter Ihe disconlinuity spacing (in leet) : "; SP
PRINT
INPUT "Enter Ihe discontinuity persistence (in leet) : "; l
PRINT
INPUT "Enter the separati on between discontinuities (in inches): ZETA
CN_.30S
CV .. 25.4
SP.SP/CN
L.. UCN
ZETA_ZETA/CV
PRINT
285 PRINT "Enter the condition 01 the joinl surface
PRINT '. please ans wer:"
PAINT TAB (10) "VA' lor lIery rough"
PRINT TAB (10) "'R' lor rough"
PRINT TAB (10) "'SR' lor slightly rough '
PRINT TAB (10) "S' lor smooth"
PRINT TAB (10) " SK' lor slickensided"
INPUT JR$
PRINT
IF JA$ .. "VA" THEN GOTa 310
IF JR$ .."A" THEN GOTa 320
IF JR$- "SA' THEN GOTa 330
IF JA$a'S" THEN GOTa 340
IF JR$_'SK' THEN GOTO 350
PRINT "please reenter the answer (VR, R, SR, S or SKI; use capital letters"
GaTO 285
310 C4_6
GOTa 355
320 C4_4.5
GOTO 355
330 C4 .. 3
GOTO 355
340 C4_1.5
228 APPENDIX
GOTO 355
350 C4_0
355 IF SU$·"E" THEN GOTO 360
INPUT "Enler the thickness 01 Ihe joín! ¡nti1ling (in mm) : "; T
PRIN T
GOTa 355
360 INPUT "Enter the thickness 01 the joín! infilling (in ¡nches) : T
P RI NT
T. TICV
365 PRINT "Enter Ihe weathering condition 01 the wall rack"
PAINT "o please answer :"
PRINT TA8 (10) "UW' for unweathered"
PRINT TA8 (10) "SW' lor slightly wealhered"
PRINT TA8 (10) "MW' for moderately wealhered'
PRINT TA8 (10) "HW' lor highly weathered"
PRINT TA8 (10) "CW' fo r compl etel y wealh ered"
INPUT RW$
PRINT
IF RW$."UW· THEN GOTO 410
IF RW$."SW· THEN GOTO 420
IF RW$."MW· THEN GOTa 430
IF RW$."HW' THEN GOTO 440
IF RW$.'CW· THEN GOTO 450
PR INT 'Please reenler the answer (UW, SW, MW, HW or CW); use capital lelters"
GOTO 365
410 E4.6
GOTO 455
420 E4.4 .5
GOTO 455
430 E4.3
GOTO 455
440 E4 _1.5
GOTO 455
450 E4.0
455 PRINT "Enter the general groundwater eondition
PRINT ". please answer:"
PRINT TAB (10) "'CO' lor eompletely dry"
PRiNT TAB (10) "OM' lor damp'
PRINT TAB( 10) "'WT' lor wet"
PRINT TAB (10} "'DP' lor dri pping"
PRIN T TAB (10) "'FW' for flowing"
INPUT GW$
PRINT
IF GW$."CO" THEN GOTO 510
IF GW$."OM" THEN GOTO 520
IF GW$."WT" THEN GOTO 530
IF GW$."OP" THEN GOTO 540
IF GW$."FW· THEN GOTO 550
PRINT "Please reenter Ihe answer (CO, OM, WT, OP or FW) ; use capital letters"
GOTO 455
510 R5.15
GOTO 555
520 A5.10
GOTO 555
530 R5.7
GOTO 555
540 A5. 4
GOTO 555
550 R5.0
555 PRINT "What is Ihe effeet 01 the strike and dip orientation
PRINT "01 Ihe critieal sel 01 disconlinuities ?"
PRINT ". please ans wer:"
PRINT TAB (10) "VF' for very favorable"
PRINT TAB (10) "FV' for favorable "
PRINT TAB (10) "' FA' for fair"
PRINT TAB (10) "UF' lor unlavorable"
PRtNT TAB (10) "'VU' for very unfavorable"
PROGRAM USTfNG FOR PERSONAL COMPUTER 229
IN PUT UF$
PR I NT
IF UF$."VF" THEN GOTO 610
IF UF$."FV" THEN GOTO 620
IF UF$."FR" THEN GOTO 630
IF UF$."UF" THEN GOTO 640
IF UF$."VU" THEN GOTO 650
PRINT 'Please reenter the answer (VF, FV, FR, UF or UV) ; use capital letters"
GOTO 555
610 AOJ.O
GOTO 750
620 ADJ .. 2
GOTO 750
630 AOJ.5
GOTO 750
640 AOJ .. l0
GOTO 750
650 ADJ.12
750 REM Oelerminalion 01 AMA:
IF n,,3 THEN LET F.l
IF n.. 3 THEN LET F.l
IF n. 2 THEN LET F- l .33
IF n.. 1 THEN LET F_l .33
IF SIGMA,,200 THEN LET A1_15:GOTO 800
IF SIGMA<l THEN LET Rl.0:GOTO 800
IF SIGMA<5 THEN LET Rl .. l:GOTO 800
IF SIGM A<25 THEN lET Rl.2:GOTO 800
At.1.451 4+(.0684"S IGMA)
800 IF ROO,,40 THEN GOTO 810
IF ROO,,25 THEN GOTO 820
R2.3
GOTO 825
810 A2 .. AQOf5
GOTO 825
820 A2.(ROOf3)-(5+(1I3))
825 IF SP< ,06 THEN LET R3.5:GOTO 850
R3.14.6501·(SP~(. 3 587))
850 IF l<l THEN lET A4 ..6:GOTO 870
IF l,,20 THEN A4 .. 0:GOTO 870
A4.6/L
870 IF ZETA<.1 THEN lET 84_6:GOTO 880
IF ZETA,,5 THEN lET 84 ..0:GOTO 880
B4. ,6IZETA
880 IF T- o THEN lET 04..6 :GOTO 890
IF T>$ THEN lET 04_0:GOTO 890
04-3
890 R4_A4+B4+C4+D4+E4
BMA.Al +A2+A3+A4+R5
URMR .. BMR-R5+15
URMR..URMR+.5
UAMA_INT(UAMA)
BMA .. BMA+.5
BMA. INT(BMA)
IF BMA"tOO THEN lET BMR _ tOO
891 PR INT "Estímate the weatherabilily 01 Ihe rock mass ?"
PRINT "- pisase answer:
PRIN T TAB (tO) "'HA' lor high resistance 10 wealhering"
PR I NT TAB (tO) "'MA' for intermediate resístance lo weathering "
PRINT TAB (10) "'LR' lor low resistance 10 wealhering "
INPUT OW$
IF QW$."HR' THEN GOTO 892
IF OW$ .. "MR~ THEN GOTO 892
IF QW$ .."LR" THEN GOTO 893
PRINT ' Please reenter the answer (HA, MA or LR): use capital letters'
PRINT
GOTO 891
892 PRINT
230 APPENDlX
LET WY_l
GOTa 895
893 LET WY_. 9
895 PRINT "1$ the value 01 the ho rizontal stresses known ?"
PRINT "o please answer Y lor "yes" or N for "no"
PRINT
INPUT YN$
IF YN$","Y" THEN GOTO 896
IF YN$","N" THEN GOTO 897
PRINT · Please reenter the answer (Y or N); use capItal letters'
PRINT
GOTa 895
896 IF SUS_RE" THEN GOTa 898
INPUT "Input the value 01 horizon tal stre$ses (in MPa) : ";HS
PRINT
GOTa 899
897 LET FLAG _l
lET HG _!
GOTO 900
8gB INPUT "Input the value 01 horizontal stresses (in psi) : ";HS
HS_HS/t 45
PRINT
899 LET Y...H5/51GMA
lF Y<.l THEN LET HG. , : GOTa 900
IF Y" .2 THEN LET He .. , : GOTa 900
LET HG_ .9S
900 RMR _(BMR_ADJ) "WY'HC
RMA.. RMA+.5
RMA _INT(RMR)
CLS
CAll TEXTFACE (4)

PRINT TAB (10) "Oetermination 01 RMR"
PR1NT
CAlL TEXTFACE (O)
PRINT TAB (10) "Value 01 basic RMR : ":BMR
PRINT
PRINT TAB (lO) "Value 01 adjusted AMR: ";RMR
PRINT
PRINT T AB (1Q) "Value 01 RMR lor dry conditions : ";URMR
PRINT
REM Computation 01 e and IJ :
C_S'BMR
FI.5+(BMR/2)
11 PRINT
IF SU$ _"E" THEN GOTO 950
PRINT TAB(10) "Cohesion (kPa): ";C
PRINT
GOTO 955
950 CE _C· (.145)
CE-CE+.5
CE-INT(CE)
PRINT TAB (10) 'Cohasion (psi): ";CE
PRINT
955 PRINT TAB (lQ) "Angla 01 internal Iriction: ";FI;" degrees"
PRINT
GOTa 19999
2000 CLS
PRINT TAB (10) ' WARNING:"
PRINT TAB (10) ' You need to have a line prinler ("lmageWriter" or "
PRINT TAB(IQ) "compatible) connecled lo your Macinlosh. Make sure"
PRINT TAB (l Q) "Ihal Ihe "Chooser" in Ihe Apple Menu is sel lo right"
PROGRAM L/STlNG FOR PERSONAL COMPUTER 231
PRIN T TAB (10) "prinler:

FOR pause_l TO 10000
NEXT pause
CL S
C ALL TEXTFACE (4)
PRINT TAB (10) "Oueslions :"
LPRI NT T AB (1 O) "Ouestions:"
C AL L TE XTFACE (O)
LPRINT
PRI N T
2200 PRINT "What system 01 unils are you going lo use ?"
LPRINT "Whal syslem 01 units ara you going to use ? "
PRINT ". please answer M lar melric or E lar U-S. cus tomary unilS"
LPRINT ". pleasa answer M lar metric or E for U.S. customary units"
INPUT SU$
LPRINT SU$
IF SU$_"M" THEN GOTO 2210
IF SU$_"E" THEN GOTa 2220
LPRINT
PRINT
PRINT ". please reenler answer: M or E (use capilal letlers)"
LPAINT ". please reenter answer: M or E (use capital letters)"
GOTO 2200
2210 PRINT
lPRINT
PAINT "Enter the unll weight 01 the rock mass (in kN/cubic meter): ";
INPUT GAMA
LPRINT "Enter the unít weight 01 Ihe rock mass (in kN/cubic meter) : ":
lPRINT GAMA
lPRINT
PAINT
GOTO 2230
2220 LPRINT
PR I N T
PRINT " Enter the unit weight 01 the rack mass (in pounds/cubic loot): "
INPUT PCF
lPAINT "Enter the uni! weight 01 Ihe rack mass (in poundsJcubic fOOI) :
LPRINT PCF
GAMA-PCF/6.363
LPRINT
2230 PRINT "How many lamilies 01 discontinuities are present in Ihe rock mas s ?"
LPRINT "How many lamilias 0 1 disconlinuilies are presen! in the rock mass ?'
INPUT n
lPR1NT n
PRINT
LPRIN T
2255 PRINT "Which technique was used 10 determine the compressive sltenglh"
PRINT "01 ¡ntacI rock in the laboratory (please answer 'P' lar point load oro
PAINT "'U' lar uniaxial compressive lest) ?"
LPRINT "Which technique was usad lo determine Ihe compressive sltenglh"
LPRINT "al inlact rock in the laboralory (please answer 'P' lar point load oro
lPRINT "U' lor unial(ial comprassive lesl) ?"
INPUT TT$
LPRINT TT$
lPRINT
PRINT
IF TI$.. "P" THEN GOTO 2265
IF TT$_"U" THEN GOTO 2275
PRINT "Please reenter the answer (P or U); use capital lelters"
LPRINT "Please reenle r the ans wer (P or U): use capital letters'
GOTa 2255
2265 REM AMA Quastion 11 1a
IF SU$ .."E" THEN GOTO 2270
INPUT "Enter the poin! load indel( (in MPa): "; PL
LPR1NT "Enter Ihe point load indel( (in Mpa): "; PL
GOTa 2272
232 APPENDIX
2270 INPUT "Enter the poin! load index (in pSI): "; PL
lPRINT "Enter poin! load index (in psi): "; PL
PL.. PU145
2272 PRINT
SlGMA_24' PL
GOTa 2280
2275 REM QU9stion 11 1b
IF SUS-"E" THEN GOTO 2277
INPUT 'Enter the uniaxial compressive strength 01 the rack materi al (in MPa) : ";SIGM
A
LPRINT ' Enter the unihial compressive strength 01 Ihe rack material (in MPa): ' ;$IG
MA
PRINT
LPRINT
GOTa 2260
2277 INPUT 'Enter Ihe uniaxial compressive strength 01 the rack material (in psi) : ";$ 1
GMA
LPRINT "Enter the uniaxial compressive slrenglh 01 the rack material (in psi): ':5IGM
A
SIGMA .. $ IGMAJ145
PRINT
LPRINT
2280 INPUT ' Enter the ROO : "; ROO
LPRINT "Enter the ROO: "; ROO
PRINT
LPRINT
REM RMA ques\ion 11 3
IF SUS_'E' THEN GOTa 2283
2282 INPUT "Enter the discontinuity spacing (in meters):";SP
LPRINT ' Enter the disconlinuity spacing (in meters):";SP
INPUT "Enler the discontinuity perSistence (in meters) : '; L
LPRINT "Enter the discontinuity persiste nce (in meters) : "; L
PRINT
LPRINT
INPUT "Enter Ihe separation between discontinuities (in mm) : ' ; ZETA
LPRINT :PRINT
LPRINT "Enter the separation between discontinuities (in mm) : "; ZETA
LPRINT
GOTO 2285
2283 INPUT "Enter the d iscontinuity spacing (in leet): "; SP
LPAINT "Enter the discontinuity spacing (in feet) : "; SP
PRINT
LPRINT
INPUT "Enter the discontinuity persistence (in leel) "; l
PAINT
INPUT "Enter Ihe separation between discontinuities (in ¡nches) · ZETA
LPRINT "Enter Ihe discontinuity persislence (in leel): L
LPRINT
LPRINT "Enter the separation between discontinuities (in inches) : ZETA
CN...305
CV_25.4
SP_SP/C N
l .. UCN
ZETA_ZETA/CV
PRINT
LPAtNT
2265 PRINT "Enter Ihe condilion 01 the joint surlace "
PRINT ' . please answer:"
PRINT TAB (10) " VR' lor very rough"
PRINT TAB (tO) "'R' lar rough "
PAINT TAB {IO) "SR' lar slightly rough"
PRINT TAB{ IO) "S' lar smooth"
PRtNT TAB (I O) "SK' for slickensided"
INPUT JR$
PR1NT
LPAINT "Enter the condil ion 01 the join! surlace '
LPRINT ". please answer :"
PROGRAM LI$TlNG FOR PERSONAL COMPUTER 233
LPAINT TAB (10) "'VA' lor very rough"

LPAINT TAB (10) "' R' lar rough "
LPRINT TAB (10) "'SR' lor slightly rough"
LPAINT TAB (10) "'S' lor smooth"
LPRINT TAB (10) "'SK' tor slickensided"
LPRINT JA$
LPRINT
IF JR$_"VR" THEN GOTa 2310
IF JA$_"R" THEN GaTO 2320
IF JR$-"SR" THEN GOTO 2330
IF JR$-"S" THEN GOTO 2340
IF JA$."SK" THEN GOTO 2350
PRINT "please reenter the answer (VA, R, SR, S or SK) ; use capital letters'
LPRINT "please reenter the answer (VR, R, SR, S or SK); use capital letters"
GOTa 2285
2310 G4_6
GaTO 2355
2320 C4 ..4.5
GOTO 2355
2330 C4_3
GOTa 2355
2340 C4_1.5
GaTO 2355
2350 C4_0
2355 IF SU$ _"E" THEN GOTa 2360
INPUT "Enter the thickness 01 the joint inlilling (in mm) : ": T
PRINT
LPRINT "Enter the thickness 01 the joint inli lling (in mm) : "; T
LPRINT
GOTa 2365
2360 INPUT "Enter the thickness 01 the joínt inlilling (in inches) : ": T
LPRINT "Enter the thickness 01 the joint intilling (in inches) : "; T
PRINT
LPRINT
T_T/CV
2365 PRINT "Enter the weathering condition 01 the wall rock •
PRINT ". please answer :"
PRINT TAB(10) "UW' lor unweathered"
PRINT TAB( 10) "'SW' lor slighlly weathered"
PRINT TAB (10) "'MW' for moderately weathered"
PRINT TAB (10) "'HW' for highly weathered"
PRINT TAB (10) "'GW' lar completely weathered"
INPUT RW$
PRINT
LPRINT "Enter the weathering condition 01 the wa l1 rock
LPRINT "- please answer :"
LPRINT TAB (10) "UW' lar unweathered"
LPRINT TAB (10) ·'sw' lar slightly weathered"
LPRINT TAB(10) " MW' lor moderately weathered"
LPRINT TAB(10) "'HW' for highly weathered"
LPRINT TAB(10) "'CW' lor complelely weathered'
LPRINT RW$
LPRINT
IF RW$_'UW' THEN GOTa 2410
IF RW$_" SW' THEN GaTO 2420
IF RW$_"MW' THEN GaTO 2430
IF RW$_' HW' THEN GOTa 2440
IF RW$_"CW' THEN GOTO 2450
PRINT "Please reenler the answer (U W, SW, MW, HW or CW); use capit al letters '
LPRINT "Please (eenter the answer (UW, SW, MW, HW or GW): use capital lelters'
GOTO 2365
2410 E4_6
GOTa 2455
2420 E4 ..4.5
GaTO 2455
2430 E4.3
GaTO 2455
234 APPENDIX
2440 E4 _1 .5
GOTO 2455
2450 E4_0
2455 PRrNT "Enter Iha general groundwater condition •
PRrNT "- please answer:"
PRINT 1AB(10) "CO' lor completely dry"
PRrNT 1AB(10) "'DM' lor damp'
PRrNT 1AB (10) ' 'WT' lor wet"
PRrNT T .608 (10) " OP' lor dripping"
PRrNT TA8( 10) " FW' lor Ilowing"
INPUT GW$
PRrNT
LPRINT 'Enter Ihe general groundwaler condition"
lPRINT '- please answer:'
LPRINT 1A8(10) "CO' lor completely dry'
LPRINT 1A8 (10) "'QM' for damp"
lPRINT 1AB(10) ''WT' for wet"
LPRINT 1AB(10) " OP' lor dripping"
LPRINT 1A8 (10) "'FW' lor flowing "
lPAINT GW$
LPRINT
IF GW$s'CO' THEN GOTO 2510
IF GW$s"OM' THEN GOTO 2520
IF GW$."WT" THEN GOTO 2530
IF GW$."DP· THEN GOTO 2540
IF GW$_"FW' THEN GOTO 2550
PRrNT "Please raenter the answer (CD, DM, WT, DP or FW); use capital letters·
LPRINT ' Please reenter the answer (CD, DM , WT , DP or FW); use capital letters'
GOTO 2455
2510 A5. 15
GOTO 2555
2520 A5.10
GOTO 2555
2530 RSe7
GOTO 2555
2540 A5· 4
GOTO 2555
2550 AS - O
2555 PRINT "What is the strike and dip orientation
PRINT " 01 the critical set 01 discontinuities ? "
PRINT ". please answer:"
PRINT TAB {IO) ·'VF' la r very favorab le"
PRINT TAB (IO) " FV' lor favorable"
PAINT TAB {IO) "'FR' for fair·
PRINT TAB PO) "UF' lor unlavorable'
PRINT TAB (1 0) "'VU' lor very unlavorable"
INPUT UF$
PRINT
LPRINT "What is the stri"'e and dip orientation •
LPRINT ' 01 the critical set of discontinuities 1"
LPRINT ' . please answer:'
LPRINT TAB (10) "VF' lar very favorab le·
LPRINT TAB (10) "FV' for favorable"
LPRINT TAB (IO) "'FR' lor fair"
LPRINT TAB (IO) ··UF' for unfavora ble"
LPAINT TAB (IO) ·'VU' lor very unlavorable'
LPAINT UF$
LPR1NT
IF UF$_'VF" THEN GOTO 2610
IF UF$. "FV" THEN GOTO 2620
IF UF$_"FR" THEN GOTO 2630
IF UF$_'UF' THEN GOTO 2640
IF UF$."VU" THEN GOTO 2650
PRINT 'Please reenter Ihe answer (VF, FV, FR, UF or UV); use capital letters"
LPR1NT 'Please reenter the answer (VF, FV, FR , UF or UV); use capital lellers·
GOTO 2555
2610 ADJ - O
PROGRAM LlST/NG FOR PERSONAL COMPUTER 235
GOTO 2750
2620 ADJ_2
GOTO 2750
2630 ADJ_5
GOTO 2750
2640 ADJ. l0
GOTO 2750
2650 ADJ. 12
2750 REM Delermination 01 RMR :
IF n,,3 THEN LET F. l
IF n- 3 THEN LET F_l
IF n.. 2 THEN LET F_1.33
IF n.. l THEN LET F_1.33
IF SIGMA,,200 THEN LET Rl .. 15:GOTO 2800
IF SIGMAel THEN LET Rl _0:GOTO 2800
IF SIGMAe5 THEN LET Rl . l :GOTO 2800
IF SIGMA<25 THEN LET Rl ..2:GOTO 2800
Rl_l .4514+( .0684"SIGMA)
2800 IF ROD,,40 THEN GOTO 2810
IF AOD,,25 THEN GOTO 2820
A2 _3
GOTO 2825
281 0 R2 _RQO/5
GOTO 2825
2820 A2 _( AOO/ 3H 5+ (1/3))
2825 IF SPe.06 THEN LET R3.. 5:GOTO 2850
A3_14 .6501"(SP"(.3587»
2850 IF Lel THEN LET A4 ..6 :GOTO 2870
IF b20 THEN A4_0 :GOTO 2870
M_SIL
2870 IF ZETAe.l THEN LET B4 ..6:GOTO 2880
IF ZETA,,5 THEN LET B4_0 :GOTO 2880
B4 •. 61ZETA
2880 IF T-O THEN LET D4 ..6:GOTO 2890
IF T,,5 THEN LET 04 .. 0:GOTO 2890
04_3
2890 A4_A4+B4+C4+D4+E4
BMR. Rl +R2+R3+R4+RS
URMR_BMR _R5+15
UAMR ..URMR+.5
URMR_INT{URMR)
BMR_BMR+.S
BMR _INT(BMA)
IF BMR,,100 THEN LET BMA_l00
2891 PRINT "Estimate the weatherabilily 01 Ihe rool slrata
PRINT "- please answer :
PRINT TAB (IO) · 'HR' lor high resistance lo wealhering"
PRINT TAB (IO) · 'MR' lor intermediate resistance to weathering"
PRINT TAB (10) ·'LR' lor low resistance lo wealherin g"
INPUT OW$
LPRINT "Estimate the weatherabilily 01 the rool slrata
LPRINT "- please answer:
lPRINT TAB (10) "·HR' lor high resislance lo weatherin g"
LPRINT TAB (10) "·MA' lor intermediate resistance lo wealhering "
LPRINT TAB (IO) "'LR' lor low resistance to weathering"
LPRINT OW$
IF QW$_"HR" THEN GOTO 2892
IF QW$ _"MR" THEN GOTO 2892
IF OW$ _"lR" THEN GOTO 2893
PRINT "Please reenter Ihe answer (HR, MA or LA): use capital letters"
PRINT
lPRINT "Please reenter the answer (HR, MR or LR) : use capital letters"
lPRINT
GOTO 2891
2892 PRINT
lET WY _l
GOTO 2895
236 APPENDIX
2893 LET WY _.9

2895 PR INT '15 ¡he value 01 ¡he horizontal slress9s known ?"
PRINT "- please answer Y lor yes or N lar no
P RIN T
INPUT YN$
lPRtNT "'s ¡he value 01 the horizontal stresses known ?"
LPR1NT ". please answer Y la r yes or N lor no
lPRINT
lPRINT
IF YN$ _" Y" THEN GOTO 2896
IF YN$_ "N" THEN GOTO 2897
PRINT "Please raenler ¡he answer (Y or N); use capital letters'
PRI NT
LPRINT 'Please raenter Ihe answer (Y or N); use capital tatters'
lPRINT
GOTO 2895
2896 IF SU$."E" THEN GOTO 2898
INPUT "Input ¡he value 01 horizontal slresses (in MPa): ";HS
PRINT
lPRINT "Input Ihe value 01 horizontal stresses (in MPa): ";HS
LPR1NT
GOTO 2899
2897 lET FLAG. !
lET HG.'
GOTO 2900
2898 INPUT "Input Ihe value 01 horizontal stresses (in psi): ";HS
lPR I NT "Inpul Ihe valu& 01 horizontal stresses (in psi): "; HS
HS_HS/ 14S
PRINT
lPRINT
2899 lET Y.. H$ISIGMA
IF Y<.1 THEN lET HG_ 1: GOTO 2900
IF Y>.2 THEN lET HG_l: GOTO 2900
LET HC_.95
2900 RMA_ {BMA _AOJ)"WY"HG
AMR_RMR+.5
AMR. INT(AMR)
GAll TEXTFACE (4)

PRINT TAB (10) "Oetermination 01 AMA"
PRINT
GAll TEX TFACE (O)
PRINT TAB (10) "Value 01 basic AMR : " ;BMR
PRIN T
PRINT TAB (10) "Value 01 adjusted RMA · "; RMR
PR INT
PRINT TAB ( 10) "Value 01 AMA lor dry conditions: ";UAMA
PRINT
lPRINT
CAll TEXTFACE (4 )
lPRINT TAB (10) "Oetermination 01 AMR'
lPRINT
CAll TE XTFAC E (O)
lPRINT T AB (1 0) "Value 01 basic RMA : ";BMA
lPRINT
LPR INT TAB (lO) "Value 01 adjusted RMA: ";RMA
lPRINT
lPRINT TAB (10) "Value 01 AMA lor dry conditions : "UAMA
lPRINT
REM Gomputation 01 e and ,,:
C_S"BMA
I
FI.. S+{BMRl2)
PRINT
lPRINT
PROGRAM LlSTlNG FOR PERSONAL COMPUTER 237
IF SU$- "E' THEN GOTa 2950

PRINT TAB(10) "Cohesion (kPa): ";C
PRINT
lPRINT TAB (10) "Cohesion (kPa): ";C
lPRINT
GOTa 2955
2950 CE _C"( .145)
CE_CE+.5
CE- INT{CE)
PRINT TAB (10) "Cohesion (psi): ";CE
PRINT
lPRINTTAB (10) "Cohesion (psi): ';CE
lPRINT
2955 PRINT TAB(10) "Ang la 01 internal fr iction· ";FI; " degrees"
lPRINT TAB(10) "Angla 01 internal Iriction: ";FI;" degrees·

. PRINT :lPRINT
PRINT "lPRINT
PRINT
19999 PRINT "Do you wan t another RUN ' ;

INPUT RU$
IF RUS _ "YESo GOTa 10 ELSE GOTa 20000
20000 PRINT ••• • ENO OF RUN ••••
FOR pause .. l TO 5000
NEXT pause
ENO
Bibliography
Being right is seldom enough.
Even the besl ideas muSI be packaged and soldo
-Andrew Carnegie
This bibliography lists in chronological order all significant publications

dealing with rack mass classifications. Although references are pravided in
this book at the end of each chapter, this bibliography also contains entries
not referred to in the text bU! which are given here for completeness as well
as for the convenience of those readers who wish to undertake a search of
even the earliest references on the subject or are not sure of the author bu!
remember the year of publication.
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Smith, H. J. (1987). "Estimating the Mechanical Dredgeability of Rock." Proc.
28th U.S. Symp. Roek Mech., A. A. Balkema, Boston, pp. 935-943.
Stevens, C. R., L. A. Sandbak, and J. 1. Hunter. (1987). "LHD Production and
Design Modifications at the San Manuel Mine." Proc. 28th U.S. Symp. Roek
Meeh., A. A. Balkema , Boston, pp. 1175- 1185.
248 BIBLlOGRAPHY
Barton, N. (1988). "Rock Mass Classitication and Tunne! Reinforcement Selection

using the Q-System." Proc. Symp. Rock C/ass. Eng. Purp., ASTM Special
Technical Publication 984, Philadelphia, pp. 59-84.
Bieniawski, Z. T. (July 1988). "Rock Mass Classitication as a Design Aid in
Tunnelling." Tunnels Tunneling 20, pp. 19-22.
Brown, E. T., and E. Hoek. (1988). "Discussion on Shear Failure Envelope in
Rock Masses ." J. Geotech. Eng. ASCE 114, pp. 371-373.
Deere, D. U., and D. W. Deere. (1988). "The RQD Index in Practice ." Proc.
Symp. Rock C/ass. Eng. Purp., ASTM Special Technical Publication 984, Phil-
adelphia, pp. 91-101.
Faria Santos, C. (1988) . "Analysis of Coal Mine Floor Stability," Ph .D. thesis ,
Pennsylvania State University, University Park, 189 pp.
Ghose, A. H. , and D. Gupta. (1988). "A Rock Mass Classification Model for
Caving Roofs." [nt. J. Min. Geo/. Eng. 5, pp. 257-271.
Hanna, K. , and D. P. Conover. (1988). "Design of Coal Mine Entry Intersection. "
AlME-SME Ann. Meet. , Phoenix, AZ, preprint #88-39 .
Kirkaldie, L., D. A. Williamson, and P. V. Patterson. (1988). "Rock Material Field
Classification Procedure." Rock C/assification Systems for Rock Engineering,
ASTM STP 984, ASTM, Philade!phia, pp. 133-167.
Kirsten , H. A. D. (1988) . "Case Histories of Groundmass Characterization for
Excavatability." Proc. Symp. Rock C/ass. Eng. Purp. , ASTM Special Technical
Publication 984, Philadelphia, pp . 102-120.
Nicholson, G. A. (1988). "A Case History Review from a Perspective of Design
by Rock Mass Classification Systems. " Proc. Symp. Rock C/ass. Eng. Purp. ,
ASTM Special Technical Publication 984, Philadelphia, pp. 121 -1 29.
Robertson, A. M. (1988) . "Estimating Weak Rock Strength. " AlME-SME Ann.
Meet. , Phoenix, AZ, preprint #88-145.
Rodrigues, J. D. (1988). "Proposed Geotechnical Classification of Carbonate Rocks
Based on Portuguese and Algerian Examples." Eng. Geol. 25 , pp. 33-43.
Sandbak, L. A. (1988). "Rock Mass Classification in LHD Mining at San Manuel.
AlME-SME Ann. Meet., Phoenix, AZ, preprint #88-26.
Skinner, E. H. (1988). "A Ground Support Prediction Concept- the RSR Model."
Proc. Symp. Rock C/ass. Eng. Purp., ASTM Special Technical Publication 984,
Pbiladelphia, pp. 35 -51.
Zhou, Y., C. Haycocks, and W. Wu. (1988). "Geomechanics Classitication for
Multiple Seam Mining." AlME-SME Ann. Meet., Phoenix, AZ, preprint #88-11.
Deere, D. U. (1989). Rock Qua/ity Designation (RQD) after Twenty Years , U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers Contract Report GL-89-1, Waterways Experiment
Station, Vicksburg, MS , 67 pp.
Index
A Comparisons, 117, 124

Condition of discontinuities, 22, 58,
Abutment loads, 151
140
Analytical design methods, 25
Core logging , 17
Authors referenced, 239
Correlations, 68, 82, 89
Critical energy release, 6
B Cuttability, 194
Blasting damage, 151, 195
Borehole data, 19, 113, 123 D
Data base, 66, 89 , 207 - 217

e Oeformation modulus, 64, 130, 185
Case histories, 205 -2 19 Design aids, 2
Cavability, 196 Oesign methodologies, 23
Chambers, 123 Oiscontinuities, 9, 22, 57, 58 , 102
Classifcation: Oredgeability, 191
input data form, 20 Orift support, 150, 155
parameters, 9, 54, 76 Orilling investigations, 15
procedures, 52, 74, 118
systems, see specific syslems under E
Lauffer, Q, Rock Mass Rating
(Geomechanics Classification), Empirical design methods, 26
Rock Quality Oesignation, Rock Engineering design, 24
Structure Rating, and Terzaghi Entry support, 163
Classification Society, I Excavatability, 191
Coal mining applications, 162, 169 Excavation guidelines for tunnels , 62
249
250 INDEX
F Lauffer cIassifeation, 33
Lloyd's Register of Shipping, 2
Faetors of safety, 134
Failure criterion:
M
roek mass, 177
rock material, 185 Maximum spans, 131
Faults, 20 MBR Classification, 143
adjustment for, 60, 160 Mining applications, 60
coal, 162, 169
G hard-rock, 137, 143
Modulus in si/u, 64, 130, 185
Geologieal data presentation, 19
Geological mapping, 16
N
Geomeehanies Classification , 51, 107,
137, 170, 182. See also Rack Mass NATM cIassification, 91, 96
Rating system (RMR) New Austrian Tunneling Method
Geophysieal investigations, 18 (NATM), 91, 96
Geoteehnieal eore log, 17
Groundwater conditions, 23, 54, 81 o
Observational design methods, 25
H
Overvaal Tunnel, 121
Hard-roek mining, 137, 143
Hoek- Brown failureeriterion, 177- p
179
Park River Tunnel, 107
Hydrofraeturing, 21
Point-Ioad strength index, 13, 20
Program for personal computer, 226
Identification , Q
In situ modulus, 64, 130, 185
Quality indexes, see Classification,
Input data:
systems
form, 20, 114, 145 , 158
Q-S ystem, 73
requirements, 21
Intaet roek cIassifieations, 7
R
Intemational Society for Roek Me-
ehanies (lSRM) classification, 101 Reeord-keeping, 206
Rippability , 187
J Roek:
bolting, 62, 75
Joints , see Discontinuities
caving, 197
Joint surveys, see Geological mapping
eutting, 195
Rock load cIassification, 32, 36
L
Rock load determination, 61
Laboratory tests, 6 Rock mass classifieations, 30
Large underground ehambers, 123 benefits, 3
INDEX 251
correlations , 68 , 82, 89 Stress-strain curve, 7

early, 29 Structural features, 9
input data form, 20 Structural regions, 21, 52
modem , 51 , 73 Support pressure, 61, 82
objectives , 3 Support requirements, 39, 47, 62, 83,
parameters, 9, 54 , 76 132, 142, 150, 155 , 163
procedures, 52, 74, 118 Surface exposures, 123
systems, see specific syslems under
Lauffer, Q, Rock Mass Rating T
(Geomechanics Classifications),
Taxonomy,
Rock Quality Designation, Rock
Terzaghi c\assification, 32, 36
Structure Rating, and Terzaghi
Tunnel boring machine adjustment, 44,
Rock Mass Rating (RMR) System, 51,
63 , 195
107, 137, 170,177, 185.Seealso
Tunneling applications, 107
Geomechanics Classification
Tunnel support guidelines, 62
Rock mass strength, 65, 177
Rock material c\assifications , 7
Rock slopes applications, 182, 186
u
Rock Structure Rating (RSR) , 40 Uniaxial compressive strength, 10, 20,
Rock Quality Designation (RQD), 21, 56 , 102
37 Unified Rock Classification System
(URCS), 198
s
Safety factors, 134
v
Site characterization, 10 Velocity index, 19
requirements, 21
Size- strength classification, 95 w
Stand-up time chart, 61, 63
Water, see Groundwater conditions
Stand-up time c\assification, 33
Strength- deformation classification, 8
Strength of rock mass , 65
z
Stress adjustment, 60 , 79 Zones, see Structural regions

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What are some of the early rock mass classifications discussed in the text?

What are some of the early rock mass classifications discussed in the text?

What is the Geomechanics Classification (Rock Mass Rating system) and what are some of its applications?

What is the Geomechanics Classification (Rock Mass Rating system) and what are some of its applications?

Contours 01 roek mass quality in a mine, based on the Geomeehanies Cfassification, depictíng

John Wiley & Sons

2 ROLE OF ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATIONS IN SITE

3 EARLY ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATIONS 29

4 GEOMECHANICS CLASSIFICATION (ROCK MASS

7 APPLlCATIONS IN TUNNELING 107

8 APPLICATIONS IN MINING 137

9 OTHER APPLICATIONS 177

10 CASE HISTORIES DATA BASE 205

APPENDIX: DETERMINATION OF THE ROCK MASS

Rock mas s classifications have emerged in the past 15 years as powerful

Many researchers and practicing engineers have made important contri-

In his presidential address to tbe Classification Society. Professor Sokal not

1.1 FUNCTION OF CLASSIFICATIONS IN ENGINEERING

Classifications have played an indispensable role in engineering for centuries.

1.2 ROCK CLASSIFICATIONS AS OESIGN AIOS

In essence, rock mass classifications are not to be taken as a substitute for

1. Identify the most significant parameters influencing the behavior of a

1. Improving the quality of site investigations by calling for the minimum

and SO on. This assemblage constitutes a rock mass. Consequently , the

2.1 ROCK AS AN ENGINEERING MATERIAL

11 The behavior of rock is best presented in a stress-strain curve , an example

VER'!' Ií'fAK WfAK STRO~G VERY STRONG

VERY lOW STRENGTH

1oI00ERATELY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

SOIL VER'I' tOW STRENGTH

VERY lOW LOW STRDiGTH

0'5 I O~7' '1 ¡H i I I

Figure 2.2 Various strength classifications for intact rack.

(ASTM). Detailed procedures for performing laboratory tests are available

UNIAXIAL COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH, MPa

Commission on Rock Classification has recommended different ranges of

2.2 STRUCTURAL FEATURES OF ROCK MASSES

2.3 SITE CHARACTERIZATION PROCEDURES

Comprehensive site characterization guidelines were published by the In-

1. Expenditures for geotechnical site exploration should be 3% of estirnated

l. Rock types to be encountered.

The initial site assessment can utilize a number of sources of information,

1. Available geological maps, published literature, and possibly, local

The photogeological study is of special importance, and its benefits may

DETAILED SITE CHARACTERIZATION

ENGINEERING CLASSIFICATtON OF RaCK MASSES IN REGIONS

Figure 2.4 Stages of a site characterization programo

The benefits of Ihe photogeological study include information on topography,

2.3.1 Drilling Investigations

l. Confirm Ihe geological interpretations.

1. The cost of a drilling investigation for geotechnical purposes is much

A systematic method should be used for geotechnicallogging of the rock

2.3.2 Engineering Geological Mapping

THE PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY ,." .. E

Figure 2.5 Geotechnical core lag.

especially in stratified rock which may have been subjected to faulting .

2.3.3 Geophysical Investigations

TABLE 2.2 Velocily Index and Rock Mass Quallly'

2.3.4 Geological Data Presentation