Abstract- This paper throws light on the clock.

The camshaft later appeared in

various aspects of camshaft, its European mechanisms from the 14th
orientations, manufacturing process, century.
materials used for manufacture, causes of Among the first cars to utilize engines with
failure, uses, etc, for passenger cars. single overhead camshafts were the
Maudslay designed by Alexander Craig
Index Terms- cam, camshaft, and introduced in 1902 and the Marr Auto
manufacture, automotive. Car designed by Michigan native Walter
Lorenzo Marr in 1903.
Introduction
Camshaft- A shaft to which a cam is Anatomy
fastened or of which a cam forms an
integral part.

Cam- A projection on a rotating part in a

machinery, designed to make sliding
contact with another part while rotating
and to impart reciprocal or variable motion
There are five basic segments of a
to it. They are used to convert rotary
camshaft: lifter lobes, bearing journals,
motion to reciprocating motion.
gear mount, distributor gear or timing lug,
Running along the shaft are lobes which and fuel pump lobe. Not all cams have all
are manufactured to sit at different angles. five, but they will all have the first three.
These lobes are positioned in such a way The bearing journals are the surfaces that
that – when the camshaft is rotated – they the cam rides on inside the engine block.
come into contact with rocker arms that The cam bearings are installed in the block
then open the engine valves. The lobes journals, and feed oil to the cam, keeping it
themselves are egg-shaped, with the lubed and spinning. The cam gear mount is
‘pointy’ end contacting the rocker arms, where the timing gear bolts to the
opening the valves at specific times within camshaft. This is how the cam is driven
the engine cycle. This allows the air/fuel inside the engine. This is usually part of
mixture to enter the cylinder and then the how the cam is secured in the block as
exhaust gases to leave the cylinder at the well. The lifter lobes are where the magic
required time. happens. This is what drives the lifters,
which operate the valves to allow the
Camshafts are not always used in air/fuel mix in and the combustion gases
continuous rotation (360 degrees) in some out in the right sequence. The other
applications. Some barely rotate 90 segments are there for a mechanical fuel
degrees. And they are usually connected at pump and distributor or cam sensor.
perpendicular angles relative to itself
either through mechanical linkages or
mating surfaces. FUNCTION OF CAMSAHFT
HISTORY The camshaft is the unit of an internal
combustion engine that has the duty of
The camshaft was first described
opening and closing the valves. Working
in Turkey (Diyarbakır) by Al-Jazari in
in conjunction with the crankshaft, the
1206 AD. He employed it as part of his
camshaft spins at half the speed of the
automata, water-raising machines,
and water clocks such as the castle
crankshaft in a 4-stroke engine cycle and
at the same speed in a 2-stroke engine.

4-Stroke Engine Cycle

The four cycles of a 4-stroke engine are

intake, compression, power and exhaust.
The crankshaft turns once for each of these
steps while the camshaft does it twice. The
smooth working of an engine needs
precision parts and timing of the parts.
There are several cams linked to one or Roller cams-
more camshafts–one controlling the intake
Roller Cams use a lifter with a roller on it.
valve and another exhaust valve–for each
The roller cam looks like the flat tappet
piston. The intake valve is opened by the
cam, but the cam lobes are very different.
rotating cam as the crankshaft pulls the
Roller cams have fatter lobes because of
piston down. At the compression level, the
the way the cam lobe contacts the lifter.
intake valve is closed while the piston is
Roller lifters reduce friction, increase RPM
pushed back up. The fuel and air mixture
potential and allow higher valve spring
ignites as the piston goes downward again.
pressures to be used.
Lastly, as the piston is pushed back up the
cylinder, the exhaust valve is opened by
the turning the cam to release the by-
ORIENTATIONS OF CAMSHAFT
product of the explosion.
Overhead camshaft, commonly
abbreviated to OHC, is a valve-
A properly working engine needs precise train configuration which places
timing between the rotation of the the camshaft of an internal combustion
camshaft and crankshaft. The cams linked engine of the reciprocating type within
to the camshaft are instrumental in the the cylinder heads ("above"
harmonious opening and closing of the the pistons and combustion chambers) and
valves that gives an engine with its power. drives the valves or lifters in a more direct
manner compared with overhead
TYPES OF CAMSHAFTS valves (OHV) and pushrods.
There are two major types of camshafts-

i) Flat Tappet

ii) Roller Cams

Flat tappet-

Flat Tappet (lifters) are in most V8's and

literally have what looks like a flat bottom
where the cam lobe contacts the tappet
(lifter). Lifters are not actually flat on the
contact surface. They do have a slight
curve, but it's hard to see.

They are generally found in two

orientations:
SOHC (Single Over-Head Cam) This design reduces valve-train inertia
more than is the case with an SOHC
engine, since the rocker arms are reduced
Single overhead camshaft (SOHC) is a in size or eliminated. A DOHC design
design in which one camshaft is placed permits a wider angle between intake and
within the cylinder head.[1] In an inline exhaust valves than in SOHC engines.
engine, this means there is one camshaft in This can give a less restricted airflow at
the head, whilst in an engine with more higher engine speeds. DOHC with
than one cylinder head, such as a V a multivalve design also allows for the
engine or a horizontally-opposed engine optimum placement of the spark plug,
(boxer; flat engine) – there are two which in turn improves combustion
camshafts, one per cylinder bank. efficiency. Engines having more than
In the SOHC design, the camshaft operates one bank of cylinders (e.g. V6, V8 – where
the valves directly, traditionally via a two cylinder banks meet to form a "V")
bucket tappet; or via an with two camshafts in total remain SOHC
intermediary rocker arm, SOHC cylinder unless each cylinder bank has two
heads are generally less expensive to camshafts; the latter are DOHC, and are
manufacture than double overhead often known as "quad cam".
camshaft (DOHC) cylinder heads. Timing
belt replacement can be easier since there
are fewer camshaft drive sprockets that
need to be aligned during the replacement
procedure.
SOHC designs offer reduced complexity
compared with overhead valve designs
when used for multivalve cylinder heads,
in which each cylinder has more than two
valves. An example of an SOHC design
using shim and bucket valve adjustment
was the engine installed in the Hillman
Imp (four cylinder, eight valve), a small,
early-1960s two-door saloon car (sedan)
with a rear-mounted aluminium-alloy MOTION OF THE CAM
engine based on the Coventry Climax
FWMA race engines. Exhaust and inlet When the cam turns through one motion
manifolds were both on the same side of cycle, the follower executes a series of
the engine block (thus not a crossflow events consisting of rises, dwells and
cylinder head design). This did, however, returns. Rise is the motion of the follower
offer excellent access to the spark plugs. away from the cam center, dwell is the
motion during which the follower is at
rest; and return is the motion of the
DOHC (Dual Over-Head Cam) follower toward the cam center.

Lift: Lobe lift is the distance the lifter

A dual overhead camshaft (DOHC) valve- moves in one direction. In other words,
train layout is characterised by lobe lift is the difference in measurement
two camshafts located within the cylinder between the nose of the lobe and the base
head, one operating the intake valves and circle of the lobe.
the other one operating the exhaust valves.
 causing the cam lobe material to form a
matrix of carbide (this material will cut
glass) on the cam lobe. This material is
exceedingly scuff-resistant and is the only
material for producing quantity OHC
performance camshafts.

CONCLUSION OF CAST CAMSHAFTS:

When purchasing a camshaft, enquire
which material the camshafts are produced
from. A chilled iron camshaft may be more
expensive, but its resistance to wear in all
conditions, far exceeds any other type of
cast iron.
MATERIAL OF CAMSHAFT
STEEL CAMSHAFTS
Camshaft material is the most important
detail in stopping premature wear of 1. CARBON STEEL – EN8 (BS970
performance camshafts. There are various 080M40) /EN99(BS970 070M55): Used
materials that camshafts are manufactured mainly in the 1930 to 1945 period and is
from:- currently used for induction hardened
camshafts in conjunction with roller cam
CAST IRONS followers, due to the through-hardening
characteristics of the material.
1). HARDENABLE IRON: This is Grade
17 cast iron with an addition of 1% chrome 2. ALLOYED STEELS – EN351 AISI
to create 5 to 7% free carbide. After 8620 and EN34: Used by British Leyland
casting, the material is flame/or induction in the A Series and B Series engine and
hardened, to give a Rockwell hardness of best when run against a chilled cam
52 to 56 on the C Scale. It is not the most follower.
suitable material for performance
camshafts in overhead cam (OHC) 3. NITRIDING STEEL – EN40B: The
engines. best steel for camshafts. When nitrided it
gives a surface hardness and finish similar
2.) SPHEROIDAL GRAPHITE CAST to chilled iron.We used this when
IRON KNOWN AS SG IRON: A material replacing chilled iron camshafts in
giving similar characteristics to competition engines. This material is used
hardenable. Its failing as a camshaft on several of the current F1 engines.
material is hardness in its cast form, which
tends to scuff bearings in adverse CONCLUSION -in general, steel is a good
conditions. The material will heat treat to camshaft material. However, the type of
52 to 58 RockwellC. This material was steel has to be matched with the cam
used by Fiat in the 1980’s follower it runs against, as different grades
of steel have different scuff characteristics.
3.) CHILLED CHROME CAST IRON:
Chilled iron is Grade 17 cast iron with 1% METHODS OF MANUFACTURE
chrome. When the camshaft is cast in the
foundry, machined steel moulds the shape 1. CASTING:
of the cam lobe are incorporated in the Chilled cast iron is primarily used for
mould. When the iron is poured, it hardens production of cam shaft. The development
off very quickly (known as chilling), of automobile industry and engine power
 excess material which from metal billet. In
this process only machining is required to
manufacture CAM.

A detailed description of the processes for

mass manufacturing is as follows:

1.TURNING & DRILLING: The raw

forging is put in this machine and center
brings up more advance requirement for drilling and turning on one side is done
properties of camshaft. In casting process, here.
there are more chances of casting defects
such as shrinkage defect, porosity, crack,
insufficient pouring. However for higher
loads in roller contact, cast camshafts with
induction hardened cam lobes can be used.

2. FORGING:

Forged or manufactured from a steel bar

camshafts are also used for certain high
loaded diesel engines. These are produced
on computer-controlled forging systems
with integrated heat treatment or machined 2. TURNING: Here the turning of the 6
from steel bar. journals takes place. There are 4 tools used
for this turning – Rough, Neutral, Left and
Right tool. Also, Grooving and Parting
3. MACHINING: Machining is necessary for operation is performed on the left side of
giving final dimension to the cam. the shaft.

3. DRILLING: This machine drills the

diameter 4.5 dowel hole which is used as
reference for further operations.

4. GRINDING JOURNALS: Here

grinding and finish grinding of the 6
journals takes place. Carborundum wheels
are used for grinding.

A. While using Casted or Forged CAM only

Final Machining is require to achieve final
size within the required tolerances. In this
process casted or forged CAM are in the
required shape but their size is maintained
by machining and finishing operation.

B. While Using Metal Billet (metal rod), the

profile of cam is obtained by removing
5. GRINDING ON FACE: An angular Only the manufacturer recommended
grinding wheel is used for the face lubricant, which is generally included with
grinding operation. At this stage, the cam should be used. This lubricant
inspection is done after every 10 must be applied to every cam lobe surface,
components using gauges. and to the bottom of every lifter face of all
flat tappet cams. Roller tappet cams only
6. DRILL DOVEL HOLE: Grinding of the require engine oil to be applied to the
Cam is done here. The dowel hole is taken lifters and cam.
as the reference.
2. Improper Break-In
7. LAPPING: To give superfinish in
microns, lapping is done using lapping After the correct break-in lubricant is
paper on the Cams and the Oil seal area applied to the cam and lifters, fill the
crankcase with fresh, non-synthetic oil.
8. SLITTING: This machine makes a slit Use motor oil with an engine break-in
in the right side of the shaft to fit in the additive (ZDDP or ZINC camshaft
engine. The cutter used is a Saw cutter and additive), especially with flat
pneumatic deburring is done here. tappet camshafts.

9. AIR & WATER CLEANING: This is Prime the oil system with a priming tool
the Washing Machine where water and air and an electric drill so that all oil passages
jets are used to clean the component of and the oil filter are full. Preset the ignition
dust, oil, chips etc. timing and prime the fuel system. Fill the
cooling system. Start the engine, run it
10. INSPECTION: This is a Measuring between 1,500 and 3,000 rpm, varying the
Machine used to check for tolerances - rpm up and down in this range for 20
Runouts and Diameters of journals ( all 6 minutes. During break-in, verify that the
and center 4). The machine then declares pushrods are rotating, as this will show
the component as OK, NG, or BAD. that the lifters are also rotating. If the
lifters don’t rotate, the cam lobe and lifter
CAUSES OF FAILURE will fail. Sometimes you may need to help
spin the pushrod to start the rotation
common causes of camshaft failure: process.

1. Lobe wear 3. Old Lifters with a New Cam

Lobe wear is often caused by improper One can use new lifters on a good used
lubrication during installation. cam, but never pair used lifters with a new
cam.

If you are removing a good used flat

tappet cam and lifters and are planning to
use them again in the same (or another)
engine, you must keep the lifters in the
order they were removed from the cam
they were on. Lifters “mate” to their
specific lobes and can’t be changed. If the
used lifters get mixed up, discard them,
install a new set of lifters, and break in the
cam again.

4. Incorrect Valve Spring Pressure

 Never install valve springs without will contact the stud and stop movement.
verifying the correct assembled height and The slot in the rocker arm must be able
pressures. Recommended valve spring to travel at least .060-inch more than the
pressures are as follows: full lift of the valve.

 Street-type flat tappet cams: 85-105 6. Excessive End Play

pounds
 Radical street flat tappet cams: 105-130 Some engines use a thrust plate to control
pounds the forward and backward movement of
 Street-type hydraulic roller cams: 105- the camshaft in the block. The
140 pounds recommended amount of end play on these
 Mechanical street roller cams: no more types of engines is between .003- to .008-
than 150 pounds inches. Many factors can cause end play to
change. When installing a new cam, timing
Race roller cams with high valve lift and gears, or thrust plates, be sure to verify end
spring pressure are not recommended for play after the cam bolts are torqued to
street use, because of a lack of oil splash factory specs. If the end play is excessive,
onto the cam at low speed running. it will cause the cam to move back in the
Springs must be assembled to the block, causing the side of the lobe to
manufacturer’s recommended height. contact an adjacent lifter.

5. Mechanical Interference 7. Broken Dowel Pins or Keys

This comes in a few different forms: The dowel pin or Woodruff key does not
drive the cam; the torque of the timing
 Spring coil bind: This happens when all gear bolts against the front of the cam
the coils of a spring contact each other does. Reasons for the dowel pin or key
before the valve fully lifts. Valve springs failing are: Bolts not being torqued to
should be capable of traveling at least correct specs, incorrect bolts of a lower
.060 inches more than the valve lift of grade stretching and losing torque, not
the cam from its assembled height. using the correct hardened washer which
 Retainer to seal/valve guide boss may distort and cause torque of the bolt to
interference: At least .060 inches change, LocTite not being used, or some
of clearance is required between the interference with the cam, lifters, or
bottom of the retainer and the seal or the connecting rods causing the cam to stop
top of the valve guide when the valve is rotation.
at full lift. 8. Broken Cam
 Valve to piston interference. This occurs
when a change in cam specs (lift, A broken camshaft is usually caused by a
duration, or centerline) is enough to connecting rod or other rotating part
cause the valve and piston to contact. coming loose and striking it. Sometimes
Also, increased valve size or surfacing the cam will break after a short time of use
the block and/or cylinder head may because of a crack or fracture in the cam
cause this problem. Minimum due to rough handling during shipping or
recommended clearances are .080-inch improper handling prior to installation.
intake and .100-inch exhaust.
 Rocker arm slot to stud interference. As
you increase valve lift, the rocker arm
swings farther on its axis. Therefore, the
slot in the bottom of the rocker arm may
run out of travel and the end of the slot
USES
Automotive
In internal combustion engines with
pistons, the camshaft is used to
operate poppet valves. It consists of a
cylindrical rod running the length of
the cylinder bank with a number of
oblong lobes protruding from it, one for
each valve. The cam lobes force the valves
open by pressing on the valve, or on some
intermediate mechanism, as they rotate.

Electrical
Before the advent of solid state
electronics, camshaft controllers were used
to control the speed of electric motors. A
camshaft, driven by an electric motor or
a pneumatic motor, was used to
operate contactors in sequence. By this
means, resistors or tap changers were
switched in or out of the circuit to vary the
speed of the main motor. This system was
mainly used in electric multiple
units and electric locomotives.[10]

Conclusion
Camshaft is one of the main and important
parts of an automotive engine which
controls and operates the valve train.