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QUANTUM COMPUTER

Article · July 2018

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 ORGANISASI ARSITEKTUR KOMPUTER
QUANTUM COMPUTER

DISUSUN OLEH :

RAVINA ASHINI (161401012)

MICHAEL IMMANUEL (161401084)
ROBBY WALSEN (161401111)
SHOPA DILLA AULIA TARIGAN (161401123)
RICKY YOHANES AMBARITA (161401135)
JOSUA J. R. SIDABUTAR (161401138)

PROGRAM STUDI ILMU KOMPUTER

FAKULTAS ILMU KOMPUTER DAN TEKNOLOGI INFORMASI

UNIVERSITAS SUMATERA UTARA

2017/2018
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I am grateful to the God for the good health and wellbeing that needed to
complete this project entitled Quantum Computer. This project is organized as
one of the Organisation Architectures Computer. I would like to express my
special thanks of gratitude to University of Sumatera Utara and my lecturer
Dahlan who gave me the project to do, which also helped me doing a lot of
project and i came to know about so many new things. I am really thankful to
them. Secondly i would also like to thank my parents and friends who helped me a
lot in finalizing this project within the limited time frame. We recognize that the
preparation of this report is far from perfect, in terms of compilation, discussion,
or writing. Therefore we expect criticism and suggestions that are constructive,
especially from subject teachers to be a reference in the provision of experience
for us to better in the future.
 A quantum computer is a machine that performs calculations based on the
laws of quantum mechanics, which is the behavior of particles at the sub-atomic
level.

Evolution Of Computer
1. First generation(1939-’54)-Vacuum tubes
2. Second generation(1954-’59)-Transistors
3. Third generation(1959-’71)- IC
4. Fourth generation(1971-’91)- Microprocessor
5. Fifth generation(1991 & beyond)

Classical Computer , Ac c u r a t e a nd s p e e d y c o mp u t a t io n m a c h i n e
Part of life because logical work can also be done
Advantages:
 Makes work easy and faster
 Any complex computation or logical work like laboratory work
become easy
Many kinds of numerical problems cannot be solved using conventional
computers. Example: Factorization of a number. The computer time required
to factor an integer containing N digits is believed to increase exponentially
with N.
History
1. In 1918- Max Planck’s -Energy quantum
2. In 1921-Einstein’s discovery of the photon
3. In 1980- Idea of quantum computation
4. In 1994, Shor’s algorithm was able to factorize large integers in
polynomial time using quantum approach.
5. In 1996, Grover’s came up with an algorithm to search a name in
unsorted database
Qubit
A quantum bit or qubit is a unit of quantum information.
Quantum Information
Quantum information is physical information that is held in the "state"
of a quantum system. Though the amount of information that can be retrieved
in a single qubit is equal to one bit, the difference lies in the processing of
information
Quantum Superposition
An electron has dual nature. It can exhibit as a particle and also as wave.
Wave exhibits a phenomenon known as superposition of Waves. This
phenomena allows the addition of waves numerically. Superpositions
occur all the time at the quantum level . i.e any quantum object like a electron
or photon is in superposition
Decoherence
As the number of Qubits increases, the influence of external
environment perturbs the system. This causes the states in the computer to
change in a way that is completely unintended and is unpredictable, rendering
the computer useless. This called decoherence
Quantum Entanglement
In Quantum Mechanics, it sometimes occurs that a measurement
of one particle will
effect the state of another particle, even though classically there is no direct
interaction. When this happens, the state of the two particles is said to be
entangled
Building A Quantum Computer.
A quantum computer is nothing like a classical computer in design;
transistors and diodes cannot be used. A new type of technology is needed, a
technology that enables 'qubits' to exist as coherent superposition of 0 and 1
states.
Quantum Dot
It is one of the possible ways to produce quantum Computers A
single electron trapped inside a cage of atoms. When the dot is exposed to a
pulse of laser light of the right wavelength & duration, the electron is raised to
an excited state: a second burst of laser light causes the electron to fall back to its
ground state . Ex: Not Gate
Quantum Liquid
The quantum computer in this technique is the molecule itself and its
qubits are the nuclei within the molecule – a 'mug' of liquid molecules. Advantage
: Though the molecules of the liquid bump into one another, the spin states of the
nuclei within each molecule remain unchanged.
Quantum Teleportation
Quantum teleportation is a teqnique used to transfer information on a
quantum level, usually from one particle to another. Its disgusting feature is that it
can transmit the information present in a quantum superposition, useful for a
quantum communication and computation.
Quantum Parallelism
 It is the method in which a quantum computer is able to perform two or
more computations simultaneously.
 In classical computers, parallel computing is performed by having several
processors linked together.

 In a quantum computer, a single quantum processor is able to perform

multiple computations on its own.
 Parallelism allows a quantum computer to work on many computation at
once.
 In 2001, a 7 qubit machine was built and programmed to run Shor’s
algorithm to successfully factor 15.
Data Representation – Qubits

A quantum bit or qubit is a unit of quantum information. Many different

physical objects can be used as qubits such as atoms, photons, or electrons.
Exists as a ‘0’, a ‘1’ or simultaneously as a superpositionof both ‘0’ & ‘1’. A bit
of data is represented by a single atom that is in one of two states denoted by |0>
and |1>. A single bit of this form is known as a qubit. A physical implementation
of a qubit could use the two energy levels of an atom. An excited state
representing |1> and a ground state representing |0>. A single qubit can be forced
into a superposition of the two states denoted by the addition of the state vectors :

|y> = a|0>+ β|1>

Where a and β are complex numbers and | a |² + | β |² = 1

A qubit in superposition is in both of the states |1> and |0> at the same
time. Consider a 3 bit qubit register. An equally weighted superposition of all
possible states would be denoted by:

|y> = _1|000> √8+ _1|000> √8+ ….. + 1_|111>√8

In general, an n qubit register can represent the numbers 0 through 2^n-1

simultaneously. If we attempt to retrieve the values represented within a
superposition, the superposition randomly collapses to represent just one of the
original values. In our equation: |y> = a|0> + β|1> ,where a represents the
probability of the superposition collapsing to |0> and β to |1> These are called
probability amplitudes. In a balanced superposition, a = 1/√(2^n) where n is the
number of qubits.

Relationships among data – Entanglement:

 Entanglement is the ability of quantum systems to exhibit correlations

between states within a superposition.
  Imagine two qubits, each in the state |0> + |1> (a superposition of the 0
and 1.) We can entangle the two qubits such that the measurement of one
qubit is always correlated to the measurement of the other qubit.

Due to the nature of quantum physics, the destruction of information in a gate

will cause heat to be envolved wich can destroy the superposition of qubits.

Note : This type of gate cannot be used. We must use Quantum Gates

Quantum Gates

Quantum Gates are similar to classical gates, but do not have a degenerate
output. i.e. their original input state can be derived from their output state,
uniquely. They must be reversible. This means that a deterministic computation
can be performed on a quantum computer only if it is reversible Luckily, it has
been shown that any deterministic computation can be made reversible. (Charles
Bennet, 1973).

Quantum Gates Hadamard

Simplest gate involves one qubit and is called a HadamardGate (Also

knows as a square – root of NOT gate). Used to put qubits into superposition.

Note : Two Hadamard gates used in succession can be used as a NOT gate.

Quantum Gates – Controlled

 A gate wich operates on two qubits is called a Controlled – NOT (CN)
Gate. Ifthe bit on the control line is 1 , invert the bit on the target line.

Note : The CN gate has a similar behavior to the XOR gate with some extra
information to make it reversible.

Shor’s Algorithm

Shor’s algorithm shows (in principle,) that a quantum computer is capable of

factoring very large numbers in polynomial time. The algorithm uses the
following concepts :

 Modular Arithmetic
 Quantum Parallelism
 Quantum Fourier Transform

Shor’s Algorithm - Periodicity

An important result from Number Theory:

F(a) = xa mod N

Is a periodic function.

Choose N = 15 and x= 7 and we get the following :

 70 mod 15 = 1

71 mod 15 = 7

72 mod 15 = 4

73 mod 15 = 13

74 mod 15 = 1

……

Shor’s Algorithm - Analysis

To Factor an odd integer N (Let’s choose 15) :

 Choose an integer q such that N2 < q < 2N2 lets pick 256
 Choose a random integer x such that GDC(x, N) = 1 lets pick 7
 Create two quantum refisters (these registers must also be entangled so
that the collapse of the input register corresponds to the collapse of the
output register )
 Input register: must contain enough qubits to represent numbers as large as
q-1. up to 255, so we need 8 quits.
 Output register: must contain enough qubits to represent numbers as large
as N-1. up to 14, so we need 4 qubits.

Shor’s – Preparing Data

 Load the input register with an equally weighted superposition of all

integers from 0 to q-1. 0 to 255.
 Load the output register with all zeros.
 The total state of the system at this point will be :
 register, storing the result of each computation in the output register.

 Now take a measurement on the output register. This will collapse the
superposition to represent just one of the results of the transformation,
let’s call this value c.

Our output register will collapse to represent one of the following:

|1>, |4>, |7>, or |13> For sake of example, lets choose |1>

 Since the two registers are entangled, measuring the output register will
have the effect of partially collapsing the input register into an equal
superposition of each state between 0 and q-1 that yielded (the value of
the collapsed output register).

Will partially collapse to :

The probabilities in this case are 1/√64 since our register is now in an
equal superposition of 64 values (0, 4, 8, . . . 252).

 We now apply the Quantum Fourier transform on the partially collapsed

input register. The fourier transform has the effect of taking a state |a> and
transforming it into a state given by:
 Note: A is the set of all values that 7 mod 15 yielded 1. In our case A=
{0,4,8, …, 252}

So the final state of the input register after the QFT is:

 The QFT will essentially peak the probability amplitudes q/4 in our case
256/4, or 64. |0>, |64>, |128>, |192>, … So we no longer have an equal
superposition of states, the probability amplitudes of the above states are
now higher than the other states in our register We measure the register,
and it will collapse with high probability to one of these multiples of 64,
let’s call this value p.
 Now that we have the period, the factors of N can be determined by taking
the greatest common divisor of N with respect to x ^ (P/2) + 1 and x ^
(P/2) - 1.
 The idea here is that this computation wil be done on a classical computer.

We have successfully factored 15!

 BIBLIOGRAPHY

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_computer

http://www.qubit.org/tutorials/25-quantum- computing.html

https://www.slideshare.net/mobile/rushmila/quantum-computing-introduction

https://www.slideshare.net/mobile/Deepti.B/quantum-computers-1727930

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