Air brake (road vehicle)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Truck air actuated disc brake.

An air brake or, more formally, a compressed air brake system, is a type of
friction brake for vehicles in which air pressing on a piston is used to apply the pressure to
the brake pad needed to stop the vehicle. Air brakes are used in large heavy vehicles,
particularly those having multiple trailers which must be linked into the brake system, such
as trucks, buses, trailers, and semi-trailers, in addition to their use in railroad trains. George
Westinghouse first developed air brakes for use in railway service. He patented a safer air
brake on March 5, 1872. Westinghouse made numerous alterations to improve his air
pressured brake invention, which led to various forms of the automatic brake. In the early
20th century, after its advantages were proven in railway use, it was adopted by
manufacturers of trucks and heavy road vehicles.

Design and function

Air brake systems are typically used on heavy trucks and buses. The system consists of
service brakes, parking brakes, a control pedal, and an air storage tank. For the parking
brake, there's a disc or drum brake arrangement which is designed to be held in the 'applied'
position by spring pressure. Air pressure must be produced to release these "spring brake"
parking brakes. For the service brakes (the ones used while driving for slowing or stopping)
to be applied, the brake pedal is pushed, routing the air under pressure (approx 100–120 psi
or 690–830 kPa or 6.89–8.27 bar) to the brake chamber, causing the brake to be engaged.
Most types of truck air brakes are drum brakes, though there is an increasing trend towards
the use of disc brakes in this application. The air compressor draws filtered air from the
atmosphere and forces it into high-pressure reservoirs at around 120 psi (830 kPa; 8.3 bar).
Most heavy vehicles have a gauge within the driver's view, indicating the availability of air
pressure for safe vehicle operation, often including warning tones or lights. A mechanical
"wig wag" that automatically drops down into the driver's field of vision when the pressure
drops below a certain point is also common. Setting of the parking/emergency brake
releases the pressurized air in the lines between the compressed air storage tank and the
brakes, thus allowing the spring actuated parking brake to engage. A sudden loss of air
pressure would result in full spring brake pressure immediately.
A compressed air brake system is divided into a supply system and a control system. The
supply system compresses, stores and supplies high-pressure air to the control system as
well as to additional air operated auxiliary truck systems (gearbox shift control, clutch pedal
air assistance servo, etc.).
Supply system

Highly simplified air brake diagram on a commercial road vehicle (does not show all air reservoirs and
all applicable air valves).

The air compressor is driven by the engine either by crankshaft pulley via a belt or directly
from the engine timing gears. It is lubricated and cooled by the engine lubrication and cooling
systems. Compressed air is first routed through a cooling coil and into an air dryerwhich
removes moisture and oil impurities and also may include a pressure regulator, safety
valve and smaller purge reservoir. As an alternative to the air dryer, the supply system can
be equipped with an anti-freeze device and oil separator. The compressed air is then stored
in a reservoir (also called a wet tank) from which it is then distributed via a four way
protection valve into the front and rear brake circuit air reservoir, a parking brake reservoir
and an auxiliary air supply distribution point. The system also includes
various check, pressure limiting, drain and safety valves.
Air brake systems may include a wig wag device which deploys to warn the driver if the
system air pressure drops too low.

Control system
The control system is further divided into two service brake circuits, the parking brake circuit,
and the trailer brake circuit. The dual service brake circuits are further split into front and rear
wheel circuits which receive compressed air from their individual reservoirs for added safety
in case of an air leak. The service brakes are applied by means of a brake pedal air valve
which regulates both circuits. The parking brake is the air operated spring brake type where
its applied by spring force in the spring brake cylinder and released by compressed air via
hand control valve. The trailer brake consists of a direct two line system: the supply line
(marked red) and the separate control or service line (marked blue). The supply line receives
air from the prime mover park brake air tank via a park brake relay valve and the control line
is regulated via the trailer brake relay valve. The operating signals for the relay are provided
by the prime mover brake pedal air valve, trailer service brake hand control (subject to local
heavy vehicle legislation) and the prime mover park brake hand control.
 •

Trailer Control Valve

Spring brake cylinder

Air brake foot valve

Trailer brake relay valve

Truck air compressor

 •

Air dryer

Air brake relay valve

Four way protection valve

Advantages
Air brakes are used as an alternative to hydraulic brakes which are used on lighter vehicles
such as automobiles. Hydraulic brakes use a liquid (hydraulic fluid) to transfer pressure from
the brake pedal to the brake shoe to stop the vehicle. Air brakes have several advantages for
large multitrailer vehicles:[1]

• The supply of air is unlimited, so the brake system can never run out of its operating
fluid, as hydraulic brakes can. Minor leaks do not result in brake failures.
• Airline couplings are easier to attach and detach than hydraulic lines eliminating the risk
of air getting into hydraulic fluid since there is no hydraulic fluid. Air brake circuits on
trailers can be easily attached and removed by operators with appropriate training.
• Air not only serves as a fluid for transmission of force, but also stores potential energy.
So it can serve to control the force applied. Air brake systems include an air tank that
stores sufficient energy to stop the vehicle if the compressor fails.
• Air brakes are effective even with considerable leakage, so an air brake system can be
designed with sufficient "fail-safe" capacity to stop the vehicle safely even when leaking.
Parking brake
In road vehicles, the parking brake, also called[1] hand brake, emergency brake, or e-
brake, is used to keep the vehicle stationary and in many cases also perform an emergency
stop. Parking brakes on older vehicles often consist of a cable connected to two wheel
brakes at one end and the other end to a pulling mechanism which is operated with the
driver's hand or foot. The mechanism may be a hand-operated lever, at floor level beside the
driver, or a straight pull handle located near the steering column, or a (foot-
operated) pedal located beside the drivers leg. In most automobiles the parking brake
operates only on the rear wheels,[2] which have reduced traction while braking. Some
automobiles have the parking brake operate on the front wheels, for example most Citroens
manufactured since the end of World War II, and the early models of the Saab 900.
The most common use for a parking brake is to keep a vehicle motionless when it is parked.
The park brake has a ratchet or other locking mechanism that will keep it engaged until
manually released. On vehicles with automatic transmissions, this is usually used in concert
with a parking pawl in the transmission.

Hand brake lever from a Geo Storm. In this photo, the lever mechanism is shown not installed in the
car.

Brake warning light

Electric parking brake
Further information: Electric park brake
A recent variation is the electric parking brake. First installed in the 2001 BMW 7 Series
(E65), electric park brakes have since appeared in a number of vehicles. Two variations are
available: In the more-traditional "cable-pulling" type, an electric motor simply pulls the
emergency brake cable on the push or pull of a button rather than a mechanical pedal or
handle in the cabin. A more complex unit [3] (first seen on the 2003 Audi A8) uses a
computer-controlled motor attached to each of the two rear brake calipers referred to as the
Motor on Caliper(MoC) system.
It is expected that these systems will incorporate other features in the future. Jaguar,
Landover, BMW, Renault, Subaru and VW already have a system where the park brake
engages when the engine is stopped and is released when the gas pedal is pressed. An
extension of this system, called the hill-hold function, prevents roll-back when stopping and
starting on a hill. The OEM can easily turn off the system. Some electric park brakes function
similar to "park" on an automatic transmission and will not engage when the vehicle is in
motion, there is no emergency brake in this case.

Emergency brake
The emergency brake was originally intended for one particular emergency and that was "no
other way to stop", as was the case when the footbrake suddenly failed due to a loss of
hydraulic pressure or other issue. Drivers had to respond when brakes failed, so they were
expected to learn how to stop a speeding vehicle using the emergency brake alone. Safety
regulations became almost universal by 1980, so modern brake systems are very reliable,
using dual-circuit hydraulics and more recently low-brake-fluid sensors.[4] As modern brakes
no longer cause emergencies in normal contexts (a brake warning light comes on after the
first sign of trouble)[citation needed], it is no longer necessary for the average driver to learn to use
this brake for emergencies.
Some drivers benefiting from the "park" function on their automatic transmissions do not use
this brake at all (daily use of the park brake is recommended, to ensure it does not seize up).
After a lack of recent braking emergencies, automakers stopped using the term and started
referring it by its other use, the "parking brake", even though the ability to function at a high
speed was still there. On an increasing number of modern vehicles, the parking brake can
only be engaged when the vehicle is at a stop, and they no longer have an emergency
brake.[citation needed]
The emergency brake in some cars is completely mechanical; that is, by pulling the lever, the
driver pulls a cable, which in turn causes the brake shoes inside a drum brake to press
against the cylinder. In a car with a completely mechanical emergency brake, the driver
would be able to apply the brake even in if there was a complete loss of hydraulic pressure
and a stopped engine (which would mean that there would be no power braking).
Driving and parking techniques
Emergency brakes do not stop very well, as the stopping force provided by the emergency
brake is less than half the force of normal braking and takes much longer to stop a vehicle.
Emergency brakes also provide much less braking than what a car with power braking (also
called "brake booster") would provide. For vehicles with manual transmissions, the
mechanical emergency brake is routinely used to assist in "hill starts" (when the car is being
started on a hill) as this frees both feet for use on the accelerator and clutch pedals. Even an
unskilled motorist can get started without rolling backwards. It is inadvisable to use rear
wheel emergency brakes when the standard brakes are available, unless there is a problem
with the front wheels such as a tire blowout or slippery conditions risking skidding and a loss
of control. Using the emergency brake while driving changes the traction balance between
the front and rear of the vehicle, if over applied may lock the back wheels and skid the car
into a handbrake turn.
Handbrake turns are often intentionally used in street racing and offroad rally racing to
initiate rear wheel drift. In conditions near freezing where it is both wet and icy, the
emergency brake mechanics may freeze and be impossible to release until thawed.[5] If only
using the "park" function on a transmission to hold the car parked, there is no freezing
problem. The handbrake is also used to keep a parked standard transmission car from
unintentionally moving when it is parked on a hill. Even though it is possible to keep a parked
standard transmission car in place by putting it in gear in the opposite direction of the slope
(e.g., if parking pointing downhill, put the car in "reverse"), the handbrake is still typically
used, as if the engine were to lose compression, the car could roll forward. As a further
precaution, some driving instructors tell students to point the wheels of hill-parked standard
transmission cars towards the curb.

Types of brakes

The hand brake lever in a Saab 9-5 automobile.

In vehicles with rear disc brakes, the parking brake either actuates the disc calipers (again,
with much less force) or a small drum brake housed within the hub assembly (the inner
circumference of the disc is often used instead of a separate drum).
Hudson automobiles used an unusual hybrid hydraulic-mechanical dual-brake system which
operated the rear brakes through the otherwise conventional mechanical emergency-brake
system when a failure of the hydraulic system allowed the pedal to travel beyond its normal
limit.[6]
A number of production vehicles, light and medium duty trucks, and motor homes have been
made with a separate drum brake on the driveline; called a transmission brake. This has an
advantage of being completely independent of other braking systems. This is effective when
there are multiple driving axles, all driven wheels are braked at once.
A line lock is a temporary parking brake that makes use of the vehicles standard hydraulic
brakes. Often used for off road conditions stopping on steep grades. By trapping hydraulic
pressure in the brake lines, all four wheels can be locked.

Large vehicles
Large vehicles are usually fitted with power operated or power assisted parking brakes.
Power assisted parking brakes are usually found on large vans as well as some older heavy
vehicles. These operate in the same way as a conventional parking brakes, but pulling the
lever operates a valve that allows air or hydraulic pressure or vacuum into a cylinder which
applies force to the brake shoes and makes applying the parking brake easier. When
releasing the parking brake, the same mechanism also provides assistance to the driver in
disengaging the ratchet. Particularly on commercial vehicles with air operated brakes, this
has the added benefit of making it much harder or even impossible to release the parking
brake when insufficient air pressure is available to operate the brakes. A reservoir or
accumulator is usually provided so a limited amount of power assistance is available with the
engine off.
Power operated parking brakes are fitted to heavy commercial vehicles with air brakes, such
as trucks and buses. These are usually spring applied, with air pressure being used to hold
the brake off and powerful springs holding the brakes on. In most cases, a small lever in the
cab is connected to a valve which can admit air to the parking brake cylinders to release the
parking brake, or release the air to apply the brake. On some modern vehicles the valve is
operated electrically from a lever or button in the cab. The system is relatively safe since if
air pressure is lost the springs will apply the brakes. Also, the system prevents the parking
brake being released if there is insufficient air pressure to apply the foot brake. A
disadvantage to this system is that if a vehicle requires towing and cannot provide its own air
supply, an external supply must be provided to allow the parking brake to be released, or the
brake shoes must be manually wound off against the springs.

Jacking[edit]
It is important to know which wheels are providing the braking action when lifting the car with
a jack, for example when a motorist is changing a flat tire. Usually the rear wheels are
stopped with parking brakes. Most Citroens, the Alfasud, Saab 99s, early 900s, and most
early Subaru’s applied the handbrake force to the front wheels, which makes them notable
exceptions. If one lifts the braking wheels off the ground then the car can move and fall off
the jack. This could injure persons who are underneath or near the car. This is the reason
manufacturers recommend jacking be conducted on level ground and
with chocks immobilizing the wheels that will remain on the ground.
Railroad hand brakes
Further information: Emergency brake (train)
Virtually all railroad rolling stock is equipped with manually operated mechanical hand brake
devices that set and release the brakes. Most of these involve a chain linked to the brake
rigging, most often at the brake cylinder, that when tightened pull the piston out against the
releasing springs, thus applying the brakes on the car (if there is only one brake cylinder per
car) or bogie (if there is more than once cylinder per car). Newer locomotives have electric
systems that simply place an electric motor in place of the chain winding mechanism. This
brake acts independent of the action of the automatic air brakes, which function collectively
when coupled in a train and are under the control of the locomotive driver / engineer.
Manual hand brakes serve to keep a piece of rolling stock stationary after it has been spotted
in a rail yard or at a customer for unloading or loading. They are also used to secure a
parked train from inadvertent movement, especially while unmanned.
Before the development of locomotive-actuated train braking systems in the late 19th
century, designated railroad employees known as brakemen would move about the tops of
cars, setting hand brakes in an effort to stop the train in a timely manner. This process was
imprecise and extremely dangerous. Many brakemen lost life and limb as a result of falling
from a moving train, icy and wet conditions often adding to the hazards involved in
negotiating the top of a swaying boxcar.[7] In the U.S., an 1893 federal law, the Railroad
Safety Appliance Act, required automatic brakes on all railroads, effective in 1900.
Hydraulic brake
A hydraulic brake is an arrangement of braking mechanism which uses brake fluid, typically
containing glycol ethers or ethylene glycol, to transfer pressure from the controlling
mechanism to the braking mechanism.

A schematic illustrating the major components of a hydraulic disc brake system.

History
Fred Duisenberg originated hydraulic brakes on his 1914 racing cars and Duesenberg was
the first automotive marque to use the technology on a passenger car in 1921. This braking
system could have earned him a fortune if he had patented it. In 1917 Malcolm
Loughead (who later changed the spelling of his name to Lockheed) developed a hydraulic
brake system.[1][2] "Lockheed" is a common term for brake fluid in France.
The technology was carried forward in automotive use and eventually led to the introduction
of the self-energizing hydraulic drum brake system (Edward Bishop Boughton, London
England, June 28, 1927) which is still in use today.
Construction
The most common arrangement of hydraulic brakes for passenger vehicles, motorcycles,
scooters, and mopeds, consists of the following:

• Brake pedal or lever

• A pushrod (also called an actuating rod)
• A master cylinder assembly containing a piston assembly (made up of either one or two
pistons, a return spring, a series of gaskets/ O-rings and a fluid reservoir)
• Reinforced hydraulic lines
• Brake caliper assembly usually consisting of one or two hollow aluminum or chrome-
plated steel pistons (called caliper pistons), a set of thermally conductive brake pads and
a rotor (also called a brake disc) or drum attached to an axle.
The system is usually filled with a glycol-ether based brake fluid (other fluids may also be
used).
At one time, passenger vehicles commonly employed drum brakes on all four wheels. Later,
disc brakes were used for the front and drum brakes for the rear. However disc brakes have
shown better heat dissipation and greater resistance to 'fading' and are therefore generally
safer than drum brakes. So four-wheel disc brakes have become increasingly popular,
replacing drums on all but the most basic vehicles. Many two-wheel vehicle designs,
however, continue to employ a drum brake for the rear wheel.
The following description uses the terminology for / and configuration of a simple disc brake.

System operation
In a hydraulic brake system, when the brake pedal is pressed, a pushrod exerts force on the
piston(s) in the master cylinder, causing fluid from the brake fluid reservoir to flow into a
pressure chamber through a compensating port. This results in an increase in the pressure
of the entire hydraulic system, forcing fluid through the hydraulic lines toward one or more
calipers where it acts upon one or more caliper pistons sealed by one or more seated O-
rings (which prevent leakage of the fluid).
The brake caliper pistons then apply force to the brake pads, pushing them against the
spinning rotor, and the friction between the pads and the rotor causes a braking torque to be
generated, slowing the vehicle. Heat generated by this friction is either dissipated through
vents and channels in the rotor or is conducted through the pads, which are made of
specialized heat-tolerant materials such as kevlar or sintered glass.
Alternatively, in a drum brake, the fluid enters a wheel cylinder and presses one or two brake
shoes against the inside of the spinning drum. The brake shoes use a similar heat-tolerant
friction material to the pads used in disc brakes.
Subsequent release of the brake pedal/lever allows the spring(s) in the master cylinder
assembly to return the master piston(s) back into position. This action first relieves the
hydraulic pressure on the caliper, then applies suction to the brake piston in the caliper
assembly, moving it back into its housing and allowing the brake pads to release the rotor.
The hydraulic braking system is designed as a closed system: unless there is a leak in the
system, none of the brake fluid enters or leaves it, nor does the fluid get consumed through
use. Leakage may happen, however, from cracks in the O-rings or from a puncture in the
brake line. Cracks can form if two types of brake fluid are mixed or if the brake fluid becomes
contaminated with water, alcohol, antifreeze, or any number of other liquids.[3]

An example of a hydraulic brake system

Hydraulic brakes transfer energy to stop an object, normally a rotating axle. In a very simple
brake system, with just two cylinders and a disc brake, the cylinders could be connected via
tubes, with a piston inside the cylinders. The cylinders and tubes are filled with
incompressible oil. The two cylinders have the same volume, but different diameters, and
thus different cross-section areas. The cylinder that the operator uses is called the master
cylinder. The spinning disc brake will be adjacent to the piston with the larger cross-section.
Suppose the diameter of the master cylinder is half the diameter of the slave cylinder, so the
master cylinder has a cross-section four times smaller. Now, if the piston in the master
cylinder is pushed down 40 mm, the slave piston will move 10 mm. If 10 newtons (N) of force
are applied to the master piston, the slave piston will press with a force of 40 N.
This force can be further increased by inserting a lever connected between the master
piston, a pedal, and a pivot point. If the distance from the pedal to the pivot is three times the
distance from the pivot to the connected piston, then it multiplies the pedal force by a factor
of 3, when pushing down on the pedal, so that 10 N becomes 30 N on the master piston and
120 N on the brake pad. Conversely, the pedal must move three times as far as the master
piston. If we push the pedal 120 mm down, the master piston will move 40 mm and the slave
piston will move the brake pad by 10 mm.

Component specifics
(For typical light duty automotive braking systems)
In a four-wheel car, the FMVSS Standard 105, 1976;[4] requires that the master cylinder be
divided internally into two sections, each of which pressurizes a separate hydraulic circuit.
Each section supplies pressure to one circuit. The combination is known as a dual master
cylinder. Passenger vehicles typically have either a front/rear split brake system or a
diagonal split brake system (the master cylinder in a motorcycle or scooter may only
pressurize a single unit, which will be the front brake).
A front/rear split system uses one master cylinder section to pressurize the front caliper
pistons and the other section to pressurize the rear caliper pistons. A split circuit braking
system is now required by law in most countries for safety reasons; if one circuit fails, the
other circuit can still stop the vehicle.
Diagonal split systems were used initially on American Motors automobiles in the 1967
production year. The right front and left rear are served by one actuating piston while the left
front and the right rear are served, exclusively, by a second actuating piston (both pistons
pressurize their respective coupled lines from a single foot pedal). If either circuit fails, the
other, with at least one front wheel braking (the front brakes provide most of the braking
force, due to weight transfer), remains intact to stop the mechanically damaged vehicle. By
the 1970s, diagonally split systems had become common among automobiles sold in the
United States. This system was developed with front-wheel-drive cars' suspension design to
maintain better control and stability during a system failure.
The diameter and length of the master cylinder has a significant effect on the performance of
the brake system. A larger diameter master cylinder delivers more hydraulic fluid to the
caliper pistons, yet requires more brake pedal force and less brake pedal stroke to achieve a
given deceleration. A smaller diameter master cylinder has the opposite effect.
A master cylinder may also use differing diameters between the two sections to allow for
increased fluid volume to one set of caliper pistons or the other.
A proportioning valve may be used to reduce the pressure to the rear brakes under heavy
braking. This limits the rear braking to reduce the chances of locking up the rear brakes, and
greatly lessens the chances of a spin.

Power brakes
The vacuum booster or vacuum servo is used in most modern hydraulic brake systems
which contain four wheels. The vacuum booster is attached between the master cylinder and
the brake pedal and multiplies the braking force applied by the driver. These units consist of
a hollow housing with a movable rubber diaphragm across the center, creating two
chambers. When attached to the low-pressure portion of the throttle body or intake manifold
of the engine, the pressure in both chambers of the unit is lowered. The equilibrium created
by the low pressure in both chambers keeps the diaphragm from moving until the brake
pedal is depressed. A return spring keeps the diaphragm in the starting position until the
brake pedal is applied. When the brake pedal is applied, the movement opens an air valve
which lets in atmospheric pressure air to one chamber of the booster. Since the pressure
becomes higher in one chamber, the diaphragm moves toward the lower pressure chamber
with a force created by the area of the diaphragm and the differential pressure. This force, in
addition to the driver's foot force, pushes on the master cylinder piston. A relatively small
diameter booster unit is required; for a very conservative 50% manifold vacuum, an assisting
force of about 1500 N (200n) is produced by a 20 cm diaphragm with an area of 0.03 square
meters. The diaphragm will stop moving when the forces on both sides of the chamber reach
equilibrium. This can be caused by either the air valve closing (due to the pedal apply
stopping) or if "run out" is reached. Run out occurs when the pressure in one chamber
reaches atmospheric pressure and no additional force can be generated by the now stagnant
differential pressure. After the run out point is reached, only the driver's foot force can be
used to further apply the master cylinder piston.
The fluid pressure from the master cylinder travels through a pair of steel brake tubes to
a pressure differential valve, sometimes referred to as a "brake failure valve", which
performs two functions: it equalizes pressure between the two systems, and it provides a
warning if one system loses pressure. The pressure differential valve has two chambers (to
which the hydraulic lines attach) with a piston between them. When the pressure in either
line is balanced, the piston does not move. If the pressure on one side is lost, the pressure
from the other side moves the piston. When the piston makes contact with a simple electrical
probe in the center of the unit, a circuit is completed, and the operator is warned of a failure
in the brake system.
From the pressure differential valve, brake tubing carries the pressure to the brake units at
the wheels. Since the wheels do not maintain a fixed relation to the automobile, it is
necessary to use hydraulic brake hose from the end of the steel line at the vehicle frame to
the caliper at the wheel. Allowing steel brake tubing to flex invites metal fatigue and,
ultimately, brake failure. A common upgrade is to replace the standard rubber hoses with a
set which are externally reinforced with braided stainless-steel wires.
The braided wires have negligible expansion under pressure and can give a firmer feel to the
brake pedal with less pedal travel for a given braking effort.
The term 'power hydraulic brakes' can also refer to systems operating on very different
principles where an engine-driven pump maintains continual hydraulic pressure in a central
accumulator. The driver's brake pedal simply controls a valve to bleed pressure into the
brake units at the wheels, rather than actually creating the pressure in a master cylinder by
depressing a piston. This form of brake is analogous to an air brake system but with
hydraulic fluid as the working medium rather than air. However, on an air brake air is vented
from the system when the brakes are released and the reserve of compressed air must be
replenished. On a power hydraulic brake system fluid at low pressure is returned from the
brake units at the wheels to the engine-driven pump as the brakes are released, so the
central pressure accumulator is almost instantly re-pressurised. This makes the power
hydraulic system highly suitable for vehicles that must frequently stop and start (such
as buses in cities). The continually circulating fluid also removes problems with freezing parts
and collected water vapor that can afflict air systems in cold climates. The AEC Route
master bus is a well-known application of power hydraulic brakes and the successive
generations of Citroen cars with hydro pneumatic suspension also used fully powered
hydraulic brakes rather than conventional automotive brake systems.

Special considerations
Air brake systems are bulky, and require air compressors and reservoir tanks. Hydraulic
systems are smaller and less expensive.
Hydraulic fluid must be non-compressible. Unlike air brakes, where a valve is opened and air
flows into the lines and brake chambers until the pressure rises sufficiently, hydraulic
systems rely on a single stroke of a piston to force fluid through the system. If any vapor is
introduced into the system it will compress, and the pressure may not rise sufficiently to
actuate the brakes.
Hydraulic braking systems are sometimes subjected to high temperatures during operation,
such as when descending steep grades. For this reason, hydraulic fluid must resist
vaporization at high temperatures.
Water vaporizes easily with heat and can corrode the metal parts of the system. Water which
enters brake lines, even in small amounts, will react with most common brake fluids (i.e.,
those which are hygroscopic[5][6]) causing the formation of deposits which can clog the brake
lines and reservoir. It is almost impossible to completely seal any brake system from
exposure to water, which means that regular changing out of brake fluid is necessary to
ensure that the system is not becoming overfilled with the deposits caused by reactions with
water. Light oils are sometimes used as hydraulic fluids specifically because they do not
react with water: oil displaces water, protects plastic parts against corrosion, and can tolerate
much higher temperatures before vaporizing, but has other drawbacks vs. traditional
hydraulic fluids.
"Brake fade" is a condition caused by overheating in which braking effectiveness reduces,
and may be lost. It may occur for many reasons. The pads which engage the rotating part
may become overheated and "glaze over", becoming so smooth and hard that they cannot
grip sufficiently to slow the vehicle. Also, vaporization of the hydraulic fluid under
temperature extremes or thermal distortion may cause the linings to change their shape and
engage less surface area of the rotating part. Thermal distortion may also cause permanent
changes in the shape of the metal components, resulting in a reduction in braking capability
that requires replacement of the affected parts.