ASSIGNMENT

ON

COMPUTER APPLICATIONS IN MANAGEMENT

Submitted to: Dr. Anil kumar kashyap

Submitted by: Group 7
( Megha, Pankaj, Roshani, Saraswati, Sakshi)
MBA 1st sem.

Department of business management

Dr. Harisingh Gour Vishwavidyalaya
( A Central University)
Sagar (M.P.)
 UNIT- 1

Introduction

Nothing has revolutionized modern life the way rapid progress of computers has. For better
or worse, computers have infiltrated every aspect of our society. Today, computers do much
more than simply compute. They make airline or railway reservation and teach on-line; some
super store scanners calculate our grocery bills while keeping the store inventory;
computerised telephone switching has greatly improved the telephone system and Automatic
Teller Machines (ATM) let us conduct banking transactions from virtually anywhere in the
world.

As computers become more widespread in the workplace, new ways to harness their potential
developed. As smaller computers become more powerful, they could be linked together, or
networked, to share memory space, software, and information and communicate with each
other.

What Is Computer ?

The word ‘computer’ comes from the word ‘compute’, which means to calculate or perform a
sequence of operations. Hence, a computer is normally considered to be a calculating device ,
which can perform arithmetic operations at enormous speed . A computer takes information
(or input), processes it according to a set of instructions (or process), and gives back a result
(or output). In this respect, it is very similar to a calculator ,but obviously somewhat more
complex.

Each computer consists of some form of memory, atleast one element that carries out
arithmetic and logic operations , and a sequencing and control unit that can change the order
of operations based on the information that is stored.

The computer allows information to be entered from an external source, and then processes
the results of operations to be sent out. This is done by the computer’s processing unit, which
executes series of instructions that make it read, manipulate and then store data.

Computers in Business
Almost every business uses computers to complete daily tasks. From making contact with
clients to inputting data for reports, computers allow businesses a more efficient way to
manage affairs when compared to traditional paper and manila folders. Businesses use a
variety of different types of computers such as desktops, laptops, servers, Smartphone and
tablets, depending on their needs. With computers, employees are able to work anytime,
anywhere.

IMPORTANCE OF COMPUTER IN BUSINESS

1) Communication
2) Marketing
3) Accounting Storage
4) Documents and Report
5) Education Research

ELEMENTS OF COMPUTER SYSTEM SET-UP

Basic elements of a computer system are Mouse, Keyboard, monitor, memory, CPU,
motherboard, Hard Disk, Speakers, Modem, power Supply, and processor.

Mouse: Mouse is sued for operating the system. You can also use computer without mouse,
as by using motherboard but in this case it will be very tough to use a computer. These days
optical mouse is used because it is very efficient to use as compared to simple mouse.

Keyboard: Keyboard is used to giving input to the system and system gives output to the
user. There are many things which we cannot do without keyboard as we cannot write
anything without a keyboard.

Monitor: Monitor is very essential part of a computer system. It is used to display

things which we perform on a computer.

Motherboard: Motherboard is also a necessary element of a computer system. It contains

different elements as memory, processor, modem, slots for graphic card and LAN card.

Memory: Memory is sued to run programs on a computer. LAN card is sued for making a
network between computers.

Hard Disk: Hard disk is used to store data permanently on computer.

Modem: Modem is used to connecting internet. Two types of modems exist. One is known as
software modems and other is known as hardware modems.
Speakers: Speakers are also included in basis elements of a computer. But it is not necessary
as a computer can perform its function without this. However, we use it to for multiple
purposes.

INDIAN COMPUTING ENVIRONMENT

Office work includes many administrative and management activities. The preparation,
distribution, processing and review of documents are the common activities of an
organization. Prior to the advent-of computers, these office activities were either performed
manually or with the help of mechanical and electrical machines. During the past few
decades, the basic nature of office has changed remarkably. Office automation deals in
application of latest technologies in improving the overall proficiency of the office. Office
automation does not mean just to install computers and communication devices in an office,
but it is much more than that. We will discuss in later part of this unit, how an office can be
automated in a real sense.

OFFICE AUTOMATION

Office automation is the application of computer and related technologies like

communication and networking to integrate the general office tasks so that the efficiency of
office work is improved.

Needs for Office Automation

Although all the work of a small or big office can be performed manually, but it is very
difficult or even impossible today for an organization to compete in the market without office
automation. There are many essential requirements of today's office environment, which are
listed below;

1) To reduce cost of administrative overhead;

2) To increase the efficiency of office tasks;

3) To provide better service to the customers;

4) To provide accurate information to the management;
5) To provide best and fastest way of communication.
Office Functions Needed to be Automated
Many types of functions are performed in an office. The basic functions, which are needed to
be automated in any office are
 1. Document Generation
2. Document Processing
3. Document Distribution
4. Archival Storage

Office Automation Systems

For achieving the basic functions of an office, different types of office automation systems
are used. These systems can be broadly classified into following four types:

1) Teleconferencing Systems
2) Support Systems
3) Teleconferencing Systems
4) Support Systems

Evolution of computer in India

The development of computing in India is inextricably intertwined with two interacting

forces; the political climate (determined by the political party in power) and the government
policies, mainly driven by the technocrats and bureaucrats who acted within the boundaries
drawn by the political party in power, besides some external forces. In a paper published in
January- March 2014 in IEEE Annals of the History of Computing, Prof. V. Rajaraman from
the Supercomputer Education & Research Centre, IISc, has summarized the key points from
his monograph “The History of Computing in India (1955-2010)”, published by the IEEE
Computer Society. Prof. Rajaraman has identified four break points which occurred in 1970,
1978, 1991, and 1998 which changed the direction of growth of computing in India. In 1970
the Department of Electronics was established to promote the growth of Electronics and
Computing and led to the establishment of a Computer division in the public sector company
ECIL. 1978 saw the exit of IBM from India and the entry of private sector to manufacture
computers. The liberalization of the Indian economy in 1991 saw the emergence and double
digit growth of software service companies primarily in the private sector with significant
policy support by the government. The potential of IT as an engine for growth was realized
in 1998 when the Prime Minister of India declared IT as India’s future. Compared with the
investment in education and research, the investment made in computer manufacture by the
government companies did not have the same multiplier effect. The investment, however,
did meet some strategic requirements in defence and atomic energy. A slew of liberalized
policy initiatives taken in the mid-1980s and the early 1990s led to an exponential growth of
IT companies in India.

Components Of Computer
A computer is a data processor, which can accept inputs(data and instructions),remember the
inputs by storing it in memory cells, process the stored inputs and communicate the output
information. Its basic components are discussed hereunder:

1) Hardware- Computer hardware consists of input devices, output devices, circuitry,

memory, and the central processing unit (CPU). Input devices, comprise of
keyboard or mouse, by means of which the computer takes in symbolic data and
instructions. Output devices, such as, the monitor (VDU)or printer, are the means by
which the computer sends out the symbolic results. The CPU is the brain that
controls the rest of the hardware and is made up of three different parts:

I. Processor- The processor accepts input and stored it in the memory and it
interprets the instructions in a computer program .
II. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) –The arithmetic logical unit (ALU)
performs various operations ,such as ,addition, subtraction , multiplication
division ,as well as others.
III. Internal Memory –The processor and the ALU use a small amount of the
internal memory ;most data are stored in external memory devices using
hard or floppy disk drives that are attached to the processor.

2) Software – Computer software is defined as the programs that control the computer
system. Software includes the system software (operating system), application and
utility software (computer language). These two types of software are explained
hereunder:
I. System Software – System software co-ordinates the operations of the
various hardware components of the computer. The computer manufacturers
usually provide system software.
II. Application and Utility Software – Application and utility software is a set
of programs or languages designed for specific user or tasks, such as, word
 processing, graphics or spreadsheets analysis. Application software cannot
be run without system software.

3) Firmware – Firmware is a combination of software and hardware, i.e., software

representing inside hardware. Computer chips that have data or programs recorded
on them are firmware. These chips commonly include the following :
I. ROMs (Read Only Memory)
II. PROMs (Programmable Read Only Memory); and
III. EPROM(Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)

4) Humanware - All people who are related with computer field directly or indirectly
and deriving some benefits out of computers are termed as humanware , i.e.,
computer operators, programmers, computer teachers, etc.

GENERATION OF COMPUTER

First Generation: Vacuum Tubes (1940-1956)

The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic
drums for memory, and were often enormous, taking up entire rooms. These
computers were very expensive to operate and in addition to using a great deal
of electricity, the first computers generated a lot of heat, which was often the
cause of malfunctions.
first generation computers relied on machine language, the lowest-level
programming language understood by computers, to perform operations, and
they could only solve one problem at a time.
Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in
development, though there are some applications, such as voice recognition,
that are being used today. The use of parallel processing and superconductors is
helping to make artificial intelligence a reality. Quantum computation and
molecular and nanotechnology will radically change the face of computers in
years to come. The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that
respond to natural language input and are capable of learning and self-
organized.
The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation
computing devices. The UNIVAC was the first commercial computer delivered
to a business client, the U.S. Census Bureau in 1951.

Second Generation: Transistors (1956-1963)

The world would see transistors replace vacuum tubes in the second generation of computers.
The transistor was invented at Bell Labs in 1947 but did not see widespread use in computers
until the late 1950s.
The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become smaller,
faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-generation
predecessors. Though the transistor still generated a great deal of heat that subjected the
computer to damage, it was a vast improvement over the vacuum tube. Second-generation
computers still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for output.

Third Generation: Integrated Circuits (1964-1971)

The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of
computers. Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors,
which drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers.
Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers
through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the
device to run many different applications at one time with a central program that monitored
the memory. Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass audience because they
were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.

Fourth Generation: Microprocessors (1971-Present)

The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated
circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first generation filled an entire room
could now fit in the palm of the hand. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the
components of the computer—from the central processing unit and memory to input/output
controls—on a single chip.
In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple introduced
the Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop computers and into
many areas of life as more and more everyday products began to use microprocessors.

Fifth Generation: Artificial Intelligence (Present and Beyond)

COMPUTER LANGUAGES

A Computer language includes various languages that are used to communicate with a
Computer machine. Some of the languages like programming language which is a set of
codes or instructions used for communicating the machine. all the languages that are now
available are categorized into two basic types of languages including Low-level language and
High Level Language.
.
Low Level Language:
Low level languages are the machine codes in which the instructions are given
in machine language in the form of 0 and 1 to a Computer system. It is mainly
designed to operate and handle all the hardware and instructions set architecture
of a Computer. The main function of the Low level language is to operate,
manage and manipulate the hardware and system components.

The most famous and the base of all programming languages “C” and “C++”
are mostly used Low level languages till today. Low level language is also
divided into two parts are Machine language and Assembly language.

Machine Language- is one of the low-level programming languages which is

the first generation language developed for communicating with a Computer. It
is written in machine code which represents 0 and 1 binary digits inside the
Computer string which makes it easy to understand and perform the operations.

Assembly Language- is the second generation programming language that has

almost similar structure and set of commands as Machine language. Instead of
using numbers like in Machine languages here we use words or names in
English forms and also symbols.

High Level Language –

The high level languages are the most used and also more considered programming
languages that helps a programmer to read, write and maintain. It is also the third generation
language that is used and also running till now by many programmers. They are less
independent to a particular type of Computer and also require a translator that can convert the
high level language to machine language. The translator may be an interpreter and Compiler
that helps to convert into binary code for a Computer to understand. The Compiler plays an
important role on the Computer as it can convert to machine language and also checks for
errors if any before executing. There are several high level languages that were used earlier
and also now like COBOL, FORTRAN, BASIC, C, C++, PASCAL, LISP, Ada, Algol,
Prolog and Java.

PERSONAL COMPUTERS IN BUSINESS

Personal Computers- Personal computers are compact devices that are

designed for hands-on use to improve personal performance on the tasks
commonly used in the workplace. As opposed to larger mid-size, mainframe,
and supercomputers, personal computers are tailored for individual use.

Uses of Personal Computers in Business

The personal computer was first introduced by IBM -- International Business

Machines -- in 1981, according to the Computer History Museum. Since that
time, the use of personal computers in business have spread pervasively. In
2011, almost every employee has a personal computer on their desk. Business
professionals use computers for many functions, such as creating letters,
calculating numbers or performing research on the Internet. Personal
computers can also be used for many functions and applications for business.

 Sending Emails
 Creating Documents
 Creating Spreadsheets
 Creating Databases
 UNIT 2

PC Packaged Software

Packaged software, also called a software package, is software that is often

used together, performs similar functions, or includes similar features, and is
bundled together as a set of software programs. For example, Microsoft Office
is packaged software, including multiple software programs used in a home or
office, such as Microsoft Excel, Microsoft Word, and Microsoft Power point.
Video and audio editing software may be available as packaged software as
well, as they may be used together for editing music and video files used in a
movie.
Software programs included in packaged software may be available for
purchase individually. However, purchasing the packaged software is often
cheaper than purchasing each software program separately.

DOS and Windows

Both Dos and Windows are Operating systems. But, they possess some features
which make them differentiate. These features are listed below:

 Dos is only single tasking while Windows is multitasking.

 Dos is based on plain interface while Windows is based on
Graphical user interface (GUI).
 Dos is difficult to learn and understand while Windows is easy to
learn and understand.
 Dos is less preferable by users while Windows is more preferable
operating system.
 Limited users can work on dos while in Windows there are many
users.
 We cannot see mouse in Dos while in Windows we can see and
use mouse to click on icons or links.
 mple text commands are written in Dos while in Windows we
operate computer with the help of mouse.
  In Dos we cannot Play games, watch movies and listen songs
while in Windows we can enjoy playing games, watching movies
and listening songs.
 In Dos new hardware cannot work properly while in Windows it
can detect and installs software automatically.
 Application and system software¡¦s did not work properly in Dos
while in Windows it runs at a great speed.
 Dos is not user friendly while Windows operating system is user
friendly.
 Dos perform operations speedily as compared with Windows
operating system.

Text Processing Software

In computing, the term text processing refers to the discipline of mechanizing
the creation or manipulation of electronic text. Text usually refers to all the
alphanumeric characters specified on the keyboard of the person performing the
mechanization, but in general text here means the abstraction layer that is one
layer above the standard encoding of the target text. The term processing refers
to automated (or mechanized) processing, as opposed to the same manipulation
done manually.
Text processing involves computer commands which invoke content, content
changes, and cursor movement, for example to
 search and replace
 format
 generate a processed report of the content of, or
 Filter a file or report of a text file.
The text processing of a regular expression is a virtual editing machine, having
a primitive programming language that has named registers (identifiers), and
named positions in the sequence of characters comprising the text. Using these
"text processor" can, for example, mark a region of text, and then move it. The
text processing of a utility is a filter program, or filter. These two mechanisms
comprise text processing.

Spread sheet
What is a Spreadsheet?

A spreadsheet (or spreadsheet program) is software that permits numerical data

to be used and to perform automatic calculations on numbers contained in a
table. It is also possible to automate complex calculations by using a large
number of parameters and by creating tables called worksheets.
In addition, spreadsheets can also easily produce graphic representations of the
data entered:
 histograms
 curves

 sector charts

 ...
Therefore, the spreadsheet is a multi-use tool that works as well for secretarial
activities that involve organizing large quantities of data, as at the strategic and
decisional level by creating graphical representation of synthesised information.

The Main Spreadsheets

Numerous spreadsheets have been produced by the main software companies.

The main spreadsheets are:
 Microsoft Excel, in the Microsoft Office office suite
 Sun StarOffice Calc, in the StarOffice suite

 OpenCalc, in the OpenOffice suite

 IBM/Lotus 1-2-3 in the SmartSuite suite

 Corel Quattro Pro in the WordPerfect suite

 KSpread in the KOffice free suite from Linux

Examples in the following articles are based on the Microsoft
Excel spreadsheet, but the other spreadsheets contain the same functionalitie
A formula identifies the calculation needed to place the result in the cell it is
contained within. A cell containing a formula therefore has two display
components; the formula itself and the resulting value. The formula is normally
only shown when the cell is selected by "clicking" the mouse over a particular
cell; otherwise it contains the result of the calculation.
A formula assigns values to a cell or range of cells, and typically has the format:
=expression

where the expression consists of:

 values, such as 2 , 9.14 or 6.67E-11 ;

 references to other cells, such as, e.g., A1 for a single cell or B1:B3 for a
range;
 arithmetic operators, such as + , - , * , / , and others;
 relational operators, such as >= , < , and others; and,
 functions, such as SUM() , TAN() , and many others.
When a cell contains a formula, it often contains references to other cells. Such
a cell reference is a type of variable. Its value is the value of the referenced cell
or some derivation of it. If that cell in turn references other cells, the value
depends on the values of those. References can be relative (e.g., A1 ,
or B1:B3 ), absolute (e.g., $A$1 , or $B$1:$B$3 ) or mixed row– or column-
wise absolute/relative (e.g., $A1 is column-wise absolute and A$1 is row-wise
absolute).
The available options for valid formulas depends on the particular spreadsheet
implementation but, in general, most arithmetic operations and quite complex
nested conditional operations can be performed by most of today's commercial
spreadsheets. Modern implementations also offer functions to access custom-
build functions, remote data, and applications.
A formula may contain a condition (or nested conditions)—with or without an
actual calculation—and is sometimes used purely to identify and highlight
errors. In the example below, it is assumed the sum of a column of percentages
(A1 through A6) is tested for validity and an explicit message put into the
adjacent right-hand cell.
=IF(SUM(A1:A6) > 100, "More than 100%", SUM(A1:A6))
Further examples:
=IF(AND(A1<>"",B1<>""),A1/B1,"") means that if both cells A1 and B1
are not <> empty "", then divide A1 by B1 and display, other do not
display anything.
=IF(AND(A1<>"",B1<>""),IF(B1<>0,A1/B1,"Division by zero"),"")
means that if cells A1 and B1 are not empty, and B1 is not zero, then
divide A1 by B1, if B1 is zero, then display "Division by zero, and do not
display anything if either A1 and B1 are empty.
 =IF(OR(A1<>"",B1<>""),"Either A1 or B1 show text","") means to
display the text if either cells A1 or B1 are not empty.
The best way to build up conditional statements is step by step composing
followed by trial and error testing and refining code.
A spreadsheet does not, in fact, have to contain any formulas at
all, in which case it could be considered merely a collection of
data arranged in rows and columns (a database) like a calendar,
timetable or simple list. Because of its ease of use, formatting
and hyperlinking capabilities, many spreadsheets are used solely
for this purpose.
Functions

Use of user-defined function sq(x) in Microsoft Excel.

Spreadsheets usually contain a number of supplied functions, such as arithmetic operations (for
example, summations, averages and so forth), trigonometric functions, statistical functions, and so
forth. In addition there is often a provision for user-defined functions. In Microsoft Excel these
functions are defined using Visual Basic for Applications in the supplied Visual Basic editor,
and such functions are automatically accessible on the worksheet. In addition, programs can be
written that pull information from the worksheet, perform some calculations, and report the results
back to the worksheet. In the figure, the name sq is user-assigned, and function sqis introduced
using the Visual Basic editor supplied with Excel. Name Manager displays the spreadsheet
definitions of named variables x & y.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spreadsheet

Format Description
ABS(Number) The absolute value of the given Number. If the given Number is
an integer, the return value will be an integer. If the given
Number value is a double, the return value will be a double.
Returns #VALUE! if the given Number is not a number.
AND(Boolean, [...]) Returns TRUE if and only if all of the given parameters are
equal to TRUE. Otherwise, returns FALSE. Returns #VALUE!
if one of the given parameters could not be interpreted as a
boolean value. Examples:
=AND(E3 > 10, AA3 = 100) (Spreadsheet Study formula)
=AND(C > 100, SG1 < 50) (Simple Alert formula)
=OR(AND(H > 100, SG1 > 100),AND(L < 80,SG1 < -
100)) (Simple Alert formula)
OR(Boolean, [...]) Returns FALSE if and only if all of the given parameters are
equal to FALSE. Otherwise returns TRUE. Returns #VALUE! if
 one of the given parameters could not be interpreted as a
boolean value. Examples:
=OR(E3 < 10, E3 > 15) (Spreadsheet Study formula)
=OR(SG1 > 40, SG1 < 20) (Simple Alert formula)
=OR(AND(H > 100, SG1 > 100),AND(L < 80,SG1 < -
100)) (Simple Alert formula)
IF(Condition, TrueValue, Returns the value of TrueValue if the given Condition is equal
FalseValue) to TRUE. Returns the value of FalseValue if the given
Condition is equal to FALSE. Returns #VALUE! if the
condition could not be interpreted as a boolean value.
INT(Number) Rounds the given Number down to the next whole integer.
Returns #VALUE! if the given Number is not a number. Returns
0 if Number is an empty value, like a reference to a cell that
contains no data
ISBLANK(Value) Returns TRUE if the given Value is blank, which means no
value type. Otherwise returns FALSE.
ISEMTPY(Value) Returns TRUE if the given Value is empty, which means no
value type. Otherwise returns FALSE.
VALUE(Text) Converts the given Text into a number. Returns #VALUE! if the
text cannot be properly converted into a number. If a numeric
value type is given for the Text, that value is simply returned.

Database Functions
This document describes the database functions supported by a non-visual
spreadsheet component.
The database functions operates on a range of cells that makes up the list or
database. A database in this context is a list of related data in which rows are
records and columns are fields. The first row of the list contains labels for each
column.
The database (or list) is identified as the datalist parameter in function syntax.
Name Description Syntax
DAVERAGE Returns the average of DAVERAGE(datalist,
selected database entries. field, criteria)
DCOUNT Counts the cells that
contain numbers in a DCOUNT(datalist,
database. field, criteria)
DCOUNTA DCOUNTA(datalist,
 Counts nonblank cells in field, criteria)
a database

DGET Extracts from a database DGET(datalist, field,

a single record that criteria)
matches the specified
criteria.
DMAX Returns the maximum DMAX(datalist, field,
value from selected criteria)
database entries.
DMIN Returns the minimum DMIN(datalist, field,
value from selected criteria)
database entries.
DPRODUCT Multiplies the values in DPRODUCT(datalist,
a particular field of field, criteria)
records that match the
criteria in a database.

DSTDEV Estimates the standard DSTDEV(datalist, field,

deviation based on a criteria)
sample of selected
database entries.
DSTDEVP Calculates the standard DSTDEVP(datalist, field,
deviation based on the criteria)
entire population of
selected database entries.
 UNIT: 3
Data File
A Data file is a computer file which stores data to be used by a
computer application or system. It generally does not refer to files that contain
instructions or code to be executed (typically called program files), or to files
which define the operation or structure of an application or system (which
include configuration files, etc.); but specifically to information used as input,
or written as output by some other software program. This is especially helpful
when debugging a program.
Most computer programs work with files. This is because files help in storing
information permanently. Database programs create files of
information. Compilers read source files and generate executable files. A file
itself is an ordered collection of bytes stored on a storage device
like tape, magnetic disk, optical disc etc.
Types of data file
Data files can be stored in two ways:

 Text files.
 Binary files.
Text File:
A text file (also called ASCII files) stores information in ASCII characters. A
text file contains human-readable characters. A user can read the contents of a
text file or edit it using a text editor. In text files, each line of text is terminated,
(delimited) with a special character known as EOL (End of Line) character. In
text files some internal translations take place when this EOL character is read
or written.
Examples of text files

 A text document

Binary File:
A binary file is a file that contains information in the same format in which the
information is held in memory i.e. in the binary form. In binary file, there is no
delimiter for a line. Also no translations occur in binary files. As a result, binary
files are faster and easier for a program to read and write than the text files. As
long as the file doesn't need to be read or need to be ported to a different type of
system, binary files are the best way to store program information.
Examples of binary files

 A JPEG image

Organization File: File organization is a way of organizing the data or

records in a file. It does not refer to how files are organized in folders, but how
the contents of a file are added and accessed. There are several types of file
organization, the most common of them are sequential, relative and indexed.
They differ in how easily records can be accessed and the complexity in which
records can be organized.

Sequential

In a sequential file organization, records are organized in the sequence by which

they were added. You cannot insert a new record between existing records, but
only at the end of the last record. It is a simple file organization that allows you
to process batches of records in the file without adding or deleting anything.
However, to access a particular record, processing must run through all the
other records above it because it does not generate any random key to identify
the location of the record. Searching for a record, especially when there are
thousands of entries, may be time consuming. Also, inserting or deleting records
would mean rearranging the entire sequence.

Relative

Another type of organizing files would be relative to the location where the file
begins. A relative key is assigned to determine the order of files. The first
record would have a relative number of 1, the second record would have a
relative number of 2 and so on. It is also called relative, because the sizes of
each record may vary, unlike in a sequential organization where the record sizes
must be fixed to arrange sequentially. Records may be 128-bytes or 256-bytes
in size and they can be arranged relative to each other, with any of the free bytes
between them marked as unused. This makes it possible to insert records in
those unused areas. Also, with the relative key, you can randomly access any
record without starting from the top record. The disadvantage is its dependence
on relative keys. If you do not know the relative key of a particular record, you
won't be able to randomly access the file.

Indexed

An indexed file organization contains reference numbers, like employee

numbers, that identifies a record in relation to other records. These references
are called the primary keys that are unique to a particular record. Alternate keys
can also be defined to allow alternate methods of accessing the record. For
example, instead of accessing an employee's record using employee numbers,
you can use an alternate key that reference employees by departments. This
allows greater flexibility for users to randomly search through thousands of
records in a file. However, it employs complex programming in order to be
implemented.

Master File
A collection of records pertaining to one of the main subjects of an
information system, such as customers, employees, products and vendors.
Master files contain descriptive data, such as name and address, as well as
summary information, such as amount due and year-to-date sales.
 1. The data stored in these files are permanent by nature
2. This file is empty while nature
3. This files are updated only through recent transactions
4. This file stores large amount of data
5. Eg: customer ledgers, student database

Transaction File
A collection of transaction records. The data in transaction files is used to
update the master files, which contain the data about the subjects of the
organization (customers, employees, vendors, etc.). Transaction files also serve
as audit trails and history for the organization. Where before they were
transferred to offline storage after some period of time, they are increasingly
being kept online for routine analyses.

1. The data stored in these files are temporary by nature

2. This file contains data only for period of time and send to the master file
3. Any data to be modified is done in this file
4. In this file the data to be modified is stored.
5. Eg: price of the products, customers order for the products, inserting new
data to the database etc.

Database Management System (DBMS)

A database management system (DBMS) is a computer software application

that interacts with the user, other applications, and the database itself to capture
and analyze data.
A database management system (DBMS) is a collection of programs that
manages the database structure and controls access to the data stored in the
database.

DBMSs include MySQL, PostgreSQL, Microsoft SQL Server, Oracle, Sybase

and IBM DB2.

Sometimes a DBMS is loosely referred to as a database.

RDBMS is the basis for SQL, and for all modern database systems like
MS SQL Server, IBM DB2, Oracle, MySQL, and Microsoft Access.
Applications of DBMS:
 Support internal operations of organizations.

 It is used to hold more specialized information.

Advantages of DBMS:
 Improved data sharing.

 Integrity can be enforced.

 Minimized data inconsistency.

 Providing Backup and Recovery

 Improved data security.

Application Integration

Application integration (sometimes called enterprise application

integration or EAI) is the process of bringing data or a function from
one application program together with that of another application program.
Where these programs already exist, the process is sometimes realized by
using middleware, either packaged by a vendor or written on a custom basis. An
common challenge for an enterprise is to integrate an existing (or legacy)
program with a new program or with a Web service program of another
company.

DSS
A decision support system (DSS) is a computer-based information system that
supports business or organizational decision-making activities. DSSs serve the
management, operations, and planning levels of an organization (usually mid
and higher management) and help people make decisions about problems that
may be rapidly changing and not easily specified in advance- i.e. unstructured
and semi-structured decision problems. Decision support systems can be either
fully computerized, human-powered or a combination of both.
While academics have perceived DSS as a tool to support decision making
process, DSS users see DSS as a tool to facilitate organizational processes.
Some authors have extended the definition of DSS to include any system that
might support decision making and some DSS include a decision-making
software component; Sprague (1980) defines a properly termed DSS as follows:

1. DSS tends to be aimed at the less well structured,

underspecified problem that upper level managers typically face;
2. DSS attempts to combine the use of models or analytic techniques with
traditional access and retrieval functions;
3. DSS specifically focuses on features which make them easy to use by
non-computer-proficient people in an interactive mode; and
4. DSS emphasizes flexibility and adaptability to accommodate changes in
the environment and the decision making approach of the user.
DSSs include knowledge-based systems. A properly designed DSS is an
interactive software-based system intended to help decision makers compile
useful information from a combination of raw data, documents, and personal
knowledge, or business models to identify and solve problems and make
decisions.
Typical information that a decision support application might gather and present
includes:

 inventories of information assets (including legacy and relational data

sources, cubes, data warehouses, and data marts),
 comparative sales figures between one period and the next,
 projected revenue figures based on product sales assumptions

Classification
There are several ways to classify DSS applications. Not every DSS fits neatly
into one of the categories, but may be a mix of two or more architectures.
Holsapple and Whinston classify DSS into the following six frameworks: text-
oriented DSS, database-oriented DSS, spreadsheet-oriented DSS, solver-
oriented DSS, rule-oriented DSS, and compound DSS. A compound DSS is the
most popular classification for a DSS; it is a hybrid system that includes two or
more of the five basic structures.
The support given by DSS can be separated into three distinct, interrelated
categories: Personal Support, Group Support, and Organizational Support.
DSS components may be classified as:

1. Inputs: Factors, numbers, and characteristics to analyze

2. User knowledge and expertise: Inputs requiring manual analysis by the
user
3. Outputs: Transformed data from which DSS "decisions" are generated
 4. Decisions: Results generated by the DSS based on user criteria
DSSs which perform selected cognitive decision-making functions and are
based on artificial intelligence or intelligent agents technologies are
called intelligent decision support systems (IDSS)
The nascent field of decision engineering treats the decision itself as an
engineered object, and applies engineering principles such
as design and assurance to an explicit representation of the elements that make
up a decision.

RDBMS
A Relational Database Management System (RDBMS) is a database
management system (DBMS) that is based on the relational model invented
by Edgar F. Codd, of IBM's San Jose Research Laboratory. As of 2017, many of
the databases in widespread use are based on the relational database model.
RDBMSs have been a common choice for the storage of information in new
databases used for financial records, manufacturing and logistical information,
personnel data, and other applications since the 1980s. Relational databases
have often replaced legacy hierarchical databases and network
databases because they are easier to understand and use. However, relational
databases have received unsuccessful challenge attempts by object
database management systems in the 1980s and 1990s (which were introduced
trying to address the so-called object-relational impedance mismatch between
relational databases and object-oriented application programs) and also by XML
database management systems in the 1990s. Despite such attempts, RDBMSs
keep most of the market share, which has also grown over the years.

Data Processing
What is Data Processing?
Data processing is simply the conversion of raw data to meaningful information
through a process. Data is manipulated to produce results that lead to a
resolution of a problem or improvement of an existing situation. Similar to a
production process, it follows a cycle where inputs (raw data) are fed to a
process (computer systems, software, etc.) to produce output (information and
insights).

Generally, organizations employ computer systems to carry out a series of

operations on the data in order to present, interpret, or obtain information. The
process includes activities like data entry, summary, calculation, storage, etc.
Useful and informative output is presented in various appropriate forms such as
diagrams, reports, graphics, etc.

Stages of the Data Processing Cycle

1. Collection is the first stage of the cycle, and is very crucial, since the
quality of data collected will impact heavily on the output. The collection
process needs to ensure that the data gathered are both defined and accurate, so
that subsequent decisions based on the findings are valid. This stage provides
both the baseline from which to measure, and a target on what to improve.
Some types of data collection include census (data collection about everything
in a group or statistical population), sample survey (collection method that
includes only part of the total population), and administrative by-product (data
collection is a by product of an organization’s day-to-day operations).

2. Preparation is the manipulation of data into a form suitable for further

analysis and processing. Raw data cannot be processed and must be checked for
accuracy. Preparation is about constructing a dataset from one or more data
sources to be used for further exploration and processing. Analyzing data that
has not been carefully screened for problems can produce highly misleading
results that are heavily dependent on the quality of data prepared.

3. Input is the task where verified data is coded or converted into machine
readable form so that it can be processed through a computer. Data entry is done
through the use of a keyboard, digitizer, scanner, or data entry from an existing
source. This time-consuming process requires speed and accuracy. Most data
need to follow a formal and strict syntax since a great deal of processing power
is required to breakdown the complex data at this stage. Due to the costs, many
businesses are resorting to outsource this stage.

4. Processing is when the data is subjected to various means and methods of

manipulation, the point where a computer program is being executed, and it
contains the program code and its current activity. The process may be made up
of multiple threads of execution that simultaneously execute instructions,
depending on the operating system. While a computer program is a passive
collection of instructions, a process is the actual execution of those instructions.
Many software programs are available for processing large volumes of data
within very short periods.

5. Output and interpretation is the stage where processed information is

now transmitted to the user. Output is presented to users in various report
formats like printed report, audio, video, or on monitor. Output need to be
interpreted so that it can provide meaningful information that will guide future
decisions of the company.

6. Storage is the last stage in the data processing cycle, where data,
instruction and information are held for future use. The importance of this cycle
is that it allows quick access and retrieval of the processed information,
allowing it to be passed on to the next stage directly, when needed. Every
computer uses storage to hold system and application software.
The Data Processing Cycle is a series of steps carried out to extract information
from raw data. Although each step must be taken in order, the order is cyclic.
The output and storage stage can lead to the repeat of the data collection stage,
resulting in another cycle of data processing. The cycle provides a view on how
the data travels and transforms from collection to interpretation, and ultimately,
used in effective business decisions.

Data hierarchy
Data hierarchy refers to the systematic organization of data, often in a
hierarchical form. Data organization involves characters, fields, records, files
and so on. This concept is a starting point when trying to see what makes up
data and whether data has a structure. For example, how does a person make
sense of data such as 'employee', 'name', 'department', 'Marcy Smith', 'Sales
Department' and so on, assuming that they are all related? One way to
understand them is to see these terms as smaller or larger components in a
hierarchy. One might say that Marcy Smith is one of the employees in the Sales
Department, or an example of an employee in that Department. The data we
want to capture about all our employees, and not just Marcy, is the name, ID
number, address and so on.

Purpose of the Data Hierarchy

"Data hierarchy" is a basic concept in data and database theory and helps to
show the relationships between smaller and larger components in a database or
data file. It is used to give a better sense of understanding about the components
of data and how they are related.
Data Hierarchy Following are the components of data hierarchy (ascending order
of complexity) in an information system:

1. Bit
The term ³bit´ is short form for binary digit. It can assume either of two possible
states and, therefore, can represent either 0 or 1. In secondary storage, a bit is
used to represent data through positive or negative polarity of an electrical
charge on a magnetic recording medium, such as tape or disk. Semi conductor
storage is usually used for primary storage. In semiconductor storage, a bit is
represented by an electrical circuit that is either conducting or not conducting
electricity.

2. Byte
An ability to represent only binary digits in a computer system is not sufficient
for business information processing. Numeric and alphabetic characters as well
as a wide variety of special characters (such as, dollar signs, question marks and
quotation marks) should be stored. In a computer system, a character
of information is called a byte.
A byte of information is stored by using several bits in specified combination
called bit patterns.´
A widely used bit pattern for personal computers and data communication is the
American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII).
ASCII uses seven bits to represent one character. Each 1 or 0 corresponds to a
single bit

3. Data Field or Item

The next level in data hierarchy is a field or item of data.
A field or item of data is one or more bytes containing data about the attribute of an
entity in an information system.
An entity in a payroll system is an individual employee.
Attributes are the employee’s name, pay rate and so on.
The basic pay is a field or item of data.

4. Data Record
A record is a collection of fields relating to a specific entity. For example,
a payroll record contains fields of data relating to a specific employee.
An analogy can be made between a computer-based record and an individual
folder in a manual file.
A folder in a payroll file may contain almost the same information asa record in
a computer-based payroll file.
The field that identifies a record from all other records in a file is the record
key. For example, the record key in a payroll record is usually an employee’s
provident fund number or social security number because it is different for each
employee.

5. File
A file is a collection of related records. For example, the collection of payroll
records of all employees in a company is a payroll file.
The concept of a computer file is very similar to a manual file in a filing cabinet

6. Database
A database consists of all the files of an organization. It is structured and
integrated to facilitate update of the files and retrieval of information from
them.
The term has often been used rather loosely.
Technically, a database consists of those files that are a part of data base
management system. However, a database is often used to refer to all the files of
an organization. Now, all this is called as data hierarchy because databases are
composed of files, files are composed of records, records are composed of filed,
fields composed of data bytes and finally, data bytes are a group of bits.
This is very well a hierarchical structure.

Data Structure

Introduction to Data Structures

Data Structure is a way of collecting and organising data in such a way that we
can perform operations on these data in an effective way. Data Structures is
about rendering data elements in terms of some relationship, for better
organization and storage.
For example, we have data player's name "Virat" and age 26. Here "Virat" is
of String data type and 26 are of integer data type.
We can organize this data as a record like Player record. Now we can collect
and store player's records in a file or database as a data structure. For example:
"Dhoni" 30, "Gambhir" 31, "Sehwag" 33
In simple language, Data Structures are structures programmed to store ordered
data, so that various operations can be performed on it easily. It represents the
knowledge of data to be organized in memory. It should be designed and
implemented in such a way that it reduces the complexity and increases the
efficiency.
As we have discussed above, anything that can store data can be called as a data
structure, hence Integer, Float, Boolean, Char etc, all are data structures. They
are known as Primitive Data Structures.
Then we also have some complex Data Structures, which are used to store large
and connected data. Some example of Abstract Data Structure is:

 Linked List
 Tree
 Graph
 Stack, Queue etc.
The data structures can also be classified on the basis of the

following characteristics:

Characteristic Description

Linear In Linear data structures, the data items are arranged in

a linear sequence. Example: Array

Non-Linear In Non-Linear data structures, the data items are not in

sequence. Example: Tree, Graph

Homogeneous In homogeneous data structures, all the elements are of

same type. Example: Array

Non- In Non-Homogeneous data structure, the elements may

Homogeneous or may not be of the same type. Example: Structures

Static Static data structures are those whose sizes and

structures associated memory locations are fixed, at

compile time. Example: Array

Dynamic Dynamic structures are those which expand or shrink

depending upon the program need and its execution.

Also, their associated memory locations changes.

Example: Linked List created using pointers

 Application Portfolio Development

Application portfolio management (APM) is a framework for managing

enterprise IT software applications and software-based services. APM provides
managers with an inventory of the company's software applications and metrics
to illustrate the business benefits of each application.
An APM system uses a scoring algorithm for generating reports about the value
of each application and the health of the IT infrastructure as a whole. By
gathering metrics like an application's age, how often it's used, the cost it takes
to maintain it and its interrelationships with other applications, a manager can
use more than just an educated guess to decide whether or not a particular
application should be kept, updated, retired or replaced.
IT application portfolio management (APM) is a practice that has emerged in
mid to large-size information technology (IT) organizations since the mid-
1990s. Application portfolio management attempts to use the lessons
of financial portfolio management to justify and measure the financial benefits
of each application in comparison to the costs of the application's maintenance
and operations.

Portfolio:
Taking ideas from investment portfolio management, APM practitioners gather
information about each application in use in a business or organization,
including the cost to build and maintain the application, the business value
produced, the quality of the application, and the expected lifespan. Using this
information, the portfolio manager is able to provide detailed reports on the
performance of the IT infrastructure in relation to the cost to own and the
business value delivered.

Definition of an Application:-
In application portfolio management, the definition of an application is a critical
component. Many service providers help organizations create their own
definition, due to the often contentious results that come from these definitions.

 Application software:- An executable software component or tightly

coupled set of executable software components (one or more), deployed
together, that deliver some or all of a series of steps needed to create, update,
manage, calculate or display information for a specific business purpose. In
 order to be counted, each component must not be a member of another
application.
 Software component:- An executable set of computer instructions
contained in a single deployment container in such a way that it cannot be
broken apart further. Examples include a Dynamic Link Library,
an ASP web page, and a command line "EXE" application. A zip file may
contain zero or more software components because it is easy to break them
down further (by unpacking the ZIP archive).
Software application and software component are technical terms used to
describe a specific instance of the class of application software for the purposes
of IT portfolio management. See application software for a definition for non-
practitioners of IT Management or Enterprise Architecture.
The art and practice of software application portfolio management requires a
fairly detailed and specific definition of an application in order to create a
catalog of applications installed in an organization.

The Requirement of a definition for an application

The definition of an application has the following needs in the context of
application portfolio management:

 It must be simple for business team members to explain, understand, and

apply.
 It must make sense to development, operations, and project management
in the IT groups.
 It must be useful as an input to a complex function whose output is the
overall cost of the portfolio. In other words, there are many factors that
lead to the overall cost of an IT portfolio. The sheer number of
applications is one of those factors. Therefore, the definition of an
application must be useful in that calculation.
 It must be useful for the members of the Enterprise Architecture team
who are attempting to judge a project with respect to their objectives for
portfolio optimization and simplification.
 It must clearly define the boundaries of an application so that a person
working on a measurable 'portfolio simplification' activity cannot simply
redefine the boundaries of two existing applications in such a way as to
call them a single application.
 UNIT 4
PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT CYCLE
A program is a series of instructions that perform a particular task and is
recorded in some form on a computer disk. Simply, program is an abstract
collection of instructions for computer to perform specific tasks. It is variously
known as program or software program.

PROGRAM DEFINITION
In order to solve a computation problem, its solution must be specified in terms
of a sequence of computation steps, each of which may be effectively
performed by a human agent or by a digital computer.

Systematic notations for the specifications of such sequence of computation

steps are referred to as program languages.

A sequence of statements in order to carry out a defined task is referred to as

program.

The task of developing program for the solution of computation problems is

referred to as programming. A person engaged in the activity of programming is
referred to as programmer.

STEPS IN PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT

The following basic steps are involved in writing computer programs:

1. Problem identification
2. Task analysis and data analysis
3. Output identification
4. Designing the solution
5. Data validation
6. Implementation
7. Final documentation and maintenance
 FLOW CHARTING
A flowchart is a diagram that depicts a process, system or computer algorithm.
They are widely used in multiples fields of documents, study, plan, improve and
communicate often complex processes in clear, easy to understand diagrams.
Flowcharts sometimes spelled as flow charts, use rectangles, ovals, diamonds
and potentially other numerous other shapes to define the type of step, along
with connecting arrows to define flow and sequence.

They can range from simple, hand-drawn charts to comprehensive computer-

drawn diagrams depicting multiple steps and routes.

Flowchart Symbols and their usage

This is an overview of all the flowchart symbols that you will use
when drawing flowcharts and process flow. All these objects are
available in Creately and you can try out a demo or take a look at
some sample flowcharts for more context.
 Terminal / Terminator
The terminator is used to show where your flow begins or ends.
Ideally, you would use words like 'Start', 'Begin', 'End' inside the
terminator object to make things more obvious.

 Process / Rectangle

Flowchart Process object is used to illustrate a process, action or an

operation. These are represented by rectangles; and the text in the
rectangle mostly includes a verb. Examples include 'Edit video', 'Try
Again', 'Choose your Plan'.

 Data (I/O)

The Data object, often referred to as the I/O Shape shows the Inputs
to and Outputs from a process. This takes the shape of a
parallelogram.
  Decision / Conditional

Decision object is represented as a Diamond. This object is always

used in a process flow to as a question. And, the answer to the
question determines the arrows coming out of the Diamond. This
shape is quite unique with two arrows coming out of it. One from the
bottom point corresponding to Yes or True and one from either the
right/left point corresponding to No or False. The arrows should be
always labelled to avoid confusion in the process flow.

 Document

Document object is a rectangle with a wave-like base. This shape is

used to represent a Document or Report in a process flow.
  Stored Data

This is a general data storage object used in the process flow as

opposed to data which could be also stored on a hard drive, magnetic
tape, memory card, of any other storage device.

 Direct Data

Direct Data object in a process flow represents information stored

which can be accessed directly. This object represents a computer's
hard drive.
  Internal Storage

This is an object which is commonly found in programming

flowcharts to illustrate the information stored in memory, as opposed
to on a file. This shape is often referred to as the magnetic core
memory of early computers; or the random access memory (RAM) as
we call it today.

Sequential Access

This object takes the shape of a reel of tape. It represents information

stored in a sequence, such as data on a magnetic tape.
  Manual Input

This object is represented by rectangle with the top sloping up from

left to right. The Manual Input object signifies an action where the
user is prompted for information that must be manually input into a
system.

 Subroutine / Predefined Process

This shape takes two names - 'Subroutine' or 'Predefined Process'. Its

called a subroutine if you use this object in flowcharting a software
program. This allows you to write one subroutine and call it as often
as you like from anywhere in the code.
The same object is also called a Predefined Process. This means the
flowchart for the predefined process has to be already drawn, and you
should reference the flowchart for more information.
Types of Flow Charts
The two major varieties of flow charts used presently in practice are:
1. System Flow Chart :
 In system flow charts, the unit of data transformation is usually
an operation, i.e., it usually shows the work done by an entire
computer program. e.g.: Sorting a file of data, Inverting a
matrix, Producing a report.
 System charts stress on what data is used and produced at
various points in a sequence of operations.
 It represents the flow of documents, the operation or activities
performed, the persons or work station.
 It is an important tool of system analysis and plays a key role in
the evaluation of existing system, designing, and
documentations of new systems.
 System flow charts are usually prepared as an aid to the
management and systems analysts.
2. Program Flow Charts:
 In program flow charts the unit of data transformation is
usually an operation or short sequence of operations
that a computer performs.
 Program flow charts stress on how data is transformed.
 Such a diagram provides complete and detailed
sequence of logical operations, to be performed in the
 central processing unit of the computer for executing
the program.
 Generally, the programer will use these flow charts to
translate the elementary steps of a procedure into a
program of coded instruction

Input-process-output Analysis

Every process can be thought of as an agent that takes some input(s)

and transforms it (them) into output(s) as shown below:

The input-process-output analysis of a system is vital to understand,

characterize and design a system. Therefore, it is extensively used in
the system analysis and design. Under this approach, the entire system
is broken down into small processes. For each process the set of
inputs and outputs are identified. The same is expressed using DFD
(Data Flow Diagrams). If a process is complex to interpret it maybe
further broken down into simpler processes repeatedly until each
process is simple enough to be handled separately.
 Report Generation & Label Generation

Enterprise Architect has a sophisticated and flexible documentation

engine that helps you to create and disseminate high quality and fully
customizable documentation directly from the model, in document or
web page format. A fundamental reason for constructing models is to
communicate ideas and concepts, and to create a shared view of a
system or process. While many users will be able to view the models
inside Enterprise Architect, there are circumstances where screen
viewable or printed documentation is required. Model driven
document generation is a powerful productivity tool because when a
model is changed the documentation can be automatically
regenerated, saving time and resources and reducing the possibility of
errors. The carefully crafted and versatile built-in templates help you
to generate high quality documentation out-of-the-box.

Features:
Feature Description
Generate Documents One click generation of RTF, DOCX and PDF
style documents.

Web Reports Deploy your project via the internet or intranet

for quick and easy team communication.

Charting Bring your reports to life with up-to-the-

second charts and graphs from your model.
 Virtual Documents Customize your reports at a model level by
defining your report structure and content via
a diagram.

Document Templates Tailor your reports to give them your own

unique corporate look and feel, ensuring all
documentation looks the same.

Report generation process

Describes the procedure to generate a report after a report has been
submitted to run.
The following figure shows the report generation process after a
report has been submitted to run.
 Reports are submitted to run on the server.
 The Tivoli, Net cool, Performance Manager software treats all reports
as report groups. Each report group is given a group number (job ID),
and each report within the group is given a report number (task ID)
and a report name. Report groups are queued to be run.
 A report group, and so all the reports within the group is run.
 If a report within the report group is successfully generated, the report
output becomes available in monitor tab. If it is a local report, it also
becomes available in the Browse tab.

If report generation is unsuccessful, report status and auxiliary

information about the run become available in the Monitor tab.

Presentation Graphics

PowerPoint is a presentation software package included in Microsoft

Office suite. It is used to create professional quality presentations. A
presentation is a structured delivery of information. Presentation can
be reproduced on transparency, paper or on-screen. PowerPoint
features can be used to work on slides, organize presentation contents
with outlines and generate speaker notes and audience handouts.
Teachers, professors, politicians and sales representatives make
presentations to sell their concepts. Some other notable presentation
software packages are Harvard Graphics and Lotus Freelance.
PowerPoint 2000 helps you structure the ideas and information that
you may want to convey to your audience. It lets you create the
contents of your presentation by typing/inserting text, pictures, sounds
and animations. With it, you can add visual images, supporting
documents and audio recordings to enhance your presentation.
PowerPoint makes the creation of any presentation simple by
providing built-in professional designs called AutoLayouts and
templates. You can also create different versions of. a presentation for
different audiences and build your contents in either a text-based
outline view or a design based slide view.

Creating a presentation on a PC
Before you start creating presentations, you need understand the
layout of the PowerPoint screen. The PowerPoint screen displays
several toolbars and other basic screen elements (refer to the Figure
on next page).
The components of a PowerPoint screen are:

 Menu Bar: It is similar to the menu bar in other Microsoft

Office applications having File, Edit, View, Insert, Format,
Tools, Window, Help menus.
 Toolbars: Toolbars are collections of buttons that you can click
and activate some of the most common commands in
PowerPoint. These commands can also be activated through
menus.
  Status Bar: It is located at the bottom of the PowerPoint screen.
It displays the number of the current slide and the name of the
template on which the presentation is based.
 Vertical Scroll Bar: It helps you to scroll through the slides in a
presentation.
 Slide Buttons: They are located at the bottom of the vertical
scroll bar and help you to display the previous and next slides.

Data communications
Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices
via some form of transmission medium such as a wire cable. For data
communications to occur, the communicating devices must be part of
a communication system made up of a combination of hardware
(physical equipment) and software (programs).
The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four
fundamental characteristics: delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.
1. Delivery: The system must deliver data to the correct destination.
Data must be received by the intended device or user and only by that
device or user.
2. Accuracy: The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that
have been altered in transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.
3. Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner.
Data delivered late are useless. In the case of video and audio, timely
delivery means delivering data as they are produced, in the same
order that they are produced, and without significant delay. This kind
of delivery is called real-time transmission.
4. Jitter: Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is
the uneven delay in the delivery of audio or video packets.
Components:
A data communication system has five components.

 Message. The message is the information (data) to be

communicated. Popular forms of information include text,
numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
 Sender: The sender is the device that sends the data message. It
can be a computer, workstation, telephone handset, video
camera, and so on.
 Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message.
It can be a computer, workstation, telephone handset, television,
and so on.
 Transmission medium: The transmission medium is the
physical path by which a message travels from sender to
receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-
pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves
 Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that govern data
communications. It represents an agreement between the
communicating devices.
 Data transmission model
Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or
full-duplex.

 Simplex: In simplex mode, the communication is

unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one of the two
devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive.
Keyboards and traditional monitors are examples of simplex
devices. The keyboard can only introduce input; the monitor
can only accept output. The simplex mode can use the entire
capacity of the channel to send data in one direction.

 Half-Duplex: In half-duplex mode, each station can both

transmit and receive, but not at the same time. When one device
is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa. In a half-
duplex transmission, the entire capacity of a channel is taken
over by whichever of the two devices is transmitting at the time.
Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) radios are both half-
 duplex systems. The half duplex mode is used in cases where
there is no need for communication in both directions at the
same time; the entire capacity of the channel can be utilized for
each direction.

 Full-Duplex: In full-duplex both stations can transmit and

receive simultaneously. The full-duplex mode is like a two way
street with traffic flowing in both directions at the same time. In
full-duplex mode, signals going in one direction share the
capacity of the link: with signals going in the other direction.
One common example of full-duplex communication is the
telephone network. When two people are communicating by a
telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same time. The
full-duplex mode is used when communication in both
directions is required all the time. The capacity of the channel,
however, must be divided between the two directions.
 UNIT-5

1. Introduction to LAN, WAN and MAN

A computer network consists of two or more computers that are interconnected with each

other and share resources such as printers, servers, and hardware and exchange the data in

the form of files, facilitating electronic communication. Computers on a network can be

connected through twisted pair cables, telephone lines, radio waves, satellites or optical

fiber cables. The first computer network designed was the ‘Advanced Research Projects

Agency Network (ARPANET)’ by the United States Department of Defence. Since then,

myriads of new computer networking technologies have been designed. here i cover three

network technologies i.e LAN, WAN and MAN. However, currently there are multiple

networking technologies in use which have been enlisted below.

 Local Area Network (LAN)

 Wide Area Network (WAN)

 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

Local Area Network (LAN)

A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that is restricted to smaller physical areas e.g. a

local office, school, or house. Approximately all current LANs whether wired or wireless

are based on Ethernet. On a ‘Local Area Network’ data transfer speeds are higher than

WAN and MAN that can extend to a 10.0 Mbps (Ethernet network) and 1.0 Gbps (Gigabit

Ethernet).

LAN networks can be implemented in multiple ways, for example twisted pair cables and a

wireless Wi-Fi with the IEEE 802.11 standard can be used for this purpose. One end of the

twisted pair cable is plugged into switches using ‘RJ-45 connectors’ whereas the other end

is plugged to a computer or in another network. All new routers use the b/g/n IEEE 802.11

standards. The ‘b’ and ‘g’ operate in the 2.4 GHz spectrum, and ‘n’ operates in 2.4 and 5.0

GHz which allows better performance and less interference.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

Wide Area Network is a computer network that covers relatively larger geographical area

such as a state, province or country. It provides a solution to companies or organizations

operating from distant geographical locations who want to communicate with each other for

sharing and managing central data or for general communication.

WAN is made up of two or more Local Area Networks (LANs) or Metropolitan Area

Networks (MANs) that are interconnected with each other, thus users and computers in one

location can communicate with users and computers in other locations.

In ‘Wide Area Network’, Computers are connected through public networks, such as the

telephone systems, fiber-optic cables, and satellite links or leased lines. The ‘Internet’ is the

largest WAN in a world. WANs are mostly private and are build for a particular

organization by ‘Internet Service Providers (ISPs)’ which connects the LAN of the

organization to the internet. WANs are frequently built using expensive leased lines where

with each end of the leased line a router is connected to extend the network capability

across sites. For low cost solutions, WAP is also built using a ‘circuit switching’ or ‘packet

switching’ methods.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a network that connects two or more computers,

communicating devices or networks in a single network that has geographic area larger than

that covered by even a large ‘Local Area Network’ but smaller than the region covered by a
‘Wide Area Network’. MANs are mostly built for cities or towns to provide a high data

connection and usually owned by a single large organization.

A Metropolitan Area Networks bridges a number of ‘Local Area Networks’ with a fiber-

optical links which act as a backbone, and provides services similar to what Internet

Service Provider (ISP) provide to Wide Area Networks and the Internet.

Major technologies used in MAN networks are ‘Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)’,

‘Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI)’ and ‘Switched Multi-megabit Data Service

(SMDS, a connectionless service)’. In most of the areas, these technologies are used to

replace the simple ‘Ethernet’ based connections. MANs can bridge Local Area Networks

without any cables by using microwave, radio wireless communication or infra-red laser

which transmits data wirelessly.

‘Distributed Queue Dual Bus (DQDB)’ is the Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) IEEE

802.6 standard for data communication. Using DQDB, networks can extend up to 100km-

160km and operate at speeds of 44 to 155Mbps.

2. Management of Data Processing Systems in Business

Organization

What is meant by a data processing system?

A data processing system is a combination of machines, people, and processes that for a set

of inputs produces a defined set of outputs. The inputs and outputs are interpreted as data,

facts, information, depending on the interpreter's relation to the system. A common

synonymous term is "information system".

Management of the different aspects of the data processing system involves planning where

resources necessary in the system are allocated to the different functions. ... As such,

the management of data usually entails highly specific and specialized knowledge concerning

the programs that collect and organize data sets.

Data processing systems comprise the interaction of people, processes, and equipment to

generate usable information from raw data. Thus, data processing system management

involves the administration of the people and equipment aspects of the system including all

the processes outlined as follows:

Data conversion—changing the data into the required format that can be processed.

Data cleanup—removing irregularities in the data before processing.

3.Information System and its types

An information system (IS) is an organized system for the collection, organization, storage

and communication of information. More specifically, it is the study of complementary

networks that people and organizations use to collect, filter, process, create and distribute

data.

"An information system (IS) is a group of components that interact to produce information.”

A computer information system is a system composed of people and computers that

processes or interprets information. The term is also sometimes used in more restricted

senses to refer to only the software used to run a computerized database or to refer to only a

computer system.

Information Systems is an academic study of systems with a specific reference to information

and the complementary networks of hardware and software that people and organizations use

to collect, filter, process, create and also distribute data. An emphasis is placed on an

information system having a definitive boundary, users, processors, storage, inputs, outputs

and the aforementioned communication networks.

 Any specific information system aims to support operations, management and decision-

making. An information system is the information and communication technology (ICT) that

an organization uses, and also the way in which people interact with this technology in

support of business processes.

Some authors make a clear distinction between information systems, computer systems,

and business processes. Information systems typically include an ICT component but are not

purely concerned with ICT, focusing instead on the end use of information technology.

Information systems are also different from business processes. Information systems help to

control the performance of business processes.

3.1 Types of information system

 Transaction Processing System (TPS)

 Management Information System(MIS)

 Decision Support System (DSS)

 Office Automation System (OAS)

Transaction Processing System (TPS)

The most fundamental computer based system in an organization pertains to the processing of

business transactions. A transaction processing system can be defined as a system that captures,

classifies, stores, maintains, updates and retrieves transaction data for record keeping and input

to the other types of CBIS.

Management Information System (MIS)

Data processing by computers has been extremely effective because of several reasons. The

main reason is that huge amount of data relating to accounts and other transactions can be

processed very quickly. MIS are more concerned with levels of management with information

essential to the running of smooth business. This Information must be as relevant, timely,

accurate, complete and concise as is economically feasible.

Decision Support System (DSS)

It is an information system that offers the kind of information that may not be predictable.

Business professionals may need such information only once. These systems do not produce

regularly scheduled management reports. Instead, they are designed to respond to wide range

of requests. It is true that all the decisions in an organization are not of a recurring nature.

Decision support systems assist managers, who make decisions that are not highly structured,

often called unstructured or semi structured decision. The decision support systems support,

but do not replace, judgments of managers.

Office Automation System (OAS)

Office Automation Systems are among the newest and most rapidly expanding computer

based information systems. They are being developed with the hope and expectation that they

will increase the efficiency and productivity of office workers, typists, secretaries,

administrative assistants, staff professionals, managers and others.

4.MIS and its application

Management information system

Management information system (MIS) refers to the processing of information through

computers and other intelligent devices to manage and support managerial decisions within

an organization. The concept may include systems termed transaction processing

system, decision support system, expert system, or executive information system. The term is

often used in the academic study of businesses and has connections with other areas, such

as information systems, information technology, informatics, e-commerce and computer

science; as a result, the term is used interchangeably with some of these fresh cut areas.

Management information systems as an academic discipline studies people, technology,

organizations, and the relationships among them. This definition relates specifically to "MIS"

as a course of study in business schools. Many business schools (or colleges of business

administration within universities) have an MIS department, alongside departments of

accounting, finance, management, marketing, and many award degrees (at undergraduate,

master, and doctoral levels) in Management Information Systems.

MIS professionals help organizations to maximize the benefit from investments in personnel,

equipment, and business process.

4.1 Applications of management information system

Financial MIS

A financial MIS provides financial information for managers to make daily decisions on

operations within the organization. Most systems provide these functions:

 Integrate financial information from multiple sources

 Provide easy access to financial information in summarized form

 Enable financial analysis using easy-to-use tools

 Compare historic and current financial activity

 A financial MIS often has a number of subsystems, depending on the type of

organization. These include systems to analyze revenues, costs and profits, auditing

systems for both internal and external purposes and systems to manage funds. A

financial MIS can also be used to prepare reports for third parties, such as external

auditors or shareholders.

Marketing MIS

 A marketing MIS supports activities throughout the many activities of marketing

departments. Some of the typical subsystems of a marketing MIS are marketing

research, product development and delivery, promotion and advertising, product

pricing and sales analysis.

 One of the most common uses of a marketing MIS is to produce sales reports. These

are typically produced on a regular schedule, such as by week, month and quarter.

Reports can be organized by sales representative, product, customer or geographic

area. Such reports allow managers to see which aspects of sales are doing well and

which ones need attention.

 Manufacturing MIS

A management information system that is targeted for use anywhere production is

taking place. Modern management information systems are generally computerized

and are designed to collect and present the data which managers need in order to plan

and direct operations within the company.

A typical manufacturing MIS is used to monitor the flow of materials and products

throughout the organization. Some of the common subsystems in a manufacturing

MIS include: design and engineering, production scheduling, inventory control,

process control and quality control.

 5. Emerging trends in Information Technology

Introduction

21st century has been defined by application of and advancement in information technology.

Information technology has become an integral part of our daily life. According to

Information Technology Association of America, information technology is defined as “the

study, design, development, application, implementation, support or management of

computer-based information systems.”

Information technology has served as a big change agent in different aspect of business and

society. It has proven game changer in resolving economic and social issues.

1. Cloud Computing

One of the most talked about concept in information technology is the cloud computing.

Clouding computing is defined as utilization of computing services, i.e. software as well as

hardware as a service over a network. Typically, this network is the internet.

Cloud computing offers 3 types of broad services mainly Infrastructure as a Service ,

Platform as a Service and Software as a Service .

Some of the benefit of cloud computing is as follows:

 Cloud computing reduces IT infrastructure cost of the company.

 Cloud computing promotes the concept of virtualization, which enables server and

storage device to be utilized across organization.

 Cloud computing makes maintenance of software and hardware easier as installation

is not required on each end user’s computer.

Some issues concerning cloud computing are privacy, compliance, security, legal, abuse, IT

governance, etc.

2. Mobile Application

Another emerging trend within information technology is mobile applications (software

application on Smart phone, tablet, etc.)

Mobile application or mobile app has become a success since its introduction. They are

designed to run on Smartphone, tablets and other mobile devices. They are available as a

download from various mobile operating systems like Apple, Blackberry, Nokia, etc. Some

of the mobile app are available free where as some involve download cost. The revenue

collected is shared between app distributor and app developer.

1. User Interfaces

User interface has undergone a revolution since introduction of touch screen. The

touch screen capability has revolutionized way end users interact with application.

Touch screen enables the user to directly interact with what is displayed and also

removes any intermediate hand-held device like the mouse.

Touch screen capability is utilized in smart phones, tablet, information kiosks and

other information appliances.

2. Analytics

The field of analytics has grown many folds in recent years. Analytics is a process

which helps in discovering the informational patterns with data. The field of analytics

is a combination of statistics, computer programming and operations research.

6. Concepts of E-commerce and E-business

What is E-commerce?

Electronic commerce or e-commerce refers to a wide range of online business activities for

products and services. It also pertains to “any form of business transaction in which the

parties interact electronically rather than by physical exchanges or direct physical contact.”

E-commerce is usually associated with buying and selling over the Internet, or conducting

any transaction involving the transfer of ownership or rights to use goods or services through

a computer-mediated network. Though popular, this definition is not comprehensive enough

to capture recent developments in this new and revolutionary business phenomenon. A more

complete definition is: E-commerce is the use of electronic communications and digital

information processing technology in business transactions to create, transform, and redefine

relationships for value creation between or among organizations, and between organizations

and individuals.

What Is E-business?

Electronic Business, is the administration of conducting business via the Internet. This would

include the buying and selling of goods and services, along with providing technical

or customer support through the Internet. e-Business is a term often used in conjunction

with e-commerce, but includes services in addition to the sale of goods.