National Junior College Mathematics Department 2015

National Junior College

2015 – 2016 H2 Mathematics

Topic 5: Sequences and Series

Key Questions to Answer:

What are the similarities and differences between a sequence and a series?
Sequences:
What are the two ways of defining a sequence?
Given the first few terms of a sequence, how do you conjecture a general formula
representing the nth term of the sequence?
What is meant by a convergent (infinite) sequence?
How do you determine whether an infinite sequence converges or diverges?
How do you find the limit of a convergent (infinite) sequence?
Series:
How do you represent a series using sigma, , (or summation) notation?
How do you find the general term un given an expression for Sn ?
How do you use the method of differences to obtain the sum to n terms of a series?
When do you use the method of differences to obtain the sum to n terms of a series?
What is meant by a convergent (infinite) series?
How do you determine whether S exists given an expression for Sn ?

§1 Introduction

Although most of the mathematics we do deal with symbols and operations, in general,
mathematics is about patterns. It can be visual patterns such as the Sierpiński sieve and Koch
snowflake,

The first six stages in the construction of the Sierpiński sieve

or numerical patterns like the numbers of balls below.

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Sequences and series deal with number patterns, and recognizing patterns is an important
problem solving skill which helps generalize what you see into a broader solution to a
problem.

§2 Sequences

We have come across sequence as an English word or even in Biology, e.g., DNA sequence.
In mathematics, a sequence is a list of things (usually numbers) arranged in order.

A sequence can expressed as:

u1 , u2 , u3 , , ur or u1 , u2 , u3 , , ur ,

where u r is the rth term (or the general term). If a sequence terminates, then it has finite
number of terms, and we say it is a finite sequence; otherwise it is an infinite sequence.

Example 2.0.1
The following are number sequences. Can you identify the finite and infinite sequences?
(i) 2, 4, 6 [finite] (ii) 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, … [infinite]
3 4 5 6 101
(iii) 1, 3, 9, 27, …, 6561 [finite] (iv) , , , , , , [infinite]
4 5 6 7 102

You can explore more integer sequences @

Special Sequences http://oeis.org

1. Arithmetic Sequences: Each term is obtained by adding a constant value to the

previous term. Two examples: 1, 2, 3,... and 9, 7, 5, 3, ...

2. Geometric Sequences: Each term is obtained by multiplying the previous term by

a constant value. An example: 3, 6, 12, 24, ...

3. Square Numbers: 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, ...

4. Cube Numbers: 1, 8, 27, 64, 125, 216, 343, ...

5. Fibonacci Sequence: 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, ...

The next number is found by adding the two numbers that
occur before it.

6. Triangular Numbers: 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, 28, 36, 45, …

This sequence is generated from a pattern of dots which
form a triangle.

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Understand: You have learnt about sets previously. How is a set different from a
sequence?
Elements in a set Terms of a sequence
Order does not matter,
Arranged in some order.
e.g. {1, 2, 3} = {3, 2, 1}.
Elements can only appear once, Terms can be repeated,
e.g. {0, 1} e.g. 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, ...
.

2.1 Defining Sequences Using Formula for the rth term and Recurrence Relation

Sequences that follow an observable pattern can be defined by a formula for the rth
term. A complete definition of a sequence requires the following:
(i) an expression (or rule) for the general term, ur , in terms of r, and
(ii) the values that r can take.

Note that the formula for the rth term (also known as the general term) is not unique.

Example 2.1.1
Write down the first four terms of the sequence defined by ur r 2 1, r .
Solution:
u1 12 1 2.
u2 22 1 5.
u3 32 1 10.
u4 42 1 17.
Example 2.1.2
Define the following number sequences by a formula.
Solution:
(i) 2, 4, 6 ur 2r, r 1, 2,3.
(ii) 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, … ur 3r 1, r .
(iii) 1, 3, 9, 27, …, 6561 ur 3r 1 , r 1, 2, 3, ..., 9.
3 4 5 6 101 r 2
(iv) , , , , ..., , ... ur ,r .
4 5 6 7 102 r 3

Question: What are the advantages of defining sequences using formula for the nth
term?
Answer:
- The sequence is defined in a complete way without having to list down
many/all the terms in the sequence.
- We are able to determine the nth term (when needed) directly using the
formula.

Note that we may also present the sequence u1 , u2 , u3 , , ur , as {ur }, r .

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Example 2.1.3
2, 5, 8, 11, 14, … can be presented as 3r 1 , r .
1
1, 3, 9, 27, …, 6561 can be presented as 3r , r 1, 2, 3, ..., 9.

Sequences can also be defined by a recurrence relation, which is an identity that relates
the general term in the sequence with one or more of the previous terms.

A recurrence relation of order k is defined such that the term ur depends on k previous
terms, ur 1 , ur 2 , ur 3 , ..., ur k . The Fibonacci sequence ur ur 1 ur 2 , r 2 is an example
of a second order recurrence relation.

In the ‘A’ level syllabus, we will be using 1st order recurrence relations only. To define a
(first order) sequence recursively, we require the following information:

(i) value of the 1st term, u1 ,

(ii) a recurrence relation of the form ur = f( ur 1 ), and
(iii) the values that r can take.

Example 2.1.4
A sequence u1 , u2 , u3 , ... is defined by u1 1 and ur 1 3ur 1 for r . Write down the first
4 terms of the sequence.

Solution: u1 1.
u2 3u1 1 2.
u3 3u2 1 5.
u4 3u3 1 14.

Example 2.1.5
Write down a recurrence relation for the following sequences:
(i) 3, 6, 12, 24, …
(ii) 2, 4, 16, 256, ...

Solution:
(i) u1 3 and ur 2ur 1 for r 2.
2
(ii) u1 2 and ur ur 1 for r 2.

Question: Why do we want to define sequences using recurrence relations?

Answer: Recurrence relations reveal the relationship between terms. Moreover,
some programming languages are more efficient using recurrence
relations.

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2.2 Forming Conjectures About Formula for rth term of a Sequence

Given the first few terms of a sequence, are you able to observe any pattern among these
numbers and make a (smart) guess about a formula for the rth term of the sequence? This
(smart) guess is known as making a conjecture.

Example 2.2.1

By assuming that the pattern follows through, make a conjecture for the general rth term of
the following sequences.
(a) 3, 7, 11, 15, ... (b) 5, 10, 20, 40, ...
(c) 3, 15, 35, 63, ...

Solution:
(a) u1 3 = 4(0)+ 3. (b) u1 5.
u2 7 = 4 + 3 = 4(1) + 3. u2 10 = 5(2).
u3 11 = 4 + 7 = 4(2) + 3. u3 20 = 10(2) 5(22 ) .
u4 15 = 4 + 11 = 4(3) + 3. u4 40 = 20(2) 5(23 ) .
Conjecture: Conjecture: ur 5 2r 1
, for r 1
ur 4(r 1) 3 4r 1 , for r 1

(c) u1 3 = 1×3 = (2 – 1)(2 + 1). Question: Which of the following sequence

u2 15 = 3×5 = (4 – 1)(4 + 1). is easier to make a conjecture?
u3 35 = 5×7 = (6 – 1)(6 + 1) . Sequence (I): 3, 15, 35, 63, ...
Sequence (II): 1 3, 3 5, 5 7, ...
u4 63 = 7×9 = (8 – 1)(8 + 1).

Conjecture: ur (2r 1)(2r 1) Learning Point: Do not always go all out to

4r 2 1 , for r 1
simplify expressions. Observe carefully first.

Example 2.2.2

The sequence of numbers u1 , u2 , u3 , .... , is defined by

1
u1 1, un 1 1 for n .
2un 1
By writing down the values of u2 , u3 and u4 , make a conjecture for un in terms of n.
Solution: 1 20
u1 1 .
1 21 1
u2 1
1 2 21
2(1) 1 3 22 1 2n 1
u3 1
1 4 22 Conjecture: un , for n 1
2 7 2n 1
2
3
1 23 1
1 8
u4 1 23
4 15
2 1 24 1
7

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Suppose we are asked to write down the next number that occurs after the term “6” in the
following sequence: 2, 4, 6, ___
An intelligent answer would be to observe that 2 is always added to the previous term, so that
“8” is the next number. However this is not necessarily the case if we consider the following
cubic expression in terms of r:
(r 2)(r 3)(r 4) (r 1)(r 3)(r 4) (r 1)(r 2)(r 4) (r 1)(r 2)(r 3)
ur 2 4 6 9 .
(1 2)(1 3)(1 4) (2 1)(2 3)(2 4) (3 1)(3 2)(3 4) (4 1)(4 2)(4 3)

Please verify that u1 2, u2 4, u3 6 but u4 8.

Due to the fact that we are only given the first three terms of the sequence, we are given
incomplete information. Hence our earlier conclusion of adding 2 to the previous term is
purely a conjecture.

To prove a conjecture, we need to make use of proving techniques (such as mathematical

induction). This will be covered in a later topic.

2.3 Convergence of an Infinite Sequence

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Consider the infinite sequence , r , i.e. , , , ..., , , ..., , ...
r 1 2 3 100 101 500

When r tends to infinity, the value of the r th term gets closer to 0 (but will never reach 0).

In other words, we say that this infinite sequence tends to 0 as r tends to infinity.

Mathematically we can write as follows:

1 1 It is incorrect to write
As r , ur 0, or lim ur lim 0. 1 1
r r r r lim ...
r r
as is NOT a number.
Note that “ lim ur ” is read as the limit of ur as r tends to infinity.
r

In general, when an infinite sequence ur , r , tends to a real number L (note that it

does not necessarily be 0) as r tends to infinity, we say that this sequence is convergent. This
real number L is said to be the limit of the sequence.

Mathematically, we can write: As r , ur L, or lim ur L.

r

When an infinite sequence does not tend to a finite number, then it is said to be a divergent
sequence.

Remarks:
ur L implies ur 1 L, ur 2 L and so on.
However ur L does not necessarily imply that ur L for some r.

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Example 2.3.1
7an 9
A sequence of numbers is defined recursively by the relation an 1 for n 1, 2,3...
2
Given that as n , an l , find the value of l. Since the exact value of l is not required,
GC can be used (refer to Section 5.2).
Solution:

As n , an l and an 1 l . Then for sufficiently large values of n, we have

7an 9 7l 9
an 1 l 2l 2 7l 9 0
2 2
l 4.5 or l 1 (rejected l 0).

Question: Why must l 0?

Answer: If l 0, then ak , ak 1 , ak 2 ,... must become negative-valued for some k 1 , so

that the sequence can approach l. This is however impossible, because, for any
value of k,

7ak 9
ak 1 0.
2

2.4 Rules for Limits of Sequences

If a is a real constant and u1 , u2 , u3 , ... and v1 , v2 , v3 , ... are convergent sequences, i.e.
lim un and lim vn are real numbers, then we have the following rules:
n n

1. lim a a,
n

2. lim un vn lim un lim vn ,

n n n

3. lim un vn lim un lim vn ,

n n n

un lim un
4. lim n
, if lim vn and all the terms v1 , v2 , v3 ... are non-zero.
n vn lim vn n
n

Example 2.4.1

Determine if the following sequences are convergent or divergent. Find the limit of the
sequence if it converges.
r r
(a) 1 ,r , (b) ,r ,
2r 1
4r r3 1
(c) ,r , (d) ,r .
2r 2 1 r 1

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Solution:
(a) The sequence can be written as 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, ...
As the sequence alternates between 1 and 1 and never tends to a particular real
number, it is a divergent sequence.
For (b), we can do long
lim1 lim1 division before finding
r 1 1 1 the limit of the sequence.
(b) lim lim r r
.
r 2r 1 r 2 1r lim 2 1
r lim 2 lim 1r 2 0 2 r 1 1
r r r lim lim
[divide by r in both numerator and denominator] r 2r 1 r 2 4r 2
1

4r 4 lim 4r 0 2
(c) lim lim r r
0. The same can be done for
r 2r 2 1 r 2 1
r2
lim 2 lim 1
r2
2 0
r r (c).
[divide by r 2 in both numerator and denominator]

r3 1 r3 1 1 1
r3
(d) lim lim r 2 r 1 We do not do the following: lim lim 1 since
r r 1 r r r 1 r r2 1
r3

lim 1
r2
1
r3
0 and hence Rule 4 is not applicable.
r

Question: For the rules of limits of sequences stated above, can we remove the condition of
requiring sequences to be convergent? Justify your answer with examples.
1
Answer: The condition cannot be removed. Consider un n and vn .
n
LHS of rule 3: lim un vn lim 1 1.
n n

RHS of rule 3: lim un lim vn does not exist,

n n

lim un is not a finite number as un is a divergent sequence.

n

§3 Series

When the terms of the sequence u1 , u2 , u3 , are added, the series u1 u2 u3 ... is formed.
Finite and infinite series contain finite and infinite number of terms respectively.

Example 3.0.1

1 1
(i) 1 and 2 5 10 17 ... n2 1 are finite series.
2 3
1 1
(ii) 1 + … and 12 22 32 42... r 2 .... are infinite series.
2 3

As discussed earlier, a sequence can be defined in a complete way without having to list
down many/all the terms in the sequence by using a formula for the rth term or a recurrence
relation. Similarly, there is no need to write out explicitly the terms in a series. The following
section explores a way of expressing a series in a convenient yet comprehensive way.

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3.1 The Sigma (Summation) Notation,

4) n denotes the highest n 1) rth term of the series

value that r takes in the
summation, i.e. r = n.
ur
2) r is called the index of summation, and is a dummy
r k variable, i.e. it can be replaced by other letters such as i ,
j etc. Index of summation can only be integers and the
incremental step is 1.

3) k denotes the lowest value that r takes in the

summation; k n

n
Essentially, ur uk uk 1
uk 2
... un .
r k
n
And ur is read as the sum of ur from r = k to r = n.
r k

Example 3.1.1

Write out the following series explicitly (no need to simplify the terms).
5 5
(i) (2r 1) (ii)
j
1 j
r 1
j 1
2(1) 1 2(2) 1 2(3) 1 = (– 1)1(1) + (– 1)2(2) + (– 1)3(3) +
2(4) 1 2(5) 1 . (– 1)4(4) + (– 1)5(5).
4 5
(iii) (r 2 2) (iv) 2i
r 2
i 1
= (22 – 2) + (32 – 2) +(42 – 2). = 21 + 22 + 23 + 24 +25.

Example 3.1.2

Express the following series using the sigma notation.

10
(a) 23 33 ... 103 r3
r 2
n
(b) 3 5 7 9 ... 2i 1 ... 2i 1 lim 2i 1
n
i 1 i 1

Remarks:

1. The highest value of the index of summation is a finite number if the series is finite
(refer to (a)) while the highest value of the index of summation is infinity if the series
n
is infinite (refer to (b)). For the latter case, we may write ... as lim ... .
n
i 1 i 1
2. In addition, it is necessary to find a formula for the general term u r before we can
express a series using the sigma notation.

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Example 3.1.3

How do we express the series (i) & (ii) in Example 3.0.1 using the sigma notation?

Solution:
1 1 3 1 2
n
(i) 1 and 2 5 10 17 ... (n 1) (r 2 1).
2 3 r1r r 1

1 1 1 n
1 n
(ii) 1 ... lim and 12 22 32 ... r 2 ... r2 lim r 2.
2 3 r 1 r
n
r 1 r r 1
n
r 1

Example 3.1.4

Express each of the following series using the summation notation.

(i) 1 3 5 7 ... +(2n 1) to n terms (ii) 1.2.9 2.3.8 3.4.7 ... to n terms
n n 1 n
Answer: 2k 1 or 2k 1 Answer: k k 1 (10 k )
k 1 k 0 k 1

(iii) 2 6 18 54 ... to n terms (iv) 1 x x2 x3 ... xn

n 1 n n
1
Answer: 2(3) k or 2(3) k Answer: xk
k 0 k 1 k 0

(v) n (n 1)a (n 2)a 2

(n 3)a 3
... (vi) 1 1
3 5 ... to n terms
2 4
n
Answer: ( 1)r (n r )a r 1)r
r 0
Answer: ( 1)r (r 1)(
r 1

Remarks:
1. The general term used with the sigma notation is not unique as it depends on the
values in which the index of summation takes. Refer to Example 3.1.4(i) and
Example 3.1.4(iii).
n n n
2. Index of summation is a dummy variable. E.g. r2 1 i2 1 k2 1 .
r 1 i 1 k 1

Important Notes:

1. S n denotes the sum of the first n terms of a series, i.e.

n
Sn u1 u2 u3 un ur .
r 1

2. S denotes the sum to infinity of an infinite series (if it exists), i.e.

S u1 u2 u3 un ur .
r 1

It is formally written as S lim Sn .

n

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Question: Why must we

3. th
To find the n term from S n : indicate n 2 ?
u1 S1. Answer: This is because
un Sn Sn 1 for n 2. S0 has no meaning.

Example 3.1.5

The sum of the first n terms of a series is given by Sn n2 n 1.

(a) Find the sum of the first 10 terms of the series.
(b) Find the r th term of the series.

Solution:
(a) S10 102 10 1 111.

(b) For r 2, ur Sr Sr 1
2
r r 1 (r 1)2 (r 1) 1
r 2 (r 1)2 (r 1) r (2r 1)(1) 1 2r.

3 if r 1
Also since u1 = S1 12 1 1 3 , we conclude that ur
2r for r 1.

Explore: Now that we have learnt about the sigma notation, can you write down the
binomial theorem in terms of the summation notation?
n n n1 n n2 2 n n3 3
a b an a b a b a b ... b n
1 2 3
n n nr r
Answer: a b.
r 0 r

3.2 Properties Governing the Use of Sigma (Summation) Notation

If u1 , u2 , u3 , ... and v1 , v2 , v3 , ... are two sequences, and c is a constant, then for m, n , we
have the following properties:
n
(i) For ur , the number of terms in the sum is n m 1 .
r m
n n n
(ii) c (n m 1) c. In particular, c nc and 1 n.
r m r 1 r 1
n n m 1 10 10 3
(iii) ur ur ur if m 2. For example, r2 r2 r 2.
r m r 1 r 1 r 4 r 1 r 1
n n
(iv) cur c ur .
r m r m
n n n n n n
(v) (ur vr ) ur vr . In particular, ur c ur c.
r m r m r m r m r m r m

All the above properties can be proved by writing out the terms in the series.

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Selected proofs:
(ii) Sum of a constant:
n
c c c c ... c (no. of terms) c (n m 1) c.
r m
r m r m 1 r m 2 r n

(iii) Difference of Sums:

n
ur um um 1 um 2 ... un
r m

u1 u2 ... um 1 um um 1 um 2 ... un u1 u2 ... um 1

n m 1
ur ur .
r 1 r 1

n
(v) (ur vr ) um vm um 1 vm 1 ... un vn
r m
n n
um um 1 ... un vm vm 1 ... vn ur vr .
r m r m

Warning!
k k
Property (ii): 1 = k and 1 (k +1).
r 1 r 0
Need to watch out for the upper and lower bounds for r.
Property (iv): Only constants can be taken out of the summation, i.e.
n n n n
ur vr ur vr , 2r (r 1) 2r (r 1)
r 1 r 1 r 1 r 1

Property (v): Do not generalise indiscriminately, i.e.

n
ur
n n n n ur
ur vr ur vr and r m
n .
r m r m r m r m vr vr
r m

Some useful results:

n
1
(a) r n n 1 (Sum of consecutive positive integers)
r 1 2
n 1
(b) r2 n n 1 2n 1 (Sum of Squares)
r 1 6
2
n 1 2 2 1
(c) r3 n n 1 n n 1 (Sum of Cubes)
r 1 4 2
n c (c n 1) c (1 c n )
(d) cr or (Geometric series – covered in next topic)
r 1 c 1 1 c

Example 3.2.1
Evaluate
n 20
(a) r2 r n, (b) 2r 2 1 r 1 .
r 0 r 1

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2n
Hence find r2 r n in terms of n. You are not required to simplify your answer.
r n

Solution:
n 20
(a) r2 r n (b) 2r 2 1 r 1
r 0 r 1
n 20
(0 0 n) ( r 2 r n) 2r 3 2r 2 r 1
r 1 r 1
n n n 20 20 20 20
n r2 r n 2 r3 2 r2 r 1
r 1 r 1 r 1
r 1 r 1 r 1 r 1
n(n 1)(2n 1) n(n 1)
n n( n ) 1 1
6 2 2 (20) 2 (21) 2 2 (20)(21)(41)
4 6
n(n 1)
(2n 1) 3 6 1
6 20 (21) 20
n(n 1)(n 1) 2
. 93, 710.
3

Hence,
2n 2n n 1
r2 r n r2 r n r2 r n
r n r 0 r 0

2n(2n 1)(2n 1) (n 1) (n 1) 1 (n 1) 1
.
3 3

3.3 Evaluating Series Using the Method of Differences

There are series whose general term ur can be expressed as a difference of two or more terms
such that most if not all the intermediate terms are cancelled, leaving only a few remaining
terms.

n n
Consider ur f(r 1) f(r ) . Then ur f(r 1) f(r )
r 1 r 1

f (2) f (1) r 1
f (3) f (2) r 2

f ( n) f (n 1) r n 1
f (n 1) f ( n) r n
f (n 1) f (1).

This process of cancellation of intermediate terms is called the method of differences.

Example 3.3.1
n
r
Find the sum of the series ln .
r 2 r 1

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Solution:
n n
r
ln = ln r ln r 1
r 2 r 1 r 2
(ln 2 ln1)
(ln 3 ln 2)
(ln 4 ln 3)

[ln(n 1) ln(n 2)]

[ln n ln(n 1)]
= ln n ln1 ln n .

Example 3.3.2 (Use of partial fractions and cancellation involving skipping a line)
n
(i) Find 1 in terms of n .
r 1 r (r 2)

(ii) Give a reason why 1 converges and write down its value.
r 1 r (r 2)

Solution:
1 1 1 1 1
(i) Express in terms of partial fractions .
r (r
2) r (r 2) 2 r r 2
1
Now let f (r ) , so that
r
n
1 1 n Alternatively, write it as follows if you
f (r ) f (r 2)
r 1 r (r 2) 2 r 1 insist on having a “nice” cancellation:
1
f (1) f (3)
2
n
1 1 n
f (r ) f ( r 2)
1 r 1 r (r 2) 2r1
f (2) f (4) 1 1
2 f (1) f (3) f (2) f (4)
2 2
1 1 1
f (3) f (5) f (3) f (5) f (4) f (6)
2 2 2
1 1
f (5) f (7)
1
f (6) f (8)
f (4) f (6) 2 2
2
1 1
1 f (n 1) f ( n 1) f ( n) f ( n 2)
f (n 2) f (n) 2 2
2
1 Can leave
f (n 1) f (n 1) final answer
2
1 as proper
f (n) f (n 2) partial
2
fractions or
1 1 3 1 1
f (1) f (2) f ( n 1) f ( n 2) . as a single
2 2 2 n 1 n 2
fraction.

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(ii) As n , 1 and 1 1
0 0. Therefore exists, and
n 1 n 2 r 1 r (r 2)
1 N 1 1 3 1 1 1 3 3
lim lim 0 0 .
r 1 r (r 2) N r 1 r (r 2) N 2 2 N 1 N 2 2 2 4

Check: In Examples 3.3.1 and 3.3.2, what can you say about the number of
terms that are not cancelled at the beginning and end?
Answer: If there are k terms that are not cancelled at the beginning, then there
are also k terms that are not cancelled at the end.

Example 3.3.3 (To find formula for un given the recurrence relation)

A sequence un is defined such that u1 0 and un 1 un 2n for all positive integers n 1.

Use the method of differences to find a formula for un in terms of n.
Solution:
Summing the recurrence relation from 1 to n using the dummy variable r,
n n
un 1 un 2n ur 1 ur 2r
r 1 r 1

u2 u1
u3 u2
u4 u3 n(n 1)
2
2
un un 1

un 1 un
un 1 n(n 1).

Since we want a formula for un , we replace n by n – 1, so that

un 1 1
n 1 (n 1) 1 un n(n 1).

n
Example 3.3.4 (To prove a known result for r2 )
r 1
n
n
Use the identity (r 1) 3 r3 3r 2 3 r 1 to show that r2 (n 1) (2 n 1) .
r 1 6
Solution:
Summing both sides of the identity from r = 1 to r = n,
n n n n
(r 1)3 r3 3 r2 3 r 1.
r 1 r 1 r 1 r 1

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Notice that n
n(n 1)
LHS 2 3
1 3 and RHS = 3 r2 3 n.
r 1 2
33 23
43 33

3
n3 n 1
3
n 1 n3

(n 1)3 13
Therefore
n
n (n 1) n
n
3 r2 (n 1)3 13 3 n ... r2 (n 1) (2 n 1). (shown)
r 1 2 r 1 6

3.4 Convergence of an Infinite Series

1 1 1 1
Do you think ... yields a finite sum? The answer is yes!
r 1 2r 2 4 8

To see why, consider piecing together rectangles with areas

1 1 1 1 1
units2 , units 2 , units 2 , units 2 ,... 8 1
2 4 8 16 1 16

2 1
These rectangles will eventually form a square in which its
area is 1 unit2. 4

1 1 1 1
To be more precise, we have ... S 1 (which is a real number).
r 1 2 r
2 4 8
1 1 1 1
Therefore we say that ... is a convergent series.
r 1 2r 2 4 8

However there are many infinite series that does not have a finite sum. One such example is:
2r 2 4 8 ...
r 1

Such series are known as divergent series.

Note: We only use the term “convergent” to describe an infinite series with a finite sum. A
finite series always have a finite sum.

Question: For any infinite series that has a sum to infinity, does S Sn
always hold? Justify your answer.

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1 1 1 1
Answer: No. Consider the series ... 1 (Why?)
r 1 2r 2 4 8

Read Appendix A1 on the harmonic series.

Remark: The harmonic series demonstrates the fact that determining the convergence of an
infinite series is not intuitive, and we shall leave this task to your undergraduate
mathematics course.

For A’ levels, we will only deal with the following situation to check for
convergence of infinite series:
Given an expression for S n , does S exist?

Example 3.4.1
n
1 3 1 1 1
Given that , evaluate the following:
r 1 r (r 2) 4 2 n 1 n 2
1 1 n
1
(i) , (ii) , (iii) .
r 1 r (r 2) r 3 r (r 2) r 1 (r 2)(r 4)
1 1 1 1 3
Deduce from (i) that .
12 3 2 3 4 3 4 5 4 5 6 4

Solution:
1 n
1 3 1 1 1 3
(i) lim lim .
r 1 r (r 2) n
r 1 r (r 2) n 4 2 n 1 n 2 4

2
1 1 1 3 1 1 7
(ii) .
r 3 r (r 2) r 1 r (r 2) r 1 r (r 2) 4 1(3) 2(4) 24

(iii) Let k r 2, so that r k 2. Then

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k 2 n
r n
1 1
r 1 (r 2)(r 4) k 2 1 k (k 2)
k n 2
1
k 3 k (k 2)
n 2
1 2
1 From (iii), we see
that formulae for
k 1 k (k 2) k 1 k (k 2)
many different
3 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 related series can
4 2 n 3 n 4 4 2 2 1 2 2 be generated if we
know the formula
7 1 1 1 for one series.
.
24 2 n 3 n 4

Alternatively, list out the terms one by one and rewrite the series as follows:
n 2
n
1 1 1 1 1
... ...
r 1 (r 2)(r 4) 3 5 4 6 (n 2)(n 4) r 3 r (r 2)

(Last part)
1 1 1 1 1
= .
12 3 2 3 4 3 4 5 4 5 6 r 1 r (r 1)( r 2)
1 1
Since for all r ,
r (r 1)(r 2) r (r 2)
1 1 3
(shown).
r 1 r ( r 1)( r 2) r 1 r (r 2) 4

§4 Miscellaneous Worked Example

Example 4.0.1
The graphs of y 2 x x 2 2 and y x intersect at x = a and x = b as shown below.
y
y 2 x x2 2

y x
a x
0 b

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(a) Find the values of a and b, correct to 3 decimal places.

(b) A sequence of real numbers x1, x2 , x3 ,... follows the relation

xn 1 2 xn xn 2 2 for n 1, 2,3... .
Suppose the sequence converges. Explain why the limit must either be a or b.

(c) Using the graphs of y 2 x x 2 2 and y x , show that

(i) If xn a, then xn 1 xn .
(ii) If a xn b, then xn xn 1 b.
(iii) If xn b, then b xn 1 xn .

(d) Show that when xn a, the sequence converges and state the value of the limit in this
case, to 3 decimal places.
Solution:

(a) By GC, a = –1.414 and b = 1.414 (to 3 d.p.).

(b) Let the limit be l . As n , xn l and xn 1 l . Hence

xn 1 2 xn xn 2 2 lim xn 1 lim 2 xn xn 2 2
n n

l 2 l l2 2

Since l is a solution to the equation x 2 x x 2 2, l a or l b (shown).

(c) (i) y
y x
2
y 2 x x 2

xn 1 xn a
x
b
0
xn 1

From the graph above, if xn a, then xn 1 xn .

(ii) y
y x
2
y 2 x x 2
xn 1

a x
0 xn xn 1 b

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From the graph above, if a xn b, then xn xn 1 b.

(iii) y
y x
xn 1

y 2 x x2 2
a
b xn xn x
0 1

From the graph above, if xn b, then b xn 1 xn .

(d) We consider three cases:

Case 1: a xn b . In this case, xn xn 1 xn 2 xn 3 ... b , so the terms of the

sequence increase and become closer and closer to b.
Case 2: xn b . In this case, xn xn 1 xn 2 xn 3 ... b , so all the terms are equal
to the constant b and so converges to b.
Case 3: xn b. In this case, xn xn 1 xn 2 xn 3 ... b , so the terms of the
sequence decrease and become closer and closer to b.

Hence, if xn a, , then the sequence converges to b 1.414 .

§5 Use of GC in Sequence and Series (Self-Exploration)

5.1 Generating and Summing a Sequence

Example 5.1.1
(i) Write down the first four terms of the sequence in which the general term, ur , is
r2 1.
(ii) Find the sum to the first four terms of the sequence in (i).

Method 1: Use of the operator ‘ seq( ’

Steps Screenshot
1
Press . Select option 5: seq(, under OPS.

Then press .

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2 Input the 5 parameters in the following order:

1) the formula for the general rth term
2) the variable used in the above formula (X in this case)
3) the first value that X takes
4) the last value that X takes
5) increment of X in the sequence

3
Press to paste and again for the GC to
generate the sequence of numbers according to the input
given in Step 2.

4
To find the sum of the sequence, press
and select option 5:sum( , under MATH.

Press and . The sum of the

sequence will be computed.

Method 2: Creating a list of numbers under a table

Steps Screenshot
1
Press and select option 1: Edit… under EDIT.

Press .

2 Scroll up to select the heading L1 (it will be highlighted).

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3 Perform Steps 1 to 3 as in Method 1 to generate a list of

the terms of the sequence.
L1(1) gives the 1st term of the sequence.

To get the nth term, scroll down the column until you
reach L1(n).

4
To find the sum of the sequence, press

to go to Home Screen. press and select

option 5:sum( , under MATH.

Press to select the list L1 and .

The sum of the sequence will be computed.

Method 3: Use of the operator ‘summation ∑(’ (only available for OS 2.53 and above)

Steps Screenshot
1
To find the sum of the sequence, press

to select the ‘∑(’ operator .

Alternatively, press to select the same

operator.

2
Input the variable X by pressing .

3 Input the first value that X takes (in this case 1) by

pressing .

4 Input the last value that X takes (in this case 4) by

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pressing .

5 Input the formula for the general rth term by pressing

, followed by

. The sum of the sequence will be computed.

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5.2 Generating a Sequence by a Recurrence Relation

Example 5.2.1
A sequence u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 , .... , is defined by u1 1 and ur 1 3ur 1 for r > 0. Write down
the first 4 terms of the sequence.
Steps Screenshot
1
Press

to highlight SEQ. You are now in

Sequence Mode.

2
Press to access the Function Editor Menu. Enter
minimum value for n which is 1. Enter the formula for un

as

Enter 1 for u(nMin). Your GC should automatically

replace “1” by “{1}”.
3
Press to go to table setup. Change the
respective fields accordingly:
TblStart = 0 (starting n value in table)
Tbl = 1 (increment of n in table)

Press to view a list of the terms in

tabular form.

Note: It is easy to make careless mistakes if you change

Tbl to values other than 1.
Alternative to Step 3

Press to go to Home Screen. To obtain

the values of u1, u2 , u3 and u4, key in

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Illustration:

GC Solution to Example 2.3.1

A sequence of positive numbers an is given recursively by the relation

7an 9
an 1 for n 1, 2,3...
2
It is known that as n , an l . Find the value of l.

Steps Screenshot
1
Press to access the Function Editor Menu. Enter
minimum value for n which is 1. Enter the formula for un

as

Enter 1 for u(nMin).

2
Press to set up the table of sequence
values.

Enter TblStart = 2 and Tbl 1 .

3
Press to view the sequence in a tabular
form.

By scrolling down the table, we observe that the terms of

the sequence u(n) converges to 4.5. Hence l 4.5 .

Important note:

If the exact value of l is required, GC cannot be used. Even if you can deduce the
exact value based on its numerical value, you will not receive the full credit.
However, you can still use your GC to check your answer.

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Appendix: Harmonic Series

(Not in H2 math syllabus, but is still an interesting reading)
A1 Summing up terms of a convergent sequence may give a sum that is infinite.

In Section 2.3 we mentioned about convergent sequences. One example is

1 1 1 1
1,
, , , ..., , ...
2 3 4 r
1
We see that sequence is convergent because as r , 0.
r

Does this imply that the infinite series formed from a convergent sequence is always
convergent?

Surprising the answer is NO, i.e. adding terms that gets smaller and smaller may still give you
a sum that is not finite. We shall illustrate this by considering the harmonic series:

1 1 1 1
1 ...
r 1 r 2 3 4

By observing the fact that

1 1
2 2
1 1 1 1
3 4 4 4
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
5 6 7 8 8 8 8 8
1
9
1
10
1
11
1
12
1
13
1
14
1
15
1
16
1
16
1
16
1
16
1
16
1
16
1
16
1
16
1
16 ,

1 1 1 1 1
we arrive at the conclusion that ... The RHS will eventually tend to
r 1 r 2 2 2 2
infinity.

Exercise: Use the GC to convince yourself that the harmonic series is divergent.

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