Basics Hydraulics and Electrics e PDF
Basics Hydraulics and Electrics e PDF
Basics Hydraulics and Electrics e PDF
Hydraulics
&
Electrics
Training schedule
H.3.0 Units of measurement in hydraulics H.6.2 Hydraulic function diagram (HFP) – H.9.2 Fixed displacement pump – Parts 1 – 2
Parts 1 – 4
H.4.0 Legend of abbreviations H.9.3 Axial piston variable displacement pump
H.6.3 Hydraulic piping diagram (HVP) (bidirectional)
H.4.1 Lines
H.6.4 Symbols and abbreviations for HVPs H.9.3.1 Conveyor– Auger specimen circuit diagram
H.4.2 Valves
H.7.0 Open circuit H.9.3.2 Circuit diagram
H.4.3 Components
H.7.1 Overload protection H.9.3.3 Traction drive
H.5.0 Circuit symbols and circuits
H.7.2 Directional control valve H.9.3.4 Traction drive specimen circuit diagram
H.5.1 Explanation
H.7.3 Reverse direction of rotation H.10.0 Hydraulic motors
H.5.2 Circuit symbols – Parts 1 - 3
H.7.4 Flow control valve H.10.1 Designs
H.5.3 Directional control valves – Parts 1 – 2
H.7.5 Variable displacement pump H.10.2 Categorisation of hydraulic motors
H.5.3.1 Switching positions
H.7.6 Free-wheel drive mechanism H.10.3 Axial piston variable displacement motor
H.5.3.2 Types of operation
H.7.7 Accessories H.11.0 Viscosity classes
H.5.4 Flow control valves
H.8.0 Closed circuit H.12.0 Oils used at VÖGELE
H.5.5 Shut-off valves
H.8.1 Basic layout H.13.0 Annex
H.5.6 Pressure control valve
H.8.2 Changing direction of rotation H.13.1 Principles of hydraulics
H.5.6.1 Explanation and zero position
H.8.3 Overload protection H.13.2 Advantages of hydraulics
H.5.6.2 Adjustability
H.8.4 Leakage H.13.3 Disadvantages of hydraulics
H.5.6.3 Activation
H.8.5 Feed H.13.4 Applications
H.5.7 Pressure reducing valve
H.8.6 Accessories H.13.5 Hydraulic fluids
Table of Contents - Electrics
E.1.0 Hazards E.6.0 Circuit symbols
Joseph Bramah, England, is regarded as the founder of technical hydraulics. In 1795, he developed a hydromechanical machine operated with
pressurized water that functioned according to the hydrostatic law of Blaise Pascal. In 1851, Sir W. Armstrong developed the weight accumulator,
a reservoir that allowed the generation of large volume flows. In 1882, the London Hydraulic Power Company put a central pressurized water
supply for multiple hydraulic systems into operation. The first power steering system was developed by Harry Vickers around 1925.
The SI unit of pressure is the Pascal with the standard symbol Pa. One Pascal corresponds
to a pressure of one Newton (N) per square meter (m²):
1 Pa = 1 N/m2 = 1 kg/m s²
The unit of pressure most predominantly used for hydraulics is the Bar.
One Bar corresponds to 100,000 Pa, 1,000 hPa or 100 kPa.
In engineering, the unit N/mm² is used both for pressures and for mechanical tension.
In this context, 1 N/mm² = 1MPa
Other units of pressure that can be found but which are no longer permissible are:
- 1 psi = 6894.757293168 Pa
H.4.0 Legend of abbreviations
PM = Proportional magnet
A circuit diagram is the plan of a hydraulic system. The components are presented by means of
standardized symbols.
These diagrams are part of the requisite documentation of every system and are particularly
important for the creation and maintenance of a system.
The list of circuit symbols contains a comprehensive array of symbols used in hydraulics.
Circuit diagrams may be drawn up individually, in line with company specifications or in accordance
with standards (DIN ISO 1219).
They can represent components, such as operating and control circuits, the steps of the operating
sequence, the circuit components with their designations and the associated lines and connections.
The spatial arrangement of the components is not usually taken into consideration, or it is presented
in a separate overview plan.
A symbol exclusively depicts the function of a component / device. It says nothing about the
construction or point of installation of the hydraulic components.
Symbols are presented in one colour, normally idle, without current and in their initial position.
H.5.0 Circuit symbols and circuits
Pressure connection
H.5.2 Circuit symbols – Part 1 with access line
Mechanical connection
Vent line
(shaft, level, bar)
Control line
Spring
Leakage oil line
Throttle
Flexible line
Orifice
Line connection
Line junction
Flow direction
Rotatability
Bleed point
Pressure connection
Adjustability
with plugs
H.5.0 Circuit symbols and circuits
H.5.2 Circuit symbols – Part 2 Border of assemblies /
blocks
Single-acting cylinder
Manometer
Double-acting cylinder
Pressure source
Electric motor M
Differential cylinder
(double-acting)
Combustion engine
Hydraulic
Pressure switch reservoir
Filter Cooler
H.5.0 Circuit symbols and circuits
H.5.3 Directional control valves – Part 1
4/2
4/3
Directional control valves are represented by individual The position of the respective lines indicates how the
rectangles. connections are connected.
The number of fields equates to the number of switching Small dashes on the connections indicate shut-offs.
positions, which are designated with the figures ( 0 / 1 / 2 ).
2 A0 B 1 2 A0 B 1
P R P R
Connections are designated with capital letters. If a valve is switched proportionally, this is indicated by lines
above and below the switching positions.
A,B,C = Vent lines R,S = Vent (runback)
P = Feeder (pressure line) X,Y,Z = Control line
H.5.0 Circuit symbols and circuits
H.5.3.1 Switching positions:
Forward flow
Circulating position position
Reverse flow
Floating position
position
Shut-off position
H.5.3 Circuit symbols and circuits
H.5.3.2. Types of operation
Spring Mechanical
Hydraulic Locking
H.5.0 Circuit symbols and circuits
A A
B B
H.5.6.2 Adjustability
A A
B B
H.5.6.3 Activation
A A
C C
B B
L
Pressure control valve DBV with Pressure control valve DBV with
additional remote activation connection additional remote activation connection
and external control outlet. and internal control outlet.
H.5.0 Circuit symbols and circuits
H.5.7 Pressure reducing valve (DRV):
P T
A
H.6.0 Circuit diagrams
H.6.1 Types of circuit diagram
And on the other hand, we have the „Hydraulic Piping Diagram“ ( “Hydraulischer
Verschlauchungsplan” HVP ).
As the name already implies, the HFP illustrates the hydraulic functions, while the HVP,
in contrast, illustrates individual components, such as pumps, hoses or consumers
(motors or cylinders) and how they are interconnected.
The parts numbers of the individual components are always entered in both diagrams.
H.6.0 Circuit diagrams H.6.2 Layout of a hydraulic function diagram (HFP) - Part 1
P8/10.
Cross-references are3 provided in order to be
able to trace the course of a flow (oil flow) in
the circuit diagram. This information contains
the name of the oil line ( e.g. P8) and the page
number with section - after the slash (e.g.
/10.3) – to which the oil line leads.
H.6.0 Circuit diagrams
H.6.2 Layout of a hydraulic function diagram (HFP) - Part 2
Levelling system
Q9/Q10 Levelling system Interlock
96.2794.1000
right Screed
left Brake
H.6.0 Circuit diagrams H.6.2 Layout of a hydraulic function diagram (HFP) - Part 3
The positions of the valves in the circuit diagram correspond precisely to the positions on the machine
11
11
1
H.6.0 Circuit diagrams H.6.3 Hydraulic piping diagram (HVP)
Screw-in measurement
Screw-in reducer fitting (RI)
connection (Minim. GEV)
Straight measurement
Ring eye (RIG)
connection (Minim. GV)
The hydraulic pump sucks hydraulic fluid (hydraulic oil) out of an unpressurized container (hydraulic tank)
and feeds the hydraulic fluid into a hydraulic system. The pressurized hydraulic fluid can then be fed via
lines, hoses and valves to „actuators“ ( hydraulic cylinders, hydraulic motors) where the actual work is
carried out.
Axial piston machines are self-priming and are therefore pressurized on the suction-side in certain
individual cases (<2 bar).
The open circuit represents the standard for many industrial and mobile applications, from machine tools
and press drive systems, all the way to winch and mobile gearboxes.
Pump Motor
Tank
H.7.0 Open circuit
H.7.1 Overload protection
PCV
Fixed Motor
displacement
pump
Tank
PCV
Fixed Motor
displacement
pump
Suction line
Tank
PCV
Fixed Motor
displacement
pump
Suction line
Tank
PCV
Fixed Motor
displacement
pump
Suction line
Tank
PCV
Variable Motor
displacement
pump
Tank
PCV
Variable Motor
displacement
pump
Tank
PCV
Variable Motor
Filter
displacement
pump
HOC
Tank
The hydraulic pump is fed with hydraulic fluid returning directly from the actuator (hydraulic motor).
The hydraulic fluid is under low pressure of roughly 10 to 30 bar and is raised to a higher pressure level
(high pressure) by the hydraulic pump before being fed back to the actuator again.
The advantages of this process are high speeds and filtering at a low pressure of just 10 to 20% of the volume
of the primary pump.
The circuit has high pressure and low pressure sides, which change with the direction of load.
The high pressure side is protected by pressure control valves, which relieve the pressure towards the
low pressure side.
The medium remains in the circuit.
Only the leakage at the hydraulic pump and hydraulic motor (depending on operating data) has to be replaced.
This is realized by a (usually) directly flange-connected auxiliary pump that permanently feeds a sufficient fluid
volume ( feed volume ) from a tank to the low pressure side via a non-return valve.
The unneeded volume flow of the feed pump working in the open circuit is returned to the tank via a feed
pressure control valve.
Pump,
variable Motor,
variable
H.8.0 Closed circuit
H.8.1 Basic layout Volume flow variable
Pump,
variable Motor
Pump,
variable Motor
Pump, PCVs
variable Motor
Pump, DBV´s
variable Motor
Tank
Leakage from the pump and motor is fed
into the tank and must be replaced.
H.8.0 Closed circuit
H.8.5 Feed Volume flow variable
To pump
control
NRV
PCV
PCVs
Motor
NRV
Tank
An auxiliary pump for replacing the leakage and controlling the variable pump,
non-return valves (NRV) for the feed. Protection is provided by a feed pressure control valve.
H.8.0 Closed circuit
H.8.6 Accessories Volume flow variable
To
Pump control
NRV
PCV
PCVs Motor
Filter NRV
Tank
The hydraulic pump is a fluid engineering component that converts mechanical energy
(rotational speed x torque) into hydraulic energy (pressure x volume flow).
H.9.1 Designs
- Gerotor pump
Pressure
connection
Flow direction
Suction
connection
H.9.0 Hydraulic pumps
H.9.2 Fixed displacement pump ( geared pump)
- Part 2 Flow direction
Pressure
connection
Flow direction
Flow direction
Flow direction
H.9.0 Hydraulic pumps
H.9.3 Variable displacement pump (axial piston variable
displacement pump)
The torque generated by a hydromotor is independent of the rotational speed. While the torque is determined by the
load pressure and displacement volume, the rotational speed depends on the provided volume flow and
displacement volume.
H.10.1 Designs
- Geared pump
Hydraulic motors are assigned to the following categories as a function of their range of rotational speed:
- High speed
Geared motors are classed as high-speed motors on account of their high degree of slip (leakage oil).
They are built as fixed displacement motors with one or two directions of rotation.
- Operating pressure approx. 100 bar
- Rotational speed range 500 – 3.000 rpm
- Medium speed
Rotary vane motors display lower levels of leakage oil loss than geared motors. The attainable lower rotational
speed range is approx. 50 – 100 rpm. The operating pressure can vary between 100 and 150 bar. One or two
directions of rotation are possible.
- Low speed
Piston motors can be regarded as typical low-speed motors. They are used wherever high torque has to be
transmitted at relatively low rotational speed. A distinction is made between axial and radial motors.
The rotational speed range of a piston motor can be as low as 1 rpm.
Piston motors have one or two directions of rotation.
Adjusting screw
start of control
range
Discharge valve
H.11.0 Viscosity classes
SAE classification
The SAE viscosity classes were specified by the „Society of Automotive Engineers“ in order to
facilitate consumers in choosing the right oil. The classes SAE xx and SAE xxW (Winter) were specified.
In this context, the smaller numbers stand for low viscosity oils and the larger numbers for more
viscous oils.
The system could no longer be applied after the introduction of multi-viscosity oils and was consequently
expanded.
The format now reads SAE xxW-yy.
This syntax means that the properties of the respective oil at 0°F (approx. -18°C) correspond to those
of a single-viscosity oil with the viscosity class SAE xxW, and at 120°F (approx. 99°C) to an SAE yy oil.
In order to achieve these properties, multi-viscosity oils contain polymers that change their spatial
structure as a function of the temperature.
A cheap standard mineral oil usually has a viscosity of SAE 20W-40 or 15W-40.
High-quality synthetic oils nowadays reach viscosities of 0W-40, 5W-50 or 10W-60.
In principle, every oil can be used that exceeds the specified viscosity range.
For instance, if a 20W-40 oil is specified, the motor would also run with a 10W-40 or 20W-50 oil
without suffering any damage.
The viscosity describes only one property of an oil and contains absolutely no information on quality,
although it is important to maintain the correct oil pressure.
An excessively high oil pressure can damage seals, while an excessively low oil pressure can damage
the bearings.
H.12.0 Oils used at VÖGELE
Hydraulic oil: HLP hydraulic oil in accordance with DIN 51524-2 with EP additives
(outdoor temps. -10°C to +40°C)
ISO – VG – 46
Organic hydraulic oil: Organic hydraulic oil VDMA 24568 Type HEES (saturated synthetic
ester)
(outdoor temps. -10°C to +40°C)
ISO – VG – 46
Hydraulics is the technology of an alternative gearbox type to that of mechanical, electric or pneumatic gearboxes, i.e. it serves to transfer
power, energy and torque from drive machines (pumps) to working machines (pistons or hydraulic motors), where the performance parameters
are matched to the requirements of the working machine. In hydraulics, the energy is transferred by fluid, usually in the form of a special
mineral oil, but also to an increasing degree in the form of ecologically compatible fluids, such as water, or special-purpose esters or glycols.
The power transferred is yielded by two factors: pressure and fluid flow (volume flow).
- Hydrodynamic drives operate with a pump and a drive turbine. The rotational speed and torque are converted via the kinetic energy of the
fluid.
- Viscous couplings transfer energy through the viscous friction between rotating circular plates.
- Hydrostatic drives primarily convert the mechanical energy of the drive machine (electric motor; diesel) into hydraulic power via a pump.
This power is in turn converted back into mechanical power in consumers. This takes place in hydraulic cylinders in a linear movement,
or in hydromotors in a rotary movement. Hydrostatic drives are often the most energy efficient type of gearbox when infinite adjustment of the
drive-side speed is necessary.
Feeding pressurized fluid into the cylinder sets the pistons and piston rods inside the cylinder into linear motion that is utilized for the working
processes and to drive machines. Rotating drives can also be realized with fluid pressure, such as the hydraulic motor.
In principle, hydraulic systems are similar to pneumatic drives, in which compressed air is used to transfer energy and signal, but have different
properties. Oil-operated hydraulic systems always require a closed circuit (supply and return), while the exhaust air of a pneumatic system is
emitted into the environment, usually via a muffler. Only water-based hydraulic systems also require an open circuit. In contrast to pneumatics,
hydraulics has the advantage that significantly greater forces can be transferred and extremely uniform and precise motion is possible, as the
compression of the hydraulic fluid is so slight that it has virtually no negative impact in the case of technical applications.
H.13.0 Annex H.13.2 Advantages
The great proliferation of hydraulics throughout numerous branches of industry is due to the following advantages:
- The versatile design, e.g. the flexible connection between drive and output and the optimum matching of the design to spatial requirements.
Pipes and hoses serve to connect the motor and pump and their installation is extensively freely configurable. In the case of mechanical drives,
on the other hand, a direct connection between the motor and gearbox and then the differential is necessary, e.g. via cardan shaft or a chain.
Therefore, the position of the gearbox is extensively determined by the position of the motor.
- Infinitely adjustable speed of the drive within very large limits and simple reversal of the direction of movement.
- Generation of linear output motion with simple technical components with very high degrees of efficiency.
- Simple generation of very high force and torque levels.
- Safe and quick-acting overload protection through pressure control valves.
- High power density, i.e. comparatively small components for a high level of performance, particularly in comparison with electric motors.
- Realisation of parallel operating linear or rotary drive elements (hydraulic cylinders or hydraulic motors) with one primary part (pump)
in a common system. This yields the effect of a differential without added expense.
- High degree of versatility in connecting the pumps, including valve technology, with the hydromotors or cylinders via pipelines or flexible hoses.
- Long service life as the fluid is self-lubricating and can serve as a coolant.
- Simple control concept for optimum utilisation of the drive motor with extreme variations in the performance requirements of the working machine.
- High degree of positioning accuracy.
- Uniform movements thanks to the low compressibility of the hydraulic fluid.
- Standardisation through the use of standardized components, connecting dimensions, installation spaces, etc.
- Simple display of the load via pressure gauges.
- Low inertial resistance of the hydromotors and cylinders.
- Start-up from idle at full load.
- Space and weight saving components (mass–performance ratio) that can transfer high force levels.
- Rapid*, sensitive, uniform and infinitely adjustable cylinder and motor speeds (*albeit slower than a pneumatic system).
- Simple troubleshooting (leakage is visible).
- Higher pressure, thus making higher force levels possible.
- Hydraulic oil minimizes friction between the components.
- Corrosion protection through hydraulic fluid (except for water).
H.13.0 Annex
H.13.4 Disadvantages
- The elasticity of the fluid that leads to compression under pressure is a disadvantage of hydraulic drives.
Under certain circumstances, this can lead to pressure or motion oscillations. However, this problem only affects
drives with stringent requirements on the uniformity of the speed under greatly varying loads, e.g. feed drives
on machine tools. This effect has to be counterbalanced via a flexible coupling, which increases the costs.
- Development of heat and a consequent change in the viscosity of the hydraulic fluid.
- Danger of leakage.
- Temperature dependency of hydraulic oils (viscosity and expenditure of energy increase with decreasing temperatures).
- High degree of flow loss within the hydraulic fluids, which is converted into heat and can elevate the system temperature
(energy loss).
- Tendency to oscillate as a result of pressure surges and the associated noise generation.
H.13.0 Annex
H.13.5 Applications
On account of their specific advantages and disadvantages, hydraulic drives are frequently used in
mobile work machines, such as construction machines and agricultural machines. In these instances,
loads are primarily raised and lowered ( fork lift trucks, diggers, hoists and road pavers, etc.) through
linearly articulated hydraulic cylinders.
Vehicles are often driven by rotating hydraulic gears or fluid convertors, e.g. with so-called inclined axle
or inclined disk machines with which high outputs can be transferred. The special feature in this respect
is that the hydraulic gears can more flexibly adjust the motion of a motor operating with an inflexible
or fixed speed to the operating conditions, as in the case of diesel locomotives, in particular.
- Valve actuation
Hydraulic fluid is a fluid that is used to transfer energy (volume flow, pressure) in hydraulic systems
in fluid engineering.
The actual fluid composition differs depending on the application and requisite properties
(particular demands on high or low temperature resistance, combustibility, lubricity).
The most commonly used hydraulic fluids are mineral oil based with appropriate additives.
They are also referred to as hydraulic oils. The requirements on these hydraulic oils are specified in
ISO 6743/4 with the designations HL, HM and HV. In Germany, the designations HL, HLP and HVLP
are used in accordance with DIN 51524.
HL: with active substances to increase corrosion protection and ageing resistance
(HL also in accordance with DIN 51524, Part 1)
HM: with active substances to increase corrosion protection and ageing resistance and to reduce
wear due to scoring in mixed friction environments
(also HLP in accordance with DIN 51524, Part 2)
HV: with active substances to increase corrosion protection and ageing resistance and to reduce
wear due to scoring in mixed friction environments and to improve the viscosity and temperature
behaviour (also HVLP in accordance with DIN 51524, Part 3)
H.13.0 Annex
H.13.5.2 Combustion resistant fluids
Water content >80% and concentrate on mineral oil basis or on the basis of soluble polyglycols.
Concentrates on a mineral oil basis are susceptible to decomposition and microbes.
Suitable for use at temperatures between +5°C and +55°C, highly resistant to combustion.
No danger of decomposition as they involve genuine solutions. Instead, they are significantly more susceptible
to corrosion.
Water content >40% and mineral oil. Is rarely used. Highly resistant to combustion. Suitable for use at temperatures
between +5°C and +60°C. Not approved for use in Germany on account of a lack of fire resistance properties.
Water content >35% and polymer solution. Highly resistant to combustion. Suitable for use at temperatures between
-20°C and +60°C. Suitable for use at pressures of up to 250 bar.
Display a higher density than mineral oils or water. May cause problems in the suction behaviour of pumps.
Also attack many sealant substances. Highly resistant to combustion. Suitable for use at temperatures between
– 20°C and + 150°C.
H.13.0 Annex
H.13.5.3 Biodegradable
Manufactured on the basis of vegetable oils (e.g. rapeseed basis). Suitable for use in biologically critical environments
(construction machines in water protection zones, slope machines in ski resorts, etc.)
These fluids are Pollutant Category 1 pollutants.
Categorisation:
H.13.5.4 Water
The use of water as a hydraulic fluid is unobjectionable in every respect. The formation of ice must be prevented and
the upper temperature limits are dependent on the components used. The first technical use of hydraulics utilized water
as the fluid. Water has a significantly lower output resistance and faster reaction times on account of its low viscosity and
incompressibility. The following grades of water are used in modern water-based hydraulics.
Tap water (filtered), technical water (demineralized), sea or salt water (filtered)
Basic Principles
Electrics
E.1.0 Hazards
The general rule is: 50 V alternating current voltage (AC) or 120 V direct current voltage (DC)
are the maximum permissible limits for touch voltage.
However, it is not the voltage (U) that is responsible for a fatal electric shock,
but rather the current intensity (I). And as the flowing current increases with the voltage,
it can be said that the higher the voltage, the greater the danger!!!
Also remember that severe accidents can still occur even with „safe“ (low)
voltages as a result of burns if metal jewellery (rings, necklaces) cause
a short circuit.
International symbol
for
hazardous voltages.
E.2.0 Units of measurement in electrics
As a rule, electric current is understood to mean the directed motion of charge carriers.
- An electric current can only flow when sufficient charge carriers are available
and freely moveable.
-The current intensity (I) serves the numerical description of the electric current.
- The more electrons that flow through a conductor in one second, the higher the
current intensity.
The Ampere (A) is the basic SI unit (SI = International System of Units).
The ampere is named after Andre Marie Ampere.
E.2.0 Units of measurement in electrics
E.2.2 Types of electricity
As a rule, a distinction is made between three different technical types of electricity:
Direct current (e.g. VÖGELE on-board network):
Direct Current (DC) is understood to mean an electric current that does not change its direction
or strength over time, i.e. it remains constant over time.
Direct current can be gained from alternating current by means of alignment.
There are also direct sources of direct current, such as galvanic cells (batteries) or photovoltaic
cells (solar cells).
Mixed current:
A combination of alternating current and direct current is called mixed current.
The strength of the direct current portion, which is constant over time, is continuously and usually
periodically changed by the application of an additional alternating current.
One example of the use of mixed current is in rectifiers.
E.2.0 Units of measurement in electrics
Note the
setting!!!
Current intensities of up to 2 ampere direct current can be measured with the amperemeter.
Anything above that, as well as alternating current, should only ever be measured using
a clamp-on amperemeter!!!!
E.2.0 Units of measurement in electrics
R (resistance)
R represents
a consumer
The Volt (V) is the basic SI unit (SI = International System of Units).
The volt is named after Alessandro Volta.
E.2.0 Units of measurement in electrics
E.2.6 Measuring electrical voltage
R (resistance)
U R represents
a consumer
The ohm (Ω) (large Omega symbol) is the basic SI unit (SI = International System of
Units).
Every consumer, e.g. electric light bulb or heating rod, can be regarded as a resistor.
To measure resistance, the actual resistor, e.g. heating rod, must be disconnected from the circuit.
The measurement is made between the live (L) and neutral (N) wires.
Electrical power (P) is a type of power that is available when electrical work (electrical energy)
is realized over a specific period of time.
Details regarding the effective electrical power necessary to power electric machines, such as
heating rods, motors and lamps, are usually given in Watts (W).
The decisive factor is whether the type plate specifies the input power or the output power.
In the case of generators, for instance, the output power is specified, while the input power is
specified for heating rods.
Unit of measurement: W (Watt). This is also the basic SI unit (SI = International System
of Units).
E.2.0 Units of measurement in electrics
E.2.9.2 Calculating electrical power
P = U* I
U²
P= The power P increases proportionally to the square of the voltage U.
R
E.3.0 Relationships between units of electricity
E.3.1 Ohm’s Law
If a voltage (U) is applied to a resistor (R) in a closed electrical circuit, a specific current (I)
will flow through that resistor (R).
The relationship of the values to one another can be determined by means of simple formulas.
The following formulas can be calculated to this end :
If a current (I) should flow through a resistor (R), the voltage (U)
must be calculated.
U=R* I
E.3.0 Relationships between units of electricity
E.3.2. The magic triangle
U (V)
R (Ω) I (A)
Resistors are connected in series when the same electrical current flows through all resistors.
When discussing series connections, a distinction is made between the voltage at the voltage
source and the voltage drop at the resistors.
U1 U2
V V
I1 I2
A R1 A R2
Rtotal
V Utotal
E.4.0 Connecting resistors
E.4.1.2 Relationships in series connections
Itotal = I1 = I2 = …..
Utotal = U1 + U2 + …..
Rtotal = R1 + R2 + …..
Utotal U1 U2
Rtotal =R1 =R2
E.4.0 Connecting resistors
E.4.2.1 Parallel connection
Resistors are connected in parallel when the electrical currents are split by the resistors.
Currents behave in the opposite manner to their resistance values. In other words, a lower
current flows through a high-ohm resistor than through a low-ohm resistor.
Itotal
A
R R
1 1
Utotal V U1 U2
A I1 A I2
E.4.0 Connecting resistors
E. 4.2.1. Relationships in parallel connections
Itotal = I1 + I2 + …..
Utotal = U1 = U2 = …..
Resistance: The total resistance is less than the lowest individual resistance.
1 1 1
= + +
Rtotal R1 R2 …..
E.5.0 Legend of abbreviations:
M = Motor
R = Resistor, potentiometer
E.6.0 Circuit symbols
E.6.1 Switch and button symbols
1 0 2
1 0 2
Push-button, Rotary switch, Push-button, Rotary switch, The combinations are infinite.
momentary momentary maintained maintained The diagram above depicts a
contact contact contact contact maintained contact key switch with
normally open / normally closed
contacts.
E.6.0 Circuit symbols
E.6.2 Symbols – Part 1
or
24 V
rt6 24V 8V + +
r12 8V
NIV
Electronics - -
Levelling system Stabilising module
connection connection 24 V – 8 V (old symbol) Stabilising module
r = Red r = Red 24 V – 8 V (new symbol)
b = Blue b = Blue
E.7.0 Relays
E.7.1 Design and function
Relays are electromagnetic devices that operate with the force action of the electrical
current through a solenoid. Relay contacts are actuated directly or by the armature.
Relays are always used as a function of the electrical current. Only the current flow
(intensity) in the area of the load circuit (guided circuit) is of relevance to this end.
Relays are manufactured with differing contact combinations (e.g. normally closed contact,
normally open contact and/or two-way contact).
Multiple variants are used at VÖGELE.
E.7.0 Relays
E.7.2 Relays used at VÖGELE
E.8.0 Diodes
E. 8.1 Design and function
Symbol
Anode Cathode
Design and function
A diode is a semiconductor device with two connections. These connections are referred to as the
anode and the cathode. Such diodes frequently only allow the electrical current to flow in one direction.
A diode circuit symbol is sometimes printed on the housing to indicate the corresponding direction.
In addition to the type designation, diodes usually also bear a ring to indicate the cathode side.
E.8.0 Diodes
E.8.2 Conducting direction and reverse direction
+ +
- -
E.8.0 Diodes
E.8.3 Testing a diode
Press yellow
button
Set conducting
direction test
There are slow blow fuses (T) and fast blow fuses (F). Slow blow fuses Fuses used at VÖGELE:
blow later than fast blow fuses. The housing usually indicates whether
the fuse is a slow blow fuse or a fast blow fuse. Low-voltage high-power fuses
(heater – 230 V AC)
We distinguish between 5 categories:
Car fuses (switch box – 24 V DC)
Super fast (FF), fast (F), medium fast (M), slow (T), super slow (TT)
Glass fuses (heater control)
E.10.0 Reading a circuit diagram E.10.1 Circuit diagram
D+/6.7
Cross-references are provided to be able to
trace the course of a current in the circuit
diagram. This information contains the name
(e.g. D+) and page number with section - after
the slash (e.g. /6.7) – to which the circuit leads.
E.10.0 Reading a circuit diagram
E. 10.2 Bottom bar and information
1
E.11.0 Mains systems
E.11.1 Mains 230 V / 400 V AC
Abbreviations:
wt – white / bk – black / rd – red / gr – grey / gn – green /
yl – yellow / vio – violet / bn – brown / bl – blue
VÖGELE rules:
The connecting wires on solenoids usually have even numbers
(2,4,6,8, etc.) on the earth side (exception: Danfoss).
Range button
Switches between
ranges:
e.g. 10V, 0.01V Display
Connecting ports
for measuring voltage
for resistance or for
Connecting ports for measuring testing diodes
current intensity
Note measuring range!! Connecting port
Earth
E.12.0 Measuring instruments
E.12.1 Mutimeters - Part 2
Measuring range:
Current (A) Continuity test
Measuring range:
Frequency (Hz) Measuring range: Resistance (Ω)
Measuring range:
Voltage (V)
E.12.0 Measuring instruments
E.12.2 Clamp-on amperemeters – Part 2
Accessories:
Crocodile clips for attaching
to the probe ends.
Ports for
plugging in the
measuring
contacts.