Understanding the ‘wet’ in wetlands

A guide to the management of freshwater wetland hydrology

Contents

1. Wetlands and hydrology – how do they fit together? 3

What is a wetland? 3
Where are wetlands found? 3
What is wetland hydrology? 4

2. Why is wetland hydrology important? 5

It makes wetlands work… 5
It shapes what will grow… 5
It affects nutrient levels… 6
It influences the whole catchment… 6

3. Wetland hydrology – the detail 7

Wetland inflows, outflows and the water balance 7

4. Human impacts on wetlands and wetland hydrology 11

Changes to the wetland 11
Changes to the wetland’s catchment 11

5. Restoring hydrology in wetlands 13

What is restoration? 13
Determining the natural state of a wetland 13
Setting restoration goals 14
Restoration at different scales 15
General approaches 15
Local landowners and resource consents 15

6. The restoration process 17

Assess the wetland hydrology 17
Remember the restoration principles 17
Choose your restoration method 18

7. Monitoring the wetland hydrology 21

Decide what to monitor 21
Keep records 21
Take photographs 21
Record the extent of water 21
Measure the water levels 22
Measure the stream flow 24
Record the rainfall 25
Interpret the data 25

8. Finding out more 27

9. Further reading 29
Appendix 1: Types of freshwater wetland 30
Understanding the ‘wet’ in wetlands 1
1. Wetlands and hydrology – how do they fit
together?
Freshwater wetlands need water to survive. The flow of water in and out of a
wetland is known as its hydrology.
The hydrology of a wetland can be modified by human activities, such as drainage
to make the land more suitable for pasture, or flooding to create bigger pond or
lake areas.
In order to restore a wetland we need to understand how the water behaved
before human intervention – and whether it is possible to get it to behave that way
again.
This booklet tells you how you can monitor and understand the hydrology of a
wetland and how you can establish a more natural water regime in a wetland that
has been modified.

What is a wetland?
A wetland is an area of land covered in, or saturated by water.
Many New Zealand wetlands have saturated soils nearly all year round. The
water level is either just above or just below the ground surface. In rare cases
wetlands are only wet for a few weeks or months in a year; and may even stay dry
for years on end.
Wetlands support a natural ecosystem of plants and animals that have adapted
to wet conditions. They vary widely because of regional and local differences
in soils, topography, climate, hydrology, water chemistry, vegetation and other
factors, including human disturbance. All wetlands, however, have the following
three things in common:
1. water
2. wetland soils (which have low levels of oxygen or none at all, because they are
intermittently or permanently saturated)
3. wetland plants (which have adapted to growing in wet soil).
A description of the different wetland types is in Appendix 1.

Where are wetlands found?

Wetlands are found almost everywhere, from the tundra to the tropics and
on every continent.
Wetlands flourish in areas with:
• fine-textured soils and poor drainage
• soils that are deep enough to store water
• restricted downward drainage.
Wetlands occur where the terrain, climate, soil and drainage conditions allow
water to collect such as in land-surface depressions or other areas with excess
surface water and poor drainage.
Understanding the ‘wet’ in wetlands 3
 Wetlands can be found:
• along hillsides where there is a change in slope or geology
• on stream or river floodplains
• in low-lying areas among flat landscapes
• in coastal areas where sand dunes trap water run-off
• along the margins of lakes, rivers and estuaries.

New Zealand – wetlands under threat

The appreciation of New Zealand’s wetlands as important habitats for threatened
native plants and animals, as well as for their role in flood protection, water
storage and filtering run-off, is increasing. However, because their true value has
not been fully understood in the past 200 years, more than 90% have been drained
to make way for agricultural and urban development. We have one of the highest
rates of wetland loss in the world.
Today, wetlands continue to be threatened by human activity. We need to protect
what is left and take action to restore our remaining wetlands to a more natural
state. To do this successfully, we must continue to develop our understanding of
Wetlands occur wetland hydrology.
where the terrain,
climate, soil and
What is wetland hydrology?
drainage conditions
allow water to Hydrology is the science of water, and water is the driving force that creates and
collect such as maintains all wetlands. Hydrology keeps our freshwater wetlands wet.
in land-surface
depressions or other The term ‘wetland hydrology’ describes the water flow in and out of the wetland,
areas with excess as well as its quantities, flows and levels. Because water levels are so important
surface water and for both wetland and catchment health, it’s critical to understand a wetland’s
poor drainage. hydrology if we want to manage the wetland effectively and sensitively.

4 Understanding the ‘wet’ in wetlands

2. Why is wetland hydrology important?

It makes wetlands work…

Wetland hydrology determines:
• the amount of nutrients entering and leaving a wetland
• the chemistry of water in a wetland
• the chemistry of soil in a wetland
• the plants that grow in a wetland
• the animals that live in a wetland
• the productivity of a wetland.
Wetlands are an important part of the entire hydrological cycle – they soak up run-
off and filter and release floodwaters gradually. This reduces the peaks of flooding
and maintains flows in dry years.

It shapes what will grow…

The types of plants and animals in a wetland depend on the water – its
volume, depth, permanence, temperature, and chemistry.
Long-term fluctuations in water level over months and years generally result in a
species-rich wetland ecosystem.

Plants
Wetlands are a harsh and stressful environment for most plants. Those that grow
in wetlands have had to adapt to growing in wet soils. For example, kahikatea
and pukatea buttress their roots so they are stable in wet soils, while many smaller
plants have spongy tissues in their leaves that act as a reservoir and passageway
for oxygen to move down to the roots in wet, oxygen-deprived soils.
Some wetland plants are generalists and adapt readily to a wide range of
conditions, while others thrive only in very specific habitats. Many spread without
producing seeds (‘asexual reproduction’) and have underground storage organs
that help them survive and re-grow rapidly after the sudden floods and prolonged
droughts common in wetlands. Asexual reproduction also helps the plants colonise
Raupo can grow
parts of wetlands where the water is too deep for seeds to germinate and establish
in areas of deep
successfully. For example, raupo dies back over winter and grows back in the water because of
spring from underground rhizomes (starch-filled stems). its ability to spread
from underground
When a wetland floods, the soil becomes saturated and drought-tolerant plants
rhizomes rather than
revive, while the seeds of water-loving plants germinate and grow. Where wetlands
seeds.
are flooded unnaturally, plant diversity can decrease because only a few species are
able to grow in permanently deep water1.
As water levels drop, different plants germinate and grow on the exposed mud.
The soil chemistry changes as it is exposed to the air, encouraging dry land plants.
Some wetland plants, such as Carex, set seed in summer when water levels are low.
Often these seeds can stay viable in the soil for years even if the wetland is dry.
1
Sorrell et al. (2004), in Freshwaters of New Zealand.
Understanding the ‘wet’ in wetlands 5
 Animals
Wetland animals respond to seasonal fluctuations in water levels. When levels
drop, many fish and eels retreat and water birds migrate. When water levels
return, they trigger a flush of food (invertebrates) that brings the birds and fish
back – waterfowl often take the opportunity to breed with so much food about.
Mudfish have a different response to low water levels – they hibernate in the wet
soil and wait for the water to return.

It affects nutrient levels…

A wetland’s productivity mainly relates to the amount of carbon that plants
fix during photosynthesis – a process that is enhanced by flowing water.
Some wetlands, especially swamps in valleys and depressions at the bottoms
of catchments, have very high biological productivity because they offer few
constraints to photosynthesis (they contain plenty of water and nutrients
compared with ecosystems on dry land). Highly productive, fertile wetlands like
this are fed with water containing sediment and nutrients, often from flooding
rivers. Regular wetland drying and refilling increases the amount of nutrients
released from the sediment and promotes the rapid decay of plant material.
At the other end of the scale, some wetlands have low nutrient levels and are very
unproductive - for example bogs that are fed by rainfall only. They have simpler
plant communities and slower decay of plant material, which accumulates as
peat2.

It influences the whole catchment…

Wetlands are an important part of the catchment hydrological cycle.
Depending where they are in the catchment, wetlands can soak up run-off and
release floodwaters gradually, reducing the impact of flooding downstream.
Those on river and stream floodplains have an important function in storing,
transporting and slowing floodwaters. However, when wetlands are drained or
stopbanks are built along adjacent rivers, their ability to store water is reduced
and downstream flooding can occur3.

2
Campbell and Jackson (2004), in Freshwaters of New Zealand.
3
NRC (National Research Council) (1992) Restoration of Aquatic Ecosystems. Committee on
Restoration of Aquatic Ecosystems – Science, Technology, and Public Policy. Water Science and
Technology Board. Commission on Geosciences, Environment, and Resources.

6 Understanding the ‘wet’ in wetlands

3. Wetland hydrology – the detail
Wetlands are dynamic hydrological systems whose water flows and levels can
vary substantially, both seasonally and from year to year.
A wetland’s ‘hydrological regime’ describes the patterns of water storage and
movement within and across the wetland’s boundaries. It can have strong
seasonal patterns, largely the result of changing rainfall and sunshine intensity.4
A wetland’s hydrological regime is determined by:
• the timing of the presence of surface water
• how often it floods and dries (‘frequency’)
• the length of wet and dry periods (‘duration’)
• how far the water spreads (‘extent’)
• the depth of surface water
• how far the water is below ground (the depth to the water table)
• the water’s source (e.g. rainfall, groundwater)
• the variability of water levels (including depth and extent seasonally and from
year to year).

Wetland inflows, outflows and the water balance

A wetland needs a continuous or seasonal source (inflow) of water. Table 1
summarises these inflows, as well as the outflows.

Table 1: A wetland’s water sources (inflows) and water losses (outflows)

Water inflows Water outflows

Rainfall Evapo-transpiration
• rain that falls directly onto the wetland • evaporation from standing water or
saturated soils
• transpiration from plants

Surface water Surface water

• water run-off from surrounding land • water run-off from the wetland
• streams and rivers that flow into the wetland • streams and rivers that flow from the
wetland
• occasional flood waters from nearby streams
and rivers

Groundwater Groundwater
• groundwater inflow • groundwater outflow

4
Campbell and Jackson (2004), in Freshwaters of New Zealand.
Understanding the ‘wet’ in wetlands 7
 The difference between a wetland’s water inflows and outflows is known as its
‘water balance’. When averaged over a long period, the inflows appear to balance
the outflows. However, at any time, one or more components of the balance may
dominate. For example, heavy rainfall will cause water levels to rise temporarily.
Alternatively, if groundwater levels reduce, the wetland may dry up because
groundwater inflows decrease.
Different wetlands are sustained by different inflows and outflows. For example,
a bog is fed entirely by rainfall, while a swamp mainly receives its water from
surface water and groundwater.

Figure 1: The factors making up a wetland’s water balance (after Carter, V, 1996, Wetland
hydrology, water quality, and associated functions. In National Water Summary on Wetland
Resources. Water-Supply Paper 2425. United States Geological Survey. Washington, DC. http://
water.usgs.gov/nwsum/WSP2425/)

8 Understanding the ‘wet’ in wetlands

Surface water
Many wetlands rely on surface water flows and are an integral part of river
and stream systems. For example, they can be the source of a stream (in its
headwaters) or fed by a stream, either permanently or only when the stream is in
flood. Wetlands can also receive surface water as run-off from surrounding land.

Groundwater
Groundwater is an important part of the water balance for most wetlands. It
affects wetlands in two main ways:
1. Flowing in: a ‘discharge wetland’ is created when groundwater flows (or
discharges) into a wetland located in a topographic low point, where the
wetland water level is lower than the surrounding water table (see Figure 2A).
Discharge wetlands tend to be buffered against dramatic seasonal changes in
water level. For example, wetland studies on the Kapiti Coast have shown that
groundwater is important for keeping the soils wet at drier times of the year.
A ‘spring’ or a ‘seep’ is another type of groundwater discharge wetland that
occurs at the base of slopes where the water table intercepts the land surface
(see Figure 2B)
2. Flowing out: a ‘recharge wetland’ is created when the water level in a wetland
is higher than the water table in the surrounding area – the groundwater
flows out of the wetland (see Figure 2C). However, where the amount of water
flowing out of the wetland is negligible, the wetland is known as a ‘perched
wetland’ (see Figure 2D).
The interaction between a wetland and groundwater can vary seasonally and
even reverse during the year.

Understanding the ‘wet’ in wetlands 9

 Figure 2: Some wetland/groundwater interactions. The arrows show the direction of flow.

A. Discharge wetland receiving groundwater inflow

B. Groundwater spring or seep wetland at base of a steep slope
C. A recharge wetland adding water to groundwater
D. A perched wetland with a small amount of groundwater recharge (after Mitsch and
Gosselink, 2000).

Evapo-transpiration
Evapo-transpiration is the collective term for the ‘transpiration’ from plants and
water that ‘evaporates’ to the atmosphere from open water or moist soils.
Evaporation and transpiration rates are mainly controlled by the sun (solar
radiation and temperature), humidity and wind speed – they vary between night
and day, from day to day, and seasonally. Vegetated wetlands usually have lower
evaporation rates than open water wetlands.
Evapo-transpiration can be a large part of a wetland’s water balance and can
reduce the amount of water flowing out, especially in summer. Its rates can be
altered by:
• grazing: by removing vegetation cover, grazing increases evaporation from
open water or wet soils
• vegetation clearance: this changes the local microclimate, which also influences
evaporation rates
• planting willows: overseas studies show that willows have higher rates
of transpiration than native wetland plants, providing a drying effect on
wetlands.
For information about measuring evapo-transpiration in New Zealand wetlands,
refer to the chapter on wetland hydrology in Freshwaters of New Zealand (2004)
listed in Section 9 of this guide.

10 Understanding the ‘wet’ in wetlands

4. Human impacts on wetlands and wetland
hydrology
Wetlands (and the plant and animal life they support) are sensitive to changes
in water balance, hydrological regime, flood cycles, water quality, sediment and
nutrient supply.
Most of New Zealand’s wetlands have been lost over the past century because
they have been drained for agricultural use. Many of the remaining wetlands are
surrounded by intensively farmed land where drainage, large-scale irrigation,
fertiliser application and high stocking densities have affected their hydrology and
water quality.
A wetland’s hydrology is also affected by changes in its catchment. For example,
urban expansion radically modifies catchment hydrology and has a significant effect
on wetlands. This can make it difficult to establish how a wetland originally looked.

Changes to the wetland

Drying up
Drainage, including the deepening of nearby drains, is the main cause of wetlands
drying up. If a wetland becomes too dry, the number of wetland plants decreases and
dry land plants take over, especially weeds. Peat soils also break down when they
dry up and are exposed to the air.

Flooding
In contrast, wetlands that are artificially flooded may not give plants important
seasonal variations that are clues for growth and flowering. Permanent flooding will
reduce a wetland’s health and diversity. For example, a wetland with year-round
standing surface water offers a habitat that is very similar over large areas for a long
period of time, resulting in dominance by only a few plant species.

Changes to the wetland’s catchment

Wetlands are part of larger hydrological systems, which means their hydrology
can change as a result of activities well beyond their surface boundaries – such
as regional groundwater overuse.
In addition, removing a catchment’s original forest cover for agricultural
development alters rainfall run-off characteristics and inflows to wetlands. Flood
protection programmes (such as stopbanks) stop the regular flooding of floodplain
wetlands and further increase the impact on wetland hydrology.
Urban development has even greater effects through increases in ‘impervious
surfaces’, such as roofs, driveways, roads, carparks and paved areas. Instead of
soaking into the ground, rainfall (stormwater) rushes across these impervious
surfaces and through a stormwater drain to the nearest stream or wetland. The
increase in volume and the speed at which this water travels can increase flooding
and erosion and, in some cases, lead to water scouring a channel through the
wetland.

Understanding the ‘wet’ in wetlands 11

 Rain, as it travels over – or runs off – impervious areas can also pick up toxic
substances such as oil and sediment and wash them into a wetland. Sediment,
although not toxic itself, can damage a wetland by causing it to silt up.

Figure 3: Human impacts on wetlands (after Keddy, PA 1983. Freshwater wetland human-induced
changes: Indirect effects must also be considered. Environmental Management 7:299-302)

12 Understanding the ‘wet’ in wetlands

5. Restoring hydrology in wetlands – approaches
and requirements
If you’re planning to restore a wetland to its natural state, it’s important to spend
a year or two observing it and gathering information, and seeking advice and
information from Greater Wellington or other experts. They will either have
specialist skills or be able to direct you to someone who has (see Section 8 for
more information). Some organisations also have assistance programmes.
If you’re aiming to restore a wetland, keep in mind that most natural wetlands
in New Zealand are dominated by waterlogged soils and not areas of open
water. The creation of open-water ponds in a wetland is one form of wetland
management but it doesn’t necessarily equate to wetland restoration. ‘Restoration’
may be as simple as fencing the wetland and leaving it to do its own thing.

What is restoration?
‘Restoration’ is the return of a damaged wetland as close as possible to its
original condition.
The aim is to return the wetland to a healthy, self-sustaining condition, dominated
by native plants and animals. It may not be possible to return a wetland
completely to its natural condition.

Determining the natural state of a wetland

The potential for successful restoration depends on how far the wetland has been
altered from its natural condition. To find this out, you need information about
historical changes in the wetland and its wider catchment. Very few wetlands are
in a near-natural state, so it may be difficult to get a good idea of how it might
once have looked.
Historical information can be sourced from:
• old maps
• historical photographs, especially aerial photographs that also provide
information on the wider catchment
• people who have lived in the area for a long time
• local historical societies and museums.
It’s also useful to identify the human influences and land management practices
that may be affecting the wetland, such as:
• drainage control measures (ditches, drains, channels, water races, deepened
streams, stopbanks) in and around the wetland
• structures designed to manage water levels in the wetland artificially (e.g.
weirs, dams)
• vegetation changes in the catchment (e.g. bush removal to create pasture)
• intensive agricultural practices in the upstream catchment
• heavy grazing in the wetland

Understanding the ‘wet’ in wetlands 13

 • artificially created ponds
• roads, built-up tracks and culverts in and around the wetland
• burning, vegetation clearance or chemical use in or near the wetland
• water takes (surface water or groundwater) in the wetland’s catchment (e.g. for
urban water supply)
• urban development in the catchment.
Any major change in the types of plants in a wetland can indicate that the water
regime has been modified. For example, the invasion of a wetland by dry land
species (such as gorse, broom, pasture grasses, kanuka and mahoe) indicates the
wetland is drying up.
Monitoring these species can be an effective substitute for direct hydrological
monitoring. The Handbook for Monitoring Wetland Condition (see Section 9) has
more information on monitoring vegetation changes.

Setting restoration goals

After information gathering, the next important stage of a wetland
management or restoration plan involves defining the goals clearly.
They may be5:
• reducing flooding
• improving water quality
• increasing wildlife or fisheries resources
• re-establishing a natural wetland ecosystem to enhance native biodiversity.
The landscaping, hydrological and planting actions for these goals are very
different. For example, if you want to attract waterfowl you’ll need plenty of open
water with vegetation on the edges and islands for breeding. Fish will need good
access in and out of the wetland and plenty of vegetation in the water.
If your goal is to enhance native biodiversity, ideally you’ll be able to find a
‘reference site’ to help you set targets – that is, a comparable local site that is as
close to pristine and unmodified as possible6. In reality however, there are few
unmodified sites left, so you may have to rely on historical information.
Your restoration plan should include a clear statement of what you expect to
achieve from management actions. For example, you could plan to:
• poison grey willows to increase light penetration and open space and allow
native species in the seed bank, such as purei and rautahi (both Carex species)
to germinate and recover
• block drains to achieve permanent soil saturation and to kill weeds from 80%
of the wetland area
• fence the wetland to stop grazing and allow native species to germinate and
recover.
Group planning
5
Based on Sorrell et al. (2004).
6
Sorrell et al. (2004).

14 Understanding the ‘wet’ in wetlands

If you’re part of a group planning a project, it’s useful to think about your vision
as a group and develop your goals together. Ask your group what they want the
wetland to be like in the future. Write everyone’s ideas on a large piece of paper
and check how they’re different or similar. Pull together the main ideas to create a
vision with which everyone is happy – for example, “Heta’s wetland is a healthy
haven for native birds, fish and wetland plants”.
Ask your group what they need to achieve their vision. Get everyone to write
ideas on sticky notes and group similar ideas together to develop goal statements.
Also note what might get in the way of achieving the vision to help identify any
critical action areas.
For more information on group planning, see the Department of Conservation
booklet From Seed to Success – Tool Kit for Community Conservation Projects at
www.doc.govt.nz under community, sponsorship and partnerships.

Restoration at different scales

You can approach wetland restoration at different scales, depending on your goals
and resources. The three main scales are:
1. the local scale – the wetland and its immediate surroundings
2. the catchment scale – the wetland and its catchment
3. the regional scale – the wetland, its catchment and nearby catchments.
Local-scale changes are the easiest to undertake as they are more likely to be
under your control.

General approaches
The techniques for restoration tend to fall into three categories, depending on
your restoration goal7
1. restoring and managing the wetland’s hydrology
2. controlling or removing pollution entering the wetland
3. restoring native plant and animal communities (generally by removing stock
and undertaking pest and weed control, but natural water levels will also help
address weed problems).

Local landowners and resource consents

Restoring natural water levels and fluctuations to a wetland may affect water
levels on neighbouring land, both upstream and downstream.
Sometimes such changes won’t be compatible with the neighbouring land use, so
its crucial to discuss your plans with your neighbours and reach an outcome that
everyone can live with. Agreeing on a hydrological regime that suits everyone will
depend on open dialogue, respect and a mutual understanding between wetland
managers and neighbouring landowners.

7
NRC (1992)
Understanding the ‘wet’ in wetlands 15
 Daming and diverting water, whether over or under the ground, requires a
resource consent unless it is specifically allowed by a rule in a regional plan.
Greater Wellington’s Regional Freshwater Plan has rules that allow diversion
of water from water races, farm drains or groundwater, provided it does not
cause flooding or lower water levels in rivers, lakes and wetlands. Before taking
any actions that will dam or divert water, read the rules on www.gw.govt.nz/
regionalrules or contact the Consents Help Desk on 0800 496 734.

16 Understanding the ‘wet’ in wetlands

6. The restoration process
Restoring wetland hydrology is a relatively new concept in New Zealand. This
section provides some general guidance on restoration techniques that we hope
will be expanded as new examples develop around the country.
Adaptive management is the key to a successful restoration, bearing in mind
that wetlands are complex and dynamic ecosystems about which we have only a
limited understanding. Your project should be supported by ongoing monitoring,
and management needs to be adaptable to take changes into account and respond
accordingly.

Assess the wetland hydrology

Successful restoration usually involves an assessment of the wetland’s hydrology.
This assessment may need to be detailed and accurate and at other times it may need
only basic information.
Assessing the current wetland hydrology will:
• help you understand the water regime and what drives it
• help you recognise your wetland type (see Appendix 1)
• help you recognise when (and if) intervention and restoration action are necessary
• provide a baseline for tracking the wetland’s health, including assessing the
effects of human activity in and around it.

Remember the restoration principles

1. Water levels should fluctuate – but not too much
Where possible, restoration should provide for the natural seasonal variability in
water levels, so that you provide for the maximum diversity in re-establishing plant
species8.
Beware of stable water levels – those that feature in many restoration projects with
areas of open water are unnatural. They can result in dry land plant communities
above the water line and aquatic plant communities below the water line, with
very limited habitat in the zone where water would normally fluctuate and support
a wide range of plants and animals. Conversely, rapid or extreme unnatural
fluctuations (more than 10 centimetres) in freshwater wetlands over a short time
(from hours to a few weeks) mean nothing at all can grow in the zone where water
levels fluctuate9.
2. Minimise structures and intervention
Overall, the less intervention you use to achieve your restoration goals, the better.
Structures such as weirs and flap gates can be barriers to fish passage and should
only be used as a last resort. Ideally, your wetland should maintain itself over time.
Create the right environment and let nature do most of the work.

8
Sorrell et al. (2004) in Freshwaters of New Zealand.
9
Sorrell et al. (2004) in Freshwaters of New Zealand.
Understanding the ‘wet’ in wetlands 17
 3. Think about nutrient impacts
It’s also important to think about nutrients when restoring hydrology – if you
redirect nutrient-rich water into a wetland area, it may have significant and
unexpected effects on your overall site. Wetlands with very high nutrient levels
are less diverse, usually dominated by one or two highly competitive, often exotic,
plants.
4. Give the systems time
Be aware that restoration is a long-term project. It may take several years for your
wetland to recover.

Choose your restoration method

Blocking drains
Many wetlands in depressions or on flat land have been drained. You can restore
this relatively inexpensively by plugging drainage ditches with either soil dams or
artificial weirs.
You can often find the best material for plugging drains right beside the drain –
it’s the soil that was dug out of the drain in the first place. Other soil sources may
be nearby, but they should be roughly the same type of soil as that removed from
the drain site.
If tiles have been installed to collect and channel water into drains, they can
be plugged with a low-permeability, clay-like soil. In some cases, drains will
naturally ‘silt up’ and you won’t need to intervene. Monitoring the hydrology will
help you decide.

Case study 1: Wetland restoration at Bullock Creek, Westland

The Department of Conservation (DoC) is working with NIWA (the National
Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research) and Landcare Research on a
wetland restoration project at Bullock Creek, in an area of former farmland in
Paparoa National Park.
The hydrological regime is critically important for this wetland. Monitoring at
the site has shown that, despite the West Coast’s dramatic rainfall and quickly
flooding topography, the main factors controlling vegetation patterns are the
gradual drying of soils between floods and the impact of drains.
To test whether exotic weeds can be discouraged and natives encouraged, some
drains have been closed and scientists have been measuring how this has affected
vegetation in the wetland. Results to date indicate that the cover of weeds has
been greatly reduced in the areas where drains have been closed. This is because
native species at this site are more flood-tolerant than the introduced pastoral
grasses and can cope with less oxygen in the soil.10

10
Sorrell BK, Partridge TR, Clarkson BR, Jackson RJ, Chagué-Goff C, Ekanayake J, Payne J,
Gerbeaux P and Grainger NPJ (submitted 2004). Soil environmental and vegetation responses
to hydrological restoration in a partially drained polje fen in New Zealand. Wetlands Ecology
and Management.

18 Understanding the ‘wet’ in wetlands

Case study 2: Restoration of Dunearn peat bog, Southland
Deep internal drains and an external ring drain have extensively modified the
Dunearn peat bog on the Southland plains. Because it is ecologically significant
and has good restoration potential, DoC bought the bog through the Nature
Heritage Fund in February 2003.
In June 2003, DoC plugged the three main internal drains with sods of peat
to restore wetland hydrology. DoC and Environment Southland have been
monitoring vegetation, peat and the water regime to see how drain plugging
makes a difference. Environment Southland installed dip wells in February 2003
to monitor changes in the groundwater regime. DoC has established vegetation
plots for annual monitoring. Photos are also being used to record change over
time.
Prior to restoration, the bog had lower water levels – peat was breaking down
and the uncommon jointed rush, Empodisma minus, was dying. Since the drains
were plugged, the groundwater and peat levels appear to have increased, either
as a direct response or indirectly through high rainfall. Ongoing monitoring of
changes in the water table, potential vegetation and peat recovery will contribute
valuable knowledge to the management of Southland’s remaining peat bog
systems.11

Installing water-level controls

Some wetlands may be drying up because of changes in their catchment (for
example, the taking of groundwater). This makes restoration difficult.
You may be able to raise water-levels using weirs, stopbanks, direct pumping or
siphoning, or a combination of these techniques. Talk with all potentially affected
parties and seek advice about the likely effects of your plans on neighbouring
land. You may need help from an engineer and an ecologist to design and build
effective water level control structures and you’re likely to need a resource
consent from Greater Wellington. Before taking any actions that will dam or divert
water, read the rules on www.gw.govt.nz/regionalrules or contact the Consents
Help Desk on 0800 496 734.
Some water control structures, such as weirs, valves and one-way flap gates, can
be used to hold water in depressions and manage flow. These structures on the
inlets and outlets can allow many natural hydrological patterns to be mimicked,
e.g. seasonal fluctuations. Again, talk with all potentially affected parties and seek
advice from an engineer and an ecologist about the likely effects of your plans.
It’s also important to think about how fish and eels are able to move in and out
of your wetland, especially if you’re removing or building water-level-control
structures. Talk to Greater Wellington or DoC about how to best provide fish
passage.

11
White M and McNutt K (2003) Dunearn Peat Bog: Restoration and Monitoring. SRC Publication No 2003-12.
Environment Southland and Department of Conservation, Invercargill.
Understanding the ‘wet’ in wetlands 19
 Pumping water
Active pumps and siphoning systems should be a last resort because they are
expensive to install and operate. However, they can be the only way to move
enough water into the site to achieve real ecological change. Before starting down
this track, you’ll need to establish the desired water regime, how this will change
your site and its feasibility in resources and time. Measuring the hydrology of a
reference site will help give you an idea of the water regime you should aim for.

Controlling pollution
If your wetland is affected by water pollution from agricultural or urban run-off,
you may want to take steps to control or mitigate it. Fencing the wetland is a good
first step to improving wetland water quality. This will also allow wetland plants
to regenerate (see section below), although you’ll need to keep an eye out for
weeds that grazing may have suppressed.
If you can’t control the water pollution source, you may want to consider planting
a buffer of native plants around the wetland edge. This will help catch sediment
and nutrients before they enter the wetland or neighbouring streams. Dense
planting with one productive species can be the best option for pollution control.
See Sections 8 and 9 for details on where to find more information on controlling
pollution.

Bringing back native plants and animals

While this guide focuses on wetland hydrology, there are several good sources
of information on restoring plants and animals in wetlands. Contact Greater
Wellington Regional Council for a copy of the booklet A Beginner’s Guide to
Wetland Restoration, which covers planting, weed and pest control.
Freshwaters of New Zealand also contains a chapter on wetland restoration. See
Section 9 for more information.

20 Understanding the ‘wet’ in wetlands

7. Monitoring the wetland hydrology

Decide what to monitor

Your wetland hydrology monitoring programme doesn’t have to be complex
or comprehensive.
Simple things you may like to monitor include:
• water levels – the surface water depth and water table depth
• the stream flow into and out of the wetland
• rainfall. Measuring water
table levels
Measuring water table levels fortnightly or monthly over a year or two will give fortnightly or
you a picture of what’s happening under the ground. Note you may want to monthly over a year
measure them more often during times of flood or drought. or two will give you
a picture of what’s
It’s also useful to record regularly your general observations about water in the happening under the
wetland, and take photographs. You can record information on: ground.

• the extent of water coverage, especially after flooding (use pegs to mark levels
during different floods)
• the types of stream inflows (where applicable) e.g. one defined channel or
many channels
• any ecological observations (such as what birds are seen, when plants have
flowered and any plants that appear to be dying).
You can also gain a good idea of the hydrology using local knowledge of the
wetland, such as how often it floods and the extent and depth of water.
The detailed Handbook for Monitoring Wetland Condition, published by the Ministry
for the Environment (2004) is a useful resource for designing a monitoring
strategy for your wetland.

Keep records
Whatever you decide to monitor, keep all your information together in a journal,
such as a bound exercise book or diary. Record the dates, measurements and any
other observations. Make your records descriptive.

Take photographs
Photographs are an extremely valuable addition to your monitoring journal.
Create ‘photo points’ or include a marker (such as a tree) in a panorama to help
get the same shot each time. Date and store the photographs in an album.

Record the extent of water

It’s useful to know the extent of water in your wetland during wet and dry
periods. After a flood you can mark it out with pegs. This will give a good idea
of where the wetland boundary is if an area has been grazed, and will help you
decide where to put any fences.

Understanding the ‘wet’ in wetlands 21

 Measure the water levels
Aim to take water measurements fortnightly, or weekly if you can. After lots of
rain, it’s a good idea to take measurements daily. Depending on your budget, you
may want to consider buying an electronic water level recorder, which costs about
$250.

Measuring water levels above ground (surface water)

The best way to measure the water depth is to install a ‘staff gauge’ (see Figure
4, Figure 5 and the box below). A staff gauge has centimetre intervals marked on
it and is stuck to a stake in the wetland. If you can’t get a staff gauge, you can
improvise – use a wooden post or marks on a tree. You may need gumboots or
waders to get close enough to read your staff gauge.

Figure 4: A wetland dip well and staff gauge

Figure 5: Staff gauges are a simple way to

measure water level in wetlands with open
water.

22 Understanding the ‘wet’ in wetlands

Installing a staff gauge
Drive a wooden or metal stake firmly into the soil. Remember there may be a lot
of ‘ooze’ in your wetland, so you may need a long stake.
Attach a gauge plate (a broad metal or plastic ruler with clearly visible
measurements) securely to the marker so it can’t move. The gauge plate should sit
at the base of any soft ooze and face the shore where you’ll make the readings.

Measuring the water level below ground (groundwater)

Surface water can disappear from the wetland during dry times, but the water
table will probably remain close to the ground surface, maintaining wet soils.
It’s useful to continue monitoring the depth to the water table using a simple
monitoring well (or ‘dip well’) – see Figure 4 and the box below.

Building a low-cost groundwater monitoring well

• Drill a hole about 100mm in diameter to a 1-2m depth with a soil auger or a
post-hole digger, or by hand.
• To get a good indication of the water table depth, dig the hole during the driest
part of the year. Dig about 0.5-1m deeper than the water level in the open hole.
• Put about 5cm of free-draining gravel in the base of the hole.
• Get a length of pipe (a 50mm diameter PVC pipe works well) that is long
enough to protrude about 1m above ground level.
• Cut narrow slots in the pipe with a hacksaw to let the groundwater in freely.
Block the end with a cap to stop it filling up with gravel and soil.
• Fill the gap between the hole and the pipe with gravel or coarse sand – make
sure whatever you use is too big to fit through the slots you’ve cut in the pipe.
• You can cement the pipe at the ground surface to secure it.
• Flush the pipe by making a ‘bailer’ – a weighted elongated container attached
to a string − that can fit into the pipe, sink below the water level and fill with
water. The bailer can be made from a smaller diameter short length of pipe
blocked at one end. Use this several times to flush the pipe. After bailing, wait
overnight (at least) before you take a water measurement.

To measure the water depth, lower a weighted tape measure until it touches the
water surface – either use a torch or listen carefully for the ‘plonk’ as the weight
hits the water. Also measure and record the distance between the top of the pipe
and the water surface. To calculate the depth of the water table below ground
level, subtract the distance from the top of the pipe to the ground from the
distance from the top of the pipe to the water level. Record both measurements in
your monitoring journal.

Understanding the ‘wet’ in wetlands 23

 For example, in Figure 6 the groundwater level is calculated as:
• distance from top of pipe to water = 130cm (a)
• distance from top of pipe to ground = 90cm (b)
• distance from ground level to water = (a) – (b) = 130cm – 90cm = 40cm
That is, the water level is 40cm below the ground.

To measure the
water depth, lower
a weighted tape
measure until it
touches the water
surface.

Figure 6: Calculating the underground water level (after Brock, M et al, 2000. Does Your
Wetland Flood and Dry? Water Regime and Wetland Plants. LWRRDC and UNE, NSW, Australia

Measure the stream flow

Stream flow can make an important contribution to a wetland’s inflows and
outflows, so it’s useful to know, even if it is a little more complicated to calculate
than water levels (see below).
Stream flow is easiest to measure where the stream is straight or where you can
build a measuring weir. Any structure constructed in, on or over the bed of a
river requires a resource consent unless it is specifically allowed by a rule in
a regional plan. Greater Wellington’s Regional Freshwater Plan has rules that
allow the construction of weirs and dams in intermittently flowing streams,
subject to complying with conditions in the rules. Before installing any structure
in the bed of a river (this includes streams and modified watercourses), read the
rules on www.gw.govt.nz/regionalrules or contact the Consents Help Desk on
0800 496 734.

24 Understanding the ‘wet’ in wetlands

Measuring stream flow
When measuring stream flow, choose a straight part of the stream that is confined
to a single straight channel.
Stream flow = cross-sectional area of the stream x average speed of flow
The cross-sectional area of the stream channel is the width of the stream,
multiplied by the average depth of the water. You can estimate the average water
depth by measuring the depth at several points evenly distributed across the
stream, and then taking the average of those measurements.
Work out the average speed of the stream flow by using hand-held velocity
meters, or more simply the ‘floating-orange technique’ where an orange is timed
as it floats downstream (oranges, being 90% water, float just below the surface).
Make sure you use the same measurement units for the cross-sectional area and
the flow velocity measurements.
Here’s an example of a stream flow calculation:
• the cross section area of water in the channel is 1.2m wide by 0.3m deep =
0.36m2
• the average flow velocity using the floating orange technique is 10m in 50
seconds (10 divided by 50) = 0.2m per second
• the stream flow is therefore 0.36 x 0.2 = 0.072m3 per second, or 6,220m3 per day
(there are 86,400 seconds in a day).

Record the rainfall

A rain gauge can provide valuable site-specific data for assessing the wetland
water regime. It can be read weekly, or even daily, during periods of heavy rain.
A farm supply store is likely to have standard rain gauges for sale. Mount yours
in an open space within or near the wetland and away from any sheltering or
turbulence effects caused by vegetation.

Interpret the data

A computer database is useful for processing and analysing data. You can plot
water level measurements on graphs, using different lines for different staff
gauges or groundwater monitoring wells. The graphs will illustrate the wetland
hydrological regime and give you an idea of the patterns and processes that give
the wetland its unique characteristics. When characterising the water regime,
questions you could ask are:
• Is the pattern of water presence and depth related to season?
• Do the maximum depth and spread of surface water vary from year to year?
• Does the timing of flooding vary from year to year and how often does it
flood?
• How long does surface water stay present, and how quickly does the water
level respond after rainfall?

Understanding the ‘wet’ in wetlands 25

 • Is the amount of surface water flowing into the wetland about equal to the
amount of water flowing out?
• Does the wetland dry out, and for how long?
• How does the groundwater level fluctuate, is it seasonal, does it respond to
rainfall events?
• How do these observations tie in with your observations of the wetland
habitat?
By plotting and tracking the changes in the water regime and plant habitats over
time, you can interpret the changes you have observed. Greater Wellington staff
may be able to help with this interpretation.
The information will help you decide if your project to restore a more natural
water regime is working, or if further management is needed.
Figure 7 is an example of a water regime from Queen Elizabeth Park, Kapiti
Coast. You can see the pattern and timing of flooding and drying. The wetland is
ephemeral, with the water level generally only above the surface in spring (the
wettest time of year in Kapiti).

Figure 7: The timing of flooding and drying of a wetland in Queen Elizabeth Park, Kapiti Coast.

26 Understanding the ‘wet’ in wetlands

8. Finding out more
If you’d like to know more about any of the subjects covered in this guide, see the
information sources below.
Remember to ask for help if you need it. Wetland management experience is
increasing in our community – it’s just a matter of asking around.

Greater Wellington Regional Council

Wetland Advisory Service. Greater Wellington provides advice and assistance for
landowners restoring wetlands. Information about Greater Wellington’s wetland
programme is available at www.gw.govt.nz/wetlands or by calling 04 384 5708 or
0800 496 734, or email [email protected].
Resource consents. Your wetland restoration may involve activities that require
a resource consent, for example, to dam or divert water, or place a structure
in a river. Information about resource consent requirements is available at
www.gw.govt.nz/regionalrules or by calling 04 384 5708 or 0800 496 734, or email
[email protected]. You may also need to contact your local
district or city council.

Department of Conservation
The Department of Conservation may be able to advise you on how to identify,
maintain, legally protect and enhance wetlands. Contact your local office or visit
www.doc.govt.nz.

National Wetland Trust

The National Wetland Trust seeks to increase New Zealanders’ appreciation
of wetlands and their values. To find out more about its work, check out
www.wetlandtrust.org.nz

New Zealand Landcare Trust

The New Zealand Landcare Trust helps with community group projects and can
sometimes provide funding. Visit www.landcare.org.nz or phone 0508 526 322.

Fish and Game New Zealand

Fish and Game New Zealand can provide specialist advice and support for
landowners seeking to enhance wetlands or develop farm ponds for game bird
habitat. Funding may be available. Find out more at www.fishandgame.org.nz or
phone their Wellington office on 04 4776118.

Crown Research Institutes

Landcare Research (Manaaki whenua) and NIWA (the National Institute of
Water and Atmospheric Research) carry out scientific research into how wetlands
function and on science-based methods for restoring wetlands. Find out more
about how hydrology controls the habitat and use of wetlands by plants and
animals, and what this means for restoration, at www.landcareresearch.co.nz and
www.niwa.co.nz.
Understanding the ‘wet’ in wetlands 27
 QEII National Trust
The QEII National Trust helps private landowners protect natural areas such as
wetlands, by using covenants. For more information, visit www.qe2.org.nz or
phone 0508 732 878.

New Zealand Ecological Restoration Network (NZERN)

NZERN is a non-profit, community-driven organisation dedicated to sharing
knowledge and experiences about native habitat protection, management and
ecological restoration. Check out www.bush.org.nz.

28 Understanding the ‘wet’ in wetlands

9. Further reading
• Freshwaters of New Zealand (2004) Harding JS, Mosley MP, Pearson CP and
Sorrell BK (Editors), New Zealand Hydrological and Limnological Societies.
This book contains useful chapters on wetland restoration and wetland
hydrology.
• Handbook for Monitoring Wetland Condition (2003, revised edition 2004)
Clarkson BR, Sorrell BK, Reeves PN, Champion PD, Partridge TR and
Clarkson BD, A Ministry for the Environment Sustainable Management Fund
Project.
Electronic copies of this publication are available at through the National
Wetland Trust’s publications section on their website www.wetlandtrust.org.
nz or at www.smf.govt.results/5015_handbook_2004.pdf
• A beginner’s guide to wetland restoration (2003) Greater Wellington Regional
Council.
This easy to read booklet describes wetlands and why they are important,
what lives in them and the general steps to follow to restore a wetland. You
can get a copy by contacting Greater Wellington on 04 384 5708 or email
[email protected] or read it on www.gw.govt.nz.
• Wetland Types in New Zealand (2004) Johnson P and Gerbeaux P, Coordinated
Monitoring of New Zealand Wetlands.
Classifying wetlands helps in recognising wetland types, so that each can
be better understood, managed and monitored. This book describes and
illustrates how different wetland types (e.g. swamp, bog, marsh) can be
recognised and named.
• Wetlands (2000) Mitsch WJ and Gosselink JG.
Wetlands is the international textbook on wetlands. It has a good wetland
hydrology chapter and is more commonly found in university and other
specialist libraries than local libraries.

Understanding the ‘wet’ in wetlands 29

 Appendix 1: Types of freshwater wetland
Understanding where a wetland gets its water from, and how much and how
often, is part of the key to working out what type of wetland it is. If you’re
planning to restore your wetland, this information will be important in guiding
your restoration actions.
Freshwater wetlands in New Zealand can be grouped into different wetland
classes based on their substrate, water source, nutrient status and pH12:
• Ephemeral wetland: a wetland found in closed depressions without a surface
outlet, with highly varied water levels owing to seasonal variations in rainfall.
This wetland is fed by groundwater or nearby surface water. Water flow is
slow to nil and nutrient levels are moderate. Vegetation tends to be turf and
sward, and sometimes also rushland and scrub.
• Bog: a peat wetland that gets its water entirely from rainfall. Bogs have very
low nutrient levels and are acidic. The water table is generally close to the
ground surface and relatively constant, with almost no water flow. Bogs
support a wide range of plants, including mosses, lichens, cushion plants,
sedges, grasses, ferns, shrubs and trees. New Zealand bogs are famous for their
restiad rushes, especially wire rush, which is often the dominant plant species
and forms their peat.
• Fen: a wetland with either peaty or mineral soil13, in which rainfall,
groundwater and surface inflows can all be important water and nutrient
sources. Fens have poor to moderate nutrient levels. The water table is
generally close to the surface and water flow is slow to moderate. Fens often
support the most diverse plant species of all wetlands, including sedges, ferns,
tall herbs, tussock grasses, scrub and many other plants.
• Marsh: a mainly mineral wetland, fed by groundwater or surface water of slow
to moderate flow. Water levels may fluctuate markedly and the water table
is usually below the surface. Standing or slowly moving water periodically
inundates marshes. They have moderate to high nutrient levels. Marsh
vegetation is often rushland, grassland, sedgeland or herbfield. Tall harakeke
(flax), raupo and tussock sedges often dominate marshes. They are prone to
weed invasion.
• Swamp: a wetland where most of the water comes from groundwater seepage
or surface run-off (e.g. streams), carrying dissolved nutrients and often
suspended sediment. Swamps usually have a combination of mineral and peat
substrates and permanently wet channels with gentle flow. They are relatively
rich in nutrients and the water table is usually permanently above at least
some of the ground surface. Swamps support sedges, rushes, reeds, flax, tall
herbs, scrub and forest. They are prone to weed invasion.

12
Johnson and Gerbeaux, 2004.
13
Peat soils are formed from the remains of plant material that has built up over long periods
of time in wet conditions where a lack of oxygen prevents the rapid breakdown of material.
Mineral soils contain few decomposing plants; instead they are made up of clay, sand, or silt.

30 Understanding the ‘wet’ in wetlands

• Seepage: a wetland on a slope where water percolates to the soil surface, but
with less flow than a spring or stream. Seepages are usually located where
groundwater diffuses to the surface – they are sites of active water movement.
Seepage vegetation is usually low, such as moss, cushion or sedges, but
sometimes includes scrub or forest.
• Shallow water: areas of shallow water generally less than about two metres
deep on the margins of streams, lakes and rivers. Emergent plants that grow in
shallow water include lake club rush and bamboo spike rush.
• Pakihi and gumland: areas with mature or skeletal soils of very low fertility
– wholly mineral or sometimes with peat. They tend to be rain-fed with a poor
ability to transport water. They are frequently saturated but seasonally dry.
Pakihi and gumland wetlands usually support heathland vegetation (shrubs
with restiads, sedges and ferns).

Figure 8: Many of the wetlands on private land in New Zealand are swamps.

Understanding the ‘wet’ in wetlands 31

Water, air, earth and energy: elements in Greater Wellington’s logo combine to create and sustain life. Greater Wellington promotes
Quality for Life by ensuring our environment is protected while meeting the economic, cultural and social needs of the community.

CONTACT:

Greater Wellington Greater Wellington is the

Regional Council promotional name of the
Wellington Office Wellington Regional Council
P O Box 11646 Prepared by Greater Wellington Regional Council with support
from the Government’s Biodiversity Advice Fund. Published May 2005
T 04 384 5708
F 04 385 6960 Any part of this booklet may be reproduced and distributed GW/RP-G-05/35
W www.gw.govt.nz provided acknowledgement is given to Greater Wellington. ISBN 0-909016-86-0