Mod 3 B
Mod 3 B
Mod 3 B
The function of the communication system is to make available at the destination a signal
originating at a distant point. This signal is called the desired signal. Unfortunately,
during the passage of the signal through the channel and front-end of the receiver, this
desired signal gets corrupted by a number of undesired signals. This is referred to as
Noise. Noise is any unknown or unwanted signal. Noise is the static you hear in the
speaker when you tune any AM or FM receiver to any position between stations. It is also
the snow or confetti that is visible on a TV screen.
The signal n (t) gets added at the channel. It disturbs the transmission and processing
of signal in Communication System. Over which one cannot have a control. In
general term it is an unwanted signal that affects a wanted signal. It is a random
signal that cannot be represented with a simple equation. But some time can be
deterministic components (power supply hum, certain oscillations).Deterministic
Components can be eliminated by proper shielding and introduction of notch filters.
If their were no noise perfect communication would be possible with minimum
transmitted power. At the receiver only amplification of the signal power to the
desired level is required.
Transmitter Receiver
T (x) R (x)
If R (x) ≠ T (x) then e (x) ≠ 0.The received signal is corrupted. If channel is
noiseless then e (x)=0.If channel is noisy then e (x) ≠ 0
During the course of signal T (x) travel it experience attenuation, time delay, additive
noise. These disturbance, attenuation, interference are termed as noise. Practically
Noise is always possible.Amplifying the received signal does not help. As Amplifiers
amplify both signal as well as noise components equally. Noise cannot be removed by
filtering. Because of very large bandwidth. More than the signal bandwidth. In band
noise is the noise within the signal bandwidth. Out of band noise is the noise outside
the signal bandwidth. In band noise cannot be removed by filters, whereas Out of
band noise can be removed by filters. Its effect is degrading system performance for
both analog and digital systems. Receiver cannot understand the original signal and
hence cannot function as it should be. This reduces the efficiency of communication
system. The key contributors for noise interference is Crosstalk, Coupling by
scattering of signal in the atmosphere, Cross-polarization: two system that transmit
on the same frequency, and interference due to insufficient guard bands or filtering
Attenuation
- Loss of energy due to resistance of medium.]
Distortion
- The signal changes its form due to the differing propagating speed of each of the
Noise
-External environment that corrupt a signal.
Noise may be classified depending on the location of the source. External and Internal
with reference to the receiver.
Types of Internal Noise:
Shot Noise:
Shot noise is produced by random movement of electrons or holes across a amplifying
device due to discontinuities.
The shot noise is produced due to shot effect. Due to the shot effect, shot noise is
produced in all the amplifying devices rather in all the active devices.
It appears as a randomly varying noise current superimposed on the output.
The shot noise "sounds" like a shower of lead shots falling on a metal sheet.
The shot noise has a uniform spectral density like thermal noise. The exact formula for
the shot noise can be obtained only for diodes.
For all other devices an approximate equation is stated. The mean square shot noise
current for a diode is given as,
-------- (1)
Here,
I = direct current across the junction (in amp)
Io = reverse saturation current (in amp)
q = electron charge = 1.6 x 10-19 C.
B = effective noise bandwidth in Hz.
For the amplifying devices the shot noise is:
1. Inversely proportional to the transconductance of the device.
2. Directly proportional to the output current.
Partition Noise:
This noise is generated when the current gets divided between two or more paths.
It is generated due to the random fluctuation in the current divisions.
This type of noise is higher in transistor as compared to the diode.
----------------- (1)
Here,
k = Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38 X 10-23 Joule/Kelvin
T = Temperature of the conductor in o Kelvin
B = Bandwidth of interest in Hz.
Equation (1) indicates that a conductor operated at a finite temperature can work as a
generator of electrical energy.
The thermal noise power Pn is proportional to the noise BW and conductor temperature.
From this equivalent circuit, we can compute the resistor's equivalent noise voltage V n.
Let us consider that a noiseless load resistor RL, is connected across the noise generator
as shown in figure.
According to maximum power transfer theorem, for maximum transfer of power from
noise voltage source Vn to load resistor RL, we must have
----------- (1)
Then the maximum noise power so transferred will be given as
Thus,
------------ (2)
But, , thus
----------- (3)
We may conclude that the square of the RMS noise voltage associated with a resistor is
proportional to the absolute temperature T of resistor, value R of the resistor and the
bandwidth B over which noise is being measured.
At this point, it may be noted that the noise voltage is independent of the frequency at
which it is measured. This happens because of the fact that this noise is random and so on
an average is evenly distributed over the frequency spectrum.
Norton's theorem may be used to find an equivalent current generator as shown in figure
below. This equivalent current generator is called as current model of a noisy resistor.
Using conductance G = 1/R , the RMS noise current In for current model of a noisy
resistor will be expressed as
------------- (4)
Thermal Noise Due to Several Sources (Resistors):
Resistors in Series:
------------- (1)
---------- (2)
Using the same logic if a number of resistors are connected in series then the resultant
noise voltage is given by
----------- (3)
------------- (4)
Resistors in Parallel:
For the parallel connection of the resistors R1 and R2 the current (Norton) equivalent
circuits should be used. The equivalent circuits are as shown in the Figures (a) and (b)
below.
As the two conductances G1 and G2 are in parallel, the effective value of conductance is
given by Gp = G1+G2.
The noise current generated by the conductance Gp is given as,
---------- (1)
---------- (2)
Using the same logic if a number of resistors are connected in parallel then the resultant
noise voltage is given by
----------- (3)
If it is required to obtain the voltage generator equivalent circuit for parallel connection
of the resistors then the equivalent parallel resistance Rp is given as,
------- (4)
Thus,
------- (5)
White Noise:
Noise in an idealized form is known as white noise. Thus, in a communication system,
the noise analysis is based on an idealized form of noise, i.e., white noise.
As white light consists of all colure frequencies, in the same manner, white noise contains
all frequencies in equal amount.
The power density spectrum of a white noise is independent of frequency. This means
that white noise consists of all the frequency components in equal amount.
If the probability of occurrence of a white noise is specified by a Gaussian distribution
function, it is called as white Gaussian Noise.
Since the power density spectrum of thermal and shot noise is independent of the
operating frequencies, therefore, shot noise and thermal noise can be treated as white
Gaussian Noise for all practical purposes.
The power spectrum density of white noise is expressed as,
-------- (1)
Here, the factor 1/2 has been included to show that half of the power is associated with
the positive frequencies and remaining half with the negative frequencies. This has been
shown in figure below.
The power spectrum density of white noise shown in figure above reveals the fact that it
has no dc power, i.e., the mean or average value of white noise is zero. In addition to this,
the auto-correlation function of the power spectrum density of white noise may be
obtained by simply taking the inverse Fourier transform of both sides of expression
The power spectral density and auto correlation function form a Fourier transform pair,
Above is the expression for the auto correlation function of white noise. The auto
correlation function can is plotted below
The filter above is being used to reduce the noise power actually passed on to the
receiver. Now consider an ideal (rectangular) filter as shown by the dotted plot in Figure
above. The center frequency of this ideal filter also is fo.
Let the bandwidth "BN" of the ideal filler be adjusted in such a way that the noise output
power of the ideal filter is exactly equal to the noise output power of a real R-C filter.
Then BN is called as the noise bandwidth of the real filter.
Properties of Inphase and Quadrature components of a Narrowband Noise:
1. The in-phase component nI(t) and quadrature component nQ(t) of narrowband noise n(t)
have zero mean.
2. If the narrowband noise n(t) is Gaussian, then its in-phase component nI(t) and quadrature
component nQ(t) are jointly Gaussian.
3. If the narrowband noise n(t) is stationary, then its in-phase component nI(t) and
quadrature component nQ(t) are jointly stationary.
4. Both the in-phase component nI(t) and quadrature component nQ(t) have the same power
spectral density.
5. The in-phase component nI(t) and quadrature component nQ(t) have the same variance as
the narrowband noise n(t).
6. The cross-spectral density of the in-phase and quadrature components of narrow-band
noise n(t) is purely imaginary.
7. If the narrowband noise n(t) is Gaussian and its power spectral density S n(t) is symmetric
about the mid-band frequency fc, then the in-phase component nI(t) and quadrature
component nQ(t) are statistically independent.
Noise Factor:
It is defined as the ratio of the signal to noise power ratio supplied to the input terminals
of a receiver or amplifier to the signal to noise power ratio supplied to the output or load
resistor.
It is denoted by F and is given as,
------------- (1)
Here,
Psi and Pni = Signal and noise power at the input
Pso and Pno = Signal and noise power at the output.
The temperature to calculate the noise power is assumed to be the room temperature.
The S/N at the input will always be greater than that at the output. This is due to the noise
added by the amplifier. Therefore the noise factor is the means to measure the amount of
noise added and it will always be greater than one. The ideal value of the noise factor is
unity.
The noise factor F is sometimes frequency dependent. Then its value determined at one
frequency is known as the spot nose factor and the frequency must be stated along with
the spot noise factor.
---------- (2)
Substituting equation (2) in (1)
--------- (4)
Thus,
------------ (3)
Thus with increase in the noise factor F, the noise power at the output will increase.
Higher the noise factor value is more will be noise contributed by the amplifier.
Noise Figure:
Often the noise factor is expressed in decibels. When noise factor is expressed in
decibels it is called noise figure.
-------- (1)
Noise Temperature:
The equivalent noise temperature is another way of measuring noise alternative to noise
figure or noise factor.
The equivalent noise temperature is used in dealing with the UHF and microwave low
noise antennas, receivers or devices.
Definition: The temperature at which the noisy resistor has to be maintained so that by
connecting this resistor to the input of a noiseless version of the system, it will produce
the same amount of noise power at the system output as that produced by the actual
system.
Problems:
1. A noise generator using diode is required to produce 15µV noise voltage in a receiver which
has an input impedance of 75Ω. The receiver has a noise power bandwidth of 200 kHz. Find the
current through the diode.
Solution:
Given: Vn=15µV, R=75Ω, B=200 kHz
Current through the diode is given by,
2. A receiver has a noise power bandwidth of 12 kHz. A resistor which matches with the receiver
input impedance is connected across the antennas terminals. What is the noise power contributed
by this receiver bandwidth? Assume temperature to be 300 C.
Solution:
Given: B=12 kHz, T=300 C=30+273=3030K
Noise power contributed by the receiver is,
3. A 600 Ω resistor is connected across a 600 Ω antenna input of a radio receiver. The bandwidth
of the radio receiver is 20 kHz and the resistor is at room temperature of 270 C. Calculate the
noise power and the noise voltage applied at the input of the receiver.
Solution:
Given: R1=600 Ω , R2=600 Ω , B=20 kHz, T=270 C=27+273=3000 K
4. Two resistors 28 kΩ and 51 kΩ are at room temperature T = 290 o Kelvin. Calculate for a
bandwidth of 100 kHz, the mean square value and RMS value of thermal noise voltage:
a. For each resistor
b. For two resistors in series and
c. For two resistors in parallel
Solution:
Given: R1=28 kΩ, R2=51 kΩ, T=290o Kelvin, B=100 kHz
a. the mean square value of thermal noise voltage for each resistors
R1=28 kΩ
R2=51 kΩ
RMS value of thermal noise voltage for each resistor:
R1=28 kΩ
R2=51 kΩ
b. For two resistors in series the mean square value of thermal noise voltage:
For two resistors in parallel the mean square value of thermal noise voltage:
For two resistors in parallel the RMS value of thermal noise voltage:
5. An amplifier is fed from a 100 Ω, 15 µV RMS sinusoidal signal source. Its equivalent input
noise resistance and equivalent input current are 250 Ω and 6 µA, respectively. Calculate the
individual noise voltages at the input and the input SNR. Assume noise bandwidth is 10MHz and
temperature is 30oC.
Solution:
Given: Rs=100 Ω, Vs=15 µV, Ran=250 Ω, Ia=6 µA, B=10MHz, T=273+30=303oK
Noise voltage due signal source:
6. The signal power and noise power measured at the input of an amplifier are 150 µW and 1.5
µW respectively. If the signal power at the output 1.5 W and noise power is 40 mW, Calculate
the amplifier noise factor and noise figure.
Solution:
Given: Psi= 150 µW, Pni=1.5 µW, Pso= 1.5 W, Pno=40 mW