Bab 34 Radiologi

34
close to the probe but a limited field of view. Whereas many

patients prefer cndovaginal scanning, it is inappropriate in the
very young, the very elderly and any patient who is virgo intacta.
It is therefore important to be able to perform both types of scan
Ultrasound, either transabdominal or cndovaginal, is the mainstay
of imaging of the pelvis. with confidence.
Transabdominal ultrasound (TAS) is usually performed with a
3-4 MHz sector or convex probe and requires the patient to have a
full bladder. The distended bladder displaces small bowel out of the
pelvis, pushes the uterus posteriorly and the ovaries laterally The pelvic side-walls are lined by iliacus and psoas muscles. Iliacus
t owards the pelvic side walls. The optimally distended bladder pro- arises from the iliac wings and descends posterolateral to psoas into
jectsjust beyond the fundus of a normal sized uterus. If the bladder the pelvis. The two muscles run obliquely, passing posterior to the
i s inadequately distended the pelvic structures may he obscured by i nguinal ligament to form a joint tendon that inserts onto the greater
bowel gas, but ih overdistended the uterus becomes elongated and trochanter. These muscles are visualised on ultrasound as paired
the ovaries displaced too far laterally. Longitudinal (sagittal) and hypoechoic striated structures, separated by an echogenic fascial
transverse scans are performed using the bladder as a window. plane. The iliac vessels lie on psoas and can be used to define the
̶̰ϴϧϭήΘ̰ϟ΍ ήθϧ
Endovaginal scanning (EVS) is best performed with an empty normal position of the ovaries.
bladder and utilises a higher frequency sector/curvilinear probe Vagina (Fig. 34.1) The vagina is visualised abdominally as two
( typically 5-7 MHz) giving improved res , slution of structures linear hypoechoic muscular walls around an echogenic mucosa. It
i s usually empty but may contain fluid or blood during menstrua-
tion or after bathing. A vaginal tampon can be visualised as a
highly reflective structure with a strong acoustic shadow, often
causing displacement of the cervix or bladder base (Fig. 34.2).
̶Η΍έΎθΘϧ΍ ϪδγϮϣ
ζϧ΍ΩέϮϧ
Fig. 34.1 Sagittal transabdominal scan (TAS) showing measurement of
uterine size (white crosses) and a moderately thick luteal phase Fig. 34.2 Sagittal TAS. Deformity of the bladder base and acoustic shad-
endometrium (arrowheads). Arrows indicate vaginal walls. owing due to a vaginal tampon (arrows).
1069
The configuration of most endovaginal probes (end-firing and Suspensory ligaments and fallopian tubes The uterus is sus-
sector) limits their value in examining the vagina, although some pended in the pelvis by the uterosacral and round ligaments. The
visualisation is obtained by slowly withdrawing the probe and uterosacral ligaments run posteriorly to the anterior surface of the
examining the vaginal walls as they collapse around the end of the sacrum and the round ligaments run laterally towards the inguinal
probe. This technique can also be quite effective in examining the canal. The round ligaments are invested in a double layer of peri-
female urethra. toneum, known as the broad ligament. The fallopian tubes run in
the broad ligament towards the ovary. Normally the suspensory
Cervix and uterus (Fig. 34. /) The uterus is a pear-shaped strut-
which varies in size according to the age and hormonal ligaments and fallopian tubes cannot be visualised on ultrasound:
tare,
however, they may be visualised in the presence of ascites or
status of the patient. Before puberty the cervix is large and the
when a hydrosalpinx develops.
body of the uterus small, but following the menarche the uterine
body increases in size to an overall length of 7-8 cm. Following Ovaries (Fig.r 34.5, 34.6) The ovaries are oval structures, usually
the menopause the uterus and cervix slowly involute to 5-6 cnt. closely related to the iliac vessels on the pelvic side-wall. The,
The uterus is variable in position and may lie straight or are less echogenic than the uterus and may contain a variable
obliquely within the pelvis. The degree of anteversion or retrover- number of small cysts/follicles. Ovarian size varies according to
sion is of little consequence to the patient-indeed it changes in the age and hormonal status of the patient. Less than 7.5 ml is
some patents with the degree of bladder filling. A retroverted, considered normal in menstruating women but in postmenopausal
retroflexed uterus can be difficult to visualise with abdominal scan- women the volume should be less than 3 nil.
ning but is easily seen with an endovaginal scan. The ovarian volume is calculated using the formula for a pellate
It should be possible to see the endometrium throughout the ellipse, i.e. 0.5 (length x depth x breadth).
uterus and the endocervical canal. The endometrial thickness is The position of the ovaries varies. They may be deep in the
conventionally measured as a double layer (Fig. 34.3). The deeper pouch of Douglas or high up on the pelvic side-wall. If the ovaries
hypoechoic layer has been shown to represent the most superficial are not seen in the expected position it is therefore important to
l ayer of myometrium and is not included in the endometrial
measurement.
The uterus should have a homogeneous poorly reflective echo-
texture. Small blood vessels (arcuate veins and arteries) are fre-
quently visible running around the periphery of the body and
extending into the broad ligament. Prominent dilated veins in the
broad ligament, extending into the uterus and around the cervix, are
a feature of pelvic congestion syndrome. These veins are typically
l arge (6 mm) and have very slow flow within them. Some patients
with dilated veins (or varices) have a history of pelvic pain; how-
ever, many are completely asymptomatic so there is debate about
their significance. Arterial calcification is seen in the elderly and
those with diabetes or chronic renal failure. Tiny flecks of
calcification at the endometrial-myometrial interface are occasion-
ally seen following pregnancy (Fig. 34.4). These are usually of no Fig. 34.4 EVS. Small flecks of calcification (arrows) at the myometrial
significance but similar appearances can be caused by intrauterine endometrial interface representing tiny insignificant fragments of retained
adhesions. Small retention cysts (nabothian follicles) are also nor- placenta following pregnancy.
mally seen along the endocervical canal.
ζϧ΍ΩέϮϧ
Fig. 34.3 Endovaginal scan (EVS). Measurement of the endometrium
(black arrows). Note there are five layers included in the measurement but
the deeper hypoechoic layer (white arrows) is not included. The central
echogenic line (black arrowhead) is due to the interface of the two layers of
endometrium. Fig. 34.5 EVS. Normal quiescent ovary lying on the iliac vessels.
GYNAECOLOGICAL IMAGING 1071
Fig. 34.8 EVS. Dominant follicle (arrows) developing in a normal ovary.
Fig. 34.6 EVS. Atrophic postmenopausal ovary (arrowheads).
continue scanning above the level of the distended bladder. In thin

patients this may require scanning with a high-frequency linear
probe. This is particularly true following Wertheim's hysterectomy
if the surgeon moves the ovaries out of the pelvis (to avoid any
subsequent radiation field and to help prevent dyspareunia).
Ovaries can be seen in over 90% of normal menstruating women
and approximately 60% of postmenopausal women, depending on
age.
Doppler ultrasound The uterine arteries arise from the internal

iliac arteries and ascend from the cervix in the broad ligament
alongside the lateral surface of the uterine body. The main uterine
Fig. 34.9 EVS. Clot retraction within a normal corpus luteum (arrows).
arteries and their intrauterine branches can be seen with colour
The angular margins and lack of blood flow within the solid triangular area
Doppler and spectral Doppler used to obtain waveforms from confirm this is clot rather than a solid nodule.
these vessels (Fig. 34.7). Similarly ovarian perfusion can be
assessed. The ovaries obtain blood via the uterine arteries and also The menstrual cycle (Figs 34.8-34.11)
directly from the aorta. Flow in the uterine branches can usually Before puberty the uterine body is small, with a relatively large
be seen in the broad ligament superior to the uterus. Visualisation
cervix and thin, barely visible endometrium. The ovaries are also
of intraovarian vessels depends on ovarian activity. The most small, with few or no cysts or follicles. At puberty the uterus
commonly used indices to assess perfusion are the resistive index changes in shape and several small cysts/follicles measuring
(RI) and the pulsatility index (PI).
5-8 turn appear in the ovaries. These appearances are associated
with low levels of circulating oestrogens and frequent anovulatory
cycles typical of the menarche.
Once menstruation is established, regular cyclical changes occur
in the appearance of the ovaries and uterus, reflecting the associated
hormonal changes.
The follicular phase begins on day I of the menstrual cycle with
the development of a small number of follicles. The endometrium is
a thin echogenic line. From day 8-10 one follicle becomes domi-
nant and continues growing at a rate of 2-3 mm/day, while the
other follicles regress. This is accompanied by an increase in thick-
ζϧ΍ΩέϮϧ
ness and change in appearance of the endometrium to a five-layer
appearance typical of midcycle (Fig. 34.3). About day 14, when the
follicle measures 18-25 mm, ovulation occurs. Ovulation is indi-
cated in 90% of cycles by disappearance of the follicle and escape
of fluid around the ovary or into the pouch of Douglas. Other indi-
cators of ovulation include a decrease in size, change in shape and
the presence of internal echoes within the follicle.
The luteal phase commences following ovulation and lasts 14
Fig. 34.7 EVS. Power Doppler showing uterine artery (arrows) running days, unless pregnancy supervenes. The endometrium loses its mul-
alongside the uterine body. tilayer appearance and becomes progressively more echogenic
Fig. 34.11 Corpus luteum. Spectral Doppler shows low impedance flow
with RI of 0.57.
i n the postmenopausal patient are those of an inactive ovary, i.e.

high impedance flow, such as is seen in the early follicular phase.
Fig. 34.10 (A) EVS. I rregularly shaped echogenic cyst (arrowheads) due
to a collapsing corpus luteum. (B) Colour Doppler. Flow around the corpus
l uteum (arrows) due to neovascularisation. Approximately 20% of menstruating women have polw_rstic ovaries
( Figs 34.12, 34.13). This is an inherited condition with a wide spec-
(Fig. 34.1), with a normal thickness of 12-14 mm immediately tram of clinical features, ranging from the rare Stein-Leventhal
prior to menstruation. The developing corpus luteum can be syndrome, comprising amenorrhoea, obesity and hirsutism, to
detected as an irregular cyst containing internal echoes due to blood patients without any obvious symptoms. Many, but not all, patients
or a hypoechoic area. Occasionally a well-defined luteal cyst devel- have measurable hormonal abnormalities, the commonest of which
ops and slowly increases in size to 25-40 mm. They usually resolve is a raised LH:FSH ratio, thought to be responsible for excess andro-
spontaneously over the next few months but can cause symptoms if gen production by the ovaries. Clinical features of polycystic ovaries
they are large or undergo a complication such as haemorrhage, i nclude:
torsion or rupture.
• Oligomenorrhoea and other menstrual disorders including
Doppler studies During menstruation and the early follicular dysmenorrhoea and menorrhagia
phase there is relatively high impedance flow in the ovary, i.e. the • Hirsutism-90% hirsute patients have polycystic ovaries
RI is approximately 0.7. Following ovulation and neovascularisa- • Acne
tion of the corpus luteum, diastolic flow increases, leading to lower • I nfertility (the commonest cause of anovulatory infertility)
i mpedance flow and typical values of less than 0.6 for the RI. • Recurrent miscarriage
• Obesity due to insulin resistance and impaired glucose tolerance
Menopause The menopause is characterised by involution of the
uterus and ovaries over a period of about 5 years. Normal ovarian • Endometrial hyperplasia (and rarely endometrial carcinoma).
volume in postmenopausal women is less than 3 ml and normal Multifollicular ovaries (Fig. 34.14) represent a reversion to the
endometrial thickness equal to or less than 4 mm. Doppler indices ovarian morphology seen at the menarche. They arc a feature of low
ζϧ΍ΩέϮϧ
Table 34.1 Distinguishing features of ovaries causing ovulation disorders
Polycystic ovaries
Large; volume >7.5 ml

More than seven 2-5 mm follicles;
mainly peripheral distribution
Multifollicular ovaries
Normal size
Several follicles of 5-10 mm
Primary ovarian failure
Small
No evidence of follicular activity
I ncreased stroma No increased stroma No increased stroma

Large/normal uterus with Normal/small uterus with thin Small uterus with thin
thick endometrium endometrium endometrium
Fig. 34.12 EVS.polycyst uir ovar y with peripheral cysts.
Fig. 34.15 TAS. Thickened irregular endometrium (arrows) due to

tamoxifen. Note the small cysts (arrowheads) at the myometrial endome-
trial interface.
Sequential HRT i.e. oestrogens followed by progesterones for at

l east 12 days/month, are usually prescribed for perimenopausal and
early postmenopausal patients who have persistent but unpredictable
ovarian function. Most patients have regular monthly bleeds on such
Fig. 34.13 TAS. Polycystic ovary. Central and peripheral cysts. a regimen so should have an endometrium that varies in thickness
during the cycle. The maximum thickness should still be less than
8 min. Any patient found to have a mildly thickened endometrium
on sequential HRT should have a repeat scan following a withdrawal
bleed.
Continuous combined hormone replacement involves taking
oestrogen and progesterone together continuously and should result
i n endometrial atrophy within 6 months, i.e. endometrial thickness
l ess than 4 mm.
Tamoxifen Tamoxifen, used in the treatment of breast cancer, has

both antioestrogenic and oestrogenic effects and is associated
with endometrial hyperplasia, an increased incidence of polyps
and endometrial carcinoma. The uterus has a characteristic
Fig. 34.14 TAS. Multifollicular ovary (arrows) in a patient with amenor- appearance with increased thickness of the cavity echo with mul-
rhoea due to anorexia nervosa. tiple tiny cysts (Fig. 34.15). These cysts were originally thought
to be part of the endometrium but recently it has been suggested
levels of circulating oestrogens and arc seen in athletes and in asso-
that they are actually in the most superficial layer of the myo-
ciation with weight loss and anorexia nervosa.
metrium rather than the endometrium. Doppler studies in patients
Primorr ovarian,%ciilure or premature menopause is the onset of
with endometrial thickening due to tamoxifen show low imped-
dre menopause before the age of 35 years and is a rare cause of
ance flow, i.e. low values for the RI and PI.
amenorrhoea.
Value of ultrasound screening for patients on HRT Routine
screening is not indicated for patients on HRT but should be per-
formed in those with abnormal vaginal bleeding.
Combined oral contraceptive pill The uterus and ovaries are
suppressed. The endometrium should be thin and the ovaries
small with no evidence of follicular activity.
ζϧ΍ΩέϮϧ
Conventional IUCDs An IUCD is a common incidental finding
Progesterone-only pill The progesterone-only pill does not nec-
i n patients undergoing pelvic ultrasound. They are easily visu-
essarily inhibit follicular activity but the uterus should look small,
alised as highly echogenic structures with acoustic shadowing and
with a thin endometrium.
should be entirely within the uterine cavity, not protruding into
Hormone replacement therapy ( HRT) The effect of HRT on the the nryometrium or endocervical canal (Fig. 34.16). Large
uterus and ovaries depends on the type of HRT taken. fibroids, particularly if calcified, can occasionally cause difficulty.
Unopposed oesnr,gen admini.stration causes thickening of the Expulsion during menstruation does occur but most patients
endometrium due to endometrial hyperplasia. This is a precursor to referred with 'missing coil' will have the IUCD present normally
endometrial carcinoma, therefore unopposed oestrogen regimens i n the cavity, the threads having retracted into the cervical canal.
are only recommended if the patient has had a hysterectomy. Complications such as migration of the coil into or through the
1074 A TEXTBOOK OF RADIOLOGY AND IMAGING
Fig. 34.16 TAS. IUCD (arrow) in the cervical canal. Fig. 34.17 TAS. IUCD embedded in the myometrium (arrow), well
outside the cavity (arrowheads).
ζϧ΍ΩέϮϧ
Fig. 34.18 1 6-year-old girl with cyclical abdominal pain found to have a didelphys uterus with a complete vaginal septum and imperforate hymen on
the left. (A) Longitudinal scan demonstrates a large heterogeneous mass (arrows) due to blood-filled distended vagina. A small uterus and cervix (arrow-
heads) can be seen at the upper margin of the mass. (B) Longitudinal scan to the right of (A) shows a further uterus (arrowheads mark the position of the
endometrium). The normal right vagina is compressed and hence not visible. (C) Transverse scan confirming two uterine bodies. (D) Intravenous urogram.
Solitary but duplex kidney on the left.
myometrium usually occur at the time of insertion and are associ-
ated with pain (Fig. 34.17). It is rarely possible to see an IUCD
outside the uterus on ultrasound, so if there is doubt about the
presence of an IUCD on the ultrasound a plain abdominal X-ray
should he performed to exclude uterine perforation. Ultrasound is
also indicated to look for causes of difficulty inserting a coil, e.g.
large fibroid distorting the cavity or a severely retroflexed uterus.
The IUCD is associated with an increased incidence of pelvic
i nfection. In particular colonisation with Actinomycosis may occur
with long-term use and may well be asymptomatic.
Mirena coil The Mirena IUCD contains progestogens and is used
for both contraception and to treat dysfunctional uterine bleeding.
Although similar in shape to most other coils, the Mirena coil is
less echogenic than standard IUCDs and hence is harder to visu- Fig. 34.20 EVS. Two endometrial echoes (arrows) within the uterus, sug-
aliseon ultrasound, even when this is performed endovaginally. It gestive of a uterine septum.
is often seen by virtue of its acoustic shadow rather than direct
visualisation of the coil itself.
Fibroids are present in up to 20-50% of women. They are particu-
l arly common and present at a younger age in black women.
Although frequently asymptomatic, they may present with abnor-
Minor duplication abnormalities of the uterus are only of relevance mal bleeding, pain, abdominal distension, subfertility or recurrent
i n the investigation of subfertility and recurrent miscarriage and are miscarriage, the symptoms depending to a certain extent on the
discussed in more detail in the section on hysterosalpingography. l ocation and size of the fibroids. Their location in the uterus is
However, severe duplication anomalies with obstructed menstrua- described as:
lion present in adolescence and early adulthood. Typical presenting
Submucous-arising within the cavity. Rarely they can form a
symptoms are primary amenorrhoea, cyclical abdominal pain,
fibroid polyp and protrude through the os (Fig. 34.21).
pelvic mass and severe dysmenorrhoea. Ultrasound reveals a thick-
walled cystic mass, owing either to an obstructed vagina (imperfo- ' Mural within the myometrium. They may or may not abut or
distort the shape of the cavity, depending on their precise
rate hymen) or an obstructed uterus (hacmatomctrium), with
l (Fig. 34.22).
ocatinerlhsduob.Tecrtdiagnos
' Subserosal arising deep to the serosa and causing a bulge on
usually be reached if the possibility is considered and care taken to
the surface of the uterus (Fig. 34.23).
look for accessory pelvic organs. The examination must also
a pedicle usually from the serosal surface.
include visualisation of the urinary tract as there is a high incidence . Pedunculated- on
of associated single kidneys (Fig. 34.18).
• Cervical rare, i.. less than 5% fibroids.
A non-obstructed double uterus (uterus didelphys) may simulate a Fibroids are hormone-dependent, increasing in size and becoming
solid adnexal mass on pelvic examination but can be differentiated on l ess echogenic during pregnancy, and decreasing in size following
ultrasound due to the presence of a central endometrial echo the menopause. However, regression following the menopause is
(Fig. 34.19). The shape of the endometrial echo, particularly on a prevented and may be reversed in patients taking HRT.
transverse scan, can also help diagnose the less severe duplication On ultrasound, most fibroids are round, well-defined hypoechoic
anomalies (Fig. 34.20). Differentiation of a septate from a bicornuate masses with a characteristic internal architecture showing recurrent
uterus depends on identification of a fundal notch and requires visuali- shadowing (Fig. 34.24). They can be hyperechoic and may be
sation of the uterus en face. This can be difficult with conventional calcified, particularly in postmenopausal patients. Degeneration
ultrasound but is more easily achieved with 3D ultrasound. within fibroids appears as either areas of increased echogenicity or
Recognition of a unicornuate uterus is also difficult on ultrasound i rregular cystic areas (Fig. 34.25). Fibroids can he very vascular so
but can be inferred by its small size and abnormal lateral position. Doppler studies may show very low impedance flow. Malignancy
(leiomyosarcoma) is rare but should be suspected if a fibroid sud-
denly increases in size. There are no specific ultrasound features of
malignancy.
The role of ultrasound is to confirm the diagnosis and determine the
number, size and location of fibroids, as this will help determine their
ζϧ΍ΩέϮϧ
likely significance and appropriate treatment. See Table 34.2 for
differential diagnosis of fibroids.
Adenomyosis or endometriosis interna is the presence of endo-

metrial glands within the myometrium associated with adjacent
Fig. 34.19 TAS. Two separate uterine horns indicative of bicornuate myometrial hyperplasia. It is usually a diffuse process but may form
uterus. Arrowheads indicate position of endometrium. a localised mass or adenomyoma. Clinical findings are dysmenor-
Fig. 34.23 TAS. Two subserosal fibroids (arrows). Arrowheads indicate

position of uterine cavity.
Fig. 34.24 TAS. Fibroids. Typical recurrent shadowing (arrowheads).

Fig. 34.21 (A) TAS. Fibroid polyp (arrows) within the cervical canal. The
stalk of the polyp (arrowheads) can be seen in the uterine cavity. (B) TAS.
Same patient 6 months earlier. The fibroid polyp (arrows) is now seen
within the uterine cavity.
ζϧ΍ΩέϮϧ
Fig. 34.25 TAS. Irregular area of increased reflectivity in the centre of a
fi broid due to degeneration.
The ultrasound features of diffuse adcnomyosis are poorly defined

Fig. 34.22 TAS. Typical mural fibroids (arrows) abutting but not displacing
areas of decreased echogenicity and heterogeneity in the
the cavity (arrowheads). The larger fibroid shows typical recurrent shadowing.
myometrium, associated in approximately 509c with small (2-5 mm)
cystic spaces in the myometrium (Fig. 34.26). Using these criteria.
rhoea and menorrhagia with a tender bulky uterus. Most cases are sensitivities and specificities of 80-90°/r; have been achieved.
diagnosed following pathological examination of hysterectomy Focal adenomyomas cause focal bulges in the myometrium and
specimens: however, cndovaginal ultrasound and MRI have been may he hyper- or hypoechoic. They are generally less well defined
shown to he of value. than fibroids but it is difficult to differentiate the two.
Table 34.2 Differential diagnosis of fibroids
Location Differential diagnosis Comments
Submucosal Endometrial polyps Usually hyperechoic, i.e. similar to endometrium

Retained products of conception (RPC) History helpful. RPC usually of mixed echogenicity
Endometrial carcinoma Postmenopausal patients. Less well defined, possibly
with myometrial invasion
Endometritis / fluid collection Heterogeneous endometrium with little mass effect.
Cavity may contain fluid (or gas if fistula present)
Mural/subserosal Adenomyoma / area of adenomyosis Less well defined area of heterogeneity with no recurrent
shadowing effect
Leiomyosarcoma Rapid growth but otherwise impossible to differentiate.
Very rare
Myometrial contraction Poorly defined virtually isoechoic mass; changes with
ti me-rarely a problem
Metastatic deposits Very rare, no distinguishing features
Pedunculated Any cause of solid adnexal mass Usually possible to see connection with uterus. Doppler
of no value
• retained products of conception

• trophoblastic turnouts-usually following a pregnancy.
Fluid, including pus or blood, can also distend the cavity but should
not be included in the endometrial measurement. A tiny amount of
fluid (1-3 nom depth) is occasionally seen in a postmenopausal
uterus and is of no significance; however, a cavity distended by
fl uid usually indicates an obstructed uterus. An attempt should he
made to identify the underlying cause. e.g. cervical or uterine carci-
noma, previous radiotherapy to the cervix, uterine synechiae due to
Asherman's syndrome, previous cervical surgery, etc. A pyo-
metrium due to a uterocolic or utcrovesical fistula can cause a
si milar appearance.
Fig. 34.26 EVS. Adenomyosis. Coarse myometrial texture with small Enr/antetria/ polyps arc common and typically measure 5-15 min
cysts due to blood lakes. (Fig. 34.27). There is an increased incidence in patients on tamo-
xifen or HRT. Most polyps are benign and cause intermenstrual
bleeding, with or without pain.
i s a precursor to endometrial carcinoma
The endometrium is considered abnormally thick if it measures Endomtetrial hyperplasia
so must he recognised and endometrial sampling performed. Causes
more than 14 mm in a premenopausal patient and more than 4 mm
of endometrial hyperplasia include polycystic ovaries, obesity,
in a i nopau salpatient Causes of thickening of the cavity
exogenous hormones, endogenous excess oestrogen production, e.g.
echo include: e:
due to functioning ovarian tumours.
• endometrial polyps Differentiation of endometrial polyps from hyperplasia can be
• suhnurcous fibroids difficult but can be helped by performing an endovaginal ultra-
• endomctrial hyperplasia sound examination during intrauterine injection of saline, so-called
• endometrial carcinoma sonohysterography (Figs 34 28, 34.29).
ζϧ΍ΩέϮϧ
Fig. 34.27 EVS. Multiple endometrial polyps. Note the midline echoes
due to the endometrial interface (arrows) are displaced by the polyps. This Fig. 34.28 EVS. Endometrial thickening. This looks like hyperplasia but
is a useful feature when trying to differentiate hyperplasia from polyps. subsequent saline hysterography demonstrated it to be a polyp.
than 50% myometrial invasion) and stage 2 disease (more than 50%
myometrial invasion); however, MRI is far better at looking for
extrauterine spread, so this is the preferred technique.
Doppler ultrasound of endometrial or intrauterine vessels is of
little value in premenopausal patients because of cyclical changes
and the effect of other uterine pathology, such as fibroids. However,
measurement of Doppler indices may help in postmenopausal
patients. It has been reported that malignancy is never found if the
RI is greater than 0.83.
The cervix is most effectively examined by direct inspection,

Papanicolau smears and colposcopy, so the role of ultrasound is very
li mited. It has no role in screening or routine staging of cervical car-
Fig. 34.29 Saline hysterography. Endometrial polyp outlined by saline.
cinoma; however, occasionally patients present to the ultrasound
Endometrial carcinoma occurs mainly in postmenopausal department prior to vaginal examination so the radiologist needs to
women. The risk factors are the same as those described for be aware of the appearances of cervical disease. Early tumours are
endometrial hyperplasia, i.e. increased oestrogen levels, in addition undetectable but advanced tumours show an irregularly enlarged
to hypertension, diabetes and nulliparity. The most common pre- cervix (Fig. 34.32), with or without an area of highly reflective
senting symptom is abnormal uterine bleeding. echoes due to necrosis. There may be an obstructed, distended uterine
Ultrasound appearances vary from moderate endometrial thick- cavity. Advanced disease may also show invasion of the bladder wall
ening, to an irregular hypoechoic intracavitary mass, to an enlarged and hydronephrosis due to ureteric involvement-either due to nodal
diffusely infiltrated uterus (Figs 34.30, 34.31). Endovaginal ultra- i nvolvement or direct ureteric invasion (Fig. 34.33).
sound is said to be good at differentiating between stage I (less Cervical polyps and cervical fibroids are also occasionally seen.
Simple adnexal cysts Simple adnexal cysts are most commonly

functional in origin. They vary in size, reaching up to 7 cm in
diameter, and yet still resolve spontaneously. Haemorrhage into
Fig. 34.30
EVS. Poorly defined intrauterine mass due to endometrial
carcinoma.
Fig. 34.32 TAS. Carcinoma of cervix. Large irregular cervix (arrowheads)

with a small tongue of tumour (arrow) extending towards the bladder.
ζϧ΍ΩέϮϧ
Fig. 34.31 TAS. Obstructed uterus. The cavity (arrows) is distended by
blood with a polypoid mass just above the internal os due to endometrial Fig. 34.33 TAS. Cervical carcinoma invading bladder base (arrows) and
carcinoma. causing an obstructed uterus (arrowheads).
GYNAECOLOGICAL I MAGING 1079
Fig. 34.34 eve. fimmoral cyst adjacent

to ovary Fig. 34.36 EVS. Typical endometrioma with diffuse moderately high-level
echoes (arrows).
The differential diagnosis of a complex adnexal mass should

i nclude:
• Haemorrhagic cyst-contains diffuse internal echoes or an

i rregular clump of echoes due to clot. Repeat scans helpful to
show change.
• Ruptured cyst-typical history, irregularly-shaped cyst with
surrounding fluid.
• Torsion of cyst or ovary-heterogeneous enlarged ovary with or
without a thick-walled cyst with internal echoes. Presence of
colour flow within the ovary is said to indicate viability of the
ovary, hence laparoscopy is worthwhile to try and preserve
Fig. 34.35 EVS. Hydrosalpinx (arrows) adjacent to the ovary (arrowheads).
function.
the cyst may cause pain and give rise to diffuse internal echoes or • Endomctriosis.
a clump of solid echoes within the cyst due to clot. Follow-up • Acute / chronic tubo-ovarian abscess.
ultrasound will show a reduction in the size of the cyst and a • Dermoid cyst-complex mass with cystic and solid areas, fat
change in the appearance of the internal echoes confirming its and/or calcification.
benign nature. • Other neoplastic ovarian tumours, benign and malignant.
Small simple cysts (1-3 cm) are also relatively common (3-5°h;) • Pedunculated fibroid differentiation from an ovarian mass
in post menopausal women. Doppler insonation should be per- depends on identification of the ovaries separately.
formed to confirm high impedance flow and serum CA- 125 should • Ectopic pregnancy-should always be considered in a patient of
be measured. If both these investigations are normal and the woman child-bearing age. Pregnancy test important.
is asymptomatic, it is reasonable to follow the cyst with serial • Other inflammatory masses-e.g. appendix or diverticular mass.
ultrasound scans to confirm no growth rather than proceed to • Other neoplastic masses-e.g. arising from the bowel or
laparoscopy. peritoneum (benign peritoneal mesothelioma).
The differential diagnosis of a simple adnexal cyst includes:
Endeinetriosis is an incidental finding in up to 25% of laparo-
Paraovarian cysts may reach up to 10 cm, usually recognisable scopies. Symptoms are variable but the most common is dysmcnor-
by the fact they are close to, but can he separated from, the rhoea. The majority (up to 90%) of endometriotic (chocolate) cysts
contain diffuse internal echoes due to old blood. The echogenicity of
ovary by gentle pressure with the ultrasound probe (Fig. 34.34).
• Endometriomas (chocolate cysts)-usually contain internal these internal echoes varies from very low level, only discernible
echoes and have a thick wall but may look entirely simple. scanning endovaginally, to moderately high, which may cause some
• Hydrosalpinx-a small hydrosalpinx may mimic an ovarian cyst confusion with a dermoid cyst (Fig. 34.36). The echoes may show
but can be distinguished by its rather elongated shape, its gravity-dependent layering creating a fluid-fluid level (Fig. 34.37).
position around or on the surface of the ovary and the presence The wall thickness of the cysts varies and highly reflective foci or
of incomplete septations due to inucosal folds (Fig. 34.35). flecks of calcification may be seen within the wall. Septations, creat-
e Neoplastic cysts-particularly benign cystadenomas and some i ng multilocular cysts, are common, the various locules containing
ζϧ΍ΩέϮϧ
borderline tumours. echoes of differing densities, indicating haemorrhage of different
• Peritoneal cysts or fluid trapped around the ovary due to ages (Fig. 34.38). Very large endometriotic cysts occasionally occur
adhesions. These may be asymptomatic or cause cyclical pain and may mimic a solid mass; however, compression of the mass with
(entrapped ovary s.vndrome). The patients usually give a history the probe will usually demonstrate the mass is deformable and the
of complicated pelvic surgery or infection. i nternal echoes move very slowly. Deposits are most easily recog-
nised on the ovary and in the broad ligament; however, endometriotic
Complex adnexal masses Complex adnexal masses can be due deposits do occur anywhere in the pelvis or indeed outside the
to complicated simple cysts; however, various inflammatory and abdomen. Rarely nodules occur on the bowel, on the pleura and in
neoplastic causes must be considered in addition to some non- the soft tissues, particularly at the sites of scars (Figs 34.39, 34.40).
gynaecological causes. Adhesions and diffuse small endometriotic deposits cannot be
Fig. 34.40 TAS. Endometriosis in the bladder (cursors). Arrowheads mark

position of the uterus.
Fig. 34.37 TAS. Bilateral endometriomas. Note the fluid level on the left
and the irregularly thickened wall.
Fig. 34.38 TAS. Endometriosis. Complex ovarian mass with internal sep-
tations and echoes of varying density. Differential diagnosis must include a
malignant tumour. Fig. 34.41 TAS. Acute pelvic infection with a thick-walled tubo-ovarian
abscess (arrow) and free pus in the pouch of Douglas (arrowhead).
̶Η΍έΎθΘϧ΍ ϪδγϮϣ Fig. 34.42 EVS. Large thin-walled chronic hydrosalpinx.
Pelvic in flamnxtforv disease is becoming increasingly common
ζϧ΍ΩέϮϧ
as a cause of adnexal masses, both in the acute and chronic phases.
The ultrasound in acute infection may show free fluid (pus) in asso-
Fig. 34.39 Huge pleural effusion in a young girl. Aspiration revealed ciation with a complex adnexal mass, which comprises the ovary
heavily blood-stained fluid with multiple macrophages typical of pleural and thickened surrounding tube (Fig. 34.41). Doppler insonation
endometriosis.
shows low impedance how due to a surrounding inflammatory
visualised with ultrasound so a normal ultrasound examination does reaction. In more chronic disease the ovary may he more easily
not exclude endometriosis. Endometriosis normally resolves after the definable (Fig. 34.35) with a thin-walled hydrosalpinx adjacent to
menopause but may be reactivated if the patient is taking HRT, hence the ovary.
endometriosis should still he considered as part of the differential The hydrosalpinx may contain internal echoes due to either blood
diagnosis of a complex cyst in post menopausal patients taking HRT. or pus (Fig. 34.42) and the ovary may look like a polycystic ovary
• I ncreased number of episodes of ovulation, for example:

-following treatment with ovulation induction agents
-the nulliparous state.
Some protection is conferred by multiparity, breast-feeding and use

of the contraceptive pill.
Epithelial ovarian tumours Eighty-five per cent of malignant

ovarian tumours are epithelial in origin and the commonest
epithelial carcinoma (60-80%) is a serous cvstadenocarcinoma.
Serous tumours are predominantly cystic masses. They may show
wall thickening and nodularity, internal solid areas and septations.
Malignant tumours tend to have more nodularity and solid areas
than their benign counterparts (Figs 34.44-34.46).
Mutinous c.vstadenocarcirunnas are also large predominantly
cystic masses but tend to be multiloculated with multiple thick
i nternal septations and diffuse internal echoes due to their high
Fig. 34.43 TAS. Complex pelvic mass behind the uterus (arrowheads)
due to peritoneal mesothelioma. Note multiple internal septations and how
the mass conforms to the shape of the pelvis.
because of follicular fluid trapped by surface adhesions. Rarely

patients present with right hypochondrial pain due to perihepatitis
(Curtis-Fitz-Hugh syndrome). Adhesions around the liver have
been described on ultrasound but it is rare to see any abnormality
around the liver, and indeed the pelvic ultrasound may also he
normal in even quite severe pelvic inflammatory disease.
Benign peritonea/ mesotheiionut is a slow-growing rare tumour
that is difficult to treat because of its propensity to local recurrence
(Fig. 34.43).
Fig. 34.44 TAS. Adnexal cyst with one solid area and some fine internal
echoes suggestive of a serous cystadenocarcinoma. Histology confirmed a
borderline malignant tumour.
Ovarian tumours are classified into three main types, according to

their cells of origin: epithelial (60-70%), sex cord stromal (5-10%)
and germ cell (15-20%) tumours. In addition, approximately 5% of
significant ovarian tumours are metastatic in origin. Primary
t umours can be associated with the production of various hor-
mones, including oestrogens, progestogens and androgens. Calcifi-
cation is seen in cystadenomas and cystadenocarcinomas, fibromas
and dermoid cysts/tcratomas.
In addition to classification as benign or malignant, some ovarian
tumours are classified as borderline malignant, indicating that they
have a hcuer prognosis, with a low risk of local recurrence and even
lower risk of mcta.static disease.
Malignant ovarian tumours Carcinoma of the ovary is responsi- Fig. 34.45 TAS. Malignant adnexal cyst with internal echoes and irregu-
ble for about 5000 deaths/annum in the UK: 80% of tumours l arly thickened wall (arrowhead).
occur in women over 50 years of age. Presenting symptoms (pain,
abdominal distension, vaginal bleeding, bowel and urinary dys-
function) usually occur late in the disease with two-thirds of
ζϧ΍ΩέϮϧ
patients having spread outside the pelvis at the time of diagnosis.
This late presentation is responsible for the overall high mortality
rate of approximately 70% at 5 years. Metastatic spread occurs
most commonly to the peritoneum, with multiple peritoneal
nodules. ()mental thickening and ascites. Lymphatic spread to the
para-aortic nodes and liver metastases are also seen.
Risk factors for development of ovarian carcinoma include:
• Family history of ovarian, breast, endometrial or colorectal

carcinoma. Women with a pathogenic mutation in the BRCA1 or Fig. 34.46 TAS. Solid tumour mass (white arrowheads) surrounding the
BRCA2 genes have a lifetime risk of 40c%o or 25 /. respectively. posterior aspect of the uterus (black arrows).
Fig. 34.49 EVS. Ovarian fibroma. Homogeneous solid mass (arrows)

arising from the ovary (arrowheads).
Fig. 34.47 TAS. Benign mutinous cystadenoma showing the typical
multiloculated appearance-impossible to differentiate from a malignant
tumour.
mucin content (Fig. 34.47). Benign mucinous cystadenomas simi-

larly contain thick irregular scptations such that, in the absence of
ascitcs or lymphadenopathy, it is impossible to distinguish a benign
from a malignant mucinous tumour. However, in spite of their
worrying appearance. only 10%- oh mucinous tumours are actually
malignant.
Between 60 and 70% of serous tumours and 5 and 10 (/( , of muci-
nous tumours are bilateral.
Other rarer epithelial tumours include endometrioid carcinomas
(these are associated with endometrial thickening due to endome-
trial hyperplasia or carcinoma in approximately 20-30%:), clear cell Fig. 34.50 TAS. Typical dermoid with a floating echogenic area with
carcinomas and Brenner's tumours. Brenner'.s tumours are invari- acoustic shadowing due to fat, with or without calcification. .
ably benign, large at presentation and may be associated with a
mucinous cystadenoma or dermoid cyst.
Sex cord tumours This group of tumours includes Jibroma.s and

the hormone-secreting tumours such as thecomas, granulo.sa cell
tumours and Sertoli cell tumours (urrhenuhlastumas). They are
usually benign solid tumours. Patients with functioning tumours
often present with the symptoms due to the excess hormone pro-
duction, e.g. post menopausal bleeding (Fig. 34.48). Fibromas are
benign slow-growing tumours which when large may be associ-
ated with ascites and pleural effusions, a condition known as
Meigs'syndrome . Fibromas can be heavily calcified (Fig. 34.49).
Germ cell tumours Dermoid cysts (or benign cystic tercrtomas)
are the commonest tumours in this group; 95% are benign-
particularly in patients aged between 20 and 50 years. Dermoid
Fig. 34.51 TAS. Dermoid cyst in a pregnant patient. Note the echogenic
nodule (arrows) and dense acoustic shadowing (arrowheads).
cysts are typically complex adnexal masses with variable amounts

of cystic and solid areas. They typically show areas of markedly
ζϧ΍ΩέϮϧ
i ncreased reflectivity and acoustic shadowing due to fat, calcifi-
cation or teeth. Fat commonly floats at the top of the cyst. obscur-
i ng deeper structures and the true extent of the mass (Figs 34.50-
34.52). The echogenic nature of the cyst can also make it difficult
to differentiate from bowel (Fig. 34.53), hence the size of a
dermoid cyst may be underestimated with ultrasound.
Approximately 25% are discovered incidentally. Management of
Fig. 34.48 TAS. Solid ovarian mass with a thickened endometrium asymptomatic dermoid cysts has changed over the last few years.
(arrowheads) in a postmenopausal patient. Histology revealed a benign Whereas previously all would have been removed, it is now consid-
functioning thecoma. ered acceptable not to operate on small (less than 5 cm), inciden-
Fig. 34.54 TAS. Bilateral adnexal masses due to ovarian metastases. Note
predominantly cystic mass on the right and partly solid mass on the left.
Fig. 34.52 EVS. Solid-appearing dermoid cyst. Note the thick septum
and two nodules (arrows and arrowheads) casting shadows.
Fig. 34.55 TAS. Metastatic ovarian carcinoma causing omental thicken-

i ng (arrows).
Fig. 34.53 EVS. Echogenic dermoid cyst (arrows). Note how the mass
mimics a loop of bowel. The remainder of the ovary (arrowheads) is seen.
tally discovered dermoid cysts providing the ultrasound findings are

typical and there is no growth on follow-up scans. Between 10 and
1 5% of dermoid cysts are bilateral.
Malignant germ cell tumours (dvsgernrinonuas, immature tera-
tomas) occur predominantly in young women (mean age of approx-
i mately 20 years). They arc usually large solid tumours but
typically only stage I at presentation. They are associated with
raised levels of various tumour markers, e.g. hCG, AFP, CA-I25.
Ovarian metastases ( Kruckenherg's tumours) Ovarian sec-

ondary tumours most commonly arise from primary tumours of
the stomach, colon, pancreas or breast. They may be solid, cystic
or complex ovarian masses, frequently bilateral and usually asso-
Fig. 34.56 TAS. Metastatic ovarian carcinoma showing serosal tumour
ciated with ascites. Secondary tumours are less likely to be multi- (arrowheads) around a loop of bowel (arrow).
J ocular than primary ovarian tumours but otherwise there are no
specific distinguishing features (Fig. 34.54). between high and low impedance flow. Current research is investi-
gating the use of ultrasound contrast media in association with 3D
Differentiation of benign from malignant masses A consider- ultrasound in the hope that assessment of the pattern of vessels
able amount has been written attempting to use ultrasound to dif-
ζϧ΍ΩέϮϧ
within a mass will help, but to date this is unproven.
ferentiate benign from malignant adnexal masses with accuracy
Features suggestive of malignancy are:
rates ranging from 50 to 98%! Clearly the presence of metastatic
disease (Figs 34.55, 34.56) indicates malignancy but in earlier • Hypoechoic solid area within the mass (hig hly echogenic solid
disease it is difficult to be sure. areas due to fat or calcification are typical of dermoids).
Various scoring systems based on morphology and colour and • Thick (more than 3 mm) nodular septations.
spectral Doppler have been devised. A recent paper comparing the • Size of mass greater than 7 cm, although very large but simple
different schemes was able to show that a combination of both mor- cysts are usually benign cystadenomas.
phology and Doppler indices is more accurate than either used • Central rather than peripheral vascularity.
alone but there is no agreement as to which Doppler index is best • RI less than 0.6 (Fig. 34.57). RI greater than 0.8 is suggestive of
and at which level the threshold should be set to distinguish benign disease but there is an indeterminate range of 0.6-0.8;
Ultrasound has a crucial diagnostic and therapeutic role in the

management of infertility. Its main uses are:
• to confirm normal pelvic anatomy

• to assess ovarian morphology
• to look for pelvic pathology such as endomet riosis and
hydrosalpingcs
• cycle monitoring
-to confirm ovulation in natural cycles
-to monitor the response to ovulation induction agents, such as
clomifene and Pcrgonal, and try and prevent ovarian hyper-
stimulation syndrome
-to time hCG injections prior to assisted conception techniques
such as IVF and donor insemination
-to confirm development of the typical midcycle endometrium,
as this has a bearing on conception rates
• to guide for procedures such as cyst aspiration and oocyte
collection.
I n some centres this initial ultrasound examination is combined

with HyCoSy (hysterocontrastsonography) to confirm tubal
Fig. 34.57 TAS. Large malignant germ cell tumour in a 25-year-ofd.
Doppler shows typical low impedance flow with RI of 0.5. patency.
Ovarian hvpcrstimululion svndrunte (DHSS) results in very
enlarged ovaries (up to 10 cm in length) with multiple follicles. It is
associated with ascites and pleural effusions and, when severe. may
l ead to hypovolaemia, disseminated intravascular coagulation,
venous thrombosis and even death. Mild forms are common and
usually self-limiting.
HvCoSv (hystcrocorttrustsonography ) is performed by inserting a
small balloon catheter through the cervix into the uterine cavity. An
endovaginal scan is performed while the ultrasound contrast agent
Echovist is injected via the catheter. Tubal patency is confirmed
when contrast is seen to flow along both fallopian tubes and around
Fig. 34.58 EVS. Ovarian cyst the ovary (Figs 34.59, 34.60). The technique is quite difficult to
with nodule in a 65-year-ofd. l earn but in experienced hands accuracy rates of 80-90c/( for tubal
Doppler shows low impedance patency can he achieved. Its obvious advantage over conventional
fl ow (RI 0.50) suggestive of a
malignant tumour. Histology hysterosalpingography is the lack of ionising radiation. Early
revealed a benign cys- reports claimed it was also less painful but this has not been sub-
tadenofibroma with a Brenner stantiated and it has the disadvantage of not showing detailed tuba)
tumour. No evidence of malig- anatomy. Therefore its precise role is still to be determined. It is
nancy. probably justified as a screening test for tubal patency in patients
however, low impedance [low can be seen with benign disease with a low probability of tuba[ disease.
( Fig. 34.58) and high impedance [low with malignant disease.
Screening for ovarian cancer The 5 year survival for stage I

disease is over 80%, hence there has been considerable interest in
screening for early tumour. Serum CA- 125 measurement, trans-
ζϧ΍ΩέϮϧ
abdominal and endovaginal ultrasound have all been investigated
but found unreliable. CA-125 measurements are normal in up to
50c/ of stage I tumours, and abnormally high results are found in
healthy controls and patients with endometriosis, cirrhosis and
other abdominal malignancies. The difficulties in distinguishing
benign from malignant masses on ultrasound also lead to a consid-
erable number of false positives and unnecessary laparoscopies.
Current recommendations are therefore that whole population
screening is not justified. However, most authors agree there is
benefit in screening patients known to be at increased risk of the
disease, particularly those thought to have hereditary ovarian Fig. 34.59 HyCoSy. Contrast (Echovist) is seen outlining the cavity and
cancer. entering the fallopian tube (arrows).
I VUs, barium studies, cystograms and sinograms are all occasion-

ally necessary in the investigation of gynaecological patients
but have been largely superseded by ultrasound, CT and MRI.
Cystograms and barium enemas are used to demonstrate vaginal
fistula usually due to surgery or radiotherapy for malignant disease:
the investigation of cyclical rectal bleeding and pain may require a
barium enema to exclude the short smooth stricture typical of
endometriosis and barium studies of the small and large bowel can
be used to demonstrate the typical serosal metastases of ovarian
carcinoma (Fig 34.62).
Fig. 34.60 HyCoSy. Echovist outlines a fibroid polyp (arrows) in the

uterine cavity. Hysterosalpingography (HSG) remains important in the investiga-
tion of infertility. It is an accurate means of assessing the uterine
cavity and tuba) patency but has a low sensitivity for the diagnosis
of pelvis adhesions so cannot replace laparoscopy. The main cut rent
i ndications for HSG are infertility and recurrent miscarriage. Rare
The role of the plain radiograph in current gynaecological practi e
i ndications include checking the efficacy of tubal sterilisation and
s very limited. However, it is clearly important to be able to recog-
assessment of the tubes prior to attempted reversal of sterilisation.
nise features of gynaecological disease on plain films and it is still
necessary to perform a plain abdominal X-ray to look for an IUCD Technique The procedure is performed in the first half of the
that cannot be found with ultrasound. Abdominal radiographs may menstrual cycle following cessation of bleeding. The patient is
also be requested to assess bowel dilatation in postoperative asked to refrain from unprotected sexual intercourse from the date
patients and to exclude bowel obstruction as a cause of abdominal of her period until after the investigation to be certain there is no
distension in patients with advanced ovarian cancer. Rarely direct risk of pregnancy. Examination in the second half of the cycle is
invasion by pelvic tumours may cause bone destruction. avoided because the thickened secretory-phase endometrium
Causes of pelvic calcification visible on a plain abdominal X-ray i ncreases the risk of venous intravasation, and may cause a false-
include: positive diagnosis of cornual occlusion. Routine use of antibiotics
i s controversial but a recent consensus statement from the Royal
• fibroids-typically
typically coarse popcorn-type calcification College of Obstetrics and Gynaecology recommends that all non-
• dermoid cysts- commones
commonesttnest ovarian mass to calcify (teeth pregnant women under 35 years of age undergoing uterine instru-
and/or a fat-fluid level pathognomonic; Fig. 34.61) mentation should receive prophylactic antibiotics or be screened
• other ovarian masses-cystadenomas /carcinomas, fibromas
for relevant organisms. The suggested antibiotic regimen colli-
• p seudomyxoma peritonei-from rupture of a mutinous tumour prises metronidazole I g rectally at the time of the procedure plus
• fallopian tube calcification-rare, should suggest tuberculosis doxycycline 100 mg twice daily for 7 days.
• uterine, i.e. endometrial ossification from chronic endometritis. Numerous different types of cannula are available. All possess
some means of preventing reflux of contrast through the cervix and
i deally should allow traction on the uterus. Once the cannula is in
place, water-soluhle contrast medium is injected slowly under
fluoroscopic control until the uterine cavity is distended, the tubes
filled and contrast is seen to spill freely from the distal ends of the
tubes. Spot films should be taken during the early filling phase to
ensure small filling defects are not obliterated by contrast, during
early tuba] filling before the isthmic portions are obscured by con-
trast, and after complete filling of the tubes to demonstrate free
peritoneal spill (Fig. 34.63). Additional oblique views help to
ζϧ΍ΩέϮϧ
demonstrate the position of the uterus and any fibroids. It is impor-
tant that the uterine cavity is visualised en face. This is usually
achieved by traction on the cervix, but if the uterus is retroverted it
may be more effective to push the cervix so the uterine fundus tips
back into the pelvis and is seen upside-down. Nowadays with
modern fluoroscopic units it is also possible to angle the tube rather
than manipulate the uterus.
I nadequate distension of the uterus (due to cervical reflux) and
tubal spasm can give rise to a false-positive diagnosis of cornual
Fig. 34.61 Dermoid cyst. Note calcification and teeth with a fat-fluid
level (arrow). occlusion. Intravenous hyoscine butylbromide (Buscopan) or
Fig. 34.62 Barium enemas. (A) Serosal metastases from ovarian carcinoma. (B) Short smooth stricture due to endometriosis (arrowheads). Note the
puckering of the serosal surface due to adhesions (arrow).
bowel (arrows).
Fig. 34.63 HSG. Normal cavity. Both tubes visible with regular mucosal
folds and free peritoneal spill. Note how the contrast flows around loops of
glucagon have been suggested as treatment for this but a World

Fig. 34.64 HSG. Venous intravasation. The myometrial plexus is shown
with drainage into the ovarian veins (arrowheads). Peritoneal spill is also
ζϧ΍ΩέϮϧ
Health Organization (WHO) study failed to confirm they were of seen.
any value. It is probably more important to avoid rough manipula-
tion of the cervix and allow time for spasm to relax. Gentle traction • Vasovagal reactions-usually from manipulation of the cervix or
on the uterus and change in position of the patient can also help. If i nflation of an occlusion balloon in the cervical canal.
there is doubt about the appearances distally, delayed films will • Venous intavasation of no clinical significance but can make
help distinguish contrast flowing into a large hydrosalpinx from i nterpretation of the images difficult. It occurs more corm only
contrast spilling into the peritoneum and loculated spill. i n the presence of fibroids or tubal obstruction (Fig. 34.64).
Complications of HSG include: • Allergic reaction to contrast media-very rare.
• Pain-due to uterotuhal distension or peritoneal spill. Minimise Congenital uterine abnormalities The uterus develops by
by slow injection of contrast and the use of isosmolar contrast fusion of the paired mullerian duct systems. Complete or partial
agents. failure of fusion is estimated to occur in 3-4% of the general
• infection-rare, but more frequent in patients with a past history population. The range of resulting abnormalities is shown in
of pelvic intlamiiiatory disease and hydrosalpinges. Fig. 34.65.
Fig. 34.67 HSG. Bifid uterine cavity. Impossible to be sure if this is bicor-
nuate or septate.
Fig. 34.65 I mportant congenital abnormalities of the uterus.
Minor degrees of abnormality are of no clinical significance;

howeyer, there is an increased incidence of recurrent miscarriage in
patients with a septate uterus, so differentiation from a bicornuate
uterus is important. On HSG an angle of >90 0 between the horns is
suggestive of a bicornuate uterus but definite differentiation from a
septate uterus requires further investigation to look for a fundal
notch.
Truly unicornuate uteri arc rare, so if an apparently unicornuate
uterus is demonstrated on HSG care should be taken to look for a
rudimentary horn or second cervix (Figs 34.66-34.68).
Fig. 34.68 HSG. Unicornuate uterus. No evidence of a rudimentary horn.
Other uterine abnormalities Filling defects in the uterus are
caused by:
• fibroids (Figs 34.69-34.71)

• polyps / endometrial hyperplasia
• intrauterine adhesions, caused by dilatation and curettage
( D&C), tuberculosis or following exposure to diethyloestradiol
ζϧ΍ΩέϮϧ
( DES)
• pregnancy.
The effect of fibroids on an HSG depends on their position
within the uterus. Subserosal fibroids may cause displacement of
the cavity but are otherwise undetectable; mural fibroids enlarge the
cavity and may or may not cause distortion; submucous fibroids
appear as polypoid filling defects within the uterine cavity, indistin-
guishable from endometrial polyps. Early-filling films are neces-
sary to demonstrate small fibroids and oblique views are helpful in
Fig. 34.66 HSG. Uterus bicornis bicollis. Note the completely separate
cervical canals and uterine horns, both of which have patent tubes. confirming their exact location.
Fig. 34.72 HSG. Polypoid endometrium causing multiple filling defects

Fig. 34.69 HSG. Filling defect due to submucous fibroid. (arrows) only seen on the early filling film.
Fig. 34.70 ̶̰ϴϧϭήΘ̰ϟ΍ ήθϧ

HSG. Cavity and right fallopian tube being distorted by large
mural fibroid. Note small calcified fibroid on the left (arrows).
Fig. 34.73 HSG. Linear filling defects in the uterine cavity due to adhesions.
i f extensive, they can completely obliterate the uterine cavity, causing

Asherman's syndrome (Fig. 34.74). A sherman's syndrome is amenor-
rhoea due to intrauterine synechiae, usually caused by dilatation and
curettage for postpartum haemorrhage or retained products of concep-
tion. Rarely it follows a normal pregnancy. Treatment comprises hys-
teroscopic resection of the adhesions and insertion of an intrauterine
device to separate the walls of the cavity.
I ntrauterine adhesions and small irregularly-shaped cavities are
also seen in patients with chronic endometritis due to tuberculosis
ζϧ΍ΩέϮϧ
(Fig. 34.75). Genital Tuberculosis primarily affects the fallopian
tubes and 50r// of patients with tubal disease will have a uterine
abnormality. Tubal tuberculosis leads to a rigid abnormal tube with
occlusion in the isthmus. The ends are frequently clubbed and there
are diverticula-like projections from the tubal surface. Tubal (and
very rarely ovarian) calcification can be seen.
Fig. 34.71 HSG. Cavity enlarged by fibroids.
A small irregular T-shaped cavity, with constrictions around the
Multiple small filling defects causing an irregular lobulated outline body, is also associated with c.sposure to DES, a drug that was used
to the uterine cavity are also seen with endometrial hyperplasia, for from 1940 to 1960 to treat recurrent miscarriage. It resulted in a
example in patients with polycystic ovary syndrome (Fig. 34.72). range of genital abnormalities in the daughters of treated mothers
Intrauterine synechiae/adhesions cause linear or irregularly-shaped and is associated with increased incidence of subfertility, ectopic
filling defects that are not obliterated by increasing amounts of con- pregnancy and pregnancy loss, as well as an increased incidence of
trast (Fig. 34.73). They are associated with recurrent miscarriage and. clear cell carcinoma of the vagina.
Fig. 34.76 HSG. Enlarged uterus with multiple diverticular-like projec-

Fig. 34.74 HSG. Severe Asherman's syndrome with complete oblitera- tions of contrast into the myometrium typical of adenomyosis.
tion of the uterine cavity.
Fig. 34.77 HSG. Normal right tube but a large left hydrosalpinx. Note
Fig. 34.75 HSG. Tuberculous endometritis leading to an irregular T- the mucosal folds on the left have been obliterated and there is no distal
shaped uterine cavity. spill.
A denomvosis (endometriosis interna) is a rare cause of sub-

fertility: it can be recognised by diverticula-like projections of con-
trast from the cavity into the myometrium, usually in association
with an enlarged uterus (Fig. 34.76).
Tubal disease Pelvic inflammatory disease is the most common
cause of both distal and proximal tLibal occlusion. Preservation of
mucosal folds within a hydrosalpinx is said to be associated with
a good response to tubal surgery; however, nowadays patients are
frequently referred directly for IVF rather than being considered
for tubal surgery. Peritubal adhesions cannot be identified reliably
on HSG but their presence can be inferred if contrast remains
ζϧ΍ΩέϮϧ
l oculated around the tube instead of spreading freely in the peri-
toneum, and if the tube looks angulated or distorted. Delayed
i mages may be of value in determining this (Fig. 34.77).
Other causes of tubal occlusion are endometriosis, postabortal or
Fig. 34.78 HSG. Salpingitis isthmica nodosa (arrows). The right tube is
postpuerperal infection and tuberculosis. patent but the left tube is very irregular and beaded and terminates in a
Salpingitis isthrnica nodosa (Fig. 34.78) is characterised by mul- hydrosalpinx (arrowhead).
tiple diverticula-like collections of contrast projecting from the
tubal lumen. It is usually due to pelvic inflammatory disease or Cornual polyps are occasionally seen as tiny filling defects at the
endometriosis and is associated with an increased incidence of sub- cornua but they rarely cause obstruction and are of questionable
fertility and ectopic pregnancy. clinical significance.
Selective fallopian tube catheterisation and recanalisation 400 ChM before tubal filling has been associated with infertility
Approximately 50% of proximal tuba] occlusions have been and a poor response to tuba) recanalisation.
shown to be due to spasm, amorphous debris and fine adhesions,
rather than to a true histological occlusion, and these are amen-
able to treatment by selective fallopian tube catheterisation.
Following a conventional HSG a 5F catheter is manipulated into
the origin of the tube. Contrast is injected to confirm tubal occlusion
and then a guide-wire (0.35 in) is used to probe the tube and hope- The role of CT in the evaluation of gynaecological diseases in the
fully dislodge the obstruction. Success rates for tuba] recanalisation pelvis has declined since the advent of endovaginal scanning and
of 70-80%%r have been achieved, with subsequent pregnancy rates of MR1.
1 0-45%. This compares favourably with success rates achieved by As a general rule, benign disease should be investigated initially
I VF. The technique is popular in the USA but has been slow to gain by ultrasound and then MRI, rather than CT, which is used to solve
acceptance in the UK, most gynaecologists preferring to send their specific problems. Staging of malignant disease requires CT or
patients with tuba] disease directly for IVF (Figs 34.79, 34.80). MRI, depending on the site of the primary tumour. MRI is superior
Selective tubal catheterisation also allows measurement of tubal to CT for staging cervical and uterine carcinoma, particularly with
filling pressures. A pressure transducer is connected between the respect to local disease, but CT still has a role in ovarian carcinoma
catheter and an injection pump. Once the catheter tip is positioned because of its ability to detect peritoneal deposits.
i n the cornea, contrast is injected at a constant rate and the back-
Currently CT and MRI have similar capabilities for detecting
pressure monitored until tuba] filling is achieved. Normal tubes fill
lymphadenopathy, although the use of different imaging planes and
with pressures less than 200 cm H2O. A pressure rise of greater than
development of specific contrast suggest that MRI will eventually
prove to be more accurate. However, CT is frequently used as an
i maging modality in patients with non-specific lower abdominal
symptoms such as pain, or to determine the site of origin of a mass,
so it is clearly necessary to be aware of the CT appearances of
gynaecological conditions.
CT of the pelvis is performed following opacification of the
small bowel with oral contrast (given at least an hour before the
scan) and with a moderately full bladder. Some institutions also use
a vaginal tampon and rectal contrast. Intravenous contrast enhance-
ment helps to distinguish lymphadenopathy from pelvic vessels, so
i s mandatory when CT is performed as a staging investigation.
CT anatomy of the pelvis The vagina is identified as a thin rec-
tangular structure with a brightly enhancing mucosa. The ceryix
and uterus appear as soft-tissue masses, only distinguishable from
each other by their shape, i.e. the cervix is round anti the uterus
oval or triangular in cross-section. The endometrium is not easily
distinguished from the myometrium but distension of the cavity
Fig. 34.79 HSG. Bilateral cornual occusions. by fluid is discernible, particularly following enhancement with
i ntravenous contrast.
The ovaries can usually be seen in adult premenopausal patients
as soft-tissue masses postcrolateral to the uterus; however, their
position is variable and their precise appearance depends on
whether or not there are cysts/follicles present. The atrophic ovaries
of post menopausal patients are frequently indistinguishable from
surrounding structures.
Uterine fibroids Fibroids typically cause an enlarged lobulated
uterus. They are usually isocchoic with the myometrium and show
ζϧ΍ΩέϮϧ
similar enhancement following intravenous contrast administration;
however, they may contain calcification (up to 10%) or areas of
reduced attenuation due to degeneration or necrosis. High-attenua-
tion areas are also seen due to haemorrhage. Pedunculated fibroids
may be difficult to distinguish from an adnexal mass and submucous
fibroids may expand the cavity, mimicking an endometrial carci-
noma. There are no specific features to differentiate fibroids from
adenomyomas or other rare myometrial tumours, such as metastases
or leiomyosarcomas (Figs 34.81, 34.82).
Fig. 34.80 Selective salpingography. 5F catheter and wire manipulated
Endometrial carcinoma Endometrial carcinoma typically causes
into the right uterine cornua. Subsequent injection of contrast shows tubal
patency with free peritoneal spill. a hypodensc, irregular mass expanding the uterine cavity, some-
Fig. 34.83 CT. Small adnexal cyst (arrow) in postmenopausal patient.
EVS confirmed a small simple cyst.
Fig. 34.81 CT. Bulky uterus with low-density areas due to fibroids. One
small fleck of calcification.
Fig. 34.82CT. Bulky mildly heterogeneous uterus with posterior dis- Fig. 34.84 CT. Complex mass in the pelvis typical of a dermoid cyst
placement of the cavity due to adenomyosis rather than fibroids. (arrows). The mass is of mixed attenuation but contains a large amount of
fat. It has a calcified rim and a dense area of calcification (arrowheads)
ti mes associated with blood, fluid or pus within the cavity. CT is i nferolaterally due to a tooth.
good at determining the extent of extrauterine disease but cannot
easily differentiate stage I from stage 2 disease, so formal staging ureters. Short-axis measurements of greater than 0.8 cm in the
is far better performed with MRI.
common iliac nodes is said to indicate a high likelihood of metastasta disease and this is particularly true if the nodes are relatively
Cervical carcinoma Cervical carcinoma is suggested by the pres-
hypoechoic following contrast enhancement, i.e. they possess the
ence of an enlarged irregular cervix. The tumour enhances less
same enhancement characteristics as the primary tumour.
than the surrounding normal cervical stroma, forming a relatively
hypodense area following intravenous contrast. Fluid may be seen Adnexal masses Functional ovarian cysts are visible as thin-
within a distended uterine cavity if the cervical canal is obstructed walled low-attenuation masses within the ovaries (Fig. 34.83).
by tumour. Parametrial invasion is demonstrated by loss of clarity Pain can be due to rupture, haemorrhage or torsion. On CT haem-
of the cervical margins, with an eccentric soft-tissue mass and orrhage may be recognised by the presence of high-attenuation
stranding into the paracervical fat. However, minor soft-tissue fluid within a cyst. Acute torsion causes severe pain and most
stranding should be interpreted with caution as inflammatory patients proceed to laparoscopy without CT; however, subacute
changes and oedema following dilatation and curettage or cone torsion can be difficult to diagnose clinically. CT findings include
ζϧ΍ΩέϮϧ
biopsy can give similar appearances. Loss of the fat planes deviation of the uterus to the side of the torsion and engorgement
between the cervix and the ureters, rectum and/or bladder is of adjacent blood vessels around a non-enhancing mass (the
indicative of advanced disease (i.e. stage 3 or greater). There is enlarged ischaemic ovary). Apparently simple functional cysts
also sonic correlation between cervical size and prognosis-a should be further evaluated with ultrasound to confirm their
maximum anteroposterior depth greater than 4 cm is associated benign and transient nature.
with a significantly higher incidence of nodal metastases and a The cause of complex (i.e. partly cystic and partly solid) adnexal
poor prognosis. masses is difficult to determine on CT. A dermoid cyst can be
Evaluation of a patient with cervical carcinoma must also include diagnosed with confidence if fat and calcification are seen within it
assessment of the iliac and para-aortic lymph nodes and both (Fig. 34.84) (approximately 90%) but otherwise it is difficult to
kidneys because of the propensity of the tumour to invade the distinguish neoplastic from inflammatory masses. The same criteria
i noperable metastatic disease, e.g. liver metastases, for whom

surgery may have little to offer.
Angiography Arteriography as a purely diagnostic procedure is

rarely indicated nowadays. However, embolisation of both uterine
arteries can be performed safely with a high success rate and low
complication rate, hence it can be used to treat intractable bleed-
i ng, such as may occur following childbirth, from pelvic tumours,
following radiotherapy, following trauma and from the very rare
uterine arteriovenous malformations. A rteriovenous malforma-
tions are suspected from a history of recurrent extremely heavy
bleeds which usually follow a miscarriage or uterine intervention,
Fig. 34.85 CT. Bilateral cystic adnexal masses. Note the tiny gas bubble such as dilatation and curettage or evacuation of retained products
(arrow) seen in one of the masses. Laparoscopy confirmed bilateral hydro- of conception. Colour Doppler ultrasound demonstrates an area
salpinges with chronic infection.
of abnormal vascularity in the uterus with high flow rates and low
are applied to adncxal masses on CT as for ultrasound, i.e. a complex i mpedance flow on spectral Doppler (Fig. 34.87).
mass with thick irregular septations and wall nodularity is strongly More recently transcatheter embolisation of the uterine arteries
suggestive of a carcinoma. Rarely gas is seen within a mass and indi- has been advocated as a means of treating large fibroids in patients
cates a pelvic abscess (Fig. 34.85). Calcification may be seen in a who wish to avoid hysterectomy. Embolisation of both uterine arter-
pcdunculated fibroid or a solid ovarian tumour such as a fibroma. i es is performed using polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) particles, with or
Endometriotic cysts have a very variable appearance on CT, with without gel foam. Antibiotic cover is given, with sedation and anal-
areas of high attenuation within them due to haemorrhage; how- gesia as required. Results to date show a reduction in uterine sire of
ever, both sensitivity and specificity for endometriosis are low on 40-70% and a reduction in abnormal menstrual bleeding in 8090%
CT and quite extensive peritoneal implants can be missed. of patients. The complication rate is low, the most common compli-
cation being pain due to ischaemic necrosis. Postprocedural infec-
tion occurs in 1-2%. There are reports of successful pregnancy
following embolisation but amenorrhoea, thought to be due to
CT does, however, retain a role in staging of ovarian carcinoma, ovarian failure, has also been reported, so the technique should be
l argely because of its ability to detect peritoneal and serosal considered very carefully in patients who are trying to conceive.
deposits in addition to liver and nodal metastases. Typically there is Percutaneous aspiration and drainage Follicular aspiration for
diffuse thickening of the omentum-so-called omental cake with
oocyte retrieval is routinely performed with ultrasound guidance
nodular thickening of the peritoneum and serosal surface of the
but there is reluctance to aspirate cysts because of fear of seeding
bowel (Fig. 34.86). Most ovarian carcinomas are already advanced malignant cells in to the peritoneal cavity. However, cysts that are
at the time of presentation but surgery is still helpful to reduce
tumour bulk. Preoperative staging of ovarian carcinoma is therefore
performed to assess tumour hulk and detect those patients with
ζϧ΍ΩέϮϧ
Fig. 34.87 Patient with a history of recurrent very heavy vaginal bleed-
Fig. 34.86 CT. Patient with ovarian carcinoma, peritoneal deposits (white i ng. Selective internal iliac artery injection shows an abnormal stellate col-
arrowheads), para-aortic lymphadenopathy (black arrowheads) and l ection of vessels on the right. Embolisation was performed, with good
' omental cake' (black arrows). symptomatic relief.
likely to be benign can be safely aspirated-either trans-
abdominally across a distended bladder or endovaginally. This is
effective treatment for pain caused by functional cysts or adhe-
sion-related peritoneal cysts, with a risk of recurrence of 15-20%.
Similarly patients with large tubo-ovarian abscesses may benefit
from aspiration or drainage of the pus, the preferred route depend-
ingon the location of the abscess.
Ultrasound guidance can also help to guide drainage of an
obstructed uterus.
Jeremy P. R. Jenkins
MRI is an important technique in the evaluation of pelvic pathology

due to its ability to obtain images with a high soft-tissue contrast
resolution and discrimination in multiple planes. It is now the
primary technique of choice in the staging of pelvic malignancy,
with the exception of staging ovarian malignancy, where CT is the
preferred technique. Advantages of MRI in the pelvis have been Fig. 34.89 Normal zonal anatomy of the cervix on a transverse
discussed in Chapter 3I . T,-weighted spin-echo (TSE 3500/100) image. b = bladder; s = cervical
stroma; straight arrow = cervical mucus and epithelium.
Both sagittal and transverse imaging planes are required when sity of the three zones in the uterus occur during the menstrual
assessing the uterine body, cervix and vagina. T,-weighted scans cycle, with an increase in volume and signal of the myometrium in
display the characteristic zonal anatomy, with three distinct areas the secretory phase. Following intravenous gadolinium-chelate the
within the uterine body ( Fig. 34.88). There is a hyperintense central endometrium and myometrium enhance, with the functional zone
zone representing the endometrimn combined with secretions in the remaining low-signal on T,-weighted images.
cervix
endomctrial canal, an outer area of intermediate signal due to The is a cylindrical-shaped structure measuring 2-4 cm in
myometrium, and a low-signal functional zone between, from a l ength, connecting with the body of the uterus at the isthmus. The
layer of compressed myometrium. Changes in size and signal inten- l evel of the isthmus is approximately at the peritoneal reflection on
the bladder. The cervix has two distinct layers: a hyperintense
central zone representing cervical mucus and epithelium, with an
outer zone of low signal, similar to the uterine functional zone, due
to the fibrostromal wall (Fig. 34.89). A further peripheral layer of
-
i ntermediate signal may be seen continuous with the myomeu i um.
The paramerrium has an intermediate signal on T,-weighted images,
with increase in signal on T-weighted scans. After intravenous
gadolinium-chelate the compact cervical stroma retains its low
signal, with enhancement of the paracervical tissue and inner cervi-
cal epithelium on T,-weighted images. There are numerous glands
lining the cervical canal and the ducts of these glands can become
blocked, producing retention (nabothian) cysts (Fig. 34.90). These
are commonly seen on MRI of the female pelvis.
The vagina can be identified as a high-signal central zone of
mucus and epithelium surrounded by a low-signal muscular wall
(Fig. 34.88). The vagina cm he divided into three regions: an upper
ζϧ΍ΩέϮϧ
third is characterised by the lateral vaginal fornices. a middle third
i s at the level of the bladder base, and a lower third is at the level of
the urethra. There is a high-signal venous plexus surrounding the
cervix and vagina, best seen on transverse T,-weighted images
( Fig. 34.90).
Intrauterine contraceptive devices (IUCDs) are safely imaged
with MRI, with no adverse heating or torque effects demonstrated.
Fig. 34.88 Normal uterus on a sagittal T 2 -weighted spin-echo (TSE
3500/100) image with normal zonal anatomy of central high-signal All IUCDs show a signal void, the extent depending on the type of
endometrium (e), the junctional zone (j) and the outer myometrium (m). device in situ, on all pulse sequences (Fig. 34.91). A contraceptive
urine-filled bladder. diaphragm will, however, produce a signilleant signal artefact.
Fig. 34.90 Nabothian cysts (curved arrow) within the cervix on a fat-
suppressed transverse T 2 - weighted spin-echo (FSE 3500/100) i mage.
Fig. 34.91
An IUCD (arrow) within the uterus (u) on a transverse fat-
suppressed T 2- weighted spin-echo (FSE 3500/100) image. f = free fluid in
the sacral cul de sac.
The upper two-thirds of the vagina, cervix, uterus and fallopian

tubes develop from fusion and descent of paired rudllerian ducts.
Fig. 34.92 (A,B) Uterine didelphys showing two separate uteri and
cervices (arrows) are demonstrated on transverse T 2 - weighted spin-echo
(FSE 3500/100) i mages. Note the normal left ovary (o).
ferent: a bicornuate uterus requires abdominal surgery, whereas the

septate uterus can be repaired hysteroscopically. MRI, as with other
ζϧ΍ΩέϮϧ
The lower third of the vagina is derived from the urogenital sinus. i maging methods, can be used to assess any renal tract abnormal-
Partial or complete failure of the ducts to fuse results in a spectrum ities coexistent with these miillerian duct anomalies.
of complex abnormalities. MRI is the technique of choice in assess-
ment and evaluation of these congenital lesions. MRI can demon-
strate unicornuate, bicornuate and septate uteri, and uterine
didelphys ( Fig. 34.92). A uterine didelphys is one in which two Leiomyoma This is the most common solid uterine tumour, hcing
separate uteri and cervices are visualized. A septate uterus is one in single or multiple. These tumours are composed of smooth
which the uterine septum fails to resorb, which results in failure of muscle with varying amounts of fibrous tissue, and occur in
correct placental implantation and subsequent miscarriage. MRI is 20-30% of premenopausal women. They are located in the sub-
able, unlike other imaging techniques, to differentiate a septate mucosal, intramural and subserosal spaces of the uterus. Rarely
from a bicornuate uterus. The importance of making this distinction they can occur along the broad ligament or be entirely separate
is that the surgical approach for treating the two anomalies is dif- f ront the uterus. Submucosal tumours project into the endometrial
Fig. 34.93 Multiple leiomyomas (I) on (A) sagittal and (B) T2 -weightec Fig. 34.94 Endometrioma deposit (arrow) within the bladder wall on
i mages with a large cervical intramural leiomy
spin-echo (FSE 3500/100) (A) coronal T,-weighted (SE 650/25) and (B) coronal T 2 -weighted spin-echo
oma (c) and smaller intramural tumours (e). There is a degenerating serosa (TSE 3500/100) i mages. Note the areas of high signal within the superficial
eiomyoma (d) and a smaller serosal leiomyoma (s) adjacent to a loculatec margin of the deposit due to haemorrhage in (A), and the low signal on the
cystic collection due to an associated hydrosalpinx (h). b = bladder. T 2 - weighted in (B). b = bladder; u = uterus.
cavity, and intramural lesions arise within the myometrium.
Subserosal leiomyomas occur along the serosal surface of the
presence of a retroverted or displaced uterus. In addition, difficulty
uterus. As the tumours are oestrogen-dependent they can grow
can be encountered in discriniinatin<= between a uterine and an
rapidly dduringgpregnancy, and tend to regress g following
g the
gp adnexal mass. False-negative rates of up to 20% for the detection
y'
menopause.
of leiomyomas by ultrasound have been reported. Precise delin-
MRI provides an accurate assessment of the site, size and
eation of uterine leiomyomas can determine appropriate treatment.
number of uterine leiomyomas, with lesions as small as 3 mm
The relationship of these tumours to the endometrium and june-
diameter being detected. Leiomyomas are classified according to
tional zone is important in patients being considered for selective
their position-submucosal, intramural, subserosal or cervical
myomectomy. MRI is useful in demonstrating subserosal tumours
(Fig. 34.93). Non-degenerating leiomyomas have a characteristic
and those submucosal lesions on a pedicle or stalk, as the presence
uniform signal intensity, being indistinguishable from myometrium
of either of these precludes the use of uterine artery ablation as a
onT1-weighted i mages, with a lower signal on T,-weighted scans
ζϧ΍ΩέϮϧ
treatment.
( Fig. 34.93A). Occasionally calcification within these tumours
produces a low signal on all pulse sequences. Degenerating tumours Endometriosis This is a condition of unknown cause in which
show a variable and non-specific signal appearance with an endometrial glands and stroma (functioning endometrium) are
i ntermediate-high signal on T,-weighted and a high signal on T2- found outside the uterine cavity and musculature. This ectopic
weighted images (Fig. 34.93B). Malignant transformation cannot endometrimn, being influenced by circulating hormones, under-
be differentiated from benign degenerating tumours. The use of goes repeat haemorrhage and develops into blood-filled cysts
intravenous gadolinium-chelate does not improve the detection rate (termed endometriomas). These haemorrhagic cysts are associ-
orcharacterisation of leiomyomas. ated with adhesions and scarring. They can occur on any
While the assessment of leiomyomas is usually by clinical retroperitoneal surface, and have been found at distant sites
examination and ultrasound, these techniques can be limited in the (lymph nodes, lung and hone).
Fig. 34.95 Endometriosis on a transverse T 2- weighted spin-echo (TSE Fig. 34.97 Diffuse adenomyosis on sagittal T 2 - weighted spin-echo (TSE
3500/100) i mage showing multiple fluid-fluid levels from haemorrhagic 3500/100) i mage showing diffuse irregular low-signal thickening of the
contents within multiloculated cysts filling the pelvis. There is dilatation of j unctional zone. b = bladder.
the right ureter (arrow).
detection of these lesions can be achieved using high-resolution

fat-suppressed T,-weighted imaging. MRI cannot be used for
routine screening or staging because of limitations in sensitivity
and specificity, and laparoscopy is still required. MRI is, however ,
useful in the assessment of patients with adnexal and other masses
following a non-diagnostic ultrasound examination.
The characteristic appearance of endometriosis is of multiple,
multiloculated cysts with thick walls and haemorrhagic fluid
contents. On MRI the haemorrhagic component appears of high and
l ow signal on T 1 - and T,-weighted images, respectively (Fig. 34.95).
The low signal on the T,-weighted scans is due to the profound T,
shortening from the haemorrhagic component. A less specific
appearance, which is not uncommon in endometriomas, is of a high
signal on both T,- and T,-weighted scans, and this is similar to
haemorrhagic functional cysts of the ovary as well as malignant
t umours. Some endometriomas are solid masses with low signal on
T,-weighted images due to fibrosis (Fig. 34.94A), which can
enhance following gadolinium-chelate injection. Small foci of haem-
orrhage may be seen in these masses. Solid endometriomas may
i nvade deeply into bladder and bowel (Fig. 34.94).
Adenomyosis Adenomyosis, which represents heterotopic stratum

basale of the endometrium interdigitating with the myometrium,
cannot be distinguished from leiomyomas on clinical findings or
by ultrasound. Each produces similar symptoms of pelvic pain and
menorrhagia with uterine enlargement. Distinction between the
t wo pathologies is important as treatment options are different:
ζϧ΍ΩέϮϧ
hysterectomy for adenomyosis versus myomectomy for leionry-
oma. Adenomyosis can be focal, diffuse or microscopic. There is
debate as to the normal thickness of the junctional zone, with the
maximum limit suggested to be up to 12 nun, rather than 5 min as
Fig. 34.96 Focal adenomyosis (arrow) on (A) coronal and (B) sagittal T 2 i ndicated in earlier studies.
3500/100) i mages showing focal low-signal thick--weightdspnco(TSE Adenomyosis can he diagnosed, and usually differentiated from
ening of the junctional zone in (A) undergoing haemorrhage (arrowed in
l eiomyomas, on MRI as a diffuse or focal thickening of the junc-
(B)) a year later. b = bladder; e = intramural leiomyoma.
tional zone, with or without focal areas of high signal on T,-
MRI has been used in the detection of endometriomas weighted images (Figs 34.96, 34.97). On T,-weighted images focal
( Fig. 34.94), with reported high levels of accuracy. However, small adenomyosis appears as a poorly marginated low-signal mass
(<I cm) encfometrial implants, which may be the cause of symp- within the myometrium contiguous with the endometrium. An ill-
toms, can easily be missed on MRI. Improved conspicuity in the defined margin is the feature that distinguishes focal adenomyosis
Box 34.1 FIGO/TNM staging of cervical carcinoma
FIGO TNM
0 I n situ Tis
I Confined to uterus TI
IA Diagnosed only by microscopy Tl a
Al Depth <_3 mm; width <7 mm Tl al
<7
IA2 Depth >3-5 mm; width mm TI a2
IB Clinically visible or microscopy >IA2 T] b
<4
IBI Clinically cm diameter TI lot
1132 Clinically >4 cm TI b2
II Beyond cervix but not to pelvic wall T2
IIA Involvement of vagina but not lower third T2a
li t Parametrial extension but not to pelvic side-wall T2b
Ill Extension to pelvic wall/lower third vagina/hydronephrosis T3
IIIA Lower third vagina T3a
IIIB Extension to pelvic wall/hydronephrosis T3b
IV Extension beyond true pelvis/bladder/rectum T4
IVA I nvolvement of bladder/rectum T4
IVB Spread outside true pelvis/metastases to other organs M1
from leiomyomas, although small leiomyomas can have ill-defined

margins as well, which can lead to misdiagnoses.
Fig. 34.99 Large cervical carcinoma (arrow) infiltrating into the bladder
(b) with a separate tumour nodule in the posterior fornix (arrowhead) on a
sagittal T 2- weighted spin-echo (FSE 3000/100) i mage. Note the endome-
A staging classification for cervical carcinoma has been described by trial obstruction (e). (Courtesy of Dr I. M. Hawnaur, Department of
the Committee of the International Federation of Gynaecology and Diagnostic Radiology, University of Manchester.)
Obstetrics (FIGO), based primarily on clinical findings and recently
enhancement, should allow greater precision in measuring the depth
revised in 1995 (Box 34. 1, which also gives the TNM classification).
of penetration of tumour into the cervical wall. Carcinoma confined
This staging system was devised to assist in the assessment of differ-
ent institutions and to aid in the evaluation of treatment planning and within the cervix but with >5 mm depth of invasion or >7 mm in
breadth (FIGO stage IB) can be demonstrated on MRI. Stage IB
results. It should he noted that MRI and CT were not included as part
disease has recently been further subdivided into clinical tumours
of the staging classification, and nor was lymph node status, as these
not exceeding 4 cm in diameter (stage IB I ), and more bulky disease
methods of assessment were not widely available. The FIGO staging
l arger than 4 cm (stage 1B2) (Fig. 34.98). Tumour volume is an
classification is used in the assessment of cervical carcinoma.
i mportant prognostic factor in stage I disease. Patients with early
FIGO stage I disease is tumour confined to the cervix and is sub-
divided according to the depth of stromal invasion. Current MRI stage IB disease may have a survival of >90%, which reduces to
50-60% or less for those with bulky disease. This invasive cervical
usage is limited in its role in assessment of this stage of disease.
carcinoma is better demonstrated on MRI than CT and appears as
The use of pelvic phased-array and/or endorectal/endovaginal coil
an area of high signal contrasted against the low-signal cervical
technique with resultant improved resolution, possibly with contrast
stronta on T,-weighted images. The presence of a low-signal
stromal ring around the high-signal tumour is good evidence
(93-100% sensitivity) of a confined tumour. The absence of a low-
signal stromal hand, however, is not certain evidence of parametrial
spread due to limitation in spatial resolution using current MRI
techniques. The use of high-resolution MRI, as indicated above, is
likely to overcome this limitation. The cervix may enlarge, leading
to obstruction of the endometrial canal with distension of the uterus
from retained secretions (Fig. 34.99).
I n FIGO stage II disease the tumour extends beyond the cervix.
In stage IIA the tumour extends into the upper two-thirds of the
ζϧ΍ΩέϮϧ
vagina but not into the parametrium (Fig. 34.100), and stage IIB
disease extends into the parametrium but not to the pelvic side-wall
(Fig. 34.10I ). This distinction is critical, as most institutions treat
l esions above stage IIA disease by radiation therapy. The reported
accuracy of MRI in the demonstration of parametrial or vaginal
spread is approximately 70-9014. On MRI T,-weighted images
extension into the parametrium is identified by the high-signal
tumour breaching the low-signal cervical stromal wall on trans-
Fig. 34.98 Carcinoma of the cervix (stage 1132) showing exophytic
tumour (arrows) within the vaginal canal on sagittal T2 -weighted spin-echo verse, or transverse-oblique sections parallelling the short axis of
(TSE 3500/100) i mage. Note the intact low-signal vaginal wall. b = bladder. the cervix. False-positive results on MRI are due to surrounding
109 8 A TEXTBOOK OF RADIOLOGY AND IMAGING
Fig. 34.100 Bulky exophytic cervical carcinoma confined within the

cervix on a sagittal T2 - weighted spin-echo (TSE 5041/132) i mage. The low-
signal vaginal wall remains intact apart from an area of tumour infiltration
posteriorly (arrow). Within the tumour in the anterior fornix there is an area Fig. 34.102 Bulky carcinoma of the cervix extending into the body of
of necrosis. b = bladder. (Courtesy of Dr R. J. Johnson, Christie Hospital.) the uterus, lower third of the vagina (small arrows) and bladder (open
arrow) on a sagittal T2 - weighted spin-echo (TSE 5041/132) i mage.
(Courtesy of Dr R. J. Johnson, Christie Hospital.)
̶Η΍έΎθΘϧ΍ ϪδγϮϣ Fig. 34.103 Tumour (t) infiltrating the parametrium and left iliacus
muscle (i), with left-sided involved lymph nodes (n) and a right ovarian
metastasis (o) on a transverse T 2 - weighted spin-echo (TSE 3500/100)
i mage. b = bladder.
ζϧ΍ΩέϮϧ
Fig. 34.101 Carcinoma of the cervix (stage I I B) showing tumour (t) other cause (stage IIIB) (Fig. 34.103). MRI criteria for pelvic side-
within the parametrium (arrows) on transverse T 2- weighted spin-echo wall invasion includes tumour within I cm of the muscles of the
(ESE 3500/100) i mage. Note the loss of the normal low signal from the
cervical stroma. b = bladder. pelvic wall, vascular encasement or high-signal tumour replacement
of low-signal adjacent muscles (levator am, piriformis, obturator inter-
oedema, vascular parametrium or an inflammatory reaction to the nus) (Figs 34.103, 34.104). Overstaging of tumour can again occur
tumour. Vaginal extension is indicated on MRI by high-signal due to surrounding oedema or inflammatory change.
tumour replacing the normal low-signal vaginal wall (Fig. 34.100). I n stage IV disease the tumour extends outside the reproductive
Overstaging of disease occurs particularly from large exophytic tract, with tumour involvement of the mucosa of the rectum or
tumours in the region of the anterior fornix. As direct inspection of bladder (stage IVA) (Fig. 34.105), or disease outside the true pelvis
vaginal infiltration can be easily performed, this assessment on or distant metastases (stage IVB). Sagittal and transverse T2-weighted
MRI is not critical. scans allow assessment of tumour infiltration into the lower uterine
In FIGO stage III disease there is extension into the lower third of segment, bladder, rectum and vagina, where high-signal tumour
the vagina (stage IIIA) (Fig. 34.102), or to the pelvic side-wall with or replaces the normal low-signal structures (Figs 34.106, 34.107). The
without hydronephrosis, or a non-functioning kidney due to no known use of dynamic contrast enhancement allows a clearer assessment of
Fig. 34.106 Carcinoma of the cervix (t) infiltrating through the bladder
wall (arrow) on a transverse T2-weighted spin-echo (TSE 3500/100) i mage.
b = bladder.
will increase the accuracy in the detection of nodal disease irrespec-

tive of size or anatomical distribution.
Fig. 34.104 Cervical carcinoma (t) extending into the parametrium pro- The treatment and prognosis of invasive cervical carcinoma is
ducing left hydronephrosis (straight arrow) and extending posteriorly dependent on tumour volume, extent of disease, histological grade,
through the perirectal fascia into the rectal mucosa (curved arrow) on a depth of invasion and vascular and lymphatic involvement.
transverse T 2 - weighted spin-echo (TSE 5041/132) i mage. b = bladder Following histological diagnosis accurate staging is important in
(Courtesy of Dr R.J. Johnson, Christie Hospital.)
order to optimise treatment-demonstration of parametrial
extension often precludes surgery and requires radiotherapy
(Fig. 34.108). Clinical staging is often inaccurate, particularly in
those with more advanced disease-two-thirds of these patients
may be incorrectly staged. Imprecision in clinical staging is due to
errors in assessment of size of endophytic tumours, uterine body
extension, infiltration of parametria and pelvic side-wall and lym-
phadenopathy. X-ray, CT and ultrasound (including transrectal
ultrasound) are used for staging and assessment of tumour volume
but are limited due to poor tissue discrimination and difficulty in
delineating adjacent organ involvement. MRI has an overall accu-
racy range in staging of approximately 78-92`7, with improved
accuracy in more advanced tumours. The accuracy of MRI for
demonstrating extent of tumour invasion of the pelvic side-wall is
over 90%, with a similar value for detecting bladder and rectal wall
i nvolvement. Good concordance has been achieved with tumour
volume measurements on MRI when compared with data obtained
by histological review. The advantages that MRI has over other
Fig. 34.105 Recurrent carcinoma of the cervix (t) infiltrating into the i maging techniques include an improved tissue resolution and dis-
parametrium and right levator ani on a transverse T 2- weighted spin-echo
(TSE 5041/132) i mage. Note the low-signal vaginal wall (arrow). b = bladder, crimination combined with a multiplanar facility, particularly with
r =rectum. (Courtesy of Dr R. J. Johnson, Christie Hospital.) the use of phased-array coils, fast acquisition sequences with facil-
ity for fat suppression, and dynamic contrast enhancement methods.
tumour extension into the bladder or rectal wall, compared with An advantage of dynamic contrast enhancement is in the assess-
T_,-weighted images. ment of neoangiogenesis of the tumour, which has a direct relation-
Although /sinph node status is not part of the FIGO staging, the ship to tumour growth rate and necrosis, but is not routinely used in
ζϧ΍ΩέϮϧ
presence and extent of lymphadenopathy has important implica- staging tumours. T-weighted images remain superior in the evalua-
tions in treatment and prognosis. The presence or absence of pelvic tion of parametrial spread as the normal parametrium is well vascu-
lymphadenopathy is assessed on T,-weighted images, with nodes l arised. The detailed imaging technique is outlined in the Royal
greater than 7-10 mm in diameter being considered abnormal (see College of Radiologists' booklet ` A Guide to the Practical Use of
Ch. 31) (Fig. 34.103). Similar signal intensity appearances are, MRI in Oncology'.
however, obtained from hyperplastic and nmetastatic nodes. A new MRI is indicated in patients with tumours greater than 2 cm diam-
MRI lymphographic contrast is now available using ultasmall iron eter on clinical examination, when the tumour is primarily in the
oxide particles (USIOP), which accumulates in normal nodes, pro- endocervical canal, or if it is of an infiltrative type. MRI can be of
ducing a signal void while sparing metastatic nodes, which retain particular value in assessing pregnant patients with invasive cervical
their abnormal signal (see Chapters 2, 59). The use of this agent carcinoma and in detecting concomitant uterine disease, e.g. Iciomy-
Fig. 34.107 Extensive recurrent cervical carcinoma (t) following a hysterectomy on (A) selected transverse T 2 -weighted spin-echo (TSE 3500/100)
i mages, and (B) coronal T 2- weighted spin-echo (TSE 3500/100) fat-suppressed image. There is a large tumour recurrence infiltrating through the lower
two-thirds of the vagina into the pelvic floor and in the bladder wall (open arrow), with separate tumour nodules in the right ischial rectal fossa (straight
arrow) and left parametrium. There is bilateral inguinal lymphadenopathy (small arrows). Note the mass of higher signal than tumour in the left adnexa
from the native ovary. b = bladder.
Fig. 34.108 Carcinoma of the cervix (straight arrows) on sagittal T 2- weighted spin echo (SE 1500/80) (A) before treatment, (B) 6 weeks, and (C) 6
months after radiotherapy. Note the rapid reduction in size of the tumour between (A) and (B). The small area of high signal in the cervix in (C) is due to
either residual tumour or post-treatment change. Note the low-signal area in the uterus due to a non-degenerating leiomyoma (curved arrow), and the
high mucosal signal in the posterior wall of the bladder (b) from radiotherapy change in (B) and (C).
ζϧ΍ΩέϮϧ
omas (Fig. 34.108). MRI can be used in the diagnosis of recurrent i mages, making distinction difficult. Six to 12 months post-radio-
disease and in aiding the distinction of tumour from post-treatment therapy the radiation fibrosis becomes lower in signal. The use of
change (Fig. 34.109). Tumour recurrence i s indicated by the presence dynamic contrast enhancement with integration of signal inten-
of a soft-tissue mass which, on T,-weighted images, exhibits a high sity-time curves may allow separation of post-treatment fibrosis
signal compared with muscle and fat. Improved conspicuity of from recurrent tumour-the tumour neoangiogencsis allows a more
disease can be achieved using fat-suppressed sequences. Although rapid contrast uptake than in radiation fibrosis.
longstanding post-treatment fibrosis can be of low signal on all pulse Significant overlap in measured T, values has been demonstrated
sequences, signal appearances otherwise may overlap with those between normal cervical tissue and tumour, although a reduction in
obtained from tumour. Less than 6 months after radiotherapy both tumour T, has been noted in cervical carcinomas following radio-
recurrent tumour and fibrosis exhibit hyperintensity on T, -weighted therapy.
Endometrial carcinoma is a common gynaecological malignancy,
being the most prevalent invasive malignancy of the female genital
tract in the USA. In 1998, 36 100 new cases of endometrial carci-
noma were diagnosed, with approximately a sixth of patients dying
from their disease. There has been a threefold increase in the inci-
dence of endometrial carcinoma over the last 30 years, with a
strong link to long-term oestrogen exposure without opposed prog-
esterone. Risk factors include obesity, diabetes mellitus, hyperten-
sion, multiparity, late-onset menopause, polycystic ovaries, and the
l ong-term use of tamoxifen for the treatment of breast cancer. In
the UK this tumour is second in prevalence to ovarian malignancy.
Endometrial carcinoma may be localised or diffuse and mainly
occurs in postmenopausal women. Over 90% present with post-
menopausal bleeding. Approximately 90%% of tumours are well dif-
ferentiated adenocarcinomas arising within the uterine epithelium.
Localised tumours are polypoidal with a superficial attachment to
the endometrium, whereas diffuse l esions infiltrate the entire
endometrium and invade the myometrium, spreading beyond the
uterus and cervix to involve adjacent organs. The depth of infiltra-
tion of the myometrium relates to the presence of nodal metastases.
Only a few per cent of patients have nodal involvement with
superficial invasion, increasing to approximately 40 1Z( for deep
myometrial infiltration.
The detailed imaging technique is outlined in the Royal College
of Radiologists' booklet A Guide to the Practical Use of MRI in
Oncology. On MRI endometrial carcinoma shows a signal intensity
appearance similar to normal endometrium, which can cause
Fig. 34.109 Extensive radiation change involving the bladder, vagina,
rectum and bowel loops on (A) sagittal T2 - weighted (SE 1 500/80) and (B) difficulty in defining small lesions. Large lesions expand the
transverse T,-weighted (SE 800/40) i mages. In (A) the bladder (b) has a endometrial cavity (Figs 34.110, 34.111 ) and can have a low signal
thickened wall with a high-signal-intensity mucosa around the posterior on T-weighted images. Widening or signal heterogeneity on T,-
wall, The uterus (u) is enlarged and the vagina (arrows), rectosigmoid (r), weighted images within the endometrial canal may be the only
and adjacent small bowel loops (I) show thickened walls with high signal.
No evidence of recurrence of cervical carcinoma, which was confirmed on abnormal finding in early-stage disease (Fig. 34.116). Blood clot,
histological review. The high signal from the sacrum and L5 vertebra is due adenomatous hyperplasia and degenerating submucosal leiomyoma
to radiation-induced fatty infiltration of the marrow spaces. The area of can produce similar changes, making histological review essential.
signal void within the vagina in (A) i s due to a tampon in situ. The most reliable criterion for the diagnosis of myometrial invasion
is disruption of the junctional zone. Difficulty can occur in this
ζϧ΍ΩέϮϧ Fig. 34.111 Endometrial carcinoma (e) on a sagittal T2 -weighted spin-
echo (TSE 3500/100) i mage with associated lymph node involvement
Fig. 34.110 Stage IC endometrial carcinoma (e) on a sagittal T 2 (demonstrated on other sections) making this a stage I I I C tumour. b =
3500/100) image. b = bladder. -weightdspnco(TSE bladder.
The vast majority of small ovarian cysts visualised on MRI are

Box 34.2 FIGO/TNM staging for uterine corpus ovarimc,lillicles i n various stages of development. In women of repro-
ductive years a cyst > 1 cm is usually a corpus hrtecun cyrst,buton
FIGO TNM
occasions will he a follicular cyst. These simple ovarian cysts are thin-
IA Tumour confined to endometrium TI a
walled and tend to have a low-intermediate signal on T,-weighted
IB I nvasion < half depth of myometrium Tl b
IC I nvasion > half depth of myometrium TI c
i mages and a high signal on T,-weighted scans (Fig. 34.1 12). Simple
IIA Extension to cervix, endocervical glands only T2a ovarian cysts are not uncommon in post menopausal women.
II B I nvasion of cervical stroma T2b The ovaries lie in the adnexa lateral to the uterus, maintaining a
III A I nvasion of uterine serosa/adnexae/+ve peritoneal cytology T3a constant relationship with the pelvic ureter. The ureter courses pos-
IIIB Vaginal involvement (direct spread or metastasis) T3b
terior or lateral to the ovary, this relationship remaining constant
a III C Pelvic and/or para-aortic lymph node metastases N1
IVA Invasion of bladder/bowel T4 irrespective of the position of an ovarian mass in the pelvis. Thus an
IVB Distant metastases, including extrapelvic nodal disease M1 ovarian mass will displace the ureter posteriorly or laterally
assessment as the junctional zone may not he visible in some post-

menopausal women. Following intravenous gadolinium-chclate the
endometrial carcinoma enhances, increasing the contrast difference
between tumour and normal endometrium and improving the con-
spicuity of smaller lesions. In addition, viable tumour can be differ-
entiated from non-enhancing necrosis and blood clot. Dynamic
contrast enhancement with integration of signal intensity-time
curves allows separation of viable from necrotic tumour.
Staging of endomctnal carcinoma is important in defining appropri-
ate treatment, which is primarily surgical with or without pelvic radio-
therapy (Box 34.2). Clinical staging is inaccurate: one-fifth of patients
are understaged. As with the other imaging techniques, MRI cannot
provide a histological diagnosis and is not indicated unless a positive
histology has been obtained. The overall reported accuracy for MRI in
staging is 85-92/( ; it has particular advantage in defining the depth of
myometrial invasion and in demonstrating extrauterine extension.
MRI is indicated in those patients in whom physical examination is
difficult and there is a clinical suspicion of advanced disease, those
who are unsuitable for surgical staging, or if the tumour is of high
grade.
Fig. 34.112 Bilateral cystic ovaries (o) in a 25-year-old on a coronal fat-
saturation T2 -weighted spin-echo (TSE 3500/100) image showing a low-
signal haemorrhagic right ovarian cyst (large arrow-probably a corpus
l uteum cyst) with some surrounding free intraperitoneal fluid (small
arrows). r - rectum; u - uterus.
The normal-sized ovaries are best demonstrated on transverse or
coronal scans, and can he identified in 96% of women of reproductive
age. They measure 1.5-3 cm in diameter and have a variable signal on
T I - and T,-weighted images. The premenopausal ovary shows a
low-intermediate signal, similar to muscle, on T,-weighted images.
This appearance is altered if there is haemorrhage present. On T -
weighted scans the ovary is usually of low signal, but it can be of high
signal in some individuals. The cause of this high signal is unknown
but is probably due to a looser vascular and connective tissue in the
medulla of the ovary. A low-signal rim, in keeping with fibrous corti-
ζϧ΍ΩέϮϧ
cal tissue, can be observed on the T,-weighted images. On high-reso-
l ution T,-weighted imaging, numerous small peripheral cysts
(follicles) are seen (Fig. 34.112), with a more intermediate-high
signal from the central stroma of the ovary. This appearance must be
distinguished from that of polycystic ovarian disease. The post-
menopausal ovary demonstrates a low signal on T,-weighted images,
with few if any peripheral follicular cysts. On T,-weighted images,
difficulty can occur in identifying the ovaries separate from adjacent
bowel and uterus. The use of bowel -specifie oral contrast agents can
he of help in this regard. After intravenous gadolinium-chclate the Fig. 34.113 Multiloculated thin-walled haemorrhagic benign ovarian
normal ovaries enhance, allowing improved detection of non-enhanc- cysts (c) showing fluid-fluid levels on a transverse T 2 - weighted spin-echo
i ng follicular cysts. (SE 2000/120) image. There is a coincidental uterine leiomyoma (I).
̶̰ϴϧϭήΘ̰ϟ΍ ήθϧ Fig. 34.115 Dermoid cyst (arrows) showing a unilocular mass with a
nodule within high-signal fat on (A ) coronal T 1 - weighted spin-echo (TSE
700/12) i mage and (B) sagittal T 2 - weighted spin-echo (TSE 3500/100)
i mage. A fat-suppressed sequence (not shown) was also performed to
confirm the fat contents of the cyst. b = bladder.
Fig. 34.114 Large left adnexal mass (d) due to an ovarian dermoid dis-
placing the uterus which contains a coincident subserosal leiomyoma (I) on
placing corona) T,-weighted (SE 720/25) and (B) transverse T2 - weighted spin-
echo (TSE 2000/80) images. The dermoid cyst has solid and cystic compo-
nents with some areas of intermediate-high signal noted in (A).
Dermoid cysts ( mature cystic teratomas) These occur most com-
monly during the reproductive years, and account for 20% of all
ovarian tumours. Approximately 12% are bilateral, with malig-
nant degeneration in less than 2 14. Typically they present as a
unilocular cystic mass, with a few showing septa within the cystic
ζϧ΍ΩέϮϧ
component. The majority at presentation are 5-15 cm in diameter
(Fig .34.117B), in contradistinction to pelvic lymphadenopathy
and are usually diagnosed on ultrasound. When confirmation or
which lies on the pelvic side-wall lateral to the ureter.
additional information is required, CT or MRI can be helpful
Benign ovarian cysts These tend to be small (<3-4 cm diameter) (Fig. 34.1 14). Almost all dermoid cysts contain lipid material,
and well marginated with fluid contents and thin walls (<3 mm in either sebaceous or adipose tissue, which demonstrates a similar
thickness). They appear as low- and high-signal lesions on T,- and signal to subcutaneous fat (Figs 34.1 15). Hair, teeth, a mural
T,-weighted images, respectively. In the presence of haemorrhage, nodule (Rokitansky's protuberance) or any combination can be
which shortens the T, leading to a high signal on T,-weighted demonstrated. Dermoid cysts and haemorrhagic adnexal masses
images, the cysts can appear similar to some endometriomas or show a similar MRI appearance, with a high signal on T,-
ovarian teratomas (Figs 34.112, 34.1 13). weighted images and a variable signal on T,-weighted scans. A
Fig. 34.116 Complex large left adnexal mass with solid and cystic com-
ponents (arrows) compressing and displacing the uterus on transverse T2_
weighted spin-echo (TSE 5136/132) image. Note that there is distension of
the endometrial cavity with intermediate to high signal due to a coexisting
endometrial tumour (e). Endometrioid carcinoma of the ovary is associated
i n approximately a third of cases with endometrioid carcinoma of the
uterus. (Courtesy of Dr R. J. Johnson, Christie Hospital.)
frequency-selective fat-suppressed sequence is useful in differen-

tiating a haemorrhagic lesion from a dermoid cyst.
Cystadenoma and cystadenocarcinoma These can be difficult

to distinguish unless lymphadenopathy, ascites or metastases are
Fig. 34.117 (A) Mutinous cystadenocarcinoma of the ovary producing a
evident. The signal intensity appearance is dependent on the
large mass, with mixed contents, filling the pelvis on a transverse T2 weighted
amount of solid and cystic tissue present (Figs 34.116, 34.1 17A). (FSE 3000/100) image. The area of signal void within the tumour is due to
MRI is useful in defining and separating a uterine from an ovarian either blood products or mucin. (Courtesy of Dr J. M. Hawnaur, Department
mass when ultrasound is equivocal. of Diagnostic Radiology, University of Manchester.) (B) Large right ovarian
X-ray CT is more accurate than MRI i n staging ovarian cane,_ inflammatory mass, proven actinomycosis (t) producing an obstructive uropa-
thy with dilatation of the right ureter (u) on a transverse T 2 -weighted spin-
noma, being more sensitive in the detection of mesenteric and
echo (TSE 3500/100) image. Note the position of the ureter to the adnexal
serosal metastases. The ovary does not have a true capsule and is mass, and the normal left ovary (o).
only covered by a visceral peritoneum. This is the reason why
ovarian carcinoma is frequently metastatic by the time of presenta-
tion. The most common site for metastases (90% of cases) is the
peritoneum. Metastases to the ovaries (Krukenberg's tumours) show
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34

close to the probe but a limited field of view. Whereas many

Fig. 34.8 EVS. Dominant follicle (arrows) developing in a normal ovary.

Fig. 34.6 EVS. Atrophic postmenopausal ovary (arrowheads).

continue scanning above the level of the distended bladder. In thin

Doppler ultrasound The uterine arteries arise from the internal

i n the postmenopausal patient are those of an inactive ovary, i.e.

Large; volume >7.5 ml

I ncreased stroma No increased stroma No increased stroma

Fig. 34.12 EVS.polycyst uir ovar y with peripheral cysts.

Fig. 34.15 TAS. Thickened irregular endometrium (arrows) due to

Sequential HRT i.e. oestrogens followed by progesterones for at

Tamoxifen Tamoxifen, used in the treatment of breast cancer, has

Adenomyosis or endometriosis interna is the presence of endo-

Fig. 34.23 TAS. Two subserosal fibroids (arrows). Arrowheads indicate

Fig. 34.24 TAS. Fibroids. Typical recurrent shadowing (arrowheads).

The ultrasound features of diffuse adcnomyosis are poorly defined

Location Differential diagnosis Comments

Submucosal Endometrial polyps Usually hyperechoic, i.e. similar to endometrium

• retained products of conception

The cervix is most effectively examined by direct inspection,

Simple adnexal cysts Simple adnexal cysts are most commonly

Fig. 34.32 TAS. Carcinoma of cervix. Large irregular cervix (arrowheads)

Fig. 34.34 eve. fimmoral cyst adjacent

The differential diagnosis of a complex adnexal mass should

• Haemorrhagic cyst-contains diffuse internal echoes or an

Fig. 34.40 TAS. Endometriosis in the bladder (cursors). Arrowheads mark

• I ncreased number of episodes of ovulation, for example:

Some protection is conferred by multiparity, breast-feeding and use

Epithelial ovarian tumours Eighty-five per cent of malignant

because of follicular fluid trapped by surface adhesions. Rarely

Ovarian tumours are classified into three main types, according to

• Family history of ovarian, breast, endometrial or colorectal

Fig. 34.49 EVS. Ovarian fibroma. Homogeneous solid mass (arrows)

mucin content (Fig. 34.47). Benign mucinous cystadenomas simi-

Sex cord tumours This group of tumours includes Jibroma.s and

Germ cell tumours Dermoid cysts (or benign cystic tercrtomas)

cysts are typically complex adnexal masses with variable amounts

Fig. 34.55 TAS. Metastatic ovarian carcinoma causing omental thicken-

tally discovered dermoid cysts providing the ultrasound findings are

Ovarian metastases ( Kruckenherg's tumours) Ovarian sec-

Ultrasound has a crucial diagnostic and therapeutic role in the

• to confirm normal pelvic anatomy

I n some centres this initial ultrasound examination is combined

Screening for ovarian cancer The 5 year survival for stage I

I VUs, barium studies, cystograms and sinograms are all occasion-

Fig. 34.60 HyCoSy. Echovist outlines a fibroid polyp (arrows) in the

glucagon have been suggested as treatment for this but a World

Fig. 34.65 I mportant congenital abnormalities of the uterus.

Minor degrees of abnormality are of no clinical significance;

Fig. 34.68 HSG. Unicornuate uterus. No evidence of a rudimentary horn.

• fibroids (Figs 34.69-34.71)

Fig. 34.72 HSG. Polypoid endometrium causing multiple filling defects

Fig. 34.70 ̶̰ϴϧϭήΘ̰ϟ΍ ήθϧ

i f extensive, they can completely obliterate the uterine cavity, causing

Fig. 34.76 HSG. Enlarged uterus with multiple diverticular-like projec-

A denomvosis (endometriosis interna) is a rare cause of sub-

CT anatomy of the pelvis The vagina is identified as a thin rec-

i noperable metastatic disease, e.g. liver metastases, for whom