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Chapter 01 : Eddy Current

Overview

• Eddy current testing is one of the major techniques in NDT and it based on the
relationship between electricity and magnetism.
• Eddy current testing based on the principles of electromagnetic induction. A magnetic
field is developed in and around the conductor when alternating current is applied.
• When the alternating current rises to maximum and collapses to zero, it can increase
the strength of the magnetic field. Any disturbance to magnetic field by physical
indication on the test sample can be interpret as potential defect.
• Eddy current technique can be used on all materials which can conduct electric to
locate surface, subsurface cracks, measurements of the thickness of metallic plates
and also of non-metallic coatings on test objects.
• It is also capable to assess corrosion and measurements of electrical conductivities
and magnetic permeability of the materials. The name ‘eddies’ came from similarity
form between this current and a liquid or gas flows in a circular path around
obstacles.
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Chapter 01 : Eddy Current
Advantages

• No requirement for physical contact with the surface being inspected.

• It has high sensitivity to small defects located whether at the surface or
sub-surface of the test object.
• The inspection depth can be controlled by adjusting the frequency or
energizing current.
• Compared to radiography technique, eddy current instrument is relatively
low cost for multiple applications and can also be automated for high speed
testing.
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Chapter 01 : Eddy Current
Limitation

• Generally eddy current tests are suitable only to material with significant electrical
conductivity such as metals, alloys or composites containing reinforcing fibers or
conducting layers.
• The ferromagnetic materials must be magnetically biased before optimal eddy
current testing can be done.
• Local variations in conductivity and permeability can influenced the accuracy
detection of defects. On extremely rough or corroded surfaces eddy current testing is
degraded due to the low signal to noise ratio.
• Unlike liquid penetrant and magnetic particles testing, eddy current technique does
not produce a visible ‘spot’ on the part .
• The confidence level with magnetic particles method is slightly higher because of a
‘readout’ on the part. In the other words, eddy current indication requires verification
with magnetic particles testing.
Material Conductivity X XX
In eddy current testing we are interested to the
conductivity of the material. Conductivity
Metals or Alloys Conductivity, % IACS
measurements have been used to investigate
phase transformations, order-disorder changes, Silver 105
age hardening and constitutional diagrams. Gold 70
Aluminum 61
Material conductivities are compared on a special
Inconel 600 1.7
scale called the International Annealed Copper
Standard (IACS). Hastelloy X 1.5

This value based on a conductivity of pure

unalloyed annealed copper at 20 oC with value of
100%. All other values are presented in
percentage depending on their conductivity value
relative to copper. The IACS conductivity ratings of
several common metals and alloys are given.
Electromagnet X XX
• It it well understood that when an electrical current flowing through a conductor wire a magnetic field
exist around the wire.
• The assumed positive of the flux lines is given by the right hand rule; if the right hand is wrapped
about the conductor that carrying the current with the thumb pointing in the direction of the current
flow, the fingers wrap around the conductor in the positive direction of the lines of magnetic flux.

μi Where i = current in the conductor (ampere)

B µ = permeability of the medium (henry/meter)
2πr
The magnetic field at a radial distance R (in meters) for infinitely long
conductor is given by
1
H=
2R
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When we integrate the flux density vector B around a closed path

enclosing the conductor, become

i  B.dl  µi
The value of permeability µ is dependent to the material of the
medium. For isotropic medium the permeability of a substance is
given by

µ = µoµrel where µo = permeability of free space (4 x 10-7

henry/meter)
µrel = relative permeability of the medium
(dimensionless)
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If the straight conductor wire is wound into a coil, the lines of magnetic field encircling the wire
form a magnetic field inside and outside the coil as shown below.

we can see that the field created by the coil is similar to the field of bar magnet together with north
pole and south pole. We can reverse the pole by changing the direction of the current flown in the
conductor. The strength of the magnetic field is dependent on two factors;

i. The magnitude of the current flows through the conductor

ii. The number of turns in the coil.
From here we can show that the field strength Hz along the axis of a
current carrying coil ( N turns) of radius R meters at a point z meters
from the center is given as

NIR 2
Hz  e

2 R z2

2 3

NIR 2
and the flux density B = Bz 

2 R2  z 2 3
Magnetic Properties of Materials X XX

i. Some materials are attracted by a magnet while others are repelled when
located in magnetic field.
ii. This effect is known as Faraday’s Law of Magnetic Induction. However if we go
in details, materials are respond differently to the presence of an external
magnetic field depending on several factors.
iii. It can be influenced by the atomic and molecular structure of the material and
the net magnetic field associated with the atoms.
iv. Metals can be classified as

a. ferromagnetic
b. paramagnetic
c. diamagnetic.
Electromagnet Induction X XX
• the current produced in the loop is known as
induced current. The work done per unit charge to
produce that electrical current is called induced
EMF. The process to produce the current and EMF
is called induction.
• If there is no motion involved then no electrical
current produce in the circuit. In other words the
electrical current only can be induced in a
conductor in two ways;

i. When the conductor moving in or out through

the magnetic field.
ii. When the magnetic field is either expanding or
contracting past the electrical conductor.
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Self Induction X XX
• Self induction is particular form of electromagnetic induction and it defined as the
induction of a voltage in a current-carrying wire when the current in wire itself is
changing.
• The self inductance is happens due to the changing current in any small section of the
conductor produces a magnetic field at all point in space around this small section.
• This magnetic field will interact with the other parts of the conductor can induces an
additional current in the other parts of the conductor that either add or subtract from the
initial current value in the wire.
Mutual Induction X XX
• Mutual inductance can be explained by referring to the figure below. When
the suis is on in circuit 1 the magnetic field produced by the coil. This
magnetic field will intersect the wire in circuit 2 and a voltage is produced.
Depth of Penetration and skin effect X XX
• On free defect material, eddy currents are closed loops of induced current circulating in
planes. On surface plate, they travel parallel to coil’s winding and the flow is limited to
the area of the inducing magnetic field.
• However they are not uniformly distributed, in facts they are maximum at the surface
immediately beneath the coil and decreases exponentially with depth. In thicker samples
eddy current only flow on the outer ‘skin’ to the sample. This phenomenon is called as
the skin effect or depth of penetration.
Standard Depth of Penetration X XX

Standard depth of penetration, , is defined as the depth at which eddy current is

reduced to a level about 37% of the density at the surface. This depth depends on the
electrical conductivity, magnetic permeability of the materials and on the frequency of
the magnetizing current. The formula to calculate the value of standard depth of
penetration is given below

(mm) = 50.3 
f r
Where  = standard depth of penetration (in mm)
 = material resistivity ()
f = frequency (Hz)
r = relative permeability (dimensionless)
Edge effect X XX
• If the probe reached the edge then the flow
of eddy currents intercepts an edge, radius or
corner of the part.
• When this happens the circular pattern is
disrupted and the eddy currents are cramped
to a smaller volume and changes it magnitude
and distribution.
• This action is called edge effect. Because of
the magnitude of edge effect is very large, the
operator must limit the inspection near edges
because little can be done to reduce edge
effect.
• In general it is not appropriate to run
inspection at distance closer than 3.2 mm from
the edge of the part, depending on coil size
and test frequency.
Lift Off Factor X XX
• Lift-Off factor referred to the variation in
impedance when a surface coil is energized and
there is a space between a probe coil and a
conductor. If the surface coil is far from the
conductor, the magnetic flux created by the coil is
fails to reach the sample.
Test coil
• When the coil is moving closer to the conductor Impedance
indication
the field of the coil begins to intercept the
conductor.
• The magnetic field of the coil is strongest close Lift-Off
to coil and the impedance value will keep changing
until the coil touches the conductor. For certain Conductive material
applications lift-off can be considered as positive
effect because it so sensitive that small variations
in spacing can be detected.
• It can be used to measure the thickness of
nonconductive substances located between the
surface coil and the conductor.
Fill Factor X XX
• Fill factor is defined as the ratio of the test material diameter and the inner
diameter of the coil. In simple sentence we can say that fill factor is the
measurement of how well the material fills the coil.
• The largest eddy current signal can be obtained when the material
completely filling the coil where the fill factor is equal to 1.0. In practical the
fill factor is something less than 1.0 since the fill factor equal to 1.0 only can
be achieved when the coil is exactly the same size as the material.
Impedance Plane Diagram
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The impedance plane diagram is the key for signal interpretation in eddy
current testing. Basically the impedance plane diagram is a graph of test coil
impedance variations with inductive reactance displayed on the vertical axis
and resistance on the horizontal.

A
A

R V2

Coil
V3

V1
XL
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When direct current is flowing in a coil, the magnetic field in and around the
coil reaches a constant level. The electrical resistance of the wire is only
the contributor to the limitation to current flow. This situation changes when
alternating current is flowing in the coil. There are two limitations to current
flow;

i. The AC resistance of the wire, R

ii. A quantity known as inductive reactance XL
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The value of inductive reactance depends on test frequency and coil design where
when more flux lines cut across more coil turns per unit time, inductive reactance
increases. It clearly shown in the equation below;

N 2A
XL = 2fL with L =  r x 1.26 x 10-6

Where L = coil inductance
f = test frequency
r = relative permeability of the coil core
N = Number of turns
A = cross sectional area
 = coil length
Impedance X XX

The combined effect of R and XL due to alternating current in the coil is

expressed as impedance. To be more specific, impedance Z is the
magnitude of the vector sum of inductive reactance XL and resistance.
This is the coil’s total opposition to current flow and it can be write as

Z  R 2  X L2

As we know the inductive reactance and capacitive reactance are 90o out of
phase with the resistance, thus their maximum values occur at different
times, vector addition must be used to calculate impedance.
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By this combination it is possible to determine the value of the resistance’s current and inductive
reactance’s current by means of the vector diagram as shown below.

90o

IXL Iz
Iz

 = 45o
0 V
IR
Iz = Impedance’s current
IXL = Inductive reactance’s current
IR = Resistance’s current
 = Lag angle
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The vector diagrams of two different circuits that having different values of
current are shown in figure below.

90o
90o
Iz
IXL Iz
IXL



0o 0o
0
IR 0
IR

(a) (b)
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• Take several kinds of material and make sure that they are thick enough and the
thinness factor will not affect the readings. Put the test probe on the sample and
measure the impedance and phase angle produced in the test coil.
• A curve then can be drawn that passes through all the impedance. Based on the
number of samples, the results as shown below;
0% IACS or in
air

Coil
 
inductive  
reactance 
 100%
 IACS

Coil
resistance
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THE END