EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

Chapter 1: EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY AND THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Our knowledge about psychological processes is based on scientific evidence accumulated through
research, and, as scientists, we rely on scientific methodology when we conduct psychological research.
The alternative, commonsense psychology, is nonscientific and subject to many kinds of errors.
Psychological science shares the key features of all modern science: an emphasis on gathering
observable, objective data and search for general laws or theories to organize and explain the
relationships among isolated bits of data.

The scientific approach requires good thinking, thinking that is objective, organized and rational. Our
explanations of behavior should be parsimonious –that is, as simple as possible. Scientists constantly
engage in self-correction, challenging their findings through tests of new hypotheses that follow logically
from them. The results of science are communicated through journals and professional meetings,
stimulating replication. It should be possible to repeat our procedures and obtain the same findings
again. Other researchers should be able to do the same.

The scientific approach is applied through observation, measurement, and experimentation.

Observation is the systematic noting and recording of events. We can only make a scientific study of
events that are observable. To make a scientific study of internal processes like feeling and thinking, we
must be able to define those events in terms of observable signs. Measurement is quantifying an event
or behavior according to generally accepted rules. We try to measure in standardized units so that our
measurements will be meaningful. We keep our measurements consistent. Experimentation is a process
undertaken to demonstrate that already observed events will occur again under a particular set of
conditions. Objectivity is essential in all phases of the scientific process; we cannot allow our personal
feelings or expectations to influence the data we record. One criterion for objectivity is that impartial
observers can produce the same record.

A scientific explanation specifies the antecedent conditions of an event or behavior. If we can specify all
the circumstances that come before a behavior, we say that5 we have explained the behavior, and we
can predict the outcome when the same set of antecedents occurs again.

In the psychology experiment, we create specific sets of antecedents called treatments. The psychology
experiment is a controlled procedure in which at least two different treatment conditions are applied to
research participants or subjects. The subjects’ behaviors are then measured and compared in order to
test a hypothesis about the effects of those treatments on behavior. We may also infer a cause and
effect relationship between the antecedent treatment conditions and the subjects’ behaviors; we may
say that the particular treatment causes the behavior. Psychologists generally look for the sufficient
conditions that explain behavior rather than the ultimate causes of behavior.

As experimental psychologists, we begin the experimental process with a review of the research
literature to suggest a hypothesis about behavior. Next, we design a procedure to test that hypothesis in
a systematic way. We use statistical procedures to analyze our observations and to decide whether the
data support the hypothesis. We then reevaluate our procedures and write a research report of the
findings.
Key terms
Antecedent conditions- all circumstances that occur or exist before the event or behavior to be
explained; also called antecedents.

Cause and effect relationship-the relation between a particular behavior and a set of antecedents that
always precedes it- whereas other antecedents do not- so that the set is inferred to cause the behavior.

Commonsense psychology- everyday, nonscientific collection of psychological data used to understand

the social world and guide our behavior.

Data- facts and figures gathered from observations I research. (Data is the plural form of the Latin word
Datum).

Experimentation- the process undertaken to discover something new or to demonstrate that events
that have already occurred will occur again under a specified set of conditions; a principal tool of the
scientific method.

Falsification- to challenge an existing explanation or theory by testing a hypothesis that follows logically
from it and demonstrating that this hypothesis is false.

Good thinking- organized and rational thought, characterized by open-mindedness and objectivity, and
including application of the principle of parsimony; a principal tool of the scientific method.

Laws- general scientific principles that explain our universe and predict events.

Measurement- the systematic estimation of the quantity, size, or quality of an observable event; a
principal tool of the scientific method.

Methodology- the scientific techniques used to collect and evaluate psychological data

Observation- the systematic noting and recording of events; a principal tool of the scientific method.

Principle of parsimony- an aspect of good thinking, stating that the simplest explanation is preferred
until ruled out by conflicting evidence; also known as Occam’s Razor

Psychology experiment- a controlled procedure in which at least two different treatment conditions are
applied to subjects whose behaviors are then measured and compared to test a hypothesis about the
effects of the treatments on behavior.

Replication- the process of repeating research procedures to verify that the outcome will be the same
as before; a principal tool of the scientific method.

Science- the systematic gathering of data to provide description events taking place under specific
conditions, enabling researchers to explain, predict, and control events.

Scientific method- steps scientists take to gather and verify information, answer questions, explain
relationships, and communicate findings.

Subject- the scientific term for an individual who participates in research.

Testable- capable of being tested; typically used in reference to a hypothesis. Two requirements must
be met in order to have a testable hypothesis: procedures for manipulating the setting must exist, and
the predicted outcome must be observable.
Theory- a set of general principles that attempts to explain and predict behavior or other phenomena.

Treatment- a specific set of antecedent conditions created by the experimenter and presented to
subjects to test its effects o behavior.

Chapter 2: RESEARCH ETHICS

A well –planned experiment includes careful treatment of the subjects who participate. Today some
aspects of psychological research are regulated by federal law. An institution must, for example, have an
institutional review board (IRB) to approve each study. The IRB’s main tasks are to ensure the safety of
human subjects and to conduct a risk/ benefit analysis, and many of the law’s provisions are reflected in
the ethical guidelines of the American Psychological Association. Most important is obtaining the
informed consent of all those who will be subjects in an experiment. This consent must be given freely,
without force or coercion. The person must also understand that he or she is free to drop out of
experiment at any time. In addition, subjects must be given as much information about the experiment
as possible so that they can make a reasonable decision about whether to participate.

Sometimes a researcher may need to disguise the true purpose of the study so that subjects will behave
naturally and spontaneously. In experiments that require some deception, subjects must be debriefed.
But because simply debriefing subjects does not guarantee that we can undo any upset we caused
them, researchers try to avoid exposing subjects to any unnecessary pain or risk. When possible, data
should be collected anonymously and identified only by code numbers. Data collected are kept
confidential; they may not be used for any purpose not explained to the subject. When they are
reported, data should be identified by code numbers or fictitious names to protect subject’s identities.

Ethical principles apply in research with animals, too. Researchers have the responsibility to look out for
the welfare of the animal subjects. Animals must receive adequate physical care to stay healthy and
comfortable. If drugs, surgery, or any potentially painful procedures are involved, animals must be
closely supervised by a researcher who is specially trained in the field. Despite allegations by critics of
animal research, there is little evidence to support accusations of widespread abuse in psychological
research. Some critics advocate animal rights, the position that all species are equally valued and have
equal rights, and the animal rights movements has recently gained momentum. Most people, however,
see a need for animal experimentation because of its benefits for human welfare.\fraud in science is
typically thought of as falsifying or fabricating data; clearly, fraud is unethical. The peer review process,
replication, and scrutiny by colleagues work to hold fraud in check, but the “publish or perish” pressure
exists. Plagiarism, representing someone else’s work as your own, is a series breach of ethics and is also
considered a type of fraud. Researchers must be careful to give proper credit to others who contributed
words and ideas to their work.

Key terms
Animal rights- the concept that all sensate species who feel pain are of equal value and have rights.

Animal welfare- the humane care and treatment of animals.

At minimal risk- the subject’s odds of being harmed are not increased by the research.

Debriefing- the principle of full disclosure at the end of an experiment; that is, explaining to the subject
the nature and purpose of the study.
Fraud- the unethical practice of falsifying or fabricating data; plagiarism is also a form of fraud.

Informed consent- a subject’s voluntary agreement to participate in a research project after the nature
and purpose of the study have been explained.

Institutional review board (IRB) an institutional committee that reviews proposed research to safeguard
the safety and rights of subjects.

Plagiarism- the representation of someone else’s ideas, words or written work as one’s own; a serious
breach of ethics that can result in legal action.

Risk/ benefit analysis- a determination, made by an in institutional review board, that any risks to the
individual are outweighed by potential benefits or the importance of the knowledge to be gained.

Chapter 3: ALTERNATIVES TO EXPERIMENTATION: NONEXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

Research activities may be described along two dimensions: degree of manipulation of antecedent
conditions and degree of constraint on subjects’ responses. Laboratory experiments tend to fall at the
high end of both dimensions, representing only a small portion of the possible research options. Non
experimental designs tend to be low on the first dimension but vary from low to high on the second.
This chapter covers four major non experimental approaches to data collection: phenomenology, case
studies, field studies, and survey research. These approaches may be higher in external validity than
laboratory experiments, but they are probably lower in internal validity.

Phenomenology is the description of one’s own immediate experience. Rather than looking out at
behaviors in the world, the phenomenological approach requires us to begin with our own experience as
a source of data. Phenomenological data are limited in three major respects: since we do not compare
subjects unde3r different conditions, we cannot make cause and effect statements about our
experience. We have no way of knowing whether attending to our experience alters it; it may not be
completely accurate o objective. Our experiences may or may not be generalizable to others.

The case study is used to study individuals. It is a descriptive record made by an outside observer of an
individual’s experiences and/or behaviors. Case studies are a useful source of idea’s; they can lead to
therapy techniques; they allow the study of rare phenomena; they demonstrate counter instances; they
can lead to more research. The record may be made systematically over a period of time or after the
fact, as is often the case in clinical practice. This approach enables us to study a variety of life events we
would not study experimentally.

Field studies are studies done in real-life settings. They allow us to explore behavior t5rhat we probably
would not see in the laboratory. But these studies cannot be used to make inferences about cause and
effect relationships. Field studies include a variety of techniques for collecting data. Naturalistic
observation, the technique of observing events as they occur in their natural setting, is a common
component of field research. During naturalistic observation, the observer remains unobtrusive so that
the behaviors being observed are not altered by the presence of an intruder. This approach reduces
subject’s reactivity and allows study of behaviors that would be distorted or absent in the laboratory. In
another field technique, the participant-observer study, the researcher may interact with subjects as
well as observe them to obtain information; this method is infrequently used.
Surveys (questionnaires and interviews) are frequently used in field studies, but can be part of many
research designs. When designing questions, the researcher needs to consider response styles, such as
willingness to answer, position preference, and yea-saying/nay saying. Sampling procedures can be
particularly important for studies using surveys. Some form of probability sample is preferred, but
convenience samples are more frequently used.

Key terms
Case study- the descriptive record of an individual’s experiences and/or behaviors kept by an outside
observer.

Cluster sampling- a form of probability sampling in which a researcher samples entire clusters, or
naturally occurring groups, that exist within the population.

Content analysis- a system for quantifying responses to open questions by categorizing them according
to objective rules or guidelines.

Convenience sampling- a convenience sample is obtained by using any groups who happen to be
convenient; considered a weak form of sampling because the researcher exercises no control over the
representativeness of the sample (also called accidental sampling)

Deviant case analysis- an extension of the evaluative case study in which deviant individuals are
compared with those who are not to isolate the significant variations between them.

External validity- the degree to which research observations are generalizable or applicable to other
settings and other people.

Field study-a non-experimental research method used in the field or in a real-life setting, typically
employing a variety of techniques including naturalistic observation and unobtrusive measures or survey
tools, such as questionnaires and interviews.

Internal validity- the degree to which a researcher is able to state a causal relationship between
antecedent conditions and the subsequent observed behavior.

Manifest content- the plain meaning of the words or questions that actually appear on the page.

Naturalistic observation- a descriptive, non-experimental method of observing behaviors as they occur

spontaneously in natural settings.

Nay-sayers- people who are apt to disagree with a question regardless of its manifest content.

Non probability sampling- sampling procedures in which subjects are not chosen at random; two
common examples are quota and convenience samples.

Participant-observer study- a special kind of field observation in which the researcher actually becomes
part of the group being studied.

Phenomenology- a non-experimental method of gathering data by attending to and describing one’s

own immediate experience.

Population- all people, animals, or objects that have at least one characteristic in common.
Position preference-when in doubt about answers to multiple-choice questions, some people always
select a response in a certain position, such as answer b.

Probability sampling- selecting samples in such a way that the odds of any subject being selected for the
study are known or can be calculated.

Quota sampling-selecting samples through predetermined quotas that are intended to reflect the make-
up of the population; they can reflect the proportions of important population subgroups, but the
particular individuals are not selected at random.

Random number table-a table of numbers generated by a computer so that every number has an equal
chance of being selected for each position in the table.

Random selection- an unbiased method for selecting subjects in such a way that the outcome of the
sampling procedure cannot be predicted ahead of time by any known law.

Reactivity- the tendency of subjects to alter their behavior or responses when they are aware of the
presence of an observer.

Representativeness- the extent to which the sample responses we observe and measure reflect those
we would obtain if we could sample the entire population.

Response style-tendency for subjects to respond to questions or test items in a specific way, regardless
of the content.

Retrospective data- data collected in the present based on recollections of past events; apt to be
inaccurate because of faulty memory, bias, mood, and situation.

Sample of subjects- a selected subset of the population of interest.

Sampling-deciding who or what the subjects will be and selecting them.

Simple random sampling- the most basic form of probability sampling whereby a portion of the whole
population is selected in an unbiased way.

Stratified random sampling- a form of probability sampling in which subjects are selected by randomly
sampling from people in each important population subgroup in the same proportion as they exist in the
population.

Survey research- a useful way of obtaining data about people’s opinions, attitudes, preferences, and
experiences that are hard to observe directly; data may be obtained using questionnaires or interviews.

Systematic observation- a system for recording observations; each observation is recorded using
specific rules or guidelines, so observations are more objective.

Unobtrusive measure-a procedure used to assess subjects’ behaviors without their knowledge; used to
obtain more objective data.

Willingness to answer- the differences amo0ng people in their style of responding to questions they are
unsure about; some people will leave these questions blank, whereas others will take a guess.

Yea-sayers- people who are apt to agree with a question regardless of its manifest content.
 Chapter 4: ALTERNATIVES TO EXPERIMENTATION
in this chapter, we continued our discussion of non experimental designs focusing on two categories of
non experimental research methods: correlational and quasi-experimental designs. Because
antecedents are not manipulated, it is much more difficult to establish cause and effect relationships
conclusively using these techniques, nut they can be high in external validity. Correlational studies may
be run in the laboratory or in the field. A correlational study is done to determine the correlation, or
degree of relationship, between two traits, behaviors, or events. First, the variables of interest are
measured; then the degree of relationship between them is established through statistical procedures.
When two measures are strongly correlated, we can more accurately predict the value of the one if we
know the value of the other. But we cannot infer cause and effect from a correlation. Relationships
between three or more measures can also be investigated by computing a multiple correlation.

Researchers can use sophisticated correlational tools to create causal models using a cross-lagged panel
design or path analysis. Causal models can suggest cause and effect relationships. But they cannot
establish these relationships conclusively because other potential influences and causal directions
cannot be entirely ruled out.

As the prefix quasi-implies, quasi-experimental designs “almost seem like” experiments, but they are
not. Quasi-experimental designs are used when subjects cannot be randomly assigned to receive
different treatments. Quasi-experiments can be used to explore the effects of different experimental
manipulations on pre-existing groups of subjects or to investigate the same kinds of naturally occuring
events, characteristics and behaviors that we measure in correlational studies. Researchers often use an
ex post facto study to examine the effects of subject characteristics (often called “subject variables”)
systematically without actually manipulating them. Here the researcher form groups on the basis of
differences that already exist between subjects and measures behavioral differences between the
groups.

Some quasi-experiments look for changes or differences over time. Longitudinal studies follow the same
group of subjects and take measurements at different points in time. Cross-sectional studies selects
groups of subjects who are already at different stages and compare them at a single point in time. A pre
test/ post test design can be used to assess whether the occurrence of an event alters behavior, but the
design is low in internal validity. Pretest sensitivity and the possibility that outside influences may affect
results are particular problems.

Correlational and quasi-experimental designs can be used to show relationships and predict behavior.
They may result in research hypotheses that can be tested in future research.

Key terms
Causal modeling- creating and testing models that may suggest cause and effect relationships among
behaviors.

Correlation-the degree of relationship between two traits, behaviors, or events, represented by r.

Correlational study-a study designed to determine the correlation between two traits, behaviors or
events.

Cross-lagged panel design-a method in which the same set of behaviors or characteristics are measured
at two separate points in time (often years apart) ; six different correlations are computed, and the
patterns of correlations is used to infer the causal direction.
Cross-sectional study-a method in which different groups of subjects who are at different are measured
at a single point in time; a method that looks for time-related changes.

Ex post facto study- a study I which the researcher systematically examines the effects of pre existing
subject characteristics (often called subject variables) by forming treatment groups based on these
naturally occurring differences between subjects.

Longitudinal study-a method in which the same group of subjects is followed and measured at different
points in time; a method that looks for changes across time.

Multiple correlation-statistical incorrelations among three or more behaviors, represented by R.

Multiple regression analysis-a correlation-based technique (from multiple correlation) that uses a
regression equation to predict the score on one behavior from scores on the other related behaviors.

Negative correlation- the relationship existing between two variables such that an increase in one is
associated with a decrease in the other; also called an inverse relationship.

Path analysis- an important correlation-based met6hod in which subjects are measured on several
related behaviors; the researcher creates (and tests) models of possible causal sequences using
sophisticated correlation techniques.

Positive correlation- the relationship between two measures such that an increase in the value of one is
associated with an increase in the value of the other; also called a direct relationship.

Pre test/ post test design-a research design used to assess whether the occurrence of an event alters
behavior; scores from measurements made before and after the event (called pre test and post test) are
compared.

Quasi-experimental designs-non experimental designs that “almost seem like” experiments (as the
prefix quasi-implies) but are not because subjects are not randomly assigned to treatment conditions.

Regression analysis-a correlation based technique that uses a regression equation to estimate a score
on one measured behavior from a score on another behavior.

Regression line- the line of best fit; represents the equation that best describes the mathematical
relationship between two variables measured in a corelational study.

Scatter plot- a graph of data from a correlational study, created by plotting pairs of scores from each
subject; the value of one variable is plotted on the X (horizontal) axis and the other variable on the Y
(vertical) axis.

Subject variable- the characteristics of the subjects in an experiment or quasi-experiment that cannot
be manipulated by the researcher; sometimes used to select subjects into groups.