CHAPTER 4*

Limit, Continuity and Differentiability

4.1 INTRODUCTION
The basic concepts of the theory of calculus of real variables are limit, continuity and differentiability
of a function of real variables. Here we give an intuitive idea of limit and then the analytical definition
of it. The rest of this chapter deals with the continuity and differentiability of a real valued function.

4.2 LIMIT
Meaning of x ® a (x tends to a): Let ‘x’ be a real variable and ‘a’ be a fixed real number. Suppose
that ‘x’ assumes successive values a + 0.1, a + 0.01, a + 0.001, a + 0.0001, ...(Fig. 4.1)

Fig. 4.1 (x ® a +)

Obviously, as x passes through these successive values, the numerical difference between x and
the real number a, i.e., | x – a | becomes less and less gradually and becomes so small that we can write
| x – a | < e for every given e > 0. We express this situation symbolically as x ® a + to mean “x tends
(or approaches) to a from R.H.S.” Thus, x ® a +, whenever of the successive values of x ultimately
satisfy a < x < a + e, e being any positive real number, no matter however small.
Again, suppose the real variable x assumes successive values a – 0.1, a – 0.01, a – 0.001,
a – 0.0001, … (Fig. 4.2). As x passes through these successive values, the numerical difference between

Fig. 4.2 (x ® a –)

x and the real number a, i.e., | x – a | becomes less and less gradually and becomes so small that we can
write | x – a | < e for every pre-assigned e > 0. We express this situation symbolically as x ® a – and
read as “ x tends (or approaches) to a from L.H.S.” Thus, x ® a –, whenever, the successive values of
x ultimately satisfy a – e < x < a, e being any positive real number, no matter however small.

* This chapter is not included in the WBUT syllabus but is essential for the study.
166 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS [VOL. I]

By the expression “x tends (or approaches) to a” or symbolically by x ® a, we mean, given any

e > 0, no matter however small, the successive values of x ultimately satisfy the inequality 0 < | x – a |
< e. Note that x ® a implies x ¹ a.
Meanings of x ® ¥ and x ® – ¥: If a real variable x, assuming positive values only, increases
without limit, i.e., it assumes values in such a way that the successive values ultimately become and
remain greater than any pre-assigned arbitrary positive real number M, no matter however large, then
we say that x tends (or approaches) to infinity. This is denoted symbolically as x ® + ¥, or x ® ¥.
If a real variable x, assuming negative values only, increases numerically without limit, i.e., it
assumes values in such a way that the successive values become and remain less than – M, where M is
any pre-assigned arbitrary positive real number, no matter however large, then we say that x tends (or
approaches) to minus infinity. This is denoted symbolically as x ® – ¥.
It is noted that in reality, there exists no number such as + ¥ or – ¥ towards which x approaches.
These are only symbols to mean that the value of x increases (for + ¥) or decreases (for –¥) without
limit.

4.3 NEIGHBOURHOOD OF A POINT ON THE REAL LINE

Let a be a point on the real line (i.e., a line on which points are denoted by real numbers and vice versa
in an orderly manner) and d > 0 be a real number. The d-neighbourhood of a point a, denoted by Nd(a)
or simply by N (a), is defined as the interval:
a − δ < x < a + δ, or | x − a |< δ .
The deleted d-neighbourhood of the point a is obtained by deleting the point a from Nd(a). It is
denoted by Nd(a) – {a}, and is defined by
0 < | x − a | < δ, i.e., a − δ < x < a + δ, x ≠ a .

4.4 LIMIT OF A FUNCTION

Definition: A real valued function ƒ(x) of a real variable x is said to have a limit l if for any pre-
assigned arbitrary positive number e, no matter however small, there corresponds a positive number d
such that | f ( x ) − l | < ε, i.e., l − ε < f ( x) < l + ε , whenever, 0 < | x − a | < δ, x ≠ a, i.e., a − δ < x < a + δ,
x ≠ a. This situation is denoted by writing
lim f ( x ) = l, or f ( x ) → l as x → a
x →a

The meaning is that for every neighbourhood (l – e, l + e) of l, there exists a deleted neighbourhood
(a – d, a + d) of a such that ƒ(x) is in (l – e, l + e) for every x in (a – d, a + d) excluding x = a. This
definition does not require the behaviour of ƒ(x) at x = a.
Geometrically this means that for every x in the two open intervals
a−δ< x <a and a < x < a + δ,
the graph of f (x) lies between the horizontal lines
y = l − ε and y = l + ε
LIMIT, CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 167

Fig. 4.3

Notes:
(i) Here the graph of y = ƒ(x) has been assumed to be without any break in the interval under
consideration. For the determination of lim f ( x ), we are not at all concerned with the point
x→ a
on the graph corresponding to x = a. The point on the graph corresponding to x = a may not
belong to the curve y = ƒ(x) or even may not exist at all.
(ii) A limit, if exists, is necessarily finite and unique.
(iii) To prove the existence of limit of ƒ(x) it will be sufficient if we can show that the inequality
0 < | x − a | < δ follows from the inequality | f ( x ) − l | < ε; e is given and d can be found. If
we can find d > 0 for given e > 0 which satisfy the previous two inequalities, we write
lim f ( x) = l.
x →a

(iv) The existence of lim f ( x ) depends completely on the values of ƒ(x) for x near a (not for x
x→ a
at a).
A function ƒ(x) is said to have a limit l1 as x ® a from the left, if for given e > 0, no matter
however small, we can find a d > 0 such that
| f ( x ) − l1 | < ε for a−δ< x <a.
This is denoted by
L lim f ( x ) = l1 or lim f ( x) = l1 or f ( a − 0) = l1
x →a x →a−

and say that l1 is the left-hand limit of ƒ(x).

Similarly, if for given e > 0, no matter however small, we can find a d > 0 such that
| f ( x ) − l2 | < ∈ for a< x<a+δ
then we say that ƒ(x) has the limit l2 as x ® a from the right.
This is symbolically expressed as
R limit f ( x ) = l2 or lim f ( x ) = l2 or f (a + 0) = l2
x→ a x →a+

where l2 is called the right-hand limit of ƒ(x).

168 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS [VOL. I]

From the definition of limit, it follows that limit f ( x) = l if and only if

x→a
lim f ( x ) = l1 = l = l2 = lim f ( x )
x →a− x → a+

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Example 1: Using definition show that lim 3x = 6 .

x →2
Solution: Given e > 0, we have to find out d > 0, such that
| 3x − 6 | < ε for 0 < | x − 2 | < δ
ε
i.e., |x −2| < for 0<| x −2|<δ
3
ε
Therefore, if we choose δ = , our definition is satisfied, since
3
| 3x − 6 | < ε
ε
for 0 < | x − 2 | <
3
Hence the result.

x2 − 4
Example 2: Using definition show that lim = 4.
x →2 x − 2
Solution: Given e > 0, we have to find out d > 0 such that

x2 − 4
−4 <ε for 0<| x −2|<δ
x−2

( x − 2) ( x + 2)
i.e., −4 <ε for 0<| x −2|<δ
x−2
Since we are considering the limit when x ® 2, then x – 2 ¹ 0 and hence we may cancel the factor
(x – 2) from both numerator and denominator. Thus
| x + 2− 4|< ε for 0 < | x − 2 | < δ
i.e., |x −2|< ε for 0<| x −2|<δ
Therefore, if we choose d = e, our definition is fulfilled, since
x2 − 4
−4 <ε for 0<|x −2|< ε
x−2
Hence the result.

1
Example 3: Using definition show that lim x sin =0.
x →0 x
Solution: Given e > 0, we have to find out a d > 0, such that
1
x sin −0 <ε for 0< |x−0| <δ
x
LIMIT, CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 169

1
or | x | sin <ε for 0<|x −0| <δ
x
or |x |< ε for 0< |x−0| <δ .
Therefore, if we choose d = e, our definition is satisfied, since
1 1
|x |< ε ⇒ | x | sin <ε (Since sin ≤ 1, where x → 0, but x ≠ 0)
x x
1
i.e., x sin −0 <ε for 0< |x−0| <δ
x
Hence the result.

|x|
Example 4: Show that lim does not exist.
x →0 x
Solution: Let
|x|
f (x) = ,x ≠0
x

lim f ( x) = lim − (3 x < 0) = lim (−1) = −1

x
\ x →0 − x →0 − x x →0 −

x
and lim f ( x ) = lim (3 x > 0) = lim (1) = 1
x →0 + x →0+ x x →0+

|x| |x|
\ lim ≠ lim
x →0− x x → 0 + x
|x|
Therefore, lim does not exist.
x →0 x

Example 5: Does lim f ( x ), where ƒ(x) = 2x + 1, x > 2 and f (x ) = 3x + 1, x ≤ 2 exist?

x→ 2
Solution: we have,
lim f ( x ) = lim (3x + 1) = 7 (3 x < 2)
x →2 − x → 2−

and lim f ( x) = lim (2x + 1) = 5 (3 x > 2)

x →2 + x →2 +

\ lim f ( x ) ≠ lim f ( x )
x →2 − x → 2+

Hence, lim f ( x) does not exist.

x→ 2

4.5 DIFFERENT TYPES OF LIMITS

Definition 1: A function ƒ(x) is said to tend to ¥ as x ® a, if for any pre-assigned positive number N,
however large it may be, there exists a d > 0, such that
f ( x) > N for 0 < | x − a | < δ
170 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS [VOL. I]

This is symbolically expressed as

lim f ( x ) = ∞
x→ a

Definition 2: A function ƒ(x) is said to tend to – ¥ as x ® a, if for any pre-assigned positive number
N, however large it may be, there exists a d > 0, such that
− f ( x) > N for 0<| x−a|< δ.
This is symbolically written as
lim f (x ) = − ∞
x→ a

1
Example 1: Using definition show that lim = ∞.
x2 x →0
Solution: Given N > 0, no matter however large, we have to find out a d > 0, such that
1
>N for 0<| x −0|< δ
x2
1
or x2 < for 0<| x|< δ
N

1
Therefore, if we choose δ = , our definition is satisfied, since
N
1 1
2
>N for 0<| x −0|<
x N
Hence the result.
Definition 3: A function ƒ(x) is said to have a limit l as x tends to ¥, if for any pre-assigned positive
number e, no matter however small, there exists a positive number m, however large it may be, such
that
| f (x) − l | < ε for x>m

This is denoted by lim f ( x ) = l .

x→∞
Definition 4: A function ƒ(x) is said to have a limit l as x tends to –¥, if for any pre-assigned positive
number e, however small it may be, there exists a positive number m, however large, such that
| f (x) − l | < ε for − x > m
This is expressed by writing
lim f ( x) = l.
x→ − ∞

1
Example 2: Using definition show that lim =0.
x2 x→ ∞

Solution: Given e > 0, no matter however small, we have to find out a m > 0, such that
1
−0 <ε for x>m
x2
LIMIT, CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 171

1
or <ε for x>m
| x |2
1
or | x |2 > for x>m
ε
1
Therefore, if we choose m = , our definition is satisfied, since
ε
1 1
2
−0 <ε for x>
x ε
Hence the result.
Definition 5: A function ƒ(x) is said to tend to ¥ as x tends to ¥, if, for any given positive number N
there exists a positive number m such that ƒ(x) > N for x > m
This is symbolically expressed as
lim f ( x) = ∞
x→ ∞

Example 3: Show that lim x 2 = ∞ .

x→ ∞
Solution: Given N > 0 we have to find out a m > 0 such that
x2 > N for x>m
or |x|> N for x>m

Therefore, if we choose m = N , our definition is satisfied, since

x2 > N for x> N
Hence the result.

4.6 SOME STANDARD LIMITS

x
sin x
=1  1
(i) lim (ii) lim  1 +  = e
x→ 0 x x→ ∞  x

1
1
(iii) lim (1 + x) x = e (iv) lim loge (1 + x ) = 1
x→ 0 x→ 0 x

ex − 1 ax −1
(v) lim =1 (vi) lim = loge a, a > 0
x→ 0 x x→ 0 x

xn − an (1 + x )n − 1
(vii) lim = n a n −1 (viii) lim =n
x→ a x − a x→ 0 x
172 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS [VOL. I]

4.7 FUNDAMENTAL THEOREMS

Let ƒ(x) and g(x) be two real single valued functions of real variable x and lim f ( x ) = l , lim g ( x) = m,
x→ a x→ a
where l and m are finite.
Then (i) lim cf ( x) = c lim f ( x) = cl, where c is a constant
x→ a x→ a

(ii) lim {c1 f ( x ) + c2 g( x)} = c1l + c2 m,

x→ a

where c1, c2 are constants.

(iii) lim { f ( x ) . g( x )} = l ⋅ m
x→ a

 f ( x)  l
(iv) lim   = , provided m ≠ 0
x → a  g( x )  m

(v) If ϕ ( x) ≤ f ( x) ≤ ψ ( x) in (a – h, a + h), h > 0 and lim ϕ ( x) = lim ψ ( x ) = l , then

x→ a x→ a
lim f ( x) = l
x→ a

(vi) If f ( x) ≤ g ( x) in ( a − h, a + h), h > 0 and lim f ( x) = l , lim g ( x) = m, then l £ m

x→ a x→ a
 
(vii) If lim ϕ ( x) = b and lim f ( y ) = f (b) then lim f {ϕ ( x )} = f  lim ϕ ( x ) = f (b)
x→ a y→ b x→ a x → a 

4.8 CONTINUITY OF A FUNCTION

Continuity at a Point
A real valued function ƒ(x) of a real variable x is said to be continuous at x = a provided the
following three requirements are fulfilled:
(i) ƒ(a) exists, i.e., the function has a value at x = a
(ii) lim f ( x) exists and
x→ a
(iii) lim f ( x ) = f (a )
x→ a

More precisely, we may come to the following analytical definition.

Definition: A function ƒ(x) defined in a neighbourhood of a including a itself is said to be
continuous at x = a, if given e > 0, no matter however small, there exists a d > 0, such that
| f ( x ) − f (a) | < ε for | x − a | < δ
i.e., f (a) − ε < f ( x) < f (a) + ε for a − δ < x < a + δ
Note: A point where ƒ(x) is not continuous is called a point of discontinuity.
LIMIT, CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 173

Continuity from the Left

Definition: A function ƒ(x) is said to be continuous from the left at a point x = a if
lim f ( x ) = f ( a), i.e., given e > 0, there exists a d > 0 such that
x→ a –
| f ( x ) − f (a ) | < ε for a−δ< x≤a

Continuity from the Right

Definition: A function ƒ(x) is said to be continuous from the right at a point x = a if
lim f ( x ) = f ( a), i.e., given e > 0, there exists a d > 0 such that
x→ a+
| f ( x ) − f (a) | < ε for a≤ x<a+δ
Note: It is obvious that if a function ƒ(x) is continuous both from the left and from the right at a
point x = a, then it is continuous at x = a.
Continuity in an Interval
A function ƒ(x) is said to be continuous in an interval if it is continuous at every point of the
interval.
Note: Geometrically, the function ƒ(x) is said to be continuous at the point x = a if there is no
break in the graph of the function at the point whose abscissa is a and in an arbitrarily small
neighbourhood of a.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Example 1: A function ƒ(x) is defined as follow:

f (x) = x 2 , 0 < x < 1
= x, 1 ≤ x < 2
1 2
= x , 2≤ x<3
4
Show that it is continuous at x = 1 and discontinuous at x = 2.
Solution:
(i) Here, f (1 + 0) = lim f ( x ) = lim x = 1 (as x → 1 + ⇒ 1 < x < 2)
x → 1+ x → 1+

and f (1 − 0) = lim f ( x ) = lim x 2 = 1 (as x → 1 − ⇒ 0 < x < 1)

x →1− x →1−

Also ƒ(1) = 1

\ f (1 − 0) = f (1) = f (1 + 0), i.e., f ( x ) is continuous at x = 1.

(ii) Now, f (2 − 0) = lim f ( x ) = lim x = 2 (as x → 2 – ⇒ 1 < x < 2)

x→ 2− x→ 2−

1
and f (2 + 0) = lim f ( x ) = lim x 2 = 1 (as x → 2 + ⇒ 2 < x < 3)
x → 2+ x → 2+ 4
174 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS [VOL. I]

\ f ( 2 − 0) ≠ f (2 + 0).
So ƒ(x) is discontinuous at x = 2.
Example 2: Show that the function ƒ(x) = x – [x], where [x] denotes the greatest integer not
greater than x, is discontinuous at x = 0.
Solution: Here
f (x) = x − (−1) = x + 1 when − 1 ≤ x < 0
= x − 0 = x when 0 ≤ x < 1

\ f (0 − 0) = lim f ( x) = lim ( x + 1) = 1 (3 − 1 < x < 0)

x→ 0 − x→ 0 −

and f (0 + 0) = lim f ( x ) = lim x = 0

x→ 0 + x→ 0 +

\ f ( 0 − 0) ≠ f ( 0 + 0)
Therefore ƒ(x) is discontinuous at x = 0
Note: This function is discontinuous at all integral values of x.
Example 3: Show that the function
1
f (x) = x cos , when x ≠ 0
x
= 0, when x = 0
is continuous at x = 0.
Solution: Here
1
| f ( x ) − f (0) | = x cos −0
x

1  1 
= | x | cos ≤|x| 3 cos ≤ 1 for all non zero real x 
x  x 
Therefore, given e > 0, there exists d = e > 0, such that | f ( x ) − f (0) | < ε whenever | x − 0 | < δ
Hence ƒ(x) is continuous at x = 0.
Example 4: Show that the function
1
f (x) = x 2 sin , when x ≠ 0
x
= 0, when x = 0
is continuous at x = 0.
Solution: Here
1
| f ( x ) − f (0) | = x 2 sin − 0
x

1  1 
= | x 2 | sin ≤ | x |2 ∴ sin ≤ 1 for all real x 
x  x 
LIMIT, CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 175

Therefore, given e > 0, there exists a δ = ε > 0, such that

| f ( x ) − f (0) | < ε whenever | x − 0 | < δ .

Therefore f (x) is continuous at x = 0.

Example 5: Show that the function

|x|
f (x) = , when x ≠ 0
x
= 1, when x = 0
is right-continuous at x = 0 but not continuous there.
Solution: Since
|x| x
lim f ( x ) = lim = lim (3 x > 0)
x→ 0 + x→ 0 + x x→ 0 + x

= lim 1 = 1 = f (0) (3 x ≠ 0),

x→ 0 +

ƒ(x) is right-continuous at x = 0, but it is not continuous at x = 0, since

|x| −x
lim f ( x ) = lim = lim (3 x < 0) = lim (−1) = −1 ≠ lim f ( x ) = 1 .
x→ 0 – x→ 0 – x x→ 0 – x x→ 0 – x→ 0 +

4.9 THEOREM OF CONTINUITY

Let ƒ(x) and g(x) be both continuous at x = a, then
(i) f ( x) + g ( x), f ( x ) − g ( x) and f ( x ) g ( x ) are continuous at x = a

f ( x)
(ii) is continuous at x = a provided g (a) ¹ 0
g( x )
(iii) |ƒ(x)| and |g(x)| are continuous at x = a
(iv) Any constant function is continuous at any point.
(v) Let f ( x) = a0 x n + a1 x n −1 + … + an −1 x + an , a0 ≠ 0, be a polynomial in x of degree n, then
ƒ(x) is continuous for all real values of x.
(vi) If g(x) is continuous at ƒ(a) then g{ƒ(x)} is continuous at x = a

4.10 DERIVABILITY OF A FUNCTION

Definition: Let y = ƒ(x) be a real single valued function defined in the closed interval [a,b] and c be a
f (c + h ) − f (c )
point in (a, b), i.e., a < c < b. If lim exists, and finite, then the limit is called the
h→ 0 h
dy
derivative of ƒ(x) at x = c denoted by ƒ' (c) or at x = c and we say that ƒ is derivable or differentiable
dx
at x = c.
176 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS [VOL. I]

Right-hand and Left-hand Derivatives

f (c + h) − f (c)
If lim exists, is called the right-hand derivative of ƒ(x) at x = c denoted by
h→ 0 + h
f (c + h) − f (c)
Rf ′(c) or f ′(c + 0). Also if lim exists, is called the left-hand derivative of ƒ(x) at
h→0– h
x = c denoted by Lf ′(c) or f ′(c − 0).
Notes: (i) f ′(c) exists if and only if Lf ′(c) and Rf ′(c) both exist and are equal.
(ii) If any one fails to exist or if both exist but are unequal, then f ′( c ) does not exist.
Derivability in an Interval
Let ƒ(x) be a function defined in [a, b]. Then ƒ(x) is said to be derivable in [a, b] if
(i) f ′(c) exists for all c such that a < c < b
(ii) f ′( a + 0) exists
(iii) f ′(b − 0) exists
Theorem: If a function ƒ(x) has a finite derivative at x = c, then it is continuous at x = c.
Proof: Let ƒ(x) has finite derivative f ′(c) at x = c.
 f ( c + h) − f ( c ) 
\ f (c + h) − f (c) =  h
 h 
 f (c + h ) − f (c ) 
\ lim { f (c + h) − f (c)} = lim  h
h→ 0 h→ 0  h 
 f (c + h) − f (c) 
= lim   lim h (since both the limits exist)
h→ 0  h  h→ 0
= f ′(c) × 0 = 0
Thus for any e > 0, there exists a d > 0, such that

f (c + h) − f (c) < ε whenever h − 0 < δ

or f ( x ) − f (c) < ε whenever x − c < δ ( putting x = c + h )

This proves that ƒ(x) is continuous at x = c.
Remark: The converse of the above theorem is not true in general, that is, a function may be
continuous at a point, but may not be derivable there. It is illustrated in the following example.
Example: Show that the function ƒ(x) = | x |, x is real, is continuous but not derivable at x = 0.
Solution: Here
 x if x ≥ 0
f (x) = 
− x if x < 0
LIMIT, CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 177

\ lim f ( x ) = lim x = 0 (3 x > 0)

x→ 0 + x→ 0 +

and lim f ( x) = lim (− x) = 0 (\ x < 0)

x→ 0 − x→ 0 −
Also, ƒ(0) = 0
Thus, lim f ( x) = lim f ( x ) = f (0)
x→ 0 − x→ 0 +

Hence ƒ(x) is continuous at x = 0

f (h) − f (0) −h − 0
Now, f ′(0 − 0) = lim = lim (3 h < 0)
h→ 0 − h h→ 0 − h
= lim (−1) = – 1 (3 h ≠ 0)
h→ 0 −

f (h) − f (0) h−0

Also, f ′(0 + 0) = lim = lim (3 h > 0)
h→ 0 + h h→ 0 + h

= lim 1 = 1 (3 h ≠ 0)
h→ 0 +

\ f ′(0 − 0) ≠ f ′(0 + 0) ,
therefore, f ′(0) does not exist though ƒ(x) is continuous at x = 0. Hence the result.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Example 1: Let
ƒ(x) = x, 0 < x < 1
= 2 – x, 1 £ x £ 2
= x – x2, x > 2.
Show that ƒ(x) is discontinuous at x = 2 and also verify that f ′(2) does not exist.
Solution: Here
lim f ( x) = lim (2 − x) = 0 (3 1 < x < 2)
x→ 2 – x→ 2 –

2
and lim f ( x) = lim ( x − x ) = −2 (3 x > 2)
x→ 2 + x→ 2 +

Hence lim f ( x) ≠ lim f ( x ) and consequently ƒ(x) is discontinuous at x = 2

x→ 2 − x→ 2 +

f (2 + h ) − f (2) 2 − (2 + h) − 0
Now, Lf ′(2) = lim = lim (3 h < 0)
h→ 0 − h h→ 0 − h
−h
= lim = lim (−1) = −1 (3 h ≠ 0)
h→ 0 − h h→ 0 −

f (2 + h ) − f (2) (2 + h) − (2 + h)2 − 0
and Rf ′(2) = lim = lim (3 h > 0 )
h→ 0 + h h→ 0 + h
178 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS [VOL. I]

−(h2 + 3h + 2)  2
= lim = lim −  h + 3 + 
h→ 0 + h h→ 0 +  h
This limit does not exist (since it tends to – ¥). Hence f ′( 2) does not exist.
Example 2: Let ƒ(x) be the function defined by ƒ(x) = 2 | x | + | x – 2 |, x is real. Show that ƒ(x)
is not derivable at x = 0, 2 and is derivable at every other points.
Solution: Here
ƒ(x) = – 3x + 2, when x < 0
= x + 2, when 0 £ x £ 2
= 3x – 2, when x > 2
f (0 + h) − f (0) −3h + 2 − 2
Now, Lf ′(0) = lim = lim (3 h < 0)
h→ 0 − h h→ 0 − h
= lim − 3 = – 3 (3 h ≠ 0)
h→ 0 −

f (0 + h ) − f (0) h+2−2
and Rf ′(0) = lim = lim (3 0 < h < 2)
h→ 0 + h h→ 0 + h
= lim 1 = 1 (3 h ≠ 0)
h→ 0 +

\ Lf ′(0) ≠ Rf ′(0)
Hence ƒ'(0) does not exist, i.e., ƒ(x) is not derivable at x = 0.
f (2 + h) − f (2) 2+h+2−4
Again, Lf ′(2) = lim = lim (3 0 < 2 + h < 2)
h→ 0 − h h → 0 − h
= lim 1 = 1 (3 h ≠ 0)
h→ 0 −

f (2 + h ) − f (2) 3 (2 + h) − 2 − 4
and R f ′(2) = lim = lim
h→ 0 + h h → 0 + h
= lim 3 = 3 (3 h ≠ 0)
h→ 0 +

\ Lf ′(2) ≠ Rf ′(2)
Therefore ƒ'(2) does not exist, i.e., ƒ(x) is not derivable at x = 2
It is obvious that ƒ(x) is derivable at every point other than x = 0, 2
Example 3: Prove that the function ƒ(x) = | x – 1 |, 0 < x < 2 is continuous at x = 1 but not
differentiable there. (W.B.U.T. 2004)
Solution: Here
ƒ(x) = – x + 1, when 0 < x < 1
= x – 1, when 1 £ x < 2
Now, lim f ( x ) = lim (− x + 1) (3 0 < x < 1)
x→ 1 − x→ 1 −
=–1+1=0
LIMIT, CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 179

and lim f ( x) = lim ( x − 1) (3 1 > x < 1)

x→ 1 + x→ 1 +

=1–1=0
\ lim f ( x ) = lim f ( x ) = 0 = f (1)
x→ 1 − x→ 1 +

Hence ƒ(x) is continuous at x = 1

f (1 + h) − f (1) −(1 + h) + 1 − 0
Again Lf ′(1) = lim = lim (3 0 < 1 + h < 1)
h→ 0 − h h→ 0 − h
= lim (−1) = –1 (3 h ≠ 0)
h→ 0 −

f (1 + h) − f (1) (1 + h) − 1 − 0
and Rf ′(1) = lim = lim (31 < 1 + h > 2)
h→ 0 + h h→ 0 + h
= lim 1 = 1 (3 h ≠ 0)
h→ 0 +

\ Lf ′(1) ≠ Rf ′(1)
Therefore we conclude that ƒ(x) is continuous at x = 1 but not differentiable there.
Example 4: Examine the continuity and differentiability of the function
1, when x ≤ 0
f (x) =  (W.B.U.T. 2003)
1 + sin x, when x > 0
at x = 0.
Solution: Here,
f (0 − 0) = lim f ( x) = lim 1 = 1 (3 x < 0)
x→ 0 − x→ 0 −

f (0 + 0) = lim f ( x ) = lim (1 + sin x) = 1 (3 x > 0)

x→ 0 + x→ 0 +

and ƒ(0) = 1
\ f ( 0 − 0) = f ( 0 + 0) = f ( 0)
Hence ƒ(x) is continuous at x = 0
f (0 + h ) − f (0) 1−1
Again f ′(0 − 0) = lim = lim = 0, (3 h < 0)
h→ 0 − h h→ 0 − h

f (0 + h ) − f (0) 1 + sin h − 1
and f ′(0 + 0) = lim = lim (3 h > 0)
h→ 0 + h h→ 0 + h
sin h
= lim =1
h→ 0 + h

Since f ′(0 − 0) ≠ f ′(0 + 0), f ( x) is not derivable (or differentiable) at x = 0.

180 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS [VOL. I]

Example 5: A function ƒ(x) is defined by

1
f (x) = x sin if x ≠ 0
x
= 0 if x = 0.
Prove that ƒ(x) is continuous but not derivable at x = 0 (W.B.U.T. 2006, 2009)
Solution: Here
1
f ( x ) − f (0) = x sin − 0
x

1  1 
= x sin ≤ x 3 sin ≤ 1 for all non-zero real x 
x  x 
Therefore, given e > 0, there exists a d = e > 0, such that

f ( x ) − f (0) < ε whenever x − 0 < δ .

Hence ƒ(x) is continuous at x = 0.

For the derivability of ƒ(x) at x = 0, we have from the definition
1
h sin −0
f (0 + h) − f (0) h
f ′(0) = lim = lim
h→ 0 h h→ 0 h
1
= lim sin ,
h→ 0 h
which does not exist since ƒ(x) oscillates finitely near x = 0.
Therefore, ƒ(x) is continuous at x = 0 but not derivable at x = 0.
Example 6: Show that the function ƒ(x) defined by
1
f (x) = x 2 sin if x ≠ 0
x
= 0 if x = 0 is derivable at x = 0.
Solution: Here,
f (0 + h) − f (0)
f ′(0) = lim
h→ 0 h
1
h 2 sin −0
h 1
= lim = lim h sin (3 h ≠ 0)
h→ 0 h h→ 0 h

 1 
=0 3 −1 ≤ sin h ≤ 1
 
Hence ƒ(x) is derivable at x = 0.
LIMIT, CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 181

Example 7: If
x
f (x) = , x≠0
1 + e1/ x
= 0, x = 0
then show that ƒ(x) is continuous at x = 0 but not derivable at x = 0.
Solution: We have
x
f (0 + 0) = lim f ( x ) = lim (3 x ≠ 0)
x→ 0 + x → 0 + 1 + e1/ x

xe−1/ x
= lim −1/ x
=0 (3 e−1/ x → 0 as x → 0+)
x → 0+ e +1
x
and f (0 − 0) = lim f ( x ) = lim (3 x ≠ 0)
x→ 0− x → 0 − 1 + e1/ x

=0 (3 e1/ x → 0 as x → 0−)
Also ƒ(0) = 0
\ f ( 0 − 0) = f ( 0 + 0) = f ( 0)
Hence ƒ(x) is continuous at x = 0
h
f (0 + h ) − f (0) 1/ h
Now, f ′(0 − 0) = lim = lim 1 + e (3 h ≠ 0)
h→ 0 − h h→ 0 − h
1
= lim =1
h→ 0− 1 + e1/ h

 1 
3 h → −∞ as h → 0 − and so e → 0 as h → 0 − 
1/ h
 

h
f (0 + h) − f (0) 1/h
Also, f ′(0 + 0) = lim = lim 1 + e
h→ 0 + h h→ 0 + h
1
= lim (3 h ≠ 0)
h → 0 + 1 + e1/ h

 1 
3 h → ∞ as h → 0 + and so e → ∞ as h → 0 +  .
1/ h
=0
 
\ f ′(0 − 0) ≠ f ′(0 + 0) .
Therefore ƒ(x) is not derivable at x = 0. Hence we conclude that ƒ(x) is continuous at x = 0 but not
derivable at x = 0.
182 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS [VOL. I]

Example 8: Examine the continuity and derivability of the function ƒ(x) defined by
x 2 + x + 2 for 0 ≤ x < 1
f (x) = 
 3x + 1 for 1 ≤ x ≤ 2
at x = 1.
Solution: Here
2
f (1 − 0) = lim f ( x) = lim ( x + x + 2) (3 0 < x < 1)
x→ 1 − x→ 1 −
=1+1+2=4
f (1 + 0) = lim f ( x) = lim (3x + 1) (31 < x < 2)
x→ 1 + x→ 1 +
=3+1=4
and ƒ(1) = 3 + 1 = 4
\ f (1 − 0) = f (1 + 0) = f (1)
Hence ƒ(x) is continuous at x = 1
f (1 + h) − f (1)
Again f ′(1 − 0) = lim
h→ 0 − h

(1 + h)2 + (1 + h) + 2 − 4
= lim (3 0 < 1 + h < 1)
h→ 0 − h

h2 + 3h
= lim = lim (h + 3) = 3 (3 h ≠ 0)
h→ 0 − h h→ 0 −

f (1 + h) − f (1) 3(1 + h) + 1 − 4
and f ′(1 + 0) = lim = lim (31 < 1 + h < 2)
h→ 0 + h h→ 0 + h
3h
= lim = lim 3 = 3 (3 h ≠ 0)
h→ 0+ h h→ 0 +

\ f ′(1 − 0) = f ′(1 + 0) = 3
Therefore, ƒ(x) is derivable (or differentiable) at x = 1

Example 9: It is given that f ( x + y ) = f ( x) f ( y ), f ( x ) ≠ 0, for all real x, y and f¢ (0) = 2. Prove

that for all real x, f ′( x) = 2 f ( x). Hence find the value of ƒ(x).
Solution: It is given that f ( x + y ) = f ( x) f ( y ) for all real x, y.
for x = y = 0, we get from (1), ..(1)
f (0) = f (0) f (0) ⇒ f (0) = 1 (3 f (0) ≠ 0) ...(2)
f ( x + h) − f ( x ) f ( x ) f (h ) − f ( x )
Now, f ′(x ) = lim = lim [by (1)]
h→ 0 h h→ 0 h
f (h ) − 1 f (h) − f (0)
= f ( x) lim = ƒ(x) lim [by (2)]
h→ 0 h h→ 0 h
LIMIT, CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 183

= f ( x) f ′(0) = 2 f ( x) [since ƒ'(0) = 2]

Thus f ′(x ) = 2 f ( x), for all real x.
df
\ = 2dx
f
Integrating both sides, we have
df
∫ f ∫
= 2 dx, or log f ( x) = 2 x + log c

When x = 0, log ƒ(0) = log c, or log c = 0 (3 ƒ(0) = 1, by (2))

\ log f ( x) = 2 x, or f ( x) = e 2 x

Example 10: Let ƒ(x) be a continuous function and g(x) be a discontinuous function. Prove that
ƒ(x) + g(x) be a discontinuous function.
Solution: Let F ( x) = f ( x ) + g ( x ), where ƒ(x) is continuous and g(x) is discontinuous. Let us
suppose that F(x) is continuous so that g(x) = F(x) – ƒ(x) is also continuous, which is a contradiction as
g(x) is given to be discontinuous. Therefore F ( x) = f ( x) + g ( x) must be discontinuous.

Example 11: Let ƒ(x) be a function satisfying the condition f ( − x) = f ( x) for all real x. If f¢(0)
exists, find its value.
Solution: It is given that f ( − x) = f ( x ), for all real x ...(1)
Also ƒ'(0) exists.
f (0 + h ) − f (0) f (0 − h) − f (0)
\ lim = lim
h→ 0 h h→ 0 −h
f (h) − f (0) f ( h) − f (0)
or lim = − lim [by (1)]
h→ 0 h h→ 0 h
f (h) − f (0)
or 2 lim =0
h→ 0 h
or 2 f ′(0) = 0
\ ƒ'(0) = 0

4.11 DIFFERENTIAL OF A FUNCTION

If the derivative of a function ƒ(x) exists, the relation
f ( x + h ) − f ( x)
lim = f ′(x )
h→ 0 h
defining the derivative is equivalent to the relation
f ( x + h ) − f ( x)
= f ′( x ) + ε, or f (x + h) − f (x ) = hf ′( x) + εh ...(1)
h
where e ® 0 as h ® 0.
184 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS [VOL. I]

Here f (x + h) – f (x) denotes the increment of the function ƒ(x). Therefore, when derivative of a
function ƒ(x) exists, the increment of ƒ(x) consists of two parts — one part hƒ'(x), called the principal
part or linear part and the other part eh, called error. The principal part hƒ'(x) is known as the differential
of the function ƒ(x), denoted by dƒ(x).
df ( x )
\ df (x ) = hf ′(x) = h ...(2)
dx
In particular, if ƒ(x) = x, then (2) gives dx = h ...(3)
df ( x )
Therefore, df (x ) = . dx ...(4)
dx
Notes:
(i) The differential of an independent variable is same as the increment of that variable.
(ii) The differential of a dependent variable is not identical with its increment (compare (1) and
(4)).

Example: Obtain dx, dy, Dy – dy, given, y = x2 + x, x = 1 and Dx = 0.1.

Solution: dx = ∆x = 0.1; ∆y = {(1.1) 2 + 1.1} − (12 + 1) = 0.31
dy
dy = dx = ( 2 x + 1) dx = ( 2 + 1) × 0.1 = 0.3
dx
\ Dy – dy = 0.31 – 0.3 = 0.01.

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

x −1
1. If f (x) = , x ≠ 1, then lim f ( x )
x −1 x→ 1

(a) equal to 1 (b) equal to –1

(c) equal to 0 (d) does not exist
1 − cos x
2. xlim is
→0 x2
1 1
(a) 0 (b) (c) (d) 1
2 4
sin (π cos2 x )
3. lim equals
x→ 0 x2
π
(a) – p (b) (c) p (d) 1
2

ax − bx
4. lim , where a > b > 1 is equal to
x→ ∞ a x + bx
(a) 1 (b) –1 (c) 0 (d) none of these
LIMIT, CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 185

2
ex + 1
5. lim 2 is equal to
x→ – ∞
ex − 1
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) –1 (d) does not exist

6. lim  x − x 2 + x  is equal to
x→ ∞  

1 1
(a) − (b) (c) 0 (d) none of these
2 2

ax + 3, 0 < x < 1


7. If f (x) =  x 2 and lim f ( x ) exists, then the value of a is
− + 1, x ≥ 1 x→ 1
 a
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 2 (d) –1

12 + 22 + 32 + …+ n2
8. lim is equal to
n→ ∞ n3
1 1 1
(a) (b) (c) (d) none of these
2 6 3

3x + 1, when x ≤ 1
9. If f (x) =  then lim f ( x)
4 − x, when x > 1 x→ 1

(a) is equal to 4 (b) is equal to 3

(c) is equal to 1 (d) does not exist

 21 / x
, for x ≠ 0
10. If f (x) = 1 + 21 / x then lim f ( x)
x→ 0
 0, for x = 0

(a) is equal to 1 (b) is equal to 2
(c) is equal to 0 (d) does not exist
2 x + ax 2 for x ≤ 1
11. If f (x) =  is continuous at x = 1, then the value of a is
 2 x + 3 for x > 1
(a) 3 (b) –3 (c) 1 (d) none of these
1
12. If f (x) = (1 − cos x ) , when x ¹ 0, the value of ƒ(0) for which ƒ(x) is continuous at x = 0, is
x2
1 1
(a) 1 (b) (c) (d) 0
2 4
186 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS [VOL. I]

x2 − 4x + 3
13. If f (x) = when x ¹ 1, the value of ƒ(1) for which ƒ(x) is continuous at x = 1 is
x2 − 1
(a) 2 (b) 1 (c) –1 (d) 0
ax 2 + b, x < 1
14. If f (x) =  then the values of a and b for which ƒ(x) is continuous at x = 1 are
x + 2, x ≥ 1
(a) a = –1, b =1 (b) a = 1, b = 1 (c) a = 0, b = 2 (d) a = 1, b = 2

 1
15. The function f (x) =  x sin x , x ≠ 0 is
 0, x=0
(a) Continuous and differentiable at x = 0
(b) Continuous but not differentiable at x = 0
(c) Neither continuous nor differentiable at x = 0
(d) None of these (W.B.U.T. 2009)
1 − sin x π
16. If f (x) = , x ≠ is continuous at x = π then f  π  =
sin 2 x 2 2 2
1
(a) (b) 1 (c) -1 (d) 0
2
(W.B.U.T. 2008)
x
17. The function f (x) = is
x
(a) Continuous and derivable at x = 0
(b) Continuous but not derivable at x = 0
(c) Derivable but not continuous at x = 0
(d) Neither continuous nor derivable at x = 0
18. The function f (x) = x is
(a) Continuous and differentiable at x = 0
(b) Continuous but not differentiable at x = 0
(c) Discontinuous but differentiable at x = 0
(d) None of the above
19. The function ƒ(x) = | x – 1 | + x – 1 is
(a) Continuous and differentiable at x = 1
(b) Continuous but not differentiable at x = 1
(c) Neither continuous nor differentiable at x = 1
(d) None of the above
LIMIT, CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 187

x
20. The function f (x) = is
1+ x −1
(a) Continuous and differentiable at x = 1
(b) Discontinuous but differentiable at x = 1
(c) Continuous but not differentiable at x = 1
(d) None of the above

 2 1
 x sin , for x ≠ 0
21. The function f (x) =  x is
0, for x = 0
(a) Continuous and differentiable at x = 0
(b) Continuous but not differentiable at x = 0
(c) Neither continuous nor differentiable at x = 0
(d) None of the above

 x2
 , x≠0
22. The function f (x) =  x is

0, x=0

(a) Continuous and differentiable at x = 0

(b) Continuous but not differentiable at x = 0
(c) Discontinuous but differentiable at x = 0
(d) None of the above
23. The function f (x) = x x is
(a) Continuous but not differentiable at x = 0
(b) Discontinuous but differentiable at x = 0
(c) Neither continuous nor differentiable at x = 0
(d) Continuous and differentiable at x = 0

ANSWERS
1. (d) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (a)
5. (b) 6. (a) 7. (d) 8. (c)
9. (d) 10. (d) 11. (a) 12. (b)
13. (c) 14. (d) 15. (b) 16. (d)
17. (d) 18. (b) 19. (b) 20. (c)
21. (a) 22. (b) 23. (d).
188 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS [VOL. I]

PROBLEMS
1. Using e – d definition of limit, show that

x2 − 1 1
(i) lim =2 (ii) lim x cos =0
x→ 1 x − 1 x→ 0 x
1
(iii) lim ( x + 1) sin does not exist.
x→ 0 x

1+ x − 1− x
2. Is the function defined for all values of x ? Indicate the values of x for which it
x
is defined and real. Find the limit as x ® 0.
3. Show that the following limits do not exist:
x
(i) lim e1 / x (ii) lim
x→ 0 x→ 0 x

x−2 sin x
(iii) lim (iv) lim
x→ 2 x−2 x→ 0 x

x sin( x − 1)
(v) xlim
→1 x −1
4. A function ƒ(x) is defined as under:
 x + 2, x <1

f (x) =  4 x − 1, 1 ≤ x < 3
 2
 x + 5, x ≥ 3.

Show that lim f ( x ) = 3 and lim f ( x ) does not exist.

x→ 1 x→ 3

5. A function is defined as under:

 sin x
 , x<0
f (x) =  x
ax + b, x > 0.

If lim f ( x) exists then find a, b and the limit.

x→ 0
6. A function is defined as under:
f (x) = x 4 , x 2 < 1

= x, x ≥ 1 .
2

Show that lim f ( x ) = 1 and lim f ( x) does not exist.

x→ 1 x → −1
LIMIT, CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 189

7. Discuss the left continuity, the right continuity and the continuity of the following functions at
the points indicated.

(i) f ( x) = ( x 2 − 4) /( x − 2), x < 2 


= 4, x = 2  , at x = 2
= x + 3, x > 2


x ≠ 0  , at x = 0
2
(ii) f ( x) = e−1/ x ,

= 2, x = 0 

xe1/ x 
(iii) f (x) = , x ≠ 0
1+ e 1/ x  , at x = 0.
= 0, x = 0 

8. Discuss the continuity of the following functions at the points indicated:

(i) f (x) = x − 1 / x at x = 0, 1

(ii) f (x) = [ x] 2 − [ x 2 ] at x = 0, 1 (where [ y ] denotes the greatest integer less than or equal to y)
(iii) ƒ(x) is defined in 0 £ x £ 1 by the followings:


f ( x ) = 0, x=0

1
= 1 − x, 0 < x <  in 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
2
1 
= 1, ≤ x ≤ 1
2 

(iv) f (x) = 2 + x, x≤0 

= 1 + x, 0 < x < 1 
1 ≤ x ≤ 2
, at x = 0, 1, 2.
= 3 − x,
= 3x − x 2 , x > 2 


9. Find ƒ(0) so that f (x) = (1 + 2 x )1 / x for x ≠ 0 may be continuous at x = 0.

10. Test for continuity of the following functions at x = 0:
x
(i) ƒ(x) = x − x (ii) ƒ(x) =
1+ x
190 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS [VOL. I]

x 1
(iii) ƒ(x) = 1/ x
,x≠0 (iv) ƒ(x) = ,x ≠ 0
1+ e 1 + 21/ x
= 0, x=0 = 0, x=0

21 / x
(v) f ( x ) = , x≠0
1 + 21 / x
= 1, x=0
11. Examine continuity and differentiability of ƒ(x) at x = 0
1
where f (x) = x cos , x ≠ 0
x
= 0, x = 0. (W.B.U.T. 2007)
12. Show that the function ƒ(x) defined by
1
f (x) = x 2 cos if x ≠ 0
x
=0 if x = 0
is derivable at x = 0.
13. Let ƒ(x) = x2, if x £ 1 and ƒ(x) = ax + b, if x > 1. Find the coefficients a and b at which the
function is continuous and has a derivative at x = 1.
14. Show that the function ƒ(x) defined by
3
ƒ(x) = 3 + 2x for − < x≤0
2
3
= 3 – 2x for 0 < x <
2
is continuous but not derivable at x = 0.
15. Let
ƒ(x) = x, 0 < x < 1
= 2 – x, 1 £ x £ 2
1 2
= x− x , x>2.
2
Show that ƒ(x) is continuous at x = 1, x = 2 and that ƒ'(2) exists but ƒ'(1) does not exist.
16. Show that the function ƒ(x) defined by
ƒ(x) = x3 for x2 < 1
= 1 for x2 ³ 1
is continuous but not derivable at x = 1.
17. Show that the function ƒ(x) defined by
 1 
f (x) = x 1 + sin (log x 2 )  , x ≠ 0
 3 
= 0, x=0
is continuous but not derivable at x = 0.
LIMIT, CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 191

ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS

2. 1 lim f ( x) = 1, b = 1, a may be any real number.

5. x→ 0

7. (i) left continuous (ii) discontinuous (iii) continuous.

8. (i) at x = 0 it is discontinuous and at x = 1 it is continuous
(ii) at x = 0 it is discontinuous and at x = 1 it is continuous
1
(iii) continuous everywhere except at x = 0 and x =
2
(iv) at x = 0, 2, it is discontinuous and at x = 1, it is continuous.
9. ƒ(0) = e2.
10. (i) continuous (ii) continuous
(iii) continuous (iv) discontinuous
(v) discontinuous.
13. a = 2, b = –1.