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Totally Trebuchet Overview
Introduction
The GEARS-EDS Totally Trebuchet Program combines SolidWorks® with STEM based lessons
and activities. The comprehensive Totally Trebuchet Program described on these two pages is
available from GEARS-EDS at http://www.gearseds.com/ or from SolidWorks resellers. Included
on the disk is a small sampling of our math, science and engineering curriculum.
Trebuchets are fun to design, build and use. The Totally Trebuchet curriculum is a suite of self-paced
tutorials, teacher-led lessons and project-based activities. This educational program provides an
organized structure in which students and teachers acquire engineering skills and competencies through
the design, construction, refinement and competitive use of model trebuchets. Totally Trebuchet lessons
and activities demonstrate how math, science and engineering skills can be applied to the solution of an
open-ended engineering challenge.
Content
Totally Trebuchet is an interdisciplinary engineering education exercise in which teams of students
develop and employ transferable skills and competencies in one or all of the following areas:
• Science
• Engineering
• Mathematics
• Engineering Drawing
• Communication and Careers
The Build Report / Notebook

The build report is the essential element or “Deliverable” expected from students who participate in this
program of engineering education lessons and activities. The Build Report includes:
• Solid Models, working drawings and COSMOS analysis that graphically describes trebuchet
components and assemblies
• Research papers and presentations.
• Mathematical models used to describe or predict trebuchet parts or performance.
• Data from design iterations modeled on the TrebStar® trebuchet simulator.
• Spreadsheet analysis that includes the amounts, cost and weights of components and materials
used to fabricate trebuchet parts and assemblies.
• Logs or diaries that chronicle the engineering design process which includes ideation,
construction, testing and making the changes necessary to produce a working trebuchet.
• Class notes, teacher tests or quizzes, lesson worksheets and evidence of participation in the
activities.
Assessment
Educational success is best evidenced by a student’s ability to clearly articulate what they know and are
able to do. The measure of a student’s participation in the Totally Trebuchet program of activities is
evaluated in these three ways: Demonstrations of their competencies and skills, the quality of their build
report, and the caliber of their engineering performance in the Totally Trebuchet challenge games.
GEARS-EDS, LLC, 105 Webster St., Hanover, MA 02339 • TEL 781.878.1512 • FAX 781.878.6708 • www.gearseds.com
Copyright GEARS Educational Systems 2005 1
Permission to copy for instructional use with your students.
Totally Trebuchet
Educational Components
Totally Trebuchet is a complete set of educational tools and text materials designed to provide a
comprehensive introduction to science, math and engineering studies (6 to 8 week program).
• GEARS-IDS™ Trebuchet Kit and Construction Manual

Rugged and re-configurable structural components designed to withstand the yearly demands of
classroom service. These materials are organized in a storage container for easy classroom
management.
• TrebStar® Trebuchet Computer Simulation

This easy to use simulation mathematically models trebuchet performance and efficiency. It
allows teachers and students to quickly and accurately create dozens of trebuchet design
iterations.
• Will It Break? A Trebuchet Technical White Paper By Donald Siano PhD.

A clear, concise introduction to the engineering and analysis needed to safely design and build
small, medium and large-scale trebuchets. This is a great example of a technical white paper
authored by a professional engineer with a passion for hurling!
• GEARS-IDS™ Totally Trebuchet Curriculum

An integrated program of standards based science, mathematics and engineering studies
organized around an engineering challenge. Students work in teams to produce an engineering
build report that chronicles the design, construction and competitive use of working trebuchets.
The curriculum materials are divided into seven chapters and mapped to national education
standards.
1. Building the Trebuchet Team – SCANS - Tools for Success in Team Based
Projects
2. Engineering Communication - Researching Trebuchets
3. Trebuchet Math
4. Trebuchet Science
5. Trebuchet Engineering
6. Totally Trebuchet Games and Engineering Challenges
7. Trebuchet Build Report / Notebook - The Purpose of Engineering
SolidWorks® is a registered trademark of SolidWorks Corporation, Concord, MA USA.
Copyright GEARS Educational Systems 2005 2
Sample Math Curriculum
Pages M1-M4
Perimeter, Area and Volume Activity

Describing and Visualizing Totally Trebuchet Geometry
Activity #1 The Axle – Cross Section and Span

Sketch the GEARS trebuchet axle and label the dimensions on a separate sheet of paper. Remember
to include this sketch and all accompanying calculations and answers in your build report.
Throwing arm assembly
The trebuchet axle is a critical component;

supporting many times its own weight
across a span many times its diameter. It
also provides a low friction fulcrum for
the throwing arm assembly to turn on.
Axle
Span 3Ǝ (76.2 mm)
½ Weight of throwing ½ Weight of throwing

arm assembly supported arm assembly supported
Determine the following values:
1. The axle length (inches and centimeters)

2. Axle cross sectional area (in2 and cm2) Axle Cross
3. Axle weight (pounds ounces and grams) 0.1875Ǝ (4.75mm) Section
4. Span divided by the cross section diameter
5. Volume of the cylindrical axle. (in3 and cm3)
Copyright GEARS Educational Systems 2005 M1
Perimeter, Area and Volume Activity

Activity #2 Investigating SolidWorks - Geometry and Visualization

Powerful geometry tools are built into SolidWorks design software. They can be accessed using the
TOOLS section in the standard toolbar menu. The tools used in this activity are MEASURE and
MASS PROPERTIES.
Directions: Practice using the MEASURE and MASS PROPERTIES tools.
1. Open SolidWorks and create a 1Ǝ (25.4mm) cube.

2. Select a face (Highlighted) and open the TOOLS drop down menu.
3. Select Measure: The measure tool provides perimeter and area measures for that face.
4. Right click to deselect the face and measure tool.
5. Open the TOOLS drop down menu and select MASS PROPERTIES.
6. MASS PROPERTIES provides volume measurements for the part. This tool also includes center
of mass (relative to the origin), and weight relative to the material density.
7. Use SolidWorks to construct a compound solid of your own design. Use the MEASURE tool to
determine the area and perimeter of some or all of the faces.
8. Use the MASS PROPERTIES tool to determine the volume.
9. Print your work and write in the perimeter, area and volume information on the printed page.
Volume Formulas for Solid Objects
Volume = (Length x Height) x Width Volume = (?1 2Length x Height) x Width
Length
Length
Height
Width Height
Width Base
Volume of a Rectangular Prism Volume of a Triangular Prism
Volume = ( x Radius2) x Depth Volume = 4/3 x Radius3

Diameter
Radius
Radius
Depth
Volume of a Cylinder Volume of a Cylinder

Volume = 1/3 (Area Base x Height) Volume = 1/3 x Radius2 x Height
Height
Height
Width
Length
Radius
Volume of a Pyramid
Volume of a Cone
Permission to copy for instructional use with your students. 3
Assessment Rubric: Perimeter-Area-Volume

This rubric is offered as an example. Teachers and students are encouraged to create
assessment tools that reflect their needs and expectations.
Required Skill or Meets or Meets Some of this Meets little or None

Competency Exceeds this Requirement of this Requirement
Requirement
Score 4-5 pts Score 2-3 pts Score 0-1 pts

Calculate the perimeter and
areas of rectangles,
parallelograms, triangles and
circles.
Calculate the volume of

polyhedrons, cylinders, cones
and spheres.
Identify, describe and calculate
the perimeter of selected Totally
Trebuchet components.
the area of selected Totally
the volume of selected Totally
Uses spreadsheets, SolidWorks
or other technology to confirm
the accuracy of the axle area or
volume calculations performed
in this lesson.
Successfully completes the
activities, worksheets and
assessments assigned in this
lesson.
Maintains accurate and
organized records of class
notes, activities, worksheets and
assessment tools used in this
lesson.
Sample Science Curriculum
Pages S1-S8
Lesson 2: Mass, Gravity, Weight and Density

Visualizing and Describing The Science of Totally Trebuchet
Mass is the measure of the amount of material in an object. It is the nature of all mass to be
mutually attractive. This force of attraction is called gravity.
Gravity is proportional to mass. Therefore the most significant gravitational force is due to the
earth itself.
Weight is the measure of the downward force created by the mutual gravitational attraction
between the mass of an object and the mass of the earth.
Objects of the same size and shape (volume) can have different amounts of mass. The 1-1/2Ǝ
(38mm) diameter lead sphere used as the GEARS trebuchet counterweight has significantly more
mass than the (38mm) diameter wood sphere found in the kit. These spheres have equivalent
volumes, but not equivalent masses. Since weight is the result of gravity acting on mass, the
1-1/2Ǝ (38mm) diameter lead sphere weighs more than the 1-1/2Ǝ (38mm) diameter wood sphere.
The lead sphere contains more mass per unit volume. Density is a measure of the mass per unit
volume of an object. Weight can be substituted for mass when the density of an object or a
substance is calculated. Units of mass and volume are kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m3 in SI
units) or in pounds per cubic foot (lbs/ft3 in imperial units.)
In this lesson we will explore some fundamental properties of matter and materials in an effort to
better understand and explain the operations of trebuchets and other mechanical systems.
Mass
Mass is a fundamental quantity measured in kilograms or slugs.
SI units are kilograms (kg) Imperial units are slugs.
Mass
Mass is a scalar quantity, it can only be expressed as a magnitude. The sum of all
All objects have mass. Mass is a measure of the amount of matter or material in an
material an object contains. object
Another example of a fundamental quantity is length. All objects

have length.
An 8-inch long (203mm) pencil measures 8 inches long (203mm), anywhere in the universe.
Length, mass and time are fundamental quantities that can be measured and compared
irrespective of other factors or frames of reference (Quantum mechanics and relativity excluded).
Copyright GEARS Educational Systems 2005 S1
Gravity
Gravity is a force of attraction that acts between all matter.
Gravity is measured by the rate at which it can accelerate mass.

SI acceleration is measured in meters per second per second (m/s2). Imperial acceleration is
measured in feet per second per second (ft/s2).
x Gravity is a fundamental property of all mass. All mass has gravity all
mass exerts gravitational forces that attract all other masses.
x The force of gravity is a vector quantity. It has both magnitude and
direction.
x The force of gravitational attraction is proportional to the masses
attracting one another. The more mass an object contains, the greater
the gravitational force it exerts. Gravitation is additive. Gravity
x The earth is the most massive object that we interact with. Is the mutual
x The earth’s mass and our mass exert mutually attractive forces that attraction of mass
hold us in contact, or bring us back in contact when we attempt to
leave the earth’s surface.
x A bathroom scale provides a numerical measure of the force of
gravity acting on our mass.
x If we increase our mass (Gain weight) the reading on the scale goes up. Conversely if we reduce
our mass (Lose weight) the reading on the scale goes down.
x Since the scale is positioned between the earth and us, it records the change in the force of gravity
acting between the earth and us.
x The gravitational attraction between two objects is proportional to their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of their distance:
m1 m 2 Where: F = Mutual gravitational force
F G G = Gravitational constant
D2 D = Distance
m = mass
Weight
Weight is a derived measure of force. Weight is the result of the
interaction between mass and gravity.
x Weight is not a fundamental quantity or force like mass or
gravity.
x Weight is a force we can “feel” when we pick up an object.
x In the SI system, force is measured in units called Newtons. Weight
x The force exerted by a mass under the influence of gravity is is a measure of
measured in Newtons. the attractive
x Weight is a measure of the effect of the force of gravity force of gravity
acting on the mass of an object. acting on mass
x The measure of the weight of a given object can change with
respect to other factors or frames of reference.
An 8-inch (203mm) pencil on earth, might feel like it weighs 8g (0.035oz.), but if you take that
same pencil to the moon it might feel like it weighs only 1/6 of what it felt like on earth. In fact if
you weighed it on both earth and the moon using a spring scale, you could prove this to be true.
A spring scale measures force not mass.
Gravity Revisited: A Force to Reckon With (SI Units Only)
Mass and weight are used interchangeably in daily life. For practical purposes the force of
gravity over the earth’s surface is considered to be constant. (It actually varies with respect to
altitude or distance from the earth’s center and local variations in density.) Weight and mass are
equivalent expressions when the force of gravity is considered to be constant.
Galileo reasoned that gravity is a force that acts continuously on all objects. He experimentally
determined that free falling masses do not fall at a constant velocity. Simply put, the force of
gravity caused falling masses to accelerate, and this rate of acceleration could be measured.
Newton, who ironically was born on the day Galileo died, created the mathematical models to
quantify and predict the implications of the gravitational forces that Galileo had measured.
Newton described the essential relationship between force, mass and acceleration and produced
an elegantly simple statement that explains the movement of objects in the physical universe.
Force Mass * Acceleration

Where:
Force is expressed in units called Newtons.
Mass is measured in Kilograms (kg).
Acceleration is expressed in meters/sec.2 (m/s2).
Gravity x Mass = Weight

Newton’s simple algebra provides a convenient way for us to differentiate between mass and
weight. We can substitute the quantities above to predict the weight (Force) exerted by a given
mass on earth.
Weight = Mass * Acceleration of Gravity
Where:
Weight is a downward force
expressed in units called
Newtons.
Mass is measured in Force or Weight = 784 Newtons
Kilograms (kg).
Acceleration is expressed in
meters/sec.2 (m/s2).
Weight or Force = Mass*Acceleration
Weight or Force = 80kg*9.8meters/s2
Weight or Force = 784 Newtons
Mass = 80 Kilograms 80kg
Gravity = 9.8 Meters/s2
Density
Density is a material property.
The density of an object varies as a ratio of mass to volume.
Specific materials have specific densities.
Density is a measure of the amount of mass contained in a unit of volume.
SI Units Imperial Units Example Material Densities
Kg/m3 lbs/ft3 Aluminum 2.7 g/cm3

Kg/cm3 lbs/inch3 Steel 7.84 g/cm3
g/cm3 lbs/yd3 Copper 8.85 g/cm3
g/ml oz/inch3 Gold 19.32 g/cm3
Titanium 4.5 g/cm3
Polycarbonate 1.3 g/cm3
The average density of an object is the combination of the densities and respective volumes of
the different materials contained in an object. For example, automobile components are made of
steel, glass, plastic, aluminum and dozens of other materials. If you computed the average
density of a specific car, it would reflect the average densities and volumes of the materials from
which that car was made. And you would not get an accurate measure of the “Density” of cars,
because cars differ in the proportions of materials they use.
Mass Weight
Density or Density Volume
Volume
Objects can have the same

volume but different mass. This Same
is because materials have Volume
different densities. Less Mass
Same
Volume
More Mass
Activity #1: Calculate and Compare Density

In this exercise we will use some of what we know about mass, volume and density to compute
and compare the density of the 1-1/2Ǝ (38mm) diameter lead counterweight and wood sphere
found in the GEARS Totally Trebuchet Kit.
Materials
Balance Scale 1-1/2Ǝ (38mm) lead counterweight and wood sphere. Calculator
Procedure
1. Record the mass of the spheres. This refers to using the gram scale to measure the mass
of the spheres.
_____________ Mass of 1-1/2Ǝ (38mm) lead sphere
_____________ Mass of 1-1/2Ǝ (38mm) wood sphere
2. Determine the volume of the spheres. You can assume that both spheres are equal and
their diameters are 1-1/2Ǝ (38mm). *
4
Volume of a Sphere ʌR 3
3
_____________ Volume of 1-1/2Ǝ (38mm) lead sphere
_____________ Volume of 1-1/2Ǝ (38mm) wood sphere Example Material Densities
Aluminum 2.7 g/cm3 _____Mass

3. Calculate the densities of the spheres. Steel 7.84 g/cm3 _____Mass
Density
Mass Copper 8.85 g/cm3 _____Mass
Volume Gold 19.32 g/cm3 _____Mass
Titanium 4.5 g/cm3 _____Mass
_____________ Density of 1-1/2Ǝ (38mm) lead sphere Polycarbonate 1.3 g/cm3 _____Mass
Wood (Maple) _______ _____Mass
_____________ Density of 1-1/2Ǝ (38mm) wood (Maple) Lead _______ _____Mass
sphere
4. Calculate the mass of a 1-1/2Ǝ (38mm) sphere made from the materials in the chart above.
Complete the chart by adding the information in the blank areas.
* If you have dial calipers and experience using them, you can make accurate measures of the respective diameters
of the wood and lead spheres in order to make a more accurate determination of their respective volumes.
Activity #2: Designing Counterweights

Bigger, Stronger and Heavier
Ancient trebuchet engineers learned to build trebuchets the hard way, through trial and error.
As castle defenses were fortified, trebuchet builders responded by constructing increasingly larger
trebuchets. This meant more massive counterweights were needed to overcome the inertia of the bigger
beams, and hurl heavier payloads higher and farther.
The following problem requires a young trebuchet-engineering apprentice to calculate the interior
dimensions of a counterweight bucket. The young apprentice is required to furnish a drawing of the
bucket design showing the interior dimensions. Let’s see if we can use our understanding of mass, density
and weight, along with our technology skills, to help the young apprentice succeed.
The bucket must meet these specifications
Overall Weight: Maximum 25,000 lbs (11,339 kg)
The apprentice is to choose which of these two counterweight materials to use. The interior
bucket shape must be a cube, and it must be as small as possible and still meet the maximum
weight requirement.
Counterweight Material
Option # 1 Concrete with medium to heavy aggregate
Option # 2 Cut and stacked granite.
Note: Cut and stacked granite will have voids amounting to 10% of the total granite volume.
Here is one way to arrive at a solution:

1. Research ancient trebuchet and modern large-scale models to learn about counterweight bucket
form factors and construction methods. You can use books, videos or web sites. Since websites
change often, it is best to begin your search using your favorite search engines and keywords like:
Trebuchets, Trebuchet counterweights, Trebuchet construction, etc.
2. Decide on which system of units you will use. Choose either SI or Imperial and stick with it!
3. Research the density of medium to heavyweight concrete.
4. Research the density of granite.
5. Research the density of oak. Note: Published wood densities for specific species vary. Choose an
average density.
6. Build a spreadsheet that you can use to solve for volume, density and weight.
7. Find and use an online or published conversion chart to convert different density and weight
units.
8. Using the density data, and the required weight (25,000 lbs or 11,339kg), calculate the interior
bucket volume for each material.
9. Create a drawing of the bucket. Assume that it will be made from 6Ǝ thick oak planks.
10. Create your design and check your volume and weight using SolidWorks or other CAD software.
11. Provide three-view working drawings and solid model designs of the counterweight. Provide
mathematical proof of the volume and weight of the bucket. Create your finished design and
check your volume and weight using SolidWorks.
Work Sheet
Activity #2: Designing Counterweights
Name____________________________ Date________________________
Note: You will need to include and attach additional papers to complete this worksheet.
Sketches
Create a three-view sketch of the counterweight bucket design you choose to use. Include top,
front and right side views. You will not know the dimensions until you have calculated the
necessary amounts of counterweight material. Add dimensions later.
Density of Materials SI Units (kg/m3 ) Imperial Units (lbs/ft3 )
Concrete with medium to heavy aggregate _____________ ___________________

Granite _____________ ___________________
Oak _____________ ___________________
Volume of Material Weighing Maximum 25,000 lbs or (11,339 kg)

This figure will be the Necessary Interior Bucket Volume.
SI Units (m3 ) Imperial Units (ft3 )
Concrete with medium to heavy aggregate _____________ ___________________
Cut and stacked granite _____________ ___________________

Note: Cut and stacked granite will have
voids amounting to 10% of the total granite volume.
You will need to consider this when calculating the volume.
Determine the Necessary Dimensions (Length, Width and Height) for the Interior Cubic
Shape of the Bucket.
SI Units (meters) Imperial Units (Feet)
Concrete with medium to heavy aggregate L___W___H___ L___W___H___
Cut and stacked granite L___W___H___ L___W___H___
Visualization
Provide three-view working drawings and solid model designs of the counterweight. Provide
mathematical proof of the volume and weight of the bucket. Create your finished design and check your
volume and weight using SolidWorks’ mass properties tool.
Assessment Rubric: Mass, Density, Weight and Gravity

Describing and Visualizing the Science of Totally Trebuchet
This rubric is offered as an example. Teachers and students are encouraged to create
assessment tools that reflect their needs and expectations.
Required Skill or Meets or Exceeds Meets Some of Meets little or None

Competency this Requirement this Requirement of this Requirement
Explain the difference between
mass and weight.
Calculate the weight of an
object given the mass of the
object.
Research and record the density
of different materials.
Calculate the density of a
material given the weight and
volume.
Calculate the volume of a
material given the required
weight and density.
Calculate the volume and
weight of an object given the
dimensions and material density.
Use SolidWorks’ mass
properties tool to find or check
your answers.
Calculate the volume and
dimensions of a cube and sphere
given the mass and required
weight of a material.
Maintains accurate and
organized records of class
notes, activities, worksheets and
assessment tools used in this
lesson.
Successfully completes the
Trebuchet counterweight design
activity.
Sample Engineering Curriculum
Pages E1-E10
Activity #9: Analyzing the Stress on the Trebuchet Axle

Visualizing and Describing the Engineering of Totally Trebuchet
Engineers are responsible for designing and building machines, structures, processes, and systems
that are dependable, reliable and unlikely to fail when used within the design limitations for which
they were engineered. You might consider this the next time you are a passenger on a train, plane or
automobile, or as you cross a bridge or ride an elevator.
Engineers use a variety of tools and techniques to help them create safe machines, structures,
processes, and systems. Some of these tools include:
1. A working understanding of math and science principles.
2. Mathematical models.
3. CAD models (Static and dynamic).
4. Personal experience.
5. Physical models (Like the GEARS Totally Trebuchet model).
6. Prototypes.
7. Empirical testing and analysis.
The engineers and craftsmen who designed and built medieval trebuchets depended on personal
experience, empirical testing and perhaps models and prototypes. We can make this assumption
because there is no evidence they possessed the other engineering tools and skills listed above.
Objective
x Visualize and describe how cross sectional area and material strength affect the strength of
the trebuchet axle.
x Calculate the maximum allowable stress (material yield strength) for a trebuchet axle with a
given radius and material strength.
Terms and Concepts

Use your research skills to help you develop a working understanding of these terms and concepts.
Strength of Materials Terms Software and Hardware Engineering Terms

Compression Tools Cross Sectional Area
Failure Calculators Deflect
Force per Unit Area COSMOSXpress Deformation
Maximum Allowable Stress Dial Calipers Dynamic Forces
PSI SolidWorks Empirical Testing
Strain Spreadsheet Software Flexural Formula
Stress GEARS-TrebStar Load
Tension Radius
Ultimate Strength Span
Yield Static Forces
Yield Strength
Copyright GEARS Educational Systems 2005 E1
An Illustrated Look at Forces Acting on the Trebuchet Axle

A force that acts perpendicular to the center axis of the trebuchet axle will cause the axle to bend.
This is called deflection. The amount of deflection is proportional to the applied force and inversely
proportional to the cross sectional area of the axle. This simply means that if the axle is larger in
diameter, it will support greater loads and deflect less.
Center
Axis
Axle Support
Deflection Fig A-9a or Restraint
Tension Force
Acts to stretch or pull the axle material apart. A rod failing under tension will “Neck Down” when pulled apart.
Fig A-9b
Compression Force
Acts to push the axle material together. A rod failing under tension will bulge if the compressive forces act along the
center axis.
Fig A-9c
Tension and Compression
Occur simultaneously when the trebuchet axle is deformed. The material above the centerline is
under compression while the material below the centerline is under tension.
Fig A-9d
Force, Deflection, Stress and Yield

The loads or forces applied to the axle are called stress. Stress is a measure of force per unit area. An
example might be pounds per square inch or Newtons per square centimeter. A given amount of
stress (Force per unit area) will cause a given amount of change in the shape or length of the axle.
This change in length is called strain. Put in plain terms, if you apply consistently greater force
(Stress) the axle material will deform (Strain) to a greater degree.
Stretching a Steel Axle

Figure B9 is a graph illustrating the elongation (strain) of the axle due to increasing stress. This is a
common way to test the strength of materials and components. In this test the axle is held securely
on both ends. The axle is subjected to increasing tension (stretching) loads. The force of tension is
divided by the cross sectional area of the axle. This yields the stress value in pounds per square inch
(psi). Example:
A 0.250 inch diameter axle has an area = 0.05in2. If that axle is placed under a tension force of
1500 lbs, the stress would be:
1500 lbs.
Stress = 30,000 psi
0.05 in 2
During the test the axle is stressed and the change in length or strain is measured. A plot of stress vs.
strain is produced. The example graph indicates that stress is proportional to strain until the stress
reaches approximately 30,000 psi. Beyond that point, an increase in stress produces an increasingly
larger increase in strain. The material has begun to yield, and has suffered permanent deformation
(stretch). The axle will no longer return to its original length when the applied stress is removed. The
material has failed.
Engineers and designers do not like to design components to function at or even close to the yield
point. It is common practice to design components with large enough cross sections to withstand two
and even three times the applied loads without reaching the yield point.
.
Stress (psi)
.
B Yield Point
(The point of permanent deformation)
30K
A The Proportional Limit
(The point below which stress and strain are proportional)
20K
10K
.01 .02 .03 .04 .05
Fig B9 Strain (inches)
The Trebuchet Axle

The trebuchet axle supports forces generated by the rotating counterweight, beam, and projectile.
The axle is subject to significant dynamic (due to motion) forces during the throw and static
(stationary) loads when it is at rest. These forces and loads act to bend (deflect) the axle. If the axle
is not strong enough to support these loads, it will deflect causing permanent deformation of the
axle. Permanent deformation means the molecular bonds holding the material together begin to fail
and the material has reached or exceeded its yield strength. At this point the axle has failed, and is no
longer safe to use. In a worse case, the axle will break, though permanent deformation is the more
likely cause of failure.
Factor of Safety
In order to design a safe trebuchet axle it is necessary to consider the forces and loads to which the
axle will be subject. A prudent engineer will design the axle to support loads equal to or greater than
required. This additional design strength is called the “Factor of safety”. The factor of safety, or
FOS, helps insure that components subject to extraordinary loads, or extended use, will not approach
the yield point or fail under conditions for which they are designed. A common FOS is twice the
design load. A component created with a FOS of 2, is designed to support a load equal to twice the
maximum allowable load.
Trebuchet Axle
Axle Support
Throwing Arm Bearing

Throwing arm forces are transmitted
through the bearing to the central
portion of the axle
Axle Span ( L )
Axle Support
Top View of the GEARS Model Trebuchet
Analyzing the Stress on the Trebuchet Axle continued
Will a Trebuchet Axle Fail?

The bending or breaking of the axle is likely to be the most frequent source of failure in a
trebuchet system. In order to prevent axle failure, it is necessary to determine if the axle can
support the loads imposed by the standing beam system as well as the more significant loads
imposed by throwing.
It is possible to determine if the axle can support the loads in several different ways:
1. Trial and error. Build a trebuchet and use it. If the axle breaks, build another one. This is
the costly, time consuming and inefficient method of axle design employed by ancient
trebuchet builders.
2. Use the simplified flexural formula and the force information supplied by the GEARS-
TrebStar simulator to develop a general approximation of the answer to the question:
“Will it break?”
3. Use SolidWorks COSMOSXpress or other CAD modeling software to perform virtual
tests of the axle’s performance. This is a great way to obtain a “visual” understanding of
how the axle will react to the applied forces.
4. Use all three methods. This is a great way to expand your engineering knowledge and
skill, and arrive at a working solution to the question: “Will it break?”
Mathematical Model of the Axle

A trebuchet axle and the forces acting on it are illustrated in figure C9. This is a simplified
example where the load on the axle is assumed to be acting on one point, at the center of the
axle span. This is a “Worse case” scenario. An axle that can support the design load acting at
the center of the span will likely support the loads generated by a working trebuchet. The actual
loads of a working trebuchet will be distributed over a portion of the axle length and not applied
directly to the center of the axle span.
The axle is assumed to be a rod with a span L, a diameter D, and supported on the ends, with a
load P in the center of the beam. The load comes primarily from the weight of the
counterweight plus the centrifugal force generated by the motions of the counterweight, beam
and projectile during the throw.
P
½P ½P
Deflection
Length L
Fig. C9 An axle supported on two points equidistant from load P

5
For an axle with a given radius, and material: The greater the force P, and the span L, the more
likely it is that the axle will fail. Conversely, if the span L is decreased, the axle will support
greater loads.
In order to ensure that the axle will not deform (bend) beyond its yield point, it must be
designed with an adequate cross section and material strength. The maximum load or stress that
a beam or axle can support without suffering permanent deformation is called the maximum
allowed stress. A reasonable value for the maximum allowed stress can be calculated using the
simplified flexural formula show below.
The “Flexural formula” can be employed to calculate the:

1. Required material strength. ( Smax )
2. Required axle radius. ( r )
3. Required axle span. ( L )
Flexural Formula
For an axle with a given circular cross-section, the yield strength or maximum allowed stress Smax is:
1 L
Smax ( ) P 3
S r
Where:
P = Load (Force) on the center of the axle
L = Span (Distance between the supports)
r = Radius of the axle
Using the Flexural Formula

Assume you are designing a model trebuchet with the following parameters:
SI Units Imperial Units

m1 Counterweight Mass 1000g 2.2lbs
m2 Projectile Mass 20g 0.022lbs
mb Beam Mass 100g 0.22lbs
L1 Counterweight Arm Length 10cm 0.33ft
L2 Throwing Arm Length 45.5cm 1.50ft
L3 Sling Length 37.5cm 1.23ft
L4 Counterweight Pivot Arm 10cm 0.328ft
L5 Axle Height 25cm 0.82ft
Axle Radius ( r ) 0.3cm 0.0098ft (0.118in)

Axle Span (L) 10cm 0.328ft (3.94in)
Axle Material 304 Steel Yield Strength 205 MPa 30,000psi
Follow these steps to use the flexural formula to answer the question “Will it break?”
1. Run the GEARS-TrebStar simulation using

the given parameters.
2. Record the value for ( P ), the maximum
(Dynamic) load on the axle from the
GEARS-TrebStar trebuchet simulator. The
maximum dynamic load value,
max(Fax/Fcw) =, can be found on the
lower right corner of the GEARS-TrebStar
interface. See the red circle in the adjacent
figure. The max(Fax/Fcw) value is the ratio
of the maximum dynamic load to the
counterweight mass. To calculate the
maximum dynamic load, multiply the
max(Fax/Fcw) value by the counterweight.
3. Use the flexural formula to calculate the
maximum allowed stress, Smax for the
specified axle radius ( r ). Note: L and r are
given in the preceding parameters list.
4. Compare the calculated maximum allowed stress for the axle to the given yield strength
for the type 304 steel axle material.
Example: An Explanation of the Preceding Problem.
1. Run the trebuchet design parameters through the GEARS-TrebStar simulator to determine the
maximum dynamic load ratio, max(Fax/Fcw) = 3.5. When this value is multiplied by the
counterweight the resulting maximum dynamic force on the axle is 3.5 x 2.2lbs = 7.7lbs ( P ).
2. The axle radius ( r ) is 0.118 inches.
3. The Axle span is ( L ) is 3.94 inches, rounded off to 4 inches.
4. Substitute the values for P, r and L in the flexural equation to determine the maximum allowable
stress for this axle system.
1 L
Smax ( ) P 3
S r
1 4in.
S max ( ) 7.7lbs
3.142 0.118in 3
S max 6126.7lbs / in 2
5. Comparing the allowable stress for the axle (6126.7psi) to the yield strength of the material
(30,000psi) indicates an axle design with a margin of safety of nearly 5:1. This axle is certainly
adequate for this application.
Analyzing the Performance of the Same Axle Using SolidWorks COSMOSXpress
SolidWorks offers a handy utility that can be used to quickly determine if and how a trebuchet axle,
or other load-bearing component will perform when stressed. COSMOSXpress can help answer
questions like:
x Will the axle fail or break?
x How will it deform or bend?
x Can the axle dimensions be reduced and still support the applied loads?
COSMOSXpress is also a great tool that can be used to verify the answers you calculated using the
flexural formula.
The icon for the COSMOSXpress utility can be found on the upper level of the SolidWorks toolbar.
Using COSMOSXpress is easy

and self explanatory:
1. Sketch and extrude the
axle on the front plane
with the dimensions:
r = 0.118", L = 4".
2. Click on the
COSMOSXpress Icon.
3. Choose Options/English
4. Choose Next/Steel/304
and Apply the material.
5. Choose Next, read the
statement and choose
Next again.
6. Select the round face on
each end. This is a
restraint set. You have
essentially supported the
axle on each end.
Click Next.
7. Read the statement about force and pressure, select Next, and select the Force radio button.
8. Select the outside of the axle to add the Load Set. Click Next.
9. Click Normal to a Reference Plane radio button. Click on the Top Plane Specify 7.7 lbs.
for the force value. Click Next and Click Next again.
10. Click the Yes radio button to accept the default settings.
11. Click Next and click Run. COSMOSXpress will calculate the lowest factor of safety. A
factor of safety greater than 1 indicates the part will handle the design loads. Note:
COSMOSXpress will usually yield a higher factor of safety than you will obtain using the
flexural formula. This is due to the fact that the flexural formula assumes a worse case, center
loading of the axle. This concentrates the force on the weakest part of the axle (Center span).
COSMOSXpress on the other hand assumes a load that is equally distributed across the span.
In actual practice, the real loading on a trebuchet axle is likely somewhere between the two
values.
12. Click Show Me, after the calculations are completed. COSMOSXpress will show a color
coded model of the axle. Blue indicates the axle is not being stressed near the material yield
point, and that the factor of safety is greater than 1. Red indicates a factor of safety less than
1, or more importantly, that the part will fail under the applied load.
13. After clicking Show Me, click Next, and choose “Show me the stress distribution in the
model” radio button. This feature provides a color coded graphic showing where the part is
most highly stressed. Warmer colors indicate higher stress and cooler colors indicate lower
stress.
The axle in this example maintained a factor of safety greater than 2 under a load of 60 lbs. This is
more than 7 times the maximum loading predicted by the GEARS-TrebStar simulation software.
COSMOSXpress Challenge
Using COSMOSXpress
determine the minimum axle
radius needed to support the
maximum load imposed by
the trebuchet used in these
examples.
Hint: The maximum stress for

this example is 7.7 pounds.
Answer
__________inches
Stress Distribution of 0.118Ǝ radius axle under 60 pound load. Courtesy of SolidWorks Corp.
Try This
Use your new engineering skills and knowledge to help design a real trebuchet. This may take some
time, and more than a few iterations to find the best answer, but you have the tools and skills to
create the design.
Tools you will need to use: Trebuchet Design Parameters

Calculator Maximum Dynamic Load (P ) = 20 lbs (9kg)
Flexural Formula Span ( L ) 6 in. (15cm)
COSMOSXpress analysis software
GEARS-TrebStar simulation software
Use the constraints imposed by the trebuchet design parameters listed above to design a trebuchet
axle with the minimum radius necessary to support the Maximum Dynamic Load ( P ) with a factor
of safety of 2.5.
Record all your work in your notebook including the values and number of design iterations you
created. Sign and date your work.
Engineering Trebuchets
Visualizing and Describing The Engineering of Totally Trebuchet
This rubric is offered as an example. Teachers and students are encouraged to create assessment tools
that reflect their needs and expectations.
Required Skill or Meets or Exceeds Meets Some of Meets little or None

Competency this Requirement this Requirement of this Requirement
Explain how forces and energy in a
trebuchet system are affected by
scaling.
Calculate the maximum theoretical
range of a trebuchet given the drop
height of the counterweight and the
masses of the counterweight and
projectile.
Calculate the range efficiency of
the trebuchet.
Use the TrebStar computer
simulation to design and record the
performance of a full sized trebuchet
with a uniform beam.
Explain and describe the
engineering process in writing.
Use the engineering process to
invent a device or process to
improve the performance of a model
trebuchet.
Use a calculator or SolidWorks to
find the moment of inertia about the
axle of a uniform beam of given
dimensions and mass.
Calculate the radius of gyration of
a trebuchet beam given the distance
between the point mass and axle.
Test and graph the relationship

between any of the eight trebuchet
independent variables (Parameters)
and a dependent variable.
Design a tapered trebuchet beam.
Use SolidWorks to create the
models and calculate the volume,
mass and center of gravity.
Use the CM and RG values
calculated by Don Siano to make
simulated hurls based on the
dimensions and masses of the
GEARS model trebuchet.
Build Report/Notebook assessment

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4OTALLY4REBUCHET

The Build Report / Notebook

• GEARS-IDS™ Trebuchet Kit and Construction Manual

• TrebStar® Trebuchet Computer Simulation

• Will It Break? A Trebuchet Technical White Paper By Donald Siano PhD.

• GEARS-IDS™ Totally Trebuchet Curriculum

SolidWorks® is a registered trademark of SolidWorks Corporation, Concord, MA USA.

Perimeter, Area and Volume Activity

Activity #1 The Axle – Cross Section and Span

Throwing arm assembly

The trebuchet axle is a critical component;

Span 3Ǝ (76.2 mm)

½ Weight of throwing ½ Weight of throwing

Determine the following values:

1. The axle length (inches and centimeters)

Perimeter, Area and Volume Activity

Activity #2 Investigating SolidWorks - Geometry and Visualization

1. Open SolidWorks and create a 1Ǝ (25.4mm) cube.

Volume Formulas for Solid Objects

Volume = (Length x Height) x Width Volume = (?1 2Length x Height) x Width

Volume of a Rectangular Prism Volume of a Triangular Prism

Volume = (  x Radius2) x Depth Volume = 4/3  x Radius3

Volume of a Cylinder Volume of a Cylinder

Assessment Rubric: Perimeter-Area-Volume

Required Skill or Meets or Meets Some of this Meets little or None

Score 4-5 pts Score 2-3 pts Score 0-1 pts

Calculate the volume of

Lesson 2: Mass, Gravity, Weight and Density

Another example of a fundamental quantity is length. All objects

Gravity is measured by the rate at which it can accelerate mass.

Force Mass * Acceleration

Gravity x Mass = Weight

Mass = 80 Kilograms 80kg

Gravity = 9.8 Meters/s2

Density is a measure of the amount of mass contained in a unit of volume.

SI Units Imperial Units Example Material Densities

Kg/m3 lbs/ft3 Aluminum 2.7 g/cm3

Objects can have the same

Activity #1: Calculate and Compare Density

_____________ Mass of 1-1/2Ǝ (38mm) lead sphere

_____________ Mass of 1-1/2Ǝ (38mm) wood sphere

_____________ Volume of 1-1/2Ǝ (38mm) wood sphere Example Material Densities

Aluminum 2.7 g/cm3 _____Mass

Activity #2: Designing Counterweights

The bucket must meet these specifications

Overall Weight: Maximum 25,000 lbs (11,339 kg)

Here is one way to arrive at a solution:

Density of Materials SI Units (kg/m3 ) Imperial Units (lbs/ft3 )

Concrete with medium to heavy aggregate _____________ ___________________

Volume of Material Weighing Maximum 25,000 lbs or (11,339 kg)

SI Units (m3 ) Imperial Units (ft3 )

Concrete with medium to heavy aggregate _____________ ___________________

Cut and stacked granite _____________ ___________________

SI Units (meters) Imperial Units (Feet)

Concrete with medium to heavy aggregate L___W___H___ L___W___H___

Cut and stacked granite L___W___H___ L___W___H___

Assessment Rubric: Mass, Density, Weight and Gravity

Required Skill or Meets or Exceeds Meets Some of Meets little or None

Activity #9: Analyzing the Stress on the Trebuchet Axle

Volume = ( x Radius2) x Depth Volume = 4/3 x Radius3

Concrete with medium to heavy aggregate _ _______

Concrete with medium to heavy aggregate _ _______

Cut and stacked granite _ _______

Concrete with medium to heavy aggregate L_W_H_ L_W_H_

Cut and stacked granite L_W_H_ L_W_H_