Vehicle Dynamics

CONTENTS Page No.

ABSTRACT

1. NEED OF A GOOD VEHICLE MODEL 6

2. TIRE DYNAMICS 7

3. STEERING DYNAMICS 8

4. SUSPENSION

10

5. WEIGHT DISTRIBUTATION

13

6. DYNAMIC LOAD TRANSFER 15

7. ACCELERATION AND BRAKING ANALYSIS OF A CAR 15

8. AERODYNAMICS 17

9. ROLE OF COMPUTER SIMULATION IN VEHICLE

DYNAMICS 18

10. VEHICLE DYNAMICS ON SOFT GROUND 20

11. TESTING OF VEHICLES FOR VEHICLE DYNAMIC COMPLAINCE.

21

CONCLUSION

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REFRENCES

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ABSTRACT

Vehicle dynamics is concerned with the movement of vehicles. In

general, the movements of interest are braking, acceleration, and cornering.

The forces imposed on the vehicle by the tires, gravity, and aerodynamics

determines its behavior during these conditions. The vehicle and its

components are studied to determine the vehicle's response to the forces

produced during operation. Vehicle Dynamics is the prediction of responses of

a particular vehicle or a type of vehicles, usually under extreme conditions and

thereby study the effects of these responses on the vehicle itself. Activities

within the Vehicle Dynamics group focus on the performance aspects ground

vehicles. Research activities develop equipment and strategies that improve

vehicle performance in terms of acceleration, fuel consumption, comfort, and

safety.

Researchers in the group must have expertise in mechanical

components, thermodynamics, control theory, and electrical machines, and

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similar fields. Computer simulation is often used to predict the dynamic

behaviour of vehicles.

This discussion takes an over view of the various factors that come into focus

of vehicle dynamists. Here we also discuss methods that can be used to

develop a realistic vehicle dynamics model better under standing of the

subject.

1. NEED OF A GOOD VEHICLE MODEL: [1]

Vehicle modeling has been used more and more in the automotive industry

due to both, the need for more rapid construction and evaluation time, but also

with the development of faster and cheaper computers, providing computer

power and simulation tools, such as Matlab/Simulink, ADAMS or Cascade.

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Also, vehicle modeling can be used to test the behavior of the vehicle in

dangerous situations, e.g. crash tests, in a safe way. Several different

approaches to vehicle modeling exist, from simple linear one-track bicycle

models up to extremely complex nonlinear models. Modeling is often a

question of how simple the model can be made, but still be valid for its

intended purpose, as a more complex model inevitably requires more

computational power and is also more sensitive to modeling errors. A model is

expected to handle the following requirements:

• Predict performance, handling, and ride.

• Gauge effects of vehicle’s center of mass, tire characteristic traction

and slip.

• Provide effective suspension design, steady state handling models of

four wheeled vehicles systems to determine over-steer and under-steer

characteristics at critical speeds and stability.

When modeling vehicles, different co-ordinate systems are used depending on

what is modeled, and which behaviors are to be studied.

The most important co-ordinate systems are: The center of gravity co-

ordinate system, (CoG), and has its origin at the vehicle center of gravity and

is used as the reference for all movements of the vehicle body. The fixed

inertial system is a non-moving co-ordinate system used as a reference for

the vehicle’s position relative to earth.

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 Figure 1

SAE Vehicle Axis System

The above shown coordinate system, figure 1, is used as the standard to

describe the forces on the vehicle and has been used throughout this

discussion.

2. Tire Dynamics: [7]

Tires are the most

important element

in the quest to get a

car to handle well.

They are the only

link between the

car and the

5
surface. This link depends solely on the friction between the surface and the

tire's contact patch.

In the graph shown along side, the variations in the coefficient

Tire Friction Curves

of friction (µ), amount of slip Figure 2

for different types of road surfaces are plotted. In the left part of the above

graph, slip within the tire is dominant, also known as tire squirm. This happens

when the tire deforms under load, and the contact patch moves relative to the

axle. This also causes slip angles to exist. In the right part, slip between the

two surfaces is dominant; in this case, the tire starts to slide sideways a little.

It is remarkable that µ reaches its maximum when there is a little slip; usually

it's between 5% and 15%. That's because rubber interacts with the surface in

a very special way. There are two separate mechanisms involved: hysteresis

and adhesion. As the weight on the tire and the amount of slip vary, the

proportion of the two components changes. For example, if there is more slip,

the hysteresis component will be dominant over adhesion. If the rubber

compound is very soft, the temperature is high and the surface smooth,

adhesion will be the dominant force.

A good rule of thumb is, the more weight that is transferred away from a tire,

the worse that tire will grip. This rule does not apply in direct proportion to

weight transferred to a tire; a tire having more weight transferred to it will not

gain as much grip as a tire having the same weight transferred away from it. In

other words, if the vehicle is going through a certain corner with 250 pounds

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on the right front, and 200 pounds on the left front, and it makes a setup

change that puts 270 pounds on the right and 180 pounds on the left, then it

will lose some from the total grip being produced by the front end of the

vehicle. The increase in grip on from the right front will more than offset the

decrease in grip from the left front.

3. STEERING DYNAMICS:

 UNDER STEERING: [7]

This happens when the front tires don't have enough weight on them, and they

start to slip, hence creating a slip angle. A slip angle is the angle between

where the tire is pointing and where it actually is going. Each tire has its own

slip angle. The slip angle of the front tires is the angle between the dashed

lines and the continuous lines. As shown in the figure 3 below, the car is not

turning around the point we'd expect, or want it to turn (where the dashed lines

intersect, point N). Instead, it is turning around the intersection point of the

continuous lines (point U), which makes for a larger turning radius than

expected. This is understeer: when the turning radius is bigger than we'd

like it to be.

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 Under Steer

Figure 3

 OVER

STEERING:

When any of the tires

have insufficient weight

on them, they start to

slip. This usually leads to

a condition called

oversteer, where the turning radius is smaller than we'd expect it to be. As

seen in the figure 4, the rear tires have started to slip, creating slip

Over Steer

angles at the rear of the car. Figure 4

The inside front tire has also started to slip.

In this case, the car is turning around point

O, (whereas the driver would have

expected it to be turning around point N).

When a car is cornering, the lines

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representing the slip angles always intersect at the point the car is rotating

around. If they don't, the tire with the least amount of weight on it (in this case

the inside front) will develop a slip angle. Notice that the point which the car is

rotating around (O), is now much closer to the center of the car, and more

towards the front. The car will turn very sharply, much sharper and earlier

than expected.

 ROLL OVER DYNAMICS: [3]

Driving situations, which can directly induce vehicle rollover, are excessive

speed when entering a curve, severe lane change or obstacle avoidance

maneuvers or disturbance impact like side wind gusts. Vehicles with a high

CG are especially prone to rollover. Moreover, many driver mistakes result

from an overestimation of the vehicle's roll stability which varies due to large

changes of the load dependent CG height.

Vehicle Parameters Affecting

Roll Over

Figure 5

It is clear that the ratio of the track width (T), to the height of the CG, h+hR,

(the so called track width ratio) is the most important vehicle parameter

affecting the rollover risk, and accident analysis results confirm this fact. A

rollover coefficient R defined is that which basically depends on the track width

ratio and the lateral acceleration at the center of gravity of the vehicle's sprung

mass. For values of R< 1 the vehicle is rollover stable, for R = ±1 the vehicle's

9
left or right wheels lift of the road. Where, ‘ay,s’ is the lateral acceleration and

‘m’, the mass of the vehicle.

4. SUSPENSION: [7]

Figure 6

The assembly of, the chassis, the front and rear axel, along with the dampers

i.e. the shock absorbers, and leaf springs, constitutes the suspension system

of a vehicle.

Basic functions of a suspension are to:

1. isolate the vehicle body from road irregularities

2. maintain good contact between the tire and the road; minimize normal

force variation.

3. transmit forces generated by the tires, to direct the vehicle motion.

There are two main types of suspensions:

1. Solid axle type.

2. Independent type.

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  SOLID AXLE

SUSPENSIONS: [4]

Solid axles are good for carrying heavy loads but are pretty bad for road

isolation. The reason is that if one wheel hits a

disturbance, it affects the other wheel as well.

Figure 7

Also, there’s limited Solid Axle Suspension

packaging room. Most common solid axle suspension is the, Hotchkiss drive,

in which leaf springs support the axle and provide directional stability in the

longitudinal or lateral directions. They are very cheap.

 INDEPENDENT SUSPENSIONS: [4]

Independent suspensions let one wheel move without affecting the others.

Another advantage is that they give more packaging space…we can slip an

engine between them.

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 They are ideal for FWD vehicles and can be designed to give less roll steer

than solid axle. They are more expensive.

Independent Suspension

Figure 8

 ROLL CENTER CENTRE: [7]

Predicting how a car will react when various types of forces are applied to the

tires, can be simplified by studying the roll centre concept. A roll center is an

imaginary point in space, look at it as the

virtual hinge, the car hinges around when its

chassis rolls in a corner. It's as if the suspension

components force the chassis to pivot around this

point in space.

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Imagine a car, driving in a circle, as can be seen in the figure 9, with a

constant radius, at a constant speed. An inertial force is pulling the car

away from the Figure 9

center point, but because the car is dynamically balanced, there should be a

force equal but opposite, pulling the car towards the center point.

This force is provided by the adhesion of the tires. The forces generated by

the tires can be combined to one force, working in the car's roll center.

Viewed from the back of the car, it looks like the

figure 12:

Two equal, but opposite forces, not working on

the same point generate a torque equal to the

size of the two forces multiplied by the distance

between them. So the bigger that distance, the

more efficiently a given pair of forces can generate a torque onto the chassis.

This moment is called the roll moment. Note that it is always the vertical

distance between the CG and the RC, since the forces always work

horizontally. Figure 10

The torque generated by the two forces will make the chassis roll, around the

roll center. This rolling motion will continue until the torque generated by the

springs is equally big, only opposite.

The difference between the two torques, the resultant, is what makes the

chassis lean. This resultant decreases because the torque supplied by the

springs increases. So the speed at which chassis roll takes place always

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decreases and it reaches zero when both torques are equal. So for a given

spring stiffness a big roll moment will make the chassis roll very far in the

corners, and a small roll moment will make the chassis lean over less.

A different problem arises now; the location of the roll center changes

when the suspension is compressed or extended, most of the time it

moves in the same direction as the chassis, so if the suspension is

compressed, the RC drops.

Now the question that arises is: what’s the best, a high RC or a low one? It all

depends on the rest of the car and the track. One thing is for sure: on a

bumpy track, the RC is better placed a little higher; it will prevent the car

from rolling from side to side a lot as it takes the bumps, and it will also make it

possible to use softer springs which allow the tires to stay in contact with the

bumpy soil. On smooth tracks, we can have a very low RC, combined with

stiff springs, to increase the car's responsiveness and jumping ability.

5. WEIGHT DISTRIBUTION: [7]

Weight distribution is very important;

not only does it affect the static weight

on the different tires; it also affects

how the weight shifts in dynamic

conditions.

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F is the distance between the CG (green) and the front axle, R is the distance

between the CG and the rear axel. Figure 11

Weight on the front axel = weight of the car x (R/WB)

(1)

Weight on the rear axle = weight of the car x (F/WB)

(2)

Obviously, this will have its effects on handling: more weight on a tire means

more grip. So if the CG is located further towards the rear,

the car will have a lot of rear traction, which is nice to have

if acceleration is important. If the CG is located further

towards the front, the car will have a lot of steering, but it

might lack rear traction, which increases the risk of spinning

out.

The drawings alongside and below, represent two cars; the first one (figure

12), has all the heavy stuff located at its ends, far removed from the CG. The

second (figure 13), has all the heavy Figure 12

stuff lined up in the middle, very close to the CG.

Both cars weigh just as heavy, and their C.G.s are in

exactly the same place. So both cars will transfer the

same amount of weight while braking or cornering, and

their roll angles will also be identical. Yet they will not

handle the same, because their rotational moment of

inertia is different. The first car will react slowly, turn in a little sluggishly and it

15
will generally be more reluctant to change direction. The second car will

change direction Figure 13

very quickly and thus also unstable. It should be noted that,

that it's also important around which axis we're calculating

the rotational moment of inertia.

Consider the following example:

The drawings shown alongside represent identical cars,

except for the fact that they have their weight distributed

differently: the first one (figure 14), has its heavy components lined up

along its lateral axis, and the second one, (figure 15), has its heavy stuff

Figure 14

lined up along its longitudinal axis. So the first car has a very large

moment of inertia around its longitudinal axis, and a very

small

one around its lateral axis. In other words, this car will react

very

slowly while cornering; it will move from side to side (roll) very

slowly. But, it will move from front to rear (pitch) very easily, this might be

beneficial for quick braking, but it will make the car bounce back and forth

in bumps, making it very unstable.

For the second car, the opposite is true: it has a large value for its

Figure15

16
rotational moment of inertia around its lateral axis (not drawn) and a very small

one around the longitudinal axis. This means that the car will roll quickly, and

be very responsive in turns, but it will be very stable front to rear. This helps

stabilize the car in bumps while maintaining good cornering abilities.

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6. DYNAMIC LOAD TRANSFER: [5][6]

In dynamic conditions, load can transfer to the front wheels (during braking),

the rear wheels (during acceleration), and side to side (during cornering).

Determining the axle loads under arbitrary conditions is an important step in

the analysis of acceleration, braking, and cornering because the axle loads

determine the tractive and steering forces available at each wheel, affecting

acceleration, braking performance, and maximum speed.

The governing equations for acceleration and deceleration are:

c hW
Wf = W− Ax (3)
L L g

b hW
Wr = W+ Ax (4)
L L g

Equations (3) and (4) work for both acceleration and deceleration provided the

sign of the acceleration (Ax)

is kept constant.

The figure 16, shown

alongside, shows how the

car weight changes its

position while braking. As

the vehicle brakes, inertia will cause a shift in the vehicle’s center of gravity

and weight will transfer from the rear tires to the front tires. This is

known as dive. Similarly, Figure 16

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weight will transfer from the front to the back during acceleration. This is

known as squat.

7. ACCELERATION AND BRAKING ANALYSIS OF A CAR: [5] To get an

idea of, how a car responds to the driver’s style of handling it, the analysis of

its acceleration and braking abilities is necessary. Figure 19, shows the

significant forces acting on a vehicle while tackling a gradient.

W = weight of the vehicle

acting at its CG.

Wf and Wr = normal

forces.

Fxf and Fxr, = tractive forces

Rxf and Rxr = the rolling

resistive forces, act in the ground plane at the tire contact

patch. Figure 17

Fyf and Fyr = steering forces act in the ground plane at the tire contact patch.

DA = aerodynamic force acting on the vehicle acting at a height ha. Most of

these forces do not act at the center of rotation for the vehicle, and thus create

moments.

 ACCELERATION PERFORMANCE:

As power delivered to the wheels increases, acceleration eventually becomes

limited by either power or traction. In power limited acceleration, the vehicle

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reaches its peak acceleration because the engine cannot deliver any more

power. In traction limited acceleration, the engine can, but does deliver more

power, but vehicle acceleration is limited because the tires cannot transmit

any more driving force to the ground. Equation (5) gives the maximum

transmittable force:

Fx = µ Fz (5)

Note that µ depends on many factors, including load and velocity. If Fx

exceeds this limit, the tire slips excessively and enters dynamic friction, where

the coefficient of friction dramatically decreases, i.e., it breaks traction.

The acceleration of the vehicle (and therefore the longitudinal forces on the

tires) at a given point can be determined via equation (6):

( W + Wr ) a τ eNtf ηtf
( M + M r ) ax = x = − Rx − DA − W sinθ (6)
g r

Acceleration performance is also limited by other factors, such as suspension

geometry, the drivetrain, and lateral load transfer caused by engine torque.

BRAKING PERFORMANCE:

The general equation for braking performance is:

(W ) D
( M ) ax = − x = −Fxf − Fxr − Rx − DA − W sinθ (7)
g

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Braking causes the vehicle to decelerate, which causes load to transfer to the

front of the vehicle. This is why brake pads are usually larger and heavier on

the front of a vehicle.

8. AERODYNAMICS: [5][9]

While designing racing cars, such as F1 cars, their CFD (Computational Fluid

Dynamics) analysis of is considered to be an important stage. The flow of air

around a vehicle is extremely complex, being three-dimensional and turbulent.

In addition, the flow in different areas such as, flow over the front portion,

along the sides and also at the rear of the vehicle is coupled. The car will

perform best, and move fastest, when it disturbs as little air as possible.

Specifically, aerodynamicists measure three variables:

1. Downforce: This is the amount of downward pressure that keeps the

car on the track at high speeds.

2. Drag: It is the airflow that slows a car down because of aerodynamic

inefficiency or friction caused as air flows over various surfaces of the

car.

3. Balance: Is a change in the pitch of the car, such as when a car brakes

suddenly, which changes the way air flows over the car.

The aerodynamic effect familiar to most people is aerodynamic drag, which is

given by:

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 Fd = 0.5 ρCd AV 2

(8)

Drag is strongly influenced by vehicle yaw (β ). If the vehicle is yawing relative

to the direction of the airflow around the vehicle, airflow separation will occur

on the downward side. This causes an increase in the drag coefficient.

Normally this increase is limited to 5 to 10% on passenger cars, but can be

much larger on trucks.

The major goal is to provide maximum downforce to facilitate power

transfer from the engine, and to enhance stability especially when

cornering.

Nevertheless, due to the coupling of the flow around different areas of the car,

in F1 cars, certain appendages may be required to fulfill multiple aerodynamic

functions.

For example, for a F1 car, the front wing both provides downforce and

conditions the flow through the underbody, diffuser and radiator air intakes. In

order to optimize the performance of the car, it is important to determine how

the aerodynamic forces vary with the tuning of various parameters such as

road height, wing

configuration

and flap angles.

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 Figure 18

Picture above (figure 20) shows the computer simulated image of an air flow

field around a car. Generally CFD analysis is done to determine the optimum

shape of a vehicle which will offer the minimum resistance to air flow.

9. ROLE OF COMPUTER SIMULATION IN VEHICLE DYNAMICS: [2]

As discussed earlier, a mathematical as well as a physical model is very

essential in analyzing the behavior of any of the components of a vehicle from

the vehicle dynamics perspective. What computer simulation does is that it not

only reduces the fatigue of the designer, who has to take into consideration a

lot of things, which again consumes a lot of time but also gives far more

accurate results.

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For this purpose computer simulation models which are driven, by high end

software such as, METLAB, AutoSensorLab, DISCOMOS, ADAMS etc are

employed.

Shown below (figure 21) is the model used by the AutoSensorLab simulation

software.

Figure 19

It receives signals, providing status information from various sensors mounted

on the vehicle under test, viz. initial position of the vehicle, time elapsed from

its start, its instantaneous position, linear and angular (if any) velocities, the

driver’s input for acceleration or braking the tire pressure, the turning radius,

wheel slippage etc.

This software simulates the vehicle’s 3D dynamics in real time and

models its behavior. Devices such as a gyroscope, an odometer and a

G.P.S. receiver are used. AutoSensorLab facilitates the user to configure error

24
characteristics and behavioral idiosyncrasies of the individual sensors and

study the effects on the outputs under various conditions of vehicle dynamics.

The user can vary the vehicle’s acceleration, direction and altitude in real time

to create a dynamic scenario for analyzing the behavior of the sensors with

variations in their performance parameters. Scenarios can be recorded and

replayed to use the software as a data generator. This model simulates the

3D dynamics of the user’s vehicle in real-time. It can be initialized with 3D

position, heading and speed. Thus dynamic characteristics of a vehicle are

accurately simulated.

10. VEHICLE DYNAMICS ON SOFT GROUND: [6]

Up till now, we have been studying the dynamics of a vehicle on rigid

surfaces, such as asphalt or compacted ground. But there is another important

aspect to vehicle dynamics i.e. the study of vehicle behavior on soft ground or

loose snow. This subtopic assumes importance when we take into account the

rapidly growing market for Sports Utility Vehicles and especially military

vehicular applications, which encounter difficult and many times treacherous

terrain. Simulation concepts like the Finite-Element-Method (F.E.M.)

mostly are used to investigate the phenomena of wheel soil interaction

under quasi-static conditions like constant wheel load. For this, the FEM

has proved to be a suitable tool.

Due to the vehicles oscillations, caused by the roughness of terrain, the

dynamical wheel-load-changes enlarge, leading to an increased deformation

25
of the terrain surface. The following axle of the vehicle will be excited by the

left back unevenness of the first axle, which again induces the excitation of the

vehicle. The vehicle mobility on a yielding ground essentially is limited by the

resistance to roll. Additional limits of terrain mobility are the vehicles

oscillations, there by describing the border of human resistance.

Figure 22

The progress of the vertical oscillations of the cabin and of the vehicle’s center

of mass is presented in figure 22. As it has been mentioned before, a kind of

excitation was chosen that leads mainly to a pitching of the vehicle. This

behavior is pointed out with figure 21, where it is demonstrated, that the

vertical motion of the cabin increases more and more, according to the

pitching of the vehicle, while the vertical position of the center of mass remains

nearly unchanged. The remarkable influence of the soft ground on the

vibration behavior of the vehicle is emphasized in figure 23.

There, the pitching angle of the vehicle crossing the soft wave track is

compared to the according rigid wave track. The reaction of the soil

deformation upon the oscillation behavior of the vehicle appears by the

increase of the amplitude of the pitching angle on the soft ground. There, the

26
maximum angle is not only determined by the deflection of the tire and the

suspension, but as well by the sinkage of the wheels. The more the vehicle is

pitching, the more the dynamical wheel loads are increasing and the more the

soil will be deformed. That’s the reason, why the amplitude of the pitching

angle increases on soft ground, while remaining nearly constant on the rigid

track.

Figure 23

11. TESTING OF VEHICHES FOR VEHILE DYNAMIC COMPLIANCE:

The some of tests that are performed on vehicles for determining their

compliance of vehicle dynamics are:

• Kinematics and Compliance

testing.

• Testing by Road simulators.

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 • Swept steer test.

• Dynamic constant radius turn test.

• System level testing. etc

Figure 24

Vehicle handling and ride quality are becoming more important today as

vehicle manufacturers compete for customers to buy new cars and trucks. A

key factor in the ride and handling of vehicles is the suspension. Vehicle

handling depends on tire forces produced by small angle differences between

the wheel plane and its direction of travel on the road. The suspension

contributes to tire forces by controlling the wheel attitude relative to the vehicle

body. Vehicle handling performance, stability and responsiveness depend on

suspension stiffness when transmitting forces into the vehicle. Suspensions

also need to minimize parasitic energy consumers such as tire wear and

vehicle rolling losses. However, suspensions are multi-component

mechanisms with behavior that is difficult to predict, so a way to measure

suspension characteristics is desirable.

CONCLUSION:

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The present study has shown us how a vehicle is influenced by the different

kind of forces that act on it. To accurately simulate the operation of a vehicle,

we must have knowledge of the various forces acting on the vehicle. These

include static and dynamic loads, acceleration, steering forces, aerodynamic

loads, and rolling resistance. Knowledge of these loads provides a means to

model cornering performance through the integration of the equations of

motion. Performance, handling of vehicles and their interaction with external

and internal interfaces is covered, along with examination of the effects of

tires, suspension systems, steering and aerodynamic forces.

Importance of the Center Of Gravity can be gauged from this discussion and

how it affects the cornering, steering, balance and weight transfer capabilities

of a vehicle is seen. The movement of a vehicle on soft grounds is a critical

aspect for SUVs and Military vehicles and cannot be neglected.

REFERENCES:

[1] Variable Vehicle Dynamics Design Objective Design Methods Master’s

Thesis Performed in Vehicular Systems, Magnus Oscarsson.

29
[2] Accord Software and Systems, Bangalore, User manual.

[3] Vehicle Dynamics Control with Rollover Prevention for Articulated Heavy

Trucks, Daniel D. Eisele, Huei Peng. University of Michigan.

[4] Vehicle Technology, Dr. Özgen Akalýn.

[5] Vehicle Dynamics for Racing Games, By Ted Zuvich

[6] www.monroe.com – tech support

[7] General Motors, Vehicle Dynamics.

[8] Vertical Vehicle Dynamics on Soft Ground, “Investigations with FEM”,

Christoph Kölsch.

[9] “Introduction to Vehicle Dynamics”, www.rcingreece.com

[10] “Vehicle Dynamics-Jaguar “, N.W. Fussey, P.A. Chappell, J.A. Nicholson.

ABBRIVATIONS and SYMBOLS:

M = mass of the vehicle = W/g ax = longitudinal

acceleration

V = velocity of the vehicle r = radius of the tire

Rx = rolling resistive forces Cd = drag coefficient

Da = aerodynamic force drag θ = up hill gradient

Te = engine torque at a given rpm ρ = air density

A = frontal area of the vehicle

Dx = Linear deceleration

Fxt = Front axel braking force

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Fxr = Rear axel braking force

Mr = equivalent mass of the rotating components

Ntf = combined ratio of the transmission and final drive

η tf = combined efficiency of the transmission and final drive

31