ISSN(Online) : 2319-8753

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International Journal of Innovative Research in Science,

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Vol. 4, Issue 8, August 2015

Analysis of Soil Physico-Chemical Properties

in Various Sites at Yamuna Biodiversity Park,
Delhi, India
Azis Kemal Fauzie1,3, Faiyaz Ahmad Khudsar2, Sreenivasa3
Post Graduate Student, School of Environmental Studies, University of Delhi, Delhi, India 1
Scientist-in-charge, Yamuna Biodiversity Park, Centre for Environmental Management of Degraded Ecosystems, Delhi,
India2
Research Scholar, Department of Studies in Environmental Science, University of Mysore, Mysore, India3

ABSTRACT: The present study comprises the analysis of soil samples across the park. The samples were analyzed for
their temperature, moisture content, pH, salinity, electrical conductivity (EC), organic matter, nitrate, and phosphate
contents. Results showed a direct proportional relationship between soil salinity and EC. Soil organic matter has also
correlation with soil pH in which plots with high soil pH have less organic content. Contour of land affected soil
characteristics in which sites with relatively low-land areas received high salinity, EC and phosphate content. But the
most important finding was the role of vegetation. Plots which high plant cover performed to have soil with relatively
neutral pH, high nitrate and phosphate content, but low salinity and EC values. Comparation to earlier condition showed
that soil pH, salinity and EC were decreasing during five year period. Soil organic matter, nitrate and phosphate content
have also been increasing significantly.

KEYWORDS: soil analysis, soil property, soil nutrient, soil reclamation, soil salinity, soil sampling

I. INTRODUCTION

Desertification does not only undermine efforts for sustainable development, but it is introducing new threats to human
health, ecosystems and national economies of several countries. It was postulated that 6% (more than 800 million ha) of
the world lands are affected by salinity [1]. Saline and/or sodic soil is also well-known to limit crop production and eco-
environmental quality. Excessive amounts of salts have adverse effects on physical and chemical properties of soil,
microbiological processes and on plant growth [2].
In India, salinisation is one of the most serious problems confronting ecosystems in semi-arid and arid regions. Large
area of land remains barren and uncultivable because of bad soil affected by salinity [3]. Plant growth in these highly
saline-sodic soil is directly affected by high levels of salts mostly sodium chloride. One of the major causes of soil
salinisation is evaporation of salty ground water due to shallow water tables [4].
Yamuna Biodiversity Park (YBP) which lies on the river basin area of Yamuna flood plain in the semi-arid region of
Delhi has also problem in soil salinity. When the park first developed in 2002, the soil was found to be highly saline.
The land was covered by a crust of salt deposition on its surface. This sodic characteristic of the soil that revealed to
have pH of up to 9.8 makes it extremely difficult for the wild plant species to survive [5]. The problem of this saline-
sodic soil has forced many scientists to work hard on bringing down the pH of the soil without using any chemicals.
YBP has applied phytodesalination techniques to reclaim its sodic soil. Many types of plants have been introduced to
the park to reduce the soil pH and salinity and to enrich its nutrient content, so other sensitive plants can also share the
habitats. The more improvement of soil quality, the more number of plant species can grow and survive in the park.
Presently, after almost eight years operation, the plant communities in YBP have increased remarkably due to suitable
condition of soil profile and nutrients required for plant growth.

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The aim of the study is to analyze different characteristics of soil in various types of mini forests which are designed
and compiled in a biodiversity park. The soil properties include a number of physico-chemical parameters i.e.
temperature, moisture, pH, salinity and electrical conductivity as well as mineral and nutrient contents including soil
organic matter, nitrate and phosphate contents. To achieve the above, following objectives have been laid down,
particularly: (i) soil sampling in various habitats, (ii) soil property analysis, and (iii) comparison of present condition of
soil profile with the earlier condition described in any available secondary data.

II. STUDY AREA

Study was conducted in Yamuna Biodiversity Park, which is located in the region of Delhi, extended from 28º25’N to
28º53’N and 76º50’E to 77º22’E. The park itself is located at 28º44’N and 77º12’E on northern part of Delhi,
specifically in Jharoda Majra Burari, near Jagatpur village, Wazirabad on western side of River Yamuna. Therefore, this
park was originally a floodplain area and often experienced flooding in every monsoon season at about 3-4 decades ago
[6]. YBP is located in an elevation of 682 ft above sea level and spread over an area of 437 acres. The park features two
major areas i.e. the Visitor Area and the Nature Reserve Area, and provides almost 30 different biotic communities.

Nature Reserve Area

14

13

12

15

Visitor Area
11

10 1

3
2

6
4
N 5

7
8
9

Fig. 1. Map of Yamuna Biodiversity Park showing location of 15 sampling sites.

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Tabel 1. Geographical locations of the plots.

No. Names of Plant Community Geographical Location Area Location
1. Mixed deciduous forest N 28º 43' 55.8" E 77º 13' 07.9"
2. Subtropical mixed evergreen forest N 28º 43' 53.9" E 77º 13' 09.3"
3. Subtropical mixed semi-evergreen forest N 28º 43' 54.6" E 77º 13' 08.4"
4. Tropical thorn forest N 28º 43' 51.4" E 77º 13' 09.6"
in Visitor
5. Tropical moist deciduous forest with teak N 28º 43' 51.3" E 77º 13' 08.3"
Area
6. Tropical dry deciduous forest with sal N 28º 43' 52.2" E 77º 13' 07.1"
7. Rangeland N 28º 43' 49.0" E 77º 13' 09.1"
8. Tropical mixed dry deciduous forest with bamboo N 28º 43' 48.0" E 77º 13' 06.9"
9. Tropical dry deciduous forest with teak N 28º 43' 47.5" E 77º 13' 08.2"
10. Hardwickia community N 28º 43' 58.2" E 77º 12' 55.6"
11. Grassland N 28º 44' 00.7" E 77º 12' 50.3"
12. Teak community N 28º 44' 05.9" E 77º 12' 52.9" in Nature
13. Tropical dry deciduous forest (Malwa forest) N 28º 44' 06.1" E 77º 12' 49.2" Reserve Area
14. Sal community N 28º 44' 16.7" E 77º 12' 53.2"
15. Mixed dry deciduous forest (Kuno forest) N 28º 44' 04.7" E 77º 12' 40.7"

Of all forests and communities provided in the park, fifteen sites were selected as sampling locations among the
designated habitats in which nine plots were located in the Visitor Area and the remaining six were in the Nature
Reserve Area. All sites in both areas are protected and managed by joint-collaboration project between Delhi
Development Authority (DDA) and the Centre for Environmental Management of Degraded Ecosystems (CEMDE),
University of Delhi [6]. Most of the plots in Visitor Area were mounds ranging from 480 to 1764 m2. The map and the
geographical locations of these 15 sampling sites are described in Figure 1 and Table 1 respectively.

III. MATERIALS AND METHODS

There are mainly two basic methods used in this study: soil sampling and soil physico-chemistry analysis. Stratified
random sampling method was used to select locations of soil sampling points [7]. A number of quadrates sized 10×10
m2 have been constructed as permanent plots in different habitat types, and geographical location of each sampling
points were recorded using Global Positioning System (Garmin GPS 60™). Soil samples were collected from the
sampling plots by using 4-ft long, 1½″ bore diameter soil auger, stored in a number of zipper-sealed plastic pouches,
labeled and taken to laboratory for further analyses.
Soil temperature was directly measured using wood-covered soil thermometer developed by SITA Thermometers
Industries at the same time with that of soil collection. Soil samples were air-dried at room temperature (30ºC) for some
time, then grinded and screened before starting the analyses. Soil pH, salinity and electrical conductivity were measured
by direct reading of digital pocket instruments from Eutech (i.e. pH Testr, Salt Testr and EC Testr low+ respectively)
after dissolving and filtering the soil in some amount of distilled water. Soil moisture content was determined using
gravimetric method (oven-drying method), while soil organic matter was estimated by Walkey-Black method [8].
Estimation of nitrate and phosphate content in soil used combination of chemical preparation method, filtration and
direct reading of Portable Nitrate Photometer HI 93728 and Portable Phosphate Photometer HI 93713 respectively
developed by HANNA instruments.

IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Analysis of Soil Physico-Chemical Properties

Soil Temperature
Soil temperature exhibits almost similar state between all forests in YBP. There were no significant differences between
each other. Most of the temperatures range between 15 to 25ºC. This range depends mostly on the climate of the city of
Delhi, which is located above the Tropic Cancer, and the season when measurement takes place. However, the study

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found that three plant communities, i.e. Plot No. 10, 11 and 13 (Hardwickia community, Grassland and Tropical dry
deciduous forest respectively) have higher soil temperature among others (Table 2). It might be due to those
communities have smaller number of big trees. Big trees by their wide canopies might help on covering soil surfaces
and protecting them from hot radiation of sunlight at daytime.

Table 2. Distribution of soil physico-chemical properties in different sampling plots in YBP in 2011.
Plot No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Temperature, ºC 17.7 20.1 17.8 16.6 15.4 20.2 17.1 17.7 18.3 25.3 24.9 21.6 25.0 21.4 21.2
Moisture content, % 16.5 10.1 11.6 11.6 11.5 9.8 16.9 8.7 9.1 26.0 26.7 25.0 29.7 19.2 29.3
pH 7.41 7.80 7.13 7.24 7.32 7.70 7.36 7.18 7.27 6.82 7.01 7.06 7.90 7.20 7.22
Salinity, ppt 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.30 0.10 0.00 0.10 0.00 0.00 1.10 1.20 0.40 0.60 0.20 0.10
EC, S/cm 259 163 164 703 207 112 170 130 96 1571 1679 1046 1437 481 353
Organic matter, % 0.30 1.33 2.81 0.37 1.41 1.92 1.70 0.67 0.07 1.33 2.30 1.85 2.07 3.18 3.78
NO3-N, mg/100 g 8.9 16.0 11.5 4.8 10.0 7.8 8.2 13.0 10.1 3.7 10.5 10.3 9.0 4.1 11.5
PO4-P, mg/100 g 15.2 8.0 19.0 4.8 7.2 6.4 18.6 5.0 5.6 3.6 7.6 7.2 7.8 5.6 8.4

Soil Moisture Content

Soil moisture content hardly depends on water content in the soils. High soil moisture content indicates that the soils
have two main characteristics: (i) more water washing either from precipitation or from water flooding of neighboring
water bodies, and (ii) less water evaporation from soils due to high cover of lands by relatively dense vegetation. Table
2 showed that forests in Visitor Zone (Plot No. 1 to 9) have less soil moisture content than forests in Plot No. 10 to 15
(all in Nature Reserve Zone).
The amount of water in the soil was mostly influenced by the quantity of precipitation occurred in that area. Therefore,
soil moisture content would be higher in monsoon season. The difference in selecting sampling time sometimes created
an error on soil study and made the data incomparable. This was also happened in this study. Soil samples of Plot No. 1
to 9 were collected one week before collecting samples of Plot No. 10 to 15. In between these two sampling time, there
was a relatively huge rain occurred in this area. Therefore, soil in former plot has lower moisture content than the latter.
Ideally measurement of soil moisture content is highly advisable to include all conditions in every season. But due to
time constraint, this cannot be done completely in this work.

Soil pH
Acidity, or pH, salinity and conductivity of the soil highly affect plant growth. Meanwhile some plants also have their
pH preferences for their growth. Soil that has pH lower or higher than these requirements will not serve as good habitats
for some specific plants. In the other hand, plants can also slowly alter soil conditions to meet their preferences. Soil
pH, salinity and conductivity can change by the time during plants grow in that particular area. The process needs time,
maybe years or so, to meet suitable conditions that plants require. This is an example of reclamation or remediation
process of the soil, which is often called as phytoremediation.
In general, most of the sites in YBP have recovered their soil pH from saline to neutral, except for Plots No. 2, 6 and 13
that still have pH above 7.5, while all the remainings have relatively neutral pH ranged from 6.5 to 7.5 (Table 2). Plot
No. 11 has relatively neutral soil pH (7.01), because the site was relatively dense by small plants and grasses, whereas
Plot No. 2 and 13 which have less vegetation cover in their soils are found to have high soil pH (7.8-7.9). The decline in
soil pH during this period of time was due to the act of plants and soil microbes that help on degrade plant litter and
convert it into humic acid (or later into humus) and, hence, slowly decline the soil pH.

Soil Salinity
Soil salinity was measured in ppt unit. It indicated the amount of salts contained in the soil. High amount of salts can be
identified by clear white deposition present in the soil surface. Grassland showed high content of salinity followed by
Hardwickia community. This is due to these two sites are low-land area and sometimes experienced flooding from

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water bodies or from precipitation run-off fallen from neighboring high-land areas or mounds. All forests in Visitor
Area have low salinity. Soil salinity in Plots No. 6, 8 and 9 was even untraceable to ppt unit.
Salinity of the soil was also influenced the diversity and richness of plant communities and vice versa. Table 2 showed
that Plots No. 10 and 11 have high salinity profiles (1.10 and 1.20 ppt respectively), and in reality both of them have
low vegetation richness and diversity.

Soil Electrical Conductivity

The parameters of soil salinity and electrical conductivity (EC) were found to be closely related each other, because
both parameters refer to the amount of ions present in the soils. The 2011 data presented similar profiles between these
two parameters. Both have peak values on Plots No. 11 and 10, and showed relatively low EC values on all plots
located in Visitor Area as compared to plots in Nature Reserve Area, except for the Kuno (Table 2). It may be due to
sites and mounds in Visitor Area are mostly man-made sites and have experienced higher degree of tillage and soil
hoarding, hence more-saline surface soil and less-saline deep soil were mixed well.
Comparison between EC values with vegetation profiles resulted in similar relation with soil salinity, in which the EC
was found to have inversely proportional relation with the vegetation profiles. The reason of this similarity was that
both parameters were influenced by the amount of free ions contained in the soil, mostly Na + and Cl– ions. Therefore,
they have, somehow, direct proportional relation between each other.

Soil Organic Matter

Soil pH, somehow, relates to soil organic matter (SOM), but inversely proportional. It means that lesser soil pH, more
SOM. SOM represents amount of nutrients present in soil required for plant growth, either macro- or micronutrients. In
simply way, SOM identifies the humus content in the soil as a result from decomposition of crop and microbial
residues. Humus is acid in nature, because of its humic acid content. Therefore, large amount of humus or organic
matter may generate more acidity in soil (or less pH value). From Table 2, it was found that Plots No. 3, 11, 14 and 15,
which have lesser (neutral) pH values, were having higher SOM content as compared to other plots (e.g. Plots No. 2, 6
and 13) which have relatively high pH values, but lesser in organic matter content.

Nitrate-Nitrogen Content
One of most important nutrients required for plant growth is nitrogen. Nitrogen presents in soils can be measured as
total nitrogen (N), nitrate (NO3), nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N), ammonium (NH4) or ammonium-nitrogen (NH4-N).
Nitrogen is important because it is the major constituent of all proteins, chlorophyll and nucleic acids. The deficiency of
nitrogen will cause stunted growth and yellowish leaves.
The amount of nitrate-N represents the nitrogen content in soil. Table 2 described that Plot No. 2 (Subtropical mixed
evergreen forest) and No. 8 (Tropical moist deciduous forest with bamboo) performed as the two highest nitrate-N
content, while Plot No. 10 (Hardwickia community) was the least one. Here the relation between nitrate-N content and
vegetation profiles was found. Having high nitrate-N content in their soil, Plots No. 2 and 8 have high plant diversity
and density. Conversely, lowest nitrate-N content in soil at Plot No. 10 resulted in low vegetation.

Phosphate-Phosphorus Content
As general, phosphate-P content in YBP’s soil was almost same to all sites, except for some plots in Visitor Area which
showed extreme profiles. Plots No. 3, 7 and 1 in Visitor Area performed as the 1 st, 2nd and 3rd highest phosphate-P
content among others respectively. The phosphate-P content of these 3 plots was quite distinct to others which have
phosphate-P content below 9 mg/100 g soil, while these three have values above 15 mg/100 g soil (Table 2).
High amount of phosphate-P in these plots may be due to these sites earlier was used as agricultural farming by
villagers before the park was developed, especially Plot No. 1 and 3. Plot No. 7 (Rangeland) is low-land area and it has
high amount of phosphate from run-off of fertilizer from its neighboring high-land area or mounds that have been
washed away during precipitation. Soil in Rangeland has high phosphate-P content also because of its high plant
diversity. Conversely, soil in Hardwickia community has low phosphate-P content due to its low plant diversity.

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Comparison of Soil Property Analysis between 2006 and 2011

Soil Temperature
Soil temperature can alter plant growth, especially at seedling stage. But in this study plant community was not found to
affect much to soil temperature profiles. Though trees’ canopy could cover and cool the soil surface, soil temperature
was mostly affected by climate and seasonal variation in the forests through the year. As described in Figure 2 (a), soil
temperature data collected in 2006 were higher than in 2011. This was due to the 2006 soil sampling was carried out in
hot summer (Saha, 2006), while 2011 soil data were sampled in late winter or early spring.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Fig. 2. Comparison of soil properties between 2006 and 2011 (a) soil temperature (b) soil moisture (c) soil pH (d) soil salinity.

Soil Moisture Content

Similar to soil temperature, soil moisture was also affected mostly by weather and seasonal conditions. Even though
evaporation of soil moisture can be prevented by plants’ cover, effect of air temperature and duration of sunlight during
particular season influenced more. Soil collection conducted in midsummer of 2006 presented less soil moisture content
than soils collected in late winter and early spring of 2011, as shown in Figure 2 (b). Effect of plants’ cover to soil
moisture was clearly figured in Table 2 where forests located in the Nature Reserve Zone, which have high soil cover,
have higher soil moisture content as compared to forests in the Visitor Zone.

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Soil pH
The soil in Yamuna Biodiversity Park at early stage of its development has high pH, salinity and conductivity values
that was not preferable for most of plants. In 2002 soil pH has reached 9.8 makes it difficult for the plants to survive
(Saha, 2006). As time goes by, some specific plants were introduced, especially the one that having salt tolerant
characteristics. More and more plants were then planted as well as the native species of Yamuna river basin were also
reintroduced. Introducing number of plants species helps the soil to recover and to decrease its pH gaining in more
suitable conditions to all plant species. Hence plant diversity of the area was increasing through the year. Till the year of
2006, more enhancement of soil pH can be revealed. Many areas or habitats then reached more neutral pH values
around 7.0 to 7.2. The decrease in soil pH in YBP is still continuing till now, as described in Figure 2 (c).
The highest decline in soil pH was found in Sal Community (SC), while the lowest decline was in Visitor Area (VA). It
is notably clear since SC has large number of plant density as well as high species richness.

Soil Salinity
Salinity of the soil was created by continual desertification along the Yamuna river basin. The basin area, or also called
as Khadar area, often experienced flooding every monsoon season at about 3-4 decades ago. But when summer came,
the area was faced to high intensity of solar evaporation. The basin was then dried up for few months lasting some salt
depositions to remain on the land surfaces. This desertification continued regularly every year resulting on an
accumulation of salt depositions that created the soils to have high salinity, pH and conductivity. The presence of salts
was sometimes clearly identified from the white crusts found on the land surface that, in some stretch area of YBP, can
be seen by naked eyes especially in area nearby or outline the water bodies. However, testing of soil in laboratory was
the best way to prove it.
Figure 2 (d) showed that among six habitats studied, Teak Community (TC) and Kuno forest (K) have high decline in
soil salinity. This correlates the facts that these two plant communities have high plant diversity and species richness.

Soil Electrical Conductivity

The important concern of soil parameter in YBP was the pH, salinity and electrical conductivity. Soil characteristics
have changed significantly in YBP by times and years of its development. As general, most of the sites in YBP showed
decrease in soil pH, salinity and conductivity from 2006 to 2011, as described in Figure 2 (c), 2 (d) and 3 (a).
An unpredictable phenomenon was found in Grassland community (G). Grassland showed an anomaly by performing
an increase in two parameters: salinity and electrical conductivity. It may be caused by selection of different sampling
plot within the site between 2006 and 2011. Another reason was that Grassland, which is a relatively low-land area,
often experienced flooding or run-off due to precipitation from the high-lands or mounds on its peripheral communities
that later, deposited some amount of salts on its soil surface. The accumulation of deposited salts in the Grassland soil,
hence, resulted in an increase in soil salinity and electrical conductivity.

Soil Organic Matter

Observing soil parameter profiles in Figure 2 (d), 3 (a) and 3 (b) found a figure that Kuno forest (K), which has very
distinct change in soil salinity and EC (in declining pattern) from 2006 and 2011, also experienced extreme change in
soil organic matter (SOM) but in increasing pattern. The change in soil salinity, EC and SOM profiles within this five
year period was relatively significant to the changes found in other plant communities. In other word, high decrease in
soil salinity and EC in Kuno forest affect significant change in plant diversity, hence enhance more SOM there.

Nitrate-Nitrogen Content
Hardwickia Community (HC) was found to have experience in a long nitrogen deficiency through the year, as shown in
Figure 3 (c). It has the smallest nitrate content of all sites since 2006 and was still being the smallest in 2011. The
increase of nitrate (which refers to the increase of nitrogen) content in this site was very slow and needs more efforts
from human intervention to help the plants gaining more nitrogen sources.
A different phenomena occurred in Kuno site (K). Even though Kuno has experienced in nitrogen deficiency in 2006,
all plants there were succeed to increase nitrogen content in the soil, and bring Kuno to have the highest nitrate content

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in 2011. The success was probably due to maximum number of sapling were planted in Kuno which resulted in high
increase in plant diversity and density.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Fig. 3. Comparison of soil properties between 2006 and 2011 (a) soil EC (b) soil organic matter (c) nitrate content (d) phosphate content.

Phosphate-Phosphorus Content
Phosphorus is also the major nutrient required for plants. In laboratory analysis, phosphorus is calculated as the
percentage of available phosphate ions (PO43–) or phosphate-phosphorus (PO4-P). The content of phosphate-phosphorus
in YBP’s soil has increased from 2006 to 2011 at all sites, as presented in Figure 3 (d). High increase was found in
Grassland (G) and Sal Community (SC). This is due to high plant density was found in these two sites and affected the
soil chemical properties of the soil, particularly the available phosphorus. The increase was also higher in the Visitor
Area (VA). Agricultural farming activities in the site before the park was developed have also affected the soil to have
more N and P content. Overall, the increase in nitrogen and phosphorus content in the soil has affected to the increase in
plant density as well as diversity, and vice versa. These N and P parameters were important in the study of soil,
particularly in the purpose of soil reclamation and restoration, because the increase in these two parameters, together
with potassium or K parameter, indicates the enhancement of soil nutrients and soil fertility [9,10].

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V. CONCLUSION

The study has extracted many correlations between various chemical properties presented in soil. Results showed a
direct proportional relationship between soil salinity and conductivity, in which both parameters figured relatively low
values on plots located in Visitor Area as compared to plots in Nature Reserve Area due to different treatment in tillage
and soil hoarding. Soil OM has also correlation with soil pH, in which plots with high soil pH have less organic content
as compared to plots with less (neutral) pH.

Contour of land, somehow, affected soil characteristics. For example, Grassland, which is a relatively low-land area,
performed increases in soil salinity and EC due to run-off from high-land areas on its peripheral communities that
deposited high amount of salts on its soil surface. Rangeland in Visitor Area is also low-land area and it has high
phosphate content from fertilizer run-off from its neighboring mounds that has been washed away during precipitation.
But the most important finding was the role of vegetation in maintaining enhancement of soil profiles. Plots which high
plant density and diversity showed to have soil with relatively neutral pH, high nitrate and phosphate content.
Conversely, less plant cover made the soil to have high salinity and EC values.

The data was then compared to earlier secondary study taken in 2006. The results showed many improvements in soil
chemical properties during 2006 to 2011. Soil pH, salinity and EC were continuously decreasing during this five year
period. Highly saline soil that mostly found in the early development of the park was improving to be more suitable for
plant growth. Soil nutrients including organic matter, nitrate and phosphate content have also been significantly
increasing to certain values as recorded by this study. This proved that the park has succeeded to reclaim its degraded
saline-sodic soil and to restore soil nutrients to be more preferable for growing many plant species.

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