103

Paper No. 737

AN ALTERNATIVE TO DEEP FOUNDATIONS IN

MARGINAL SOILS OF KARACHI

TARIQ HAMID, QAMAR JAWAID

104 Tariq Hamid, Qamar Jawaid
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72 Annual Session of Pakistan Engineering Congress 105

AN ALTERNATIVE TO DEEP FOUNDATIONS IN MARGINAL

SOILS OF KARACHI
By
Tariq Hamid, PhD, PE , Qamar Jawaid, BE, PE2
1

Abstract
In large cities, such as Karachi, good sites have already been constructed but the
demand for new buildings has not ended yet. Builders are forced to build new buildings on sites
which have loose and soft soils and generally not considered suitable for the development. The
construction of spread footings on loose and soft soils is not feasible due to potential excessive
settlement. As an alternative to shallow footings, deep foundations are utilized to transfer load
on the suitable soil stratum. Considerable savings in foundation system can be achieved if the
bearing capacity of in-situ soil is increased and settlement is reduced.
This paper describes a soil improvement technique, Packed Aggregate Column (PAC),
which can be used in large cities of Pakistan such as Karachi where valuable sites have poor to
marginal soils. Packed Aggregate Column (PAC) can be used to increase bearing capacity and
reduce settlement. The concept of PAC is similar to stone column in which the drilled holes are
backfilled with aggregate to support structure. The first step in the construction of PAC is drilling
a hole and removing unsuitable soil. In the second step, the hole is backfilled with well-graded
aggregate to form high density (packed) aggregate columns. The compaction of aggregate can
be achieved using repeated drop of heavy steel weight. Degree of compactness (DC) is defined
as a ratio of volume of aggregate to volume of drilled hole. The value of DC for soft soils is
higher than the value of DC for stiff soils. The compaction process densifies and forces the
aggregates laterally into the side walls of the hole. Temporary casing is used when caving soils
and high groundwater table are encountered. Preliminary design methods for PAC are
presented in this paper. This paper also discusses the PAC constructability and economics in
Pakistan.
1.0 Introduction
The value of land in Karachi and other cosmopolitan cities of Pakistan keep soaring. In the past
the development of sites with poor soil conditions was not considered economically feasible but
with the increase in land value the sites with poor soil conditions are now often considered
economically feasible. However to make poor soil condition sites feasible, engineers are forced
to recommend a cost effective foundation system. In Pakistan engineers have limited foundation
choices for soft and loose soils sites. Foundation types which are commonly recommended for
such sites include deep foundations or mat foundations. An alternative to expensive deep
foundation and mat foundation system is in-situ improvement of poor soils. A number of ground
improvement techniques, such as stone columns are available that may be used as an
alternative to the expensive conventional foundation system. Stone column is one of the ground
improvement methods and has a proven record of success in USA. Considering the local
conditions of Pakistan, a modified version of stone column ground improvement technology,
termed as Packed Aggregate Column (PAC) is introduced in this paper. Packed Aggregate
Column (PAC) is ideally suited to reduce excessive settlement and increase bearing capacity of
soft clays and silts and loose sands. Settlement of ground improved with PAC can be 30 to 50

1
President, Dulles Geotechnical and Materials Testing Services, Inc. Ashburn, Virginia, USA.
2
President, Qamar & Associates, Karachi, Pakistan.
106 Tariq Hamid, Qamar Jawaid

percent of the unimproved ground. PAC for certain sites may be more economical than
complete replacement of poor soils and bored or driven piles.
Packed Aggregate Column (PAC) construction involves the partial replacement of poor
soils with a compacted vertical column of aggregate. The presence of PAC creates a composite
material of high shear strength and low compressibility. The application of PAC is not limited to
only increasing bearing capacity and reducing total and differential settlement, PAC can also be
used for improving slope stability, increasing the time rate of settlement, and reducing
liquefaction potential
This paper presents construction and design process of spread footing on PAC. This
paper also provides a cost comparison between PAC and conventional deep foundation system.
2.0 Method of Construction
The construction technique for stone column is well established and routinely used in
USA and Europe for stabilization of poor soils. Depending of the method of construction stone
columns can be divided into five categories:
1. Vibro-Replacemnet
2. Vibro-Displacemnet
3. Vibro-Concrete Column
4. Rammed Stone Column
5. Rammed Aggregate Piers of GeopiersTM
The construction of stone column using any of the five methods require special tools,
which may make stone column soil improvement technique cost prohibitive in Pakistan.
Considering the local construction conditions in Pakistan, this paper presents a modified form of
stone column that can be constructed using construction equipment commonly used in
construction industry of Pakistan. The modified stone column presented in this paper is named
“Packed Aggregate Column”. The construction of Packed Aggregate Column (PAC) includes the
following four steps:
1. A hole is drilled in soil using a drill rig.
2. After drilling hole and using an end dump bucket mounted on a front end loader, a
sufficient quantity of gravel is poured at the bottom of the hole to create a 100 to 150 mm
(4 to 6-inch) thick layer of gravel at the bottom of the drilled hole. Gradation of aggregate
will depend upon the available source of aggregate and subsurface conditions.
3. In the next stage, the gravel layer is compacted. The compaction is accomplished using
a steel plate or tamper compactor attached at the end of a hydraulic hammer.
4. Once the bottom layer is compacted, layers of aggregate are then added and compacted
until the compacted aggregate reaches the top of the pier. The compacted lift thickness
is 300 mm (12-inch) or less. A satisfactory Degree of compactness (DC) defined as a
ratio of volume of aggregate to volume of drilled hole is targeted between 120 and 150
percent depending on the soil conditions. For soft soils a higher value of DC is targeted
as compare to the DC value for stiff soil. Extra compaction effort should be applied to the
first layer of aggregates to fully penetrate the stone and create a large well-compacted
base.
The typical diameter and spacing requirements for PAC are the same as for stone
columns. Stone column diameter (dp) typically varies between 0.76 m (2.5 feet) and 1.2 m (4.0
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72 Annual Session of Pakistan Engineering Congress 107

feet). Similar to stone columns, PAC can be installed in triangular, square, or rectangular grid
patterns with minimum center to center pier spacing of 305 mm (12-inch) with typical center to
center pier spacing of 1dp to 3dp. Typical layout of PAC is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Typical grid pattern for PAC

3.0 Comparison with Stone Column

Due to the use of the similar construction material (rocks, stones, or aggregate) PAC,
GeopiersTM, and stone columns formed by vibro-replacement or vibro-displacement method look
similar. However, all these soil improvement techniques differ in terms of their method of
construction and equipment used for construction. The major differences between PAC,
GeopiersTM, and stone columns formed by vibro-replacement or vibro-displacement method are
listed below in Table 1:
Table 1: Comparison between stone columns, GeopiersTM and PAC

Rammed Aggregate Pier Packed Aggregate

Stone Column
of GeopiersTM Column (PAC)
Rammed Aggregate Piers
Stone columns are
(RAP) of GeopiersTM are
constructed either by vibro- Similar to RAP of
excavated rather than
replacemnet method or vibro- GeopierTM
displaced by vertical or
displacemnet method.
horizontal vibration.
108 Tariq Hamid, Qamar Jawaid

Rammed Aggregate Pier Packed Aggregate

Stone Column
of GeopiersTM Column (PAC)
Stone is densified
Stone is densified using a
using a hydraulic
Stone is densified using a hydraulic hammer and
hammer and
vibrating probe. The term specially designed impact
commonly used steel
vibroflot or poker is frequently tamper. The impact tamper
impact tamper instead
used for the probe. has 45-degree beveled
of 45-degree beveled
sides.
side impact tamper.
Stone column completely RAP usually does not Similar to RAP of
penetrates the weak strata. extend to stronger soil. GeopierTM

4.0 Design Procedure

4.1 Area Replacement Ratio
Design procedure for PAC presented in this paper is similar to the design procedure of a
stone column. In order to determine the amount of soil replaced by PAC, the area
replacement ratio is defined as the ratio of area of pier to the area of total footing.
Ra = Ap/A (1)
Where: Ra = area replacement ratio,
Ap = area of pier, and
A = footing area.
4.2 Stress Ratio
In order to determine the distribution of stresses between PAC and the surrounding soil
matrix, the stress ratio is defined as the ratio of stress in PAC to stress induced in soil
matrix.
Rs = qp/qm (2)
Where: Rs = stress ratio,
qp = stress in pier, and
qm = stress in soil matrix.
4.3 Settlement Analysis of Soils Improved with PAC
The total settlement of a footing supported on PAC is the sum of the settlement of the
PAC reinforced soil and the settlement of soil below the PAC tip. The settlement of the
PAC reinforced soil and the settlement of soil below the PAC tip is a result of immediate
and consolidation settlement. The equilibrium of vertical forces in Figure 2 gives the
following equation.
q0 A  q p Ap  qm Am
(3)
Where: q0 = average bearing stress, and
Am = area of matrix soil
Other terms are the same as defined in equations 1 and 2.
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72 Annual Session of Pakistan Engineering Congress 109

Rigid Footing
q0 B

qp
DPAC Matrix
soil qm
PAC
km kp
1D
2B

D = Diameter
DPAC = Depth of drilled hole
Z =2B – (1D + DPAC)

Figure 2: Stress distribution between PAC and

matrix soil for settlement analysis

Equation 3 can be written in terms of Ra and Rs.

Ap Am
q0  q p  qm
A A
(4)
From Equation 1
qp = Rs. qm (5)
From Figure 5
Am = A-Ap (6)
Using Equations 5 and 6, Equation 4 can be written in the following form,
A  Ap
q 0  R s q m Ra  q m
A (7)
q0  Rs qm Ra  qm (1  Ra )
(8)
q0  qm ( Rs Ra  1  Ra )
(9)
110 Tariq Hamid, Qamar Jawaid

q0  qm Ra ( Rs  1)  1 (10)
Solving for qm,
q0
qm 
[ Ra ( Rs  1)  1] (11)
Similarly,
q 0 Rs
qp 
Ra ( Rs  1)  1 (12)

Subgrade reaction modulus (k) is defined as the ratio of applied stress to settlement.
Therefore, the subgrade reaction modulus for PAC and the matrix soil can be defined using
Equations 13 and 14, respectively.

qp (13)
kp 
p
qm
km  (14)
m

Due to displacement compatibility at the base of the footing, settlement of the footing (),
settlement of the PAC (p), and the settlement of the matrix soil (m) should be equal. Therefore,
   p  m
or we can write:
qp qm (15)
  
kp km
The settlement of the soil below the PAC and the consolidation settlement can be
computed using the conventional geotechnical analysis. The footing stresses in the soil below
the PAC are computed using Westergaard or Boussinesq analysis. The computed footing
stresses in the soil below the PAC are used for the settlement of soil below the PAC.
4.4 Bearing Capacity Analysis of Soils Improved with PAC
Failure mechanisms similar to stone columns as listed by Elias et. al. (2001) and
Barksdale and Bachus (1983) are possible for PAC. Particularly bulging of a PAC is a
major concerned in low shear strength soil. The bulging of a PAC occurs when the
lateral stresses caused by PAC exceeds the lateral resistance of the surrounding matrix
soil (Figure 3). The lateral stresses are low at the top of the PAC where the overburden
stresses are the lowest. Bulging generally occurs in a zone extending from the top of the
pier to the depth of 2 to 3 times the diameter of the pier. Gibson and Anderson (1961)
found the following closed form solution for a cylindrical expansion cavity in an elasto-
plastic material.
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72 Annual Session of Pakistan Engineering Congress 111

  Eu 
 3   r 0  su 1  ln  
  2su (1   )  (16)
Where:
 3 = the ultimate total lateral stress
σro = initial total in-situ lateral stress
su = undrained shear strength of the matrix soil,
Eu =undrained modulus of the matrix soil, and
μ = Poisson’s ratio of the matrix soil.
 r 0   v 0 k p ,m (17)

Where:
 vo = effective vertical stress
Kp,m = Rankine’s passive lateral earth pressure for the matrix soil.
The maximum load that may be applied at the top of the PAC without causing bulging
failure can be estimated using the following equation:
qult, p   3 k p
(18)
Where, k p  tan 2 (45   p 2) and p is the angle of internal friction of the pier material.
2dp to 3dp

dp

Figure 3: A Possible mode of bulging failure of a single PAC

The bearing capacity of the tip of the PAC can be computed using the Terzaghi bearing
capacity equation.
qtip, p  cN c   v' N q  0.5d shaftN 
(19)
Where:
Nc, Nq, and Nγ = dimensionless bearing capacity factors,
γ = unit weight of matrix soil unit weight, and
 v' = overburden stress at the elevation of the tip of the PAC
112 Tariq Hamid, Qamar Jawaid

For cohesionless soil:

f s  k p v' tan  m'
(20)
Where:
fs = unit resistance
kp = Rankine’s passive earth pressure coefficient
 v' = overburden stress
 m = friction angle of the matrix soil.
For cohesive:
f s  su
Where:
su = undrained shear strength of matrix soil
4.5 Lateral Capacity of PAC
The sliding resistance provided by PAC can be computed using the following equation:
 l , p  q p tan  'p
(21)
The sliding resistance provided by matrix soil can be computed using the following equation:
 l ,m  qm tan  m'  cm
(22)
The values of qm and qp are given by Equations 11 and 12, respectively.
Where:
 l,p = sliding resistance provided by PAC
 l,m = sliding resistance provided by matrix soil
All other parameters used in equations 21 and 22 are the same as defined previously.
The passive pressure developed in front of the footing in the matrix soil can be computed by the
following equation (Das 1999):

 p  1 / 2D 2f k p  2cD f k p
(23)
The passive force (Fp) can be calculated by multiplying the passive pressure with the width of
the footing (B).
Fp   p B
(24)
Where:
Df = depth of footing below the ground surface.
All other parameters used in equation 23 and 24 are the same as defined previously.
A factor of safety generally between 1.5 and 2 is used to calculate the allowable lateral
resistance.
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72 Annual Session of Pakistan Engineering Congress 113

A factor of safety 1.5 to 2 is typically used for settlement, bearing capacity, uplift capacity, and
lateral capacity calculations.
4.6 Seismic Site Classification for Soils Improved with PAC
Similar to composite friction angle and cohesion, the composite shear wave velocity can
be calculated using the following equation (Miller, J. et al. 2004).
 m,comp  ( Ra ) p  (1  Ra ) m
(25)
Where:
 m,comp = shear wave velocity of PAC reinforced zone,
 p = shear wave velocity of PAC,
 m = shear wave velocity of surrounding matrix soil, and
Ra = area replacement ration as defined by Equation 1
A shear wave velocity of 365 m/sec (1200 ft/sec) is typically used for Geopiers TM (Miller,
J. et al. 2004), considering the construction material is the same for GeopiersTM and PAC, the
same range can be used for PAC until the actual shear wave velocity data for PAC is available.
The shear wave velocity may be calculated using shear modulus and unit weight of soil.
 s  (G /  ) 0.5 (26)
Where:
G = shear modulus
 unit weight of soil (density divided by gravitational coefficient 9.81 m/sec2 or 32.2
ft/sec2)
The shear modulus may be measured in the field and can be estimated form the following
correlation (Miller, J. et al. 2004):
Gmax  20,000( N1) 060.333 ( m' ) 0.5
(27)
Where:
(N1)60 = SPT N-value corrected for energy and overburden
 m' = mean effective stress
5.0 Determination of Primary Parameters for Design of PAC Supported Footing
The subgrade modulus of PAC (kp) and the allowable bearing capacity (qc) are two
primary parameters required for the design of footing supported on PAC. For preliminary design,
these parameters can be determined using SPT N-value or undrained shear strength (su).
The preliminary design values assumed for the design should be verified with full-scale modulus
load test. The purpose of the modulus test is to measure the PAC stiffness value kp. The
modulus test should be performed in accordance with Standard Test Methods for Deep
Foundations under Static Axial Compressive Load (ASTM D 1143). The PAC should be loaded
to 150 percent of its maximum design load to measure the stiffness modulus and then loaded to
200 percent of the design load to measure ultimate capacity.
 114 Tariq Hamid, Qamar Jawaid

Subgrade modulus for matrix soil (km) also determined using the static load test or
estimated from subsurface information obtained from test borings completed at the site.
Full scale direct shear tests conducted on 0.6 m (30-inch) diameter RAP of GeopierTM
and small scale laboratory tests conducted on reconstituted samples of RAP aggregates
indicated the angle of internal friction angle of RAP aggregate between 49 and 53 degrees
depending on the gradation (Wissmann et al. 2001).
Typical value of stress ratio Rs for vibro-displacement or vibro-replacement stone
columns is generally between 2.5 and 5. However, typical value of stress ratio Rs for GeopierTM
is generally between 8 and 32 (Fox and Cowell, 1998). At the time of writing this paper no data
is available for stress ratio for PAC, however it is expected that PAC will have considerably
higher stress ratio than the vibro-displacement or vibro-replacement stone columns due to the
ramming effect. For preliminary design of PAC, a Rs value of 8 may be assumed.
As mentioned earlier, the construction of PAC does not require any special construction
equipment and the construction of PAC can be achieved using commonly available construction
equipment. However, it will be necessary to perform a full scale load test on each site where
PAC is going to be used. Full scale load test should be a compulsory requirement for each
project utilizing PAC until sufficient load test data is available for different soils typically
encountered in Pakistan.
6.0 Cost Comparison of PAC with Deep Foundation
PAC can be an economical alternative to over-excavation and replacement and to deep
foundations. PAC supported foundations cost can be 20 to 50 percent less than traditional deep
foundations. In order to compare the cost of PAC foundation option with a deep foundation, a
hypothetical foundation plan (Figure 4) is used.
10’
5 @ 15 feet Equal Spacing

12-inch Mat
Foundation

24-inch
Drilled Shaft

Pile Cap
10’

10’ 15’ 15’ 10’

Figure 4: Foundation plan for cost analysis
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72 Annual Session of Pakistan Engineering Congress 115

For 355 kN (40 ton) load, a 0.41 to 0.61m (16 to 24-inch) diameter and 12 to 15 m (40 to
50 feet) deep pile approximately costs 100,000 Pakistani Rupees (Rs) or approximately $1000
per pile (1 dollar is assumed approximately 100 Rs). The cost of concrete and steel for the
construction of the pile is approximately Rs.60,000 ($600). The following Table 2 shows a cost
analysis of 0.9 m (36-inch) diameter and 4.5 m (15 feet) deep PAC.
Table 2: Cost Analysis of a single PAC

Item Unit Rate (Rs) Total Cost (Rs)

Drilling 3000 per foot 15 feet * 3000 = 45,000

Aggregate 40 per cu. foot π/4*(3)2*(15)* 40 = 4,241

Assuming the mobilization cost and labor for the construction of PAC will be the same as
for the deep foundation. Further, assuming the spread footing will cost approximately the same
as the cost of pile cap. The drilling and aggregate cost of a 0.9 m (36-inch) diameter PAC will be
approximately Rs.50,000 ($500), which is approximately 20 percent less than the cost of
material of a pile foundation. For a foundation plan shown in Figure 4, the pile foundation will
cost approximately Rs.1080,000 ($10,800) on the other hand the PAC will cost approximately
Rs.900,000 ($ =9,000), the saving in the foundation will be Rs.180,000 ($1,800). As a general
rule, PAC will provide the most saving in a situation when deep foundations are more than 9 or
12 m (30 or 40 feet) deep. The actual cost of PAC will also depend on the subsurface
conditions.
7.0 Summary and Conclusions
Packed Aggregate Column (PAC) can be used as an alternative to deep foundation and
mat foundation system. PAC is one of the ground improvement methods and is a slightly
modified form of conventional stone columns. PAC ground improvement technology is ideally
suited for soft clays and silts and also loose sands. The construction of PAC involves the partial
replacement of poor soils with a compacted vertical column of aggregate. The presence of PAC
creates a composite material of high shear strength and low compressibility. PAC for certain
sites may be more economical than complete replacement of poor soils and bored or driven
piles. Settlement of ground improved with PAC is believed to be 30 to 50 percent of the
unimproved ground. A full scale load test should be a compulsory requirement for each project
utilizing PAC until sufficient load test data is available for different soils typically encountered in
Pakistan. The number of load tests to verify workmanship and design assumptions will depend
upon the subsurface conditions and the size and importance of the project. A preliminary cost
comparison presented in this paper indicate that use of PAC resulted in cost savings with the
same performance as the other conventional foundation system.
8.0 References
Barksdale, R. D. and Bachus, R. C. (1983), “Design and Construction of Stone Columns.”
Report No. FHWA/RD-83/026, Vol. 1.
Das, B. M. (1999), “Principles of Foundation Engineering.” 4th Edition. PWS Publishing.
Elias, V., Welsh, J., Warren, J., and Lukas, R. (2001). “Ground Improvement Technical
Summaries.” Report No. FHWA-SA-98-086 R, Vol. II.
Fox, N.S. and Cowell, M. J. (1998). Geopier Foundation and Soil Reinforcement Manual.
Geopier Foundation Company, Inc. Scottsdale, Arizona.
116 Tariq Hamid, Qamar Jawaid

Gibson, R. E. and Anderson, W. F. (1961). “In-Situ Measurements of Soil Properties with the
Pressuremeter.” Civil Engineering and Public Works Review, Vol. 56, No. 658.
Miller, J. FitzPatrick, B. T. and Wissmann, K. J. (2004). Technical Bulletin No. 7 – Seismic Site
Classification Improvement Using Geopier Soil Reinforcement.” Geopier Foundation
Company, Inc.
Wissmann, K. J., FitzPatrick, B. T., and Lawton, E. C. (2001). “Technical Bulletin No. 4 –
Geopier Lateral Resistance.” Geopier Foundation Company, Inc. Blacksburg, VA.