Karl Hoffmann

An Introduction

to Measurements

using Strain Gages

With 172 figures and tables

Publisher:

Hottinger Baldwin Messtechnik GmbH, Darmstadt

Contents IX

Contents Page

1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1

1.0.1 Metal strain gages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2

1.0.2 Semiconductor strain gages 8

1.0.3 Vapor-deposited (thin-film) strain gages 9

1.0.4 Capacitive strain gages 10

1.0.5 Piezoelectric strain gages 11

1.0.6 Photoelastic strain gages " 11

1.0.7 Mechanical strain gages .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 12

1.0.8 Other systems " 12

1.1 The operating principle of the strain gage 13

1.1.1 Metal strain gages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 13

1.1.2 Semiconductor strain gages 15

1.2 The measurement system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 17

2
Terms and units of measurement used

in strain-gage technology 19

2.1 Strain: Definition and unit of measurement " 19

2.1.1 Absolute change of length " 19

2.1.2 Relative change of length or strain 21

2.1.3 Unit of measurement for strain [2-1] 21

2.2 Mechanical stress: Definition and unit of measurement 23

2.2.1 Normal stress 24

2.2.2 Shear stress " 25

2.2.3 Residual stress, thermal stress 28

2.2.4 Stress states " 28

2.3 Material parameters 29

2.3.1 Modulus of elasticity, definition and units 29

2.3.2 Shear modulus 33

2.3.3 Poisson's ratio 33

2.3.4 Thermal expansion " 35

2.4 Strain-gage loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 37

2.4.1 Static measurements (zero referenced) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 37

2.4.2 Quasi-static measurements " 38

2.4.3 Dynamic measurements (non-zero referenced) 38

3
Selection criteri.a for strain gages 39

3.1 Range of application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 41

3.1.1 Stress analysis, model measurement techniques, biomechanics 41

XII Contents Contents

7.1.2 Thermal output of a quarter bridge in a 8.2.2.4 0

three-wire eonfiguration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 176 al
7.1.3 Temperature eompensation of a quarter bridge 8.2.3 1\1
with eompensating strain gages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 178 8.3 D
7.1.4 Compensation of thermal output with the tt
double quarter or diagonal bridge " 180 8.4 Sl
7.1.5 Compensation for thermal output using v.
the half bridge circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 181 8.4.1 1\1
7.1.6 Compensation for thermal output with 8.4.2 1\1
the full bridge cireuit ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 182 8.4.3 S:
7.2 The influenee of lead resistanees 183 w
7.2.1 Simple quarter bridge cireuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 184 8.4.4 l\!
7.2.2 Quarter bridge in a three-wire cireuit 187 8.4.4.1 T
7.2.3 Quarter bridge with eompensating strain gage 188 8.4.5 1\1
m
7.2.4 Double quarter or diagonal bridge 189
7.2.5 Half bridge cireuit 190 8.4.6 1\1
7.2.6 Full bridge cireuit 190 8.4.7 1\1
7.2.7 Error eorreetion using the gage faetor selector . . . . . . . . . . .. 192 8.4.7.1 C
o
7.3 Eliminating eable effects with special cireuits
8.4.7.2 ~
in the measuring amplifier 193
7.3.1 HBM bridge (citation from [5-2])*) 193 8.4.7.3 S
7.3.2 The six-wire cireuit 196
9 !I
7.4 The influenee of eable eapacitanees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 197
9.1 (
7.4.1 Capacitive unsymmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 199
9.2 (
7.4.2 Phase rotation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 203
7.5 Correetion of the transverse sensitivity of astrain gage. . . .. 204 9.2.1
7.5.1 Correetions for linear strain gages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 206 9.2.1.1
7.5.2 Correetion for strain gage rosettes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 210 9.2.2
7.5.2.1 X rosettes 0°/90° 210 9.2.3
7.5.2.2 Rosettes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 212
9.2.4
8 Hooke's Law for the determination of
material stresses from strain measurements 215 9.2.5
8.1 The uniaxial stress state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 215 9.2.6
8.2 The biaxial stress state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 219
8.2.1 The biaxial stress state with known principal direetions .... 219 10
8.2.2 The biaxial stress state with unknown principal direetions .. 222
8.2.2.1 Measurements with the 0°/45°/90° rosette 223 11
8.2.2.2 Measurements with the 0°/60°/120° rosette 224
8.2.2.3 The determination of the principal directions 224
 Contents Contents XIII

8.2.2.4 Other ways of determining the principal normal stresses

176
and their directions 227

8.2.3 Mohr's Stress Circle 227

178
8.3 Determination of residual stresses according to

the drill-hole method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 231

180
8.4 Strain measurements and stress analysis for

various loading cases 234

181
8.4.1 Measurement on a tension/compression bar 235

8.4.2 Measurements on a bending beam 238

182
8.4.3 Symmetrical and asymmetrical cross-sectional beams loaded

183
with both an axial force and a bending moment . . . . . . . . .. 241

184
8.4.4 Measurements on a shaft under torsion (twisted shaft) 248

187
8.4.4.1 Transferring the measuring signal from rotating shafts 252

188
8.4.5 Measurement on a twisted shaft with superimposed

189
axial force and bending moment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 256

190
8.4.6 Measurements on a shear beam 258

190
8.4.7 Measurement of thermal stresses 261

192
8.4.7.1 Comparison of measurements on a free and

on a restrained object 263

193
8.4.7.2 Measurement with a compensating piece 264

193
8.4.7.3 Separate or later determination of the thermal output 264

196

197
9
Measurement accuracy 265

199
9.1 Causes of measurement errors 266

203
9.2 Calculating the degree of random deviation in

a measurement series 267

204

9.2.1 Test requirements 267

206

9.2.1.1 The Gaussian distribution 268

210

9.2.2 Arithmetical mean 270

210

9.2.3 (Empirical) standard deviations sand

212

coefficient of variance v 270

9.2.4 Confidence limits and confidence range for

the expected value J.l •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 271

215

9.2.5 Measurement uncertainty" 272

215
Measurement result 274

9.2.6
219

219
10
Literature , 275

222

223
11
Index 285

224

224
List of tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 291