SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM

CHAPTER-1:

INTRODUCTION

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1. INTRODUCTION:
Renewable energy is rapidly gaining importance as an energy resource as fossil fuel
prices fluctuate. At the educational level, it is therefore critical for engineering and
technology students to have an understanding and appreciation of the technologies
associated with renewable energy.
So our project concerned with that, and increasing power collection efficiency.
In this chapter we describe about Aim, Literature survey, Features, Advantages and
Applications and Organization of thesis of our project Solar Tracking System.

1.1 AIM OF THE PROJECT:

The main aim of this project is increasing power collection efficiency by developing a
device that tracks the sun to keep the panel at a right angle to its rays.

1.2 LITERATURE SURVEY:

We search for so many project in so many web sites finally we selected a project named
as SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM , because implementation of this project solar panel is
rotated by the DC motor according to the time and to increasing power collection
efficiency.
To study about this technology we had gone through the Google engine, Wikipedia, Data
Sheets. The other Hardware components which we used are familiar to us we had refered
the EDC, AMP, Power Electronics, LICA,ET and other text books.

1.3 SCOPE OF THE PROJECT:

From many centuries, sun has been the primary source of energy for the globe.
Technically, solar energy can be defined as Electromagnetic energy transmitted from the
sun (solar radiation).The amount of energy that reaches the earth is equal to one billionth
of total solar energy generated. The amount of energy which strikes the surface of the
earth in one day exceeds daily consumption by 10,000 to 15,000 times. Solar energy has
the smallest environmental impacts. Electricity produced from photovoltaic cells does not
result in air or water pollution, deplete natural resources, or endanger animal or human
health. Inspite of these benefits, man is not able to use this energy completely and

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economically. Two billion people in the world still have no access to electricity. This is
because of cost involved in converting the solar energy into required form of electrical
energy and low efficiency of solar system i.e. the output from the solar system is not
completely sufficient for our needs. The problem here is that the sun’s position is not
constant throughout the day. The output from the solar system depends on the intensity of
sunlight and the angle at which radiation is being incident. Hence there is need to track
the sun in order to produce maximum output throughout the day. The solution to the
problem is our project “SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM”.

1.4 HISTORY&DEVELOPMENT:
Extracting useable electricity from the sun was made possible by the discovery of the
photoelectric mechanism and subsequent development of the solar cell – a semi
conductive material that converts visible light into a direct current. By using solar arrays,
a series of solar cells electrically connected, a DC voltage is generated which can be
physically used on a load. Solar arrays or panels are being used increasingly as
efficiencies reach higher levels. Renewable energy in the form of electricity has been in
use to some degree as long as 75 or 100 years ago. Sources such as Solar, Wind, Hydro
and Geothermal have all been utilised with varying levels of success. The most widely
used are hydro and wind power, with solar power being moderately used worldwide. This
can be attributed to the relatively high cost of solar cells and their low conversion
efficiency. Solar power is being heavily researched, and solar energy costs have now
reached within a few cents per kW/h of other forms of electricity generation, and will
drop further with new technologies such as titanium oxide cells. With a peak laboratory
efficiency of 32% and average efficiency of 15-20% [1-4], it is necessary to recover as
much energy as possible from a solar power system. This includes reducing inverter
losses, storage losses, and light gathering losses. If a flat solar panel is mounted on J.
Rizk is with University of Western Sydney, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith South DC, NSW
1797, Australia Y. Chaiko is with Riga Technical University, Riga, Latvia. Level ground,
it is obvious that over the course of the day the sunlight will have an angle of incidence
close to 90°in the morning and the evening.
From this background, we see the need to maintain the maximum power output from the
panel by maintaining an angle of incidence as close to 0° as possible. By tilting the solar

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panel to continuously face the sun, this can be achieved. This process of sensing and
following the position of the sun is known as Solar Tracking. It was resolved that real-
time tracking would be necessary to follow the sun effectively, so that no external data
would be required in operation.

1.5 PRINCIPLE OF SOLAR TRACKING:

The principle involved in solar tracking is “closed loop control system”. The system that
tracks the path of the sun may be an open loop Control system or a closed loop control
system. The open loop control system uses the astronomical data such as the time of
rotation of earth. By measuring this period, the exact time that the sun sweeps certain
angle can be known. A clock can generate this time period, and the clock pulse is applied
to digital logic circuitry that drives a motor. The motor is connected to the tracking plate
such as plate by reduced gear mechanism, and the tracking system aligns to the sun and
moves gradually from east to west at predetermined space however this open loop system
has certain set backs and distortions e.g. Failure of power supply or certain tine makes
the system ineffective throughout the day there may be change n the duration of a day
over different seasons however the system is simple and straightforward. In our project
we use closed loop control to track the sun. This system is designed so that the tracking
instrument solar energy plate always aligns to the direction of sun.

1.6 APPLICATION:
 Day lighting: The oldest solar application is day lighting, the use of windows and
other means allowing indirect sunlight to provide effective internal illumination
inside buildings.
 Thermal Applications: Solar thermal, when used for space heating is needed
mostly in the winter in cold and temperate climates. For process heat, which
includes solar domestic hot water, as well as heat for industrial processes, the
active solar thermal systems shine because year round usage can make these still
relatively inexpensive systems easily economic. Solar parabolic trough systems
are also sometimes used in large scale, high temperature industrial applications.
 Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive or active depending
on the way they capture, convert and distribute sunlight.

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 Solar tracking system will help us utilize every bit of solar energy in most
efficient way.
1.7 TYPES OF SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM:
 Single-axis solar tracking system
 Dual axis solar tracking system
Single-axis solar tracking system:

Single-axis solar tracking system

In one axis solar trackers the panel’s axis of rotation is parallel to the earth’s axis. The
panels start to rotate in the morning, when usable energy can be harvested, the rate of
panel motion is constant until the end of the day when a limit switch is contacted and it
instructs a motor to bring the panels back to their original position.
Dual axis solar tracking system:

Dual axis solar tracking system

In a dual axis solar tracking system the apparent axis of motion is parallel to the earth’s
axis. However, the mechanical movement of the panels is a composite of 2 movements a
vertical axis, and a horizontal axis. Long term tests show that dual-axis solar trackers
improve the collection efficiency and increase the “harvested” energy shedding a high.

1.8 ADVANTAGES:
 Solar tracking programs are used to continually orient photovoltaic panels in
direction of the solar and will help maximize your investment in your PV system.
 They are beneficial as the sun’s position in the sky will change gradually over the
course of a day and over the seasons throughout the year.
 Advantages to utilizing a tracker system like this can depend mainly on it’s
placement in figuring out how well it is going to increase the effectiveness of the
panels.

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 Throughout the yr the tracking array will have the ability to utilize the large open
access to gain every accessible electron from the sun. This way, vitality produ
-ction is at an optimum and energy output is elevated year round.
 For these with limited space because of this a smaller array only must be installed,
a huge advantage for these smaller websites with only a small area to place
equipment; they will be capable to produce maximum energy output but only
need to utilize one of the smaller photo voltaic home systems.

1.9 ORGANIZATION OF THESIS:

Organization deals with the proper management or systematic arrangement of the
contents in the thesis. The contents of the thesis are arranged in systematic manner where
first we study about the theory of the important technology we used to implement this
project, and then we study about current to voltage converter and power control circuit
which controls all the hardware components of the circuit and the synthesis of the circuit
which is followed by the result of our project and final conclusion.

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CHAPTER-2:

THEORY RELEVANT

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2.1 INTRODUCTION:
In this chapter we are going to study about the block diagram, block diagram description,
schematic diagram and schematic diagram description.

2.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM:

The block diagram is shown in below

2.3 BLOCK DIAGRAM DESCRIPTION:

The above block diagram gives an overview of the project in the pictorial form. With the
help of the block diagram we will create pre model of the project and analyze the funct
-ion of the project. The explanation of the project with block diagram over view is given
as follows.
SOLAR PANEL:
Here in this project solar panel is rotated by the DC motor according to the time.
Whenever the radiation of the sun falls on the solar panel it grasps the radiation and
stores. The solar energy is converted into electrical energy called as photovoltaic
conversion. Large number of cells arranged in an orderly manner is called as “solar
panel”. The photovoltaic effect is defined as the generations of an electromotive force as
a result of the absorption of ionizing radiation.
A single converter cell is added a solar cell or more generally a photo voltaic cell and a
combination of such cells, designed to increase the electric power o/p, is called a solar

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module or solar array photovoltaic (PV) cells are made of semiconductors that generate
electricity when they absorb light. As Photons are received, free electrical charges are
generated that can be collected on contacts applied to the surface of the semiconductors.

PRE-AMPLIFIER:
Here the pre-amplifier is used to reduce the noise levels and distortions in the signals,
obtained from the solar panel. The circuit component used for this pre-amplification is an
operational amplifier i.e. IC 741.
The Op-amps are used with negative feedback connection, having a low gain. The signals
obtained from solar cell are amplifier with an op- amp having some gain. The amplifiers
generally have high input impedance and low out put impedance and give more precise
deviation of signal levels.
A/D CONVERTER:
Here the op-amp i.e. IC 741 is again used as an A/D converter. In this A/D converter the
op amp functions as comparator.
The output signal obtained from the pre-amplifier is connected to the non-inverting input
of comparators. A threshold voltage as a reference signal gives the inverting input
terminal. When the signal level is more then that of the reference level, the out put of the
comparator is low. The reference level is adjusted carefully by tracking measurement of
voltage levels at different intensities of light. The comparators used in this project are
TTL compatible i.e., their two out put levels are 0v and 5v.
LOGIC CIRCUITRY:
Here the logic circuitry used is a 3 to 8 decoder i.e. IC 74LS138 and a nand gate i.e. IC
74H00. The decoder takes the three inputs from the A/D converters set and the output is
connected to the NAND gate. Which generate digital signals that will trigger the

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triggering devices such as SCR’s connected to power line, the digital signals determine
the three conditions: Clockwise rotation, anti-clock wise rotation and stopping of motor.
CONTROL & TRIGGERING DEVICES:
Here we uses a silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) for controlling the motor rotation either
clockwise or anti-clockwise direction.
In this project we use a SCR bridge circuit which consists of four SCR’s. In this four, two
are used to give forward current to the motor and another two are used to give reverse
current to the motor. In order to trigger the SCR we uses an optocoupler i.e. MCT2E.
Opto couplers make the coupling between the digital circuit and control circuits. A pair of
opto couplers used to generate clockwise signal and another pair for anti-clockwise
signal.
DC MOTOR WITH ARMATURE CONTROL:
Motor is an output device; its speed will be varied according to the speed set by the
switches. The speed of DC motor is directly proportional to armature voltage and
inversely proportional to flux. By maintaining the flux constant, the speed can be varied
by varying the armature voltage.
POWER SUPPLY:
In this system we are using both the supplies 12 volts and 5 volts. 5 volts is used for
Microcontroller where as DC motor will be operated on 12 volts.

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2.4 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM:

2.5 SCHMATIC DIAGRAM EXPLANATION:

Principle of working of a solar cell:
Two important steps are involved in the principle of working of a solar cell, these are
1. Creation of positive and negative charges (called electron-hole pairs) in the solar
cell by absorbed solar Radiation.
2. Separation of the positive and negative charges by a potential gradient with in a
cell. The photovoltaic effect can be desired easily for p-n junction in a
semiconductor.

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Construction:
Solar cell is a device which is useful for converting the energy tracking from the sun light
into the electrical energy. A solar battery consists of solar cells. The surface of a p-type
material is extremely thin so that the light can penetrate through the junction. The nickel
plated ring around the p-type material is the bottom of the negative plate terminal is the
negative output terminal.
Working: When light falls on the surface of the p-type material it can penetrate to the
junction without the loss of energy. when light reaches the p-n junction the new electron
hole part is generated at the junction the n the process of charge carrier diffusion takes
place since one of the region is very thin it rapidly saturates with charge carriers and a
potential difference appears between the two regions in direct noon day sun light a solar
cell generates a open circuit voltage.

Equivalent circuit for the solar cell

Applications:
1. They are used in micro wave repeater station

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2. TV TX

3. Solar chargers.

4. Calculators

CHAPTER-3:

HARDWARE DESIGN
CONSIDERATIONS

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3.1 INTRODUCTION:
For designing any circuit we had to follow certain basic points. They are
1. Note down our requirements clearly.
2. Now make a paper model which satisfies all our requirements.
3. Check whether it is properly connected and getting desired output
synthesis tools.
4. Now collect all the Hardware components required for designing the
circuit and assemble them in a correct manner to get required output.

3.2 COMPONENTS USED AND THEIR DESCRIPTION:

As we under stood about the basic points let us now study in detail about the hardware
components which we used in our project.
The hardware components which we used in our project are
1. Solar Panel
2. Operational Amplifiers (IC-741)
3. Decoder (74LS138)
4. Nand Gate (IC-74H00)
5. Optocycle (MCT2E)
6. SCR
7. Transformer
8. Rectifier
9. Resister

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10. DC motor
11. Power Supply

Let us study in detail about the hardware components which we had used in our project.
3.2.1 SOLAR PANEL:
Solar panels (arrays of photovoltaic cells) make use of renewable energy from the sun,
and are a clean and environmentally sound means of collecting solar energy. Here at solar
panel information, we've amassed a wealth of information relating to solar panels and the
field of photovoltaic technology.

Solar Panel Resources:

We have a wealth of information relating to solar panels, the installation of photovoltaics,
and the concepts and design behind creating solar cells. With new uses for solar panels
arising every day, we strive to ensure that knowledge of solar power is dissimilated
among those who would hear, and we welcome you to take a glimpse into the fascinating
world of solar power, an industry driven by thin, clean, and environmentally friendly
solar voltaic cells.
Solar Panel inverters are used primarily to change direct current to alternating current via
an electrical switching process. You can think of inverters used with solar panels as
electronically synthesized alternators.
Solar Panels Convert Sunlight into Electricity:
Solar panels collect solar radiation from the sun and actively convert that energy to
electricity. Solar panels are comprised of several individual solar cells. These solar cells
function similarly to large semiconductors and utilize a large-area p-n junction diode.
When the solar cells are exposed to sunlight, the p-n junction diodes convert the energy
from sunlight into usable electrical energy. The energy generated from photons striking
the surface of the solar panel allows electrons to be knocked out of their orbits and
released, and electric fields in the solar cells pull these free electrons in a directional
current, from which metal contacts in the solar cell can generate electricity. The more
solar cells in a solar panel and the higher the quality of the solar cells, the more total
electrical output the solar panel can produce. The conversion of sunlight to usable
electrical energy has been dubbed the “Photovoltaic Effect”. The photovoltaic effect

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arises from the properties of the p-n junction diode; as such there are no moving parts in a
solar panel.
Solar Panel Efficiency:
Solar panel efficiency can be optimized by using dynamic mounts that follow the position
of the sun in the sky and rotate the solar panel to get the maximum amount of direct
exposure during the day as possible. For more information on solar panel efficiency
through the use of mounts, see our section on solar panel mounts and accessories.
Solar Panels are a form of active solar power,a term that describes how solar panels make
use of the sun's energy: solar panels harvest sunlight and actively convert it to electricity.
Solar Cells, or photo -voltaic cells, are arranged in a grid-like pattern on the surface of the
solar panel. These solar voltaic cells collect sunlight during the daylight hours and covert
it into electricity.
What are solar panels made of?
Solar panels are typically constructed with crystalline silicon, which is used in other Indu
-stries (such as the microprocessor industry), and the more expensive gallium arsenide,
which is produced exclusively for use in photovoltaic (solar) cells?
Other, more efficient solar panels are assembled by depositing amorphous silicon alloy in
a continuous roll-to-roll process. The solar cells created from this process are called Amo
-rphous Silicon Solar Cells, or Asi. Solar Panels constructed using amorphous silicon tec
-hnology is more durable, efficient, and thinner than their crystalline counter parts.
The primary hurdle for this new technology is efficiency, and these 'plastic' solar panels
have an operational efficiency of about 11% of their silicon-based counterparts. The only
short-term solution to this energy problem is for these plastic solar panels to generate
electricity from light outside the visible spectrum of light. Some highly experimental
plastic solar panels have been made to absorb infrared energy,and if a solar panel is made
that can absorb both infrared energy and light from the visible spectrum, the operational
efficiency could increase up to thirty percent.
How much power do solar panels produce?
In direct sunlight at the surface of the equator, a maximally efficient photovoltaic cell
about 1/5m in diameter creates a current of approximately 2 amps at 2volts, however, due
to the Earth's atmospheric interference, terran solar panels will never perform as well as

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solar panels exposed directly to the sun's rays. Years of overheating and physical wear
can however, reduce the operation efficiency of the photovoltaic unit. Solar cells become
less efficient over time, and excess energy is released into its thermally conductive
substrate as infrared heat.
The amount of power solar panels produce is influenced by the quality of the solar panel,
the materials and technology used in making the solar panel, and the amount of time the
solar panel has been in use.

Fossil Fuels:
Fossil Fuels are the most widely-used means of generating electricity, and have been for
some time. However, fossil fuels, as we have discovered, are a limited and nonrenewable
resource. Estimates have determined that fossil fuel reserves may well run dry by as early
as 2050. Not only are fossil fuel reserves dwindling, but byproducts and emissions from
burning fossil fuels are harmful to the environment, and have been associated with global
warming theory.

3.2.2 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS (IC-741):

IC-741 is a 8-pin IC. Every IC should be supplied with positive and negative DC voltages
of +12V and -12 V respectively. +12V should be supplied to pin-7 and -12V to pin-4.
Pin-2 is the inverting input pin and pin-3 is the non-inverting input pin. Output can be
measured at the output pin-6 with respect to the breadboard ground. Pins 1 and 5 are used
for output offset voltage compensation. These two pins are not equired for normal
applications.

Pin-Diagram of IC-741
Operational Amplifiers are 2 types. They are
1. Inverting Amplifiers

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2. Non Inverting Amplifier

Circuit diagram:

Inverting Amplifier Non-Inverting Amplifie

3.2.3 DECODER (74LS138):

74LS138 is a high speed 1-of-8 Decoder / Demultiplexer. This device is ideally suited for
high speed bipolar memory chip select address decoding. The multiple input enables allow
parallel expansion to a 1-of-24 decoder using just three LS138 devices or to a 1-of-32 decoder
using four LS138s and one inverter. The LS138 is fabricated with the Schottky barrier diode
process for high speed and is completely compatible with all ON Semiconductor TTL families.
 Demultiplexing Capability
 Multiple Input Enable for Easy Expansion
 Typical Power Dissipation of 32 mW
 Active Low Mutually Exclusive Outputs
 Input Clamp Diodes Limit High Speed

Pin names:
A0 –A2 Address Input
E1, E2 Enable (Active low) Input
E3 Enable (Active high) Input

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Oo-O7 Active ow outputs

Function Description:

The LS138 is a high speed 1-of-8 Decoder / Demultiplexer fabricated with the low power
Schottky barrier diode process. The decoder accepts three binary weighted inputs (A0,

A1, A2) and when enabled provides eight mutually exclusive active LOW Outputs (O0–

O7). The LS138 features three Enable inputs, two active LOW (E1, E2) and one active

HIGH (E3). All outputs will be HIGH unless E1 and E2 are LOW and E3 is HIGH.
This multiple enable function allows easy parallel expansion of the device to a 1-of-32
(5 lines to 32 lines) decoder with just four LS138s and one inverter. The LS138 can be
used as an 8-output demultiplexer by using one of the active LOW Enable inputs as the
data input and the other Enable inputs as strobes. The Enable inputs which are not used
must be permanently tied to their appropriate active HIGH or active LOW state.

3.2.4 NAND GATE (IC-74H00):

The operation of NAND gate is opposite to that of AND gate .The pin diagram and truth table of
NAND gate are shown in below.

Pin diagram
Truth table:

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Pulsed Operation:
We will now consider the pulsed operation of the NAND gate. Recall from truth table that any time
all inputs are HIGH, the output will be LOW, and is the ONLY time a LOW output occurs. The
wave form of two input voltages A and B applied NAND gate and the corresponding output Y.
Both inputs are LOW (0) during time interval t, making output HIGH (1). During interval t, input
A is LOW input B is HIGH (1) so the output is HIGH (1).During interval t, input A is H1 (and
input B is LOW (0) resulting output HIGH (1). During interval t, both inputs HIGH (1) and output
is therefore LOW (0).
Below figure shows the wave forms of 2-input NAND gate

3.2.5 OPTOCOUPLERS (MCT2E):

Description:
Standard Single Channel Phototransistor Couplers. The MCT2/ MCT2E family is an
Industry Standard Single Channel Phototransistor. Each optocoupler consists of gallium
arsenide infra- red LED and a silicon NPN phototransistor. These couplers are under
writers Laboratories (UL) listed to comply with a 5300 VRMS isolation test voltage. This
isolation performance is accomplished through Vishay double molding isolation
manufacturing process.

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Compliance to DIN EN 60747-5-2(VDE0884)/ DIN EN 60747-5-5 pending partial

discharge isolation specification is available for these families by ordering option 1.
These isolation processes and the Vishay ISO9001 quality program results in the highest
isolation performance available for a commercial plastic phototransistor optocoupler.
The devices are available in lead formed configuration suitable for surface mounting and
are available either on tape and reel, or in standard tube shipping containers.
MCT2 OR MCT2E … PACKAGE (TOP VIEW)

Absolute maximum ratings at 25C free-air temperature (unless otherwise noted)

Input-to-output voltage: MCT2 . . . . . . . . . . . …………….…………………………
1.5kV
MCT2E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ………... . . . . . . . . . . . .
..3.55kV

Features:

 Interfaces with common logic families

 Input-output coupling capacitance < 0.5 Pf
 Industry Standard Dual-in line 6-pin package
 5300 VRMS isolation test voltage

Applications:
 AC mains detection
 Reed relay driving
 Switch mode power supply feedback
 Telephone ring detection
 Logic ground isolation
 Logic coupling with high frequency noise rejection
3.2.6 SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIER:
A silicon-controlled rectifier (or semiconductor-controlled rectifier) is a four-layer solid
state device that controls current. The name "silicon controlled rectifier" or SCR is
General Electric's trade name for a type of thyristor. The SCR was developed by a team
of power engineers led by Gordon Hall and commercialized by Frank W. "Bill"

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Gutzwiller in 1957.
An SCR consists of four layers of alternating P and N type semiconductor materials.
Silicon is used as the intrinsic semiconductor, to which the proper dopants are added. The
junctions are either diffused or alloyed. The planar construction is used for low power
SCRs (and all the junctions are diffused). The mesa type construction is used for high
power SCRs. In this case, junction J2 is obtained by the diffusion method and then the
outer two layers are alloyed to it, since the PNPN pellet is required to handle large
currents. It is properly braced with tungsten or molybdenum plates to provide greater
mechanical strength. One of these plates is hard soldered to a copper stud, which is
threaded for attachment of heat sink. The doping of PNPN will depend on the application
of SCR, since its characteristics are similar to those of the thyratron. Today, the term
thyristor applies to the larger family of multilayer devices that exhibit bistable state-
change behaviour that is switching either ON or OFF.
The operation of a SCR and other thyristors can be understood in terms of a pair of
tightly coupled bipolar junction transistors, arranged to cause the self-latching action:

Modes of operation:
In the normal "off" state, the device restricts current to the leakage current. When the
gate-to-cathode voltage exceeds a certain threshold, the device turns "on" and conducts
current. The device will remain in the "on" state even after gate current is removed so
long as current through the device remains above the holding current. Once current falls
below the holding current for an appropriate period of time, the device will switch "off".
If the gate is pulsed and the current through the device is below the holding current, the
device will remain in the "off" state.
If the applied voltage increases rapidly enough, capacitive coupling may induce enough
charge into the gate to trigger the device into the "on" state; this is referred to as "dv/dt
triggering." This is usually prevented by limiting the rate of voltage rise across the

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device, perhaps by using a snubber. "dv/dt triggering" may not switch the SCR into full
conduction rapidly and the partially-triggered SCR may dissipate more power than is
usual, possibly harming the device. SCRs are mainly used in devices where the control of
high power, possibly coupled with high voltage, is demanded. Their operation makes
them suitable for use in medium to high-voltage AC power are used for rectification of
high power AC in high-voltage direct current power transmission

Applications:
 Time delay circuit
 Regulated power supplies
 Inverters
 Emergency lighting system
 Saw tooth wave generator

3.2.7 TRANSFORMER:

A transformer is an electrical device which is used to convert electrical power from one
electrical circuit to another without change in frequency.
Transformers convert AC electricity from one voltage to another with little loss of power.
Transformers work only with AC and this is one of the reasons why mains electricity is
AC. Step-up transformers increase in output voltage, step-down transformers decrease in
output voltage. Most power supplies use a step-down transformer to reduce the
dangerously high mains voltage to a safer low voltage. The input coil is called the
primary and the output coil is called the secondary. There is no electrical connection
between the two coils; instead they are linked by an alternating magnetic field created in
the soft-iron core of the transformer. The two lines in the middle of the circuit symbol
represent the core.
Transformers waste very little power so the power out is (almost) equal to the power in.
Note that as voltage is stepped down current is stepped up. The ratio of the number of
turns on each coil, called the turn’s ratio, determines the ratio of the voltages. A step-
down transformer has a large number of turns on its primary (input) coil which is
connected to the high voltage mains supply, and a small number of turns on its secondary
(output) coil to give a low output voltage.

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An Electrical Transformer

Turns ratio = Vp/ VS = Np/NS

Power Out= Power In

VS X IS=VP X IP

Vp = primary (input) voltage

Np = number of turns on primary coil

Ip = primary (input) current

3.2.8 RECTIFIER:
A circuit which is used to convert AC to DC is known as RECTIFIER. The process of
conversion from AC to DC is called “rectification”
Types of Rectifiers:
 Half wave Rectifier
 Full wave rectifier
1. Centre tap full wave rectifier.
2. Bridge type full bridge rectifier.
Comparison of rectifier circuits:
Type of Rectifier
Parameter Half wave Full wave Bridge
Number of diodes
1 2 3
PIV of diodes
Vm 2Vm Vm

D.C output voltage Vm/ 2Vm/ 2Vm/

Vdc, at 0.318Vm 0.636Vm 0.636Vm

no-load

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Ripple factor 1.21 0.482 0.482

Ripple
Frequency f 2f 2f
Rectification
Efficiency 0.406 0.812 0.812
Transformer
Utilization 0.287 0.693 0.812
Factor(TUF)
RMS voltage Vrms Vm/2 Vm/√2 Vm/√2

Full-wave Rectifier:
From the above comparison we came to know that full wave bridge rectifier as more
advantageous than the other two rectifiers. So, in our project we are using full wave
bridge rectifier circuit.
Bridge Rectifier:
A bridge rectifier makes use of four diodes in a bridge arrangement to achieve full-wave
rectification. This is a widely used configuration, both with individual diodes wired as
shown and with single component bridges where the diode bridge is wired internally.

3.2.9 RESISTOR:
Resistor is one of the basic electronic component found in almost all electronic circuits.
The property exhibited by a resistor is known as resistance. A resistor resists or opposes
the flow of current through it. The resistance of a resistor is said to be linear if it obey
Ohm’s law (v=IR).If it does not obey ohms law it is called non-linear resistance and
consequently the resistors are known as non linear resistors.

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Electronic symbol
The ohm (symbol: ohm) is the SI unit of electrical resistance.
Features:
1. These are two terimal, passive bilateral elements.
2. The elements of resistance is same for both a.c and d.c.
Uses:
1. To limit current.
2. To establish proper value of circuit voltages due to IR drops.

3.2.10 DC MOTOR:
An electric motor is a machine which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
DC motors are configured in many types and sizes, including brush less, servo, and gear
motor types. A motor consists of a rotor and a permanent magnetic field stator. The
magnetic field is maintained using either permanent magnets or electromagnetic
windings. DC motors are most commonly used in variable speed and torque.
Motion and controls cover a wide range of components that in some way are used to
generate and/or control motion. Areas within this category include bearings and bushings,
clutches and brakes, controls and drives, drive components, encoders and resolves,
Integrated motion control, limit switches, linear actuators, linear and rotary motion
components, linear position sensing, motors (both AC and DC motors), orientation
position sensing, pneumatics and pneumatic components, positioning stages, slides and
guides, power transmission (mechanical), seals, slip rings, solenoids, springs.
Motors are the devices that provide the actual speed and torque in a drive system. This
family includes AC motor types (single and multiphase motors, universal, servo motors,
induction, synchronous, and gear motor) and DC motors (brush less, servo motor, and
gear motor) as well as linear, stepper and air motors, and motor contactors and starters.
In any electric motor, operation is based on simple electromagnetism. A current-carrying
conductor generates a magnetic field; when this is then placed in an external magnetic
field, it will experience a force proportional to the current in the conductor, and to the

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strength of the external magnetic field. As you are well aware of from playing with
magnets as a kid, opposite (North and South) polarities attract, while like polarities
(North and North, South and South) repel. The internal configuration of a DC motor is
designed to harness the magnetic interaction between a current-carrying conductor and an
external magnetic field to generate rotational motion.
Let's start by looking at a simple 2-pole DC electric motor (here red represents a magnet
or winding with a "North" polarization, while green represents a magnet or winding with
a "South" polarization).

Every DC motor has six basic parts -- axle, rotor (a.k.a., armature), stator, commutator,
field magnet(s), and brushes. In most common DC motors (and all that Beamers will see),
the external magnetic field is produced by high-strength permanent magnets 1. The stator
is the stationary part of the motor -- this includes the motor casing, as well as two or more
permanent magnet pole pieces. The rotor (together with the axle and attached
commutator) rotates with respect to the stator. The rotor consists of windings (generally
on a core), the windings being electrically connected to the commutator. The above
diagram shows a common motor layout -- with the rotor inside the stator (field) magnets.
The geometry of the brushes, commutator contacts, and rotor windings are such that
when power is applied, the polarities of the energized winding and the stator magnet(s)
are misaligned, and the rotor will rotate until it is almost aligned with the stator's field
magnets. As the rotor reaches alignment, the brushes move to the next commutator
contacts, and energize the next winding. Given our example two-pole motor, the rotation
reverses the direction of current through the rotor winding, leading to a "flip" of the
rotor's magnetic field, and driving it to continue rotating.
Principle of operation:

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It is based on the principle that when a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic

field, it experiences a mechanical force whose direction is given by Fleming's Left-hand
rule and whose magnitude is given by
Force, F = B I L newton
Where ‘B’ is the magnetic field in weber/m2.
‘I’ is the current in amperes and
‘L’ is the length of the coil in meter.
The force, current and the magnetic field are all in different directions.
If an Electric current flows through two copper wires that are between the poles of a
magnet, an upward force will move one wire up and a downward force will move the
other wire down.
The loop can be made to spin by fixing a half circle of copper which is known as
commutator, to each end of the loop. Current is passed into and out of the loop by brushes
that press onto the strips. The brushes do not go round so the wire does not get twisted.
This arrangement also makes sure that the current always passes down on the right and
back on the left so that the rotation continues. This is how a simple Electric motor is
made.

3.11 POWER SUPPLY:

The power supplies are designed to convert high voltage AC mains electricity to a
suitable low voltage supply for electronics circuits and other devices. A power supply can
by broken down into a series of blocks, each of which performs a particular function. A
d.c power supply which maintains the output voltage constant irrespective of a.c mains
fluctuations or load variations is known as “Regulated D.C Power Supply”
For example a 5V regulated power supply system as shown below:

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CHAPTER 4:

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RESULTS & CONCLUSIONS

4.1 RESULTS:
Thus we had finally obtained the out put of our project “SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM”
Without any errors.
All the Hardware components were properly combined together to produce the output of
our project.

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4.2 CONCLUSIONS:
The project “SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM FOR OPTIMAL POWER GENERATION”
has been successfully designed and tested. Integrating features of all the hardware
components used have developed it. Presence of every module has been reasoned out and
placed carefully thus contributing to the best working of the unit. Secondly, using highly
advanced IC’s and with the help of growing technology the project has been successfully
implemented. A solar tracker is designed employing the new principle of using small
solar cells to function as self-adjusting light sensors, providing a variable indication of
their relative angle to the sun by detecting their voltage output. By using this method, the
solar tracker was successful in maintaining a solar array at a sufficiently perpendicular
angle to the sun. The power increase gained over a fixed horizontal array was in excess of
30%.

4.3 FUTURE EXPANSION:

By using real time clock we can adjust the panel directions according to the sun angle
with using more sensitive sensors and powerful micro controller.

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CHAPTER 5:

BIBILOGRAPHY

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

 Op-amp & linear applications, A.Ramakanth, Gayakward, U.A.Godse.

 Electrical Technology, B.L.Theraja.
 Switching Theory and Logic Design, A.P.Godse.

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 Basic Electronics, J.V. Suresh Babu, Lalitha.

 Electronics device and circuits, S.Salivahanan, U.A.Bakshi.
 Electronic components, D.V.Prasad.

WEBSITES:

 www.solar-tracking.com
 www.seminarprojects.com
 www.datasheet.com
 www.electronicsforu.com
 www.answers.com

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