Swedenborg

Buddha of the North

SWEDEN BORG STUDIES / NO.5

Monographs of the Swedenborg Foundation
D.T. Suzuki. 1910
 Swedenborg
Buddha of the North

D.Y. SUZUKI

Translated and with an Introduction

by Andrew Bernstein

Afterword by David Loy

Sweden borg Foundation

West Chester, Pennsylvania
©1996 by The Swedenborg Association

All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. No part of the publication
may be reproduced or transmirted in any form or by any means, electronic or me-
chanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage or retrieval
system, without prior permission from the publisher.

Suedenborugu was first published by Heigosha, Tokyo, Japan, 1913.

"Suedenborugu: Sono Tenkai to Tarikikan" (Sweden borg's View of Heaven and
'Other-Power') was first published in ChUgai Nipp6, February 1924.
Translations by Andrew Bernstein, 1996.
Introduction by Andrew Bernstein was first published as "D.T. Suzuki and Sweden-
borg" in Arcana 1, no. 4 (Summer 1995): 5-19. Reprinted by permission of author.
"The Dharma of Emanuel Swedenborg: A Buddhist Perspective" was first published
in Arcana 2, no. 1 (Fall 1995). Reprinted by permission of author.

Sweden borg Studies is a scholarly monograph series published by the Swedenborg

Foundation. The primary purpose of the series is to make materials available for un-
derstanding the life and thought of Emanuel Swedenborg (1688-1772) and the im-
pact that his thought has had on others. The Foundation undertakes to publish origi-
nal studies and English translations of such studies and to republish primary sources
that are otherwise difficult to access. Proposals should be sent to: Editor, Sweden borg
Studies, Swedenborg Foundation, 320 North Church Street, West Chester, PA 19380.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Suzuki, Daisetz Teitaro, 1870-1966.
[Suedenborugu. English]
Swedenborg: buddha of the north I D.T. Suzuki; translated by Andrew Bernstein.
p. cm. - (Swedenborg studies; no. 5)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-87785-184-0 (paper); 0-87785-185-9 (cloth)
1. Swedenborg, Emanuel, 1688-1772. 2. Mystics-Sweden-Biography. I. Title.
II. Series.
BX8748.S8813 1996
198'.5-dc20
[B] 95-46033 CIP

Photo credits: D.T. Suzuki, 1910, reproduced by permission of the Sweden borg Soci-
ety, London, p. ii.
D.T. Suzuki, in Cambridge, MA, 1958, p. 2; and D.T. Suzuki, at Matsugaoka Bunko
(Pine Hill Library), Kita-Kamakura, Japan, 1963, p. 76: original photographs by
Francis Haar, reproduced by permission of Tom Haar, Tom Haar Photography, Hon-
olulu.

Edited by Mary Lou Bertucci

Designed by Joanna V. Hill
Typeset in Sa bon and Gill Sans by Ruttle, Shaw & Wetherill, Inc
 Contents

Foreword by Tatsuya Nagashima Vll

Preface by Andrew Bernstein XllI

Introduction by Andrew Bernstein xv

PART ONE
Swedenborg 1
Preface to Suedenborugu, 1913 3
Chapter 1: Introduction 5
Chapter 2: The First Half of Sweden borg's Life 13
Chapter 3: The Second Half of Sweden borg's
Life 23
Chapter 4: A Singular Spiritual Vision 39
Chapter 5: Character and Lifestyle 43
Chapter 6: General Views and Statements 51

PART TWO
Swedenborg's View of Heaven
and "Other-Power" 77

AFTERWORD
The Dharma of Emanuel Swedenborg:
A Buddhist Perspective by David Loy 89

Index 127
About the Contributors 133
 A way stands open into heaven,
but none can enter the way
except those who have heaven within them.
-Emanuel Swedenborg
Con;ugial Love, para. 500

The Way is near.

-Dozaikin

Zen calligraphy by Jiun, 1718-1804

 Foreword

byTatsuya Nagashima

Daisetsu Teitacc3 Suzuki was an internationally known Bud-

dhist scholar whose fame comes not only from his voluminous
works on Buddhism written in Japanese but also from his pop-
ularity as a Buddhist teacher who wrote in English. Today,
most libraries in the world have some of Suzuki's English-lan-
guage books about Zen and Mahayana Buddhism.
I knew the writings of D.T. Suzuki long before I discovered
those of Emanuel Sweden borg. I had bought Suzuki's newly
reprinted thirty-two-volume complete works in 1980 because
I then thought that Zen Buddhism could provide Japanese
Christians with insights for spiritual growth. I was surprised
to learn, however, that this devoted Buddhist had translated
Christian theological works, and not only one book but four
by the same author-Emanuel Sweden borg.
Born in 1870, a Buddhist physician's fourth son, Teitacc3
Suzuki was first influenced by Zen teachings in high school.
But it was at the age of 20 that Suzuki first practiced Zen at
the well-known Kokutaiji Zen temple in Toyama. The follow-
ing year he studied under the Zen Master Imakita Kosen at
Engakuji Temple and later, after Kosen's death, under the Zen
Master Shaku Soen. It was Soen who gave Teitaro the name
Daisetsu (literally, "a great simplicity"), upon the completion
of his Zen training. After his Zen studies, Suzuki matriculated
at Tokyo University, majoring in philosophy.
Vlll After leaving Tokyo University in 1895, Suzuki published
_ his first book Shin Shuky6 Ron (A New Interpretation of Reli-
F gion), in which he presents the idea of universal truth and the
o importance of religion (any religion) in setting out this truth
R for humanity:
E
W I am convinced that religion itself depends on a free response
o from a human being, and it rules over innumerable behaviors of
R men and women since it is the basic principle of human life....
D Human minds are never healthy without religious belief, and hu-
man cultures are not perfect without religion. Further, religious
faith and scientific progress can certainly go hand in hand. 1

In this short work (only 147 pages), Suzuki rejects the idea of
a deistic universe in which a detached God sits and looks at his
handiwork from the outside. Indeed, Suzuki prefers the term
"Truth" to "God," as a closer representation of the concept of
Great Wisdom. He also asserts, with other Buddhist scholars,
that the universe, in terms of its totality, has neither cause nor
effect. The earth turns by its own power; plants grow and per-
ish by themselves. Life is a priori and not a created force.
Suzuki views this Buddhist pantheism as preferable to Christ-
ian monotheism, since Christianity adds another mysterious
being of "God" to the already given mystery of "Universe."
Despite the fact that, at this time in his life, Suzuki's idea of
Christianity was restricted to the stereotypical image of mod-
ern evangelical Protestanism, he believes that religion, under
any denomination, is important to mankind:

I do not want to employ any sectarian names such as Bud-

dhism, Christianity, Islam, and so on; but I would rather em-
ploy the term religion instead, because my insistence is not
simply on the doctrines of any single religious sect but on reli-
gion itself....
 The essence of religion is that people know the Great Mercy
and its Truth therewith, and apply them to their daily life....
The totality of religion is Truth .... Truth existed long before
Jesus Christ or Buddha was born [but] both founders per-
-
lX

F
o
ceived Truth and proclaimed it to the world. 2 R
E
It is interesting that, this early in his career, Suzuki was writ- w
ing ideas similar to those espoused by Sweden borg, who also 0
wrote about a universal church in which all religions are in- R
cluded as far as they believe in one God and shun evils. Yet, at D
this time, Suzuki was probably not familiar with Sweden borg's
writings, since he first encountered the Swedish mystic's works
when he lived in the United States between 1897 and 1908.
During that time he worked as an editor for the Open Court
Publishing Company, under the leadership of the American
scholar Paul Carus, who was a proponent of Monism or the
"science of religion. "3
In 1907, while still living in the United States, Suzuki met
Beatrice Lane, a Boston native who had studied at both Rad-
cliffe College and Columbia University under such teachers as
William james, josiah Royce, and George Santayana. Doubt-
less, Lane was familiar with the writings of Sweden borg
through her studies in philosophy and religion (William
james's father, Henry james, Sr., was a well-known reader of
Swedenborg). Moreover, on Quincy Street in Boston stands
the Sweden borg Chapel, where for many years the influential
Swedenborgian minister William Worcester was a driving
force behind the congregation. It may be that Lane con-
tributed to Suzuki's interest in Swedenborg's writings. Suzuki
and Lane married in japan in 1911. After their marriage, Lane
became a Buddhist scholar herself, publishing The Shingon
School of Mahayana Buddhism in 1931. Looking back over
his married years, Suzuki wrote:
-
x

F
o
Since the beginning of our married life, mutual commitment
was focused on the proclamation of Eastern thoughts to the
Western people. We had no other joy and happiness than to
promote, by our own [possible] endeavors, this communicative
R understanding between East and West.
E However, speaking from our own feelings, we could have
W communicated only between us in person about what we think
o on religious issues without a special regard to an external in-
R fluence. But both of us have been led in this direction guided
D by some sort of destiny. 4

Suzuki returned to japan in 1909, where he became a lec-

turer in English at Gakushuin and Tokyo University, specializ-
ing in William Blake, a writer heavily influenced by Sweden-
borg's writings. In 1910, he published Tenkai to Jigoku
(Heaven and Hell) as the first japanese translation of Sweden-
borg's theological works from an English edition. During this
same year, Suzuki attended the International Swedenborg
Congress in London and served as a vice-president. But the
years 1913-1915 saw Suzuki intensify his study of Sweden-
borg: in 1913, he wrote Suedenborugu; in 1914, he translated
The New Jerusalem and Its Heavenly Doctrine into japanese
(Shin Erusaremu to Sono Ky6setsu), followed by the transla-
tions of Divine Love and Wisdom (Shinchi to Shin'ai) in 1914
and Divine Providence (Shinryo Ron) in 1915. This period of
Sweden borg studies was followed by a nine-year interval of si-
lence on the subject, until Suzuki published a nine-page article
about Swedenborg in 1924. In this short essay entitled "Swe-
den borg's View of Heaven and 'Other Power'" ("Sueden-
borugu: Sono Tenkai to Tarikikan") [see Bernstein introduc-
tion, n. 8], Suzuki explains heavenly innocence and the angelic
acknowledgment that all good emanates from God. Other
Swedenborgian concepts such as "correspondence," "free
will," and "equilibrium" are also discussed. After this publica-
tion, Suzuki is silent (at least publicly) about Sweden borg.
 The question of whether Suzuki ever considered or wrote

-
Xl
about Swedenborg after the 1920s intrigues Sweden borg
scholars, although the majority of Suzuki scholars find the F
Swedish mystic's influence to be relegated to Suzuki's midlife. o
Still, pieces of the puzzle may be missing; although Suzuki's R
collected Japanese works consists of thirty-two volumes, E
Suzuki wrote a number of works in English, many of which W
have not yet been published in Japanese. All of his works, on o
subjects ranging from Zen Buddhism to various schools of R
D
Mahayana Buddhism, are evidence of the Buddhist scholar's
lifelong search for satori (enlightenment). Certainly, we are re-
minded of what Suzuki himself wrote about Swedenborg in
Suedenborugu: "l His] 84 years of life were totally devoted to
science and religion." And Suzuki's 96 years of life were also
devoted to religion, a kindred spirit over time and space.
There is, however, one Suzuki scholar who feels that Swe-
denborg's influence on the Japanese scholar may have gone
farther than previously acknowledged. In a memorial essay on
Suzuki, Kiyoto Furuno wrote:

I read Suedenborugu written by Suzuki, and I had an impres-

sion from it that Suzuki was a Swedenborgian. It is quite true
that Zen Buddhism was first introduced around the world by
Suzuki, but it is also true that Sweden borg was first introduced
to Japan by him .... I have a conjecture that [Suzuki's] basic
thought was more or less influenced by Sweden borg. It seems
to me that Suzuki was able to translate Zen Buddhism into
English with such insight and clarity because Suzuki's brain
had previously been trained by Swedenborg's mysticism in his
younger years.'

As the first translator and publisher of Sweden borg's origi-

nal Latin texts into modern Japanese, I understand the diffi-
culty involved in the translator's craft. Andrew Bernstein's
translation of Suedenborugu and "Suedenborugu: Sono
XII Tenkai to Tarikikan" takes Suzuki's classic-styled Japanese
_ and renders it into modern English. I am happy that now an
F excellent English translation of Suzuki's seminal work is avail-
o able for English-speaking Swedenborgians and scholars.
R
E
W Notes
o
R 1. D.T. Suzuki, Suzuki Daisetsu ZenshU (Collected Works of
D Daisetz Suzuki), vol. 23, ed. Shokin Furuta (Tokyo: Iwanami Pub-
lishing Company, 1982), 13. All translations into English are done
by the author of this foreword.
2. Ibid., 57-58.
3. It is possible that Suzuki first became aware of Sweden borg
from the World Parliament of Religions, held in Chicago in 1893; he
was a translator for Shaku Soen. The Parliament was initiated by
Swedenborgian lawyer Charles Carroll Bonney, who gave its open-
ing address; six Swedenborgians also gave addresses at plenary ses-
sions. See L.P. Mercer, ed., The New Jerusalem in the World's Reli-
gions Congresses of 1893 (Chicago: Western New Church Union,
1894). Bonney and Carus cooperated in efforts to follow up on the
Parliament, and Bonney's article "Genesis of the World's Religious
Congresses of 1893" was published in The Monist.
4. D.T. Suzuki, Suzuki Daisetsu: Hito to Shiso (Daisetsu Suzuki:
His Person and His Thoughts), ed. S. Hisamatsu, S. Yamaguchi, and
S. Furuta (Tokyo: Iwanami Publishing Company, 1972), 182.
5. Ibid., 80-81.
 Preface

by Andrew Bernstein

I began translating these works by D.T. Suzuki two years ago

at the request of Leonard Fox of the Swedenborg Association.
At the time, I was apprehensive about the task: I had already
done work on Suzuki in my studies in Japanese religious his-
tory, but was unfamiliar with Emanuel Swedenborg or with
Suzuki's interest in him. As I delved into the project, I became
more intrigued with both Sweden borg and the young Suzuki
who so admired him.
Suzuki's Japanese presented a special challenge. Written in
the first decades of the 20th century, Suedenborugu and "Sue-
denborugu: Sana Tenkai to Tarikikan" use classical grammar
and diction that make reading difficult for someone more fa-
miliar with current Japanese usage. I have tried to render as
faithful a translation as possible, although any translation is
inevitably an act of personal interpretation. The works trans-
lated here can be found in Suzuki Daisetsu Zenshu, the 32-
volume set of Suzuki's collected works.
The problems of translation became especially clear to me
when I tried to put back into English Swedenborg's passages
that Suzuki had translated into Japanese. Suzuki based his ren-
ditions of Sweden borg's works on English translations of the
original Latin. Although Suzuki never directly cited these
translations, I was usually able to locate English versions that
so closely mirrored Suzuki's Japanese that I take them to be his
-
XIV sources. However, this was complicated by the fact that
Suzuki's renditions sometimes differed from standard Eng-
P lish translation of Swedenborg's works, as published by the
R Sweden borg Foundation. Discrepancies between the Japanese
E and the standard English are cited in the notes. Another stan-
F dard reference used for letters and reminiscences is the three-
A volume Documents concerning the Life and Character of
C Emanuel Swedenborg, ed. R.L. Tafel (London: Sweden borg
E Society, 1875-1877).
This project could not have been completed without the
help of many people. Special thanks goes to Keith Vincent and
Zenno Yasushi, who spent long hours helping me untangle
Suzuki's Japanese. I am also grateful to Wayne Yokoyama,
Nagashima Tatsuya, * and Kohso Iwasaburo, as well as
Robert Sharf, Roger Corless, and Kirita Kiyohide for their
assistance. Swedenborgian scholars Donald L. Rose, George F.
Dole, William R. Woofenden, and Leonard Fox helped in ver-
ifying my notes on Swedenborg, often locating Suzuki's Eng-
lish sources when I had difficulty. Indeed, this project would
not have been undertaken without the impetus of Leonard
Fox, who has helped in more ways than I can cite here.
Thanks also goes to Mary Lou Bertucci, who shepherded my
work through the publishing process. And, finally, thanks to
my family and friends for standing by me in this and
everything I do.

"In the preface, introduction, and endnotes to the Suzuki translation, the
traditional Japanese order of family name followed by a given name has
been used.
 Introduction

by Andrew Bernstein

In the summer of 1954, while meeting with religion scholars

Henry Corbin and Mircea Eliade, D.T. Suzuki was asked what
resemblances he found between Mahayana Buddhism and the
theology of Emanuel Sweden borg. According to Corbin,
Suzuki suddenly brandished a spoon and declared, "This
spoon now exists in Paradise .... We are now in Heaven."
During the ensuing conversation, Suzuki went on to say that
Swedenborg was "your Buddha of the North."!
Why did Suzuki, a man largely responsible for making
"Zen" into a household word, equate Swedenborg, an eigh-
teenth-century Swedish scientist turned mystic, with a Bud-
dha? Looking through Suzuki's writings of the 1950s and
1960s, one finds only a few other references to Sweden borg.
For example, in an essay dating around 1950/ Suzuki states
simply that "Swedenborg's doctrine of correspondence holds
good in Buddhism tOO."3 Unfortunately, Suzuki does not elab-
orate on this doctrine, mentioning it only in passing.
Another quick reference to Sweden borg appears in a 1960
talk entitled, "Zen and Philosophy." Here, Suzuki says that
the world of Zen is not philosophical but poetic, and later
notes that the same holds true for the "New Jerusalem," a
spiritual era that Sweden borg said had already begun in the
spiritual world and was about to begin in our own. Suzuki
-
XVI further explains that this world of poetry is not to be confused
with mere "lies," that it should not be seen as a realm com-
I pletely disjointed from the mundane. 4
N But once again Suzuki's citation of Swedenborg serves only
T as a brief example and is incidental to the argument as a
R whole. Indeed, in a book where Swedenborg could have fig-
o ured quite largely, Mysticism: Christian and Buddhist (1957),
D Suzuki mentions him only once. He writes in an appendix that
U the Buddhist teaching of transmigration, which is based on the
C
premise of ethical retribution, "reminds us of Swedenborg's
T
doctrine of correspondence, according to which things on
I
earth have corresponding things in heaven or hell."s The bulk
o
of the book, however, is devoted to a Buddhist interpretation
N
of Meister Eckhart, the medieval Dominican mystic.
Why is so little space devoted to the "Buddha of the North"
in Suzuki's later writings, and particularly in a book that deals
with Christian mysticism?6 After all, between 1910 and 1915,
Suzuki had translated four major works by Swedenborg and
had also written the small book on Sweden borg's life and
thought, Suedenborugu, that is here translated into English/
Furthermore, his 1924 essay, "Swedenborg's View of Heaven
and 'Other-Power,"'8 concludes, "There is a great deal I wish
to write concerning Swedenborg, but that remains for another
day."9
That day never came, but it is obvious from his remark to
Henry Corbin that Suzuki also did not repudiate Swedenborg
and his teachings. In fact, in a memorial to Suzuki, Furuno
Kiyoto wrote that he found Suzuki's basic thought to be more
or less influenced by Swedenborg. 1O The Japanese Swedenbor-
gian Nagashima Tatsuya has tentatively called Suzuki a
"crypto-Swedenborgian," suggesting that his short-lived but
intense engagement with Sweden borg's works determined his
approach to religion in general. lI
 The question of influence is a tricky one, however. Suzuki
and Sweden borg both produced such a huge volume of work
that a determined investigator could probably locate any num-
ber of similarities. And although Suzuki was undoubtedly in-
-
XVll

I
N
fluenced by Sweden borg, he first viewed the Swedish mystic T
through a lens already shaped by Buddhism; Emerson's tran- R
scendentalism; German idealism; Monism; and, finally, the o
philosophy of William James. Sorting out the influences and D
affinities among these different strains of thought would be a U
long exercise in unraveling what largely comes down to a C
T
"chicken-and-egg" question.
I
In the end, Suzuki chose to use the term "Zen" to designate
o
the universal truth that he perceived to be the foundation of all
N
religion and philosophy. As early as 1895, when he was 25
years old, Suzuki wrote an essay revealingly entitled "The Zen
of Emerson";12 and years later, in The Eastern Buddhist, he ex-
plicitly stated:

As I conceive it, Zen is the ultimate of all philosophy and reli-

gion .... Zen is not necessarily an offshoot of Buddhist philos-
ophy alone. For I find it in Christianity, Mahommedanism, in
Taoism, and even in Confucianism.... Zen is what makes the
religious feeling run through its legitimate channel and what
gives life to the intellect. 13

It is clear that, despite his exposure to various schools of

thought, Suzuki was most comfortable operating through the
framework of Zen Buddhism. How then should we explain his
interest in Swedenborg? Suzuki himself finds affinities be-
tween Swedenborgian thought and Buddhism in Sueden-
borugu and "Swedenborg's View of Heaven and 'Other-
Power.'" But Suzuki's tendency to find the same truths in
various religious systems and thinkers enabled him to draw
from a host of sources throughout his career. To answer the
-
XVIll question "Why, for a time, did Suzuki engage Swedenborg
with such intensity?" and its corollary "Why did he later lose
I this intensity?" we should look not to timeless similarities, or
N "correspondences," that Suzuki may have found between
T Sweden borg and Buddhist thought, but instead to those
R unique qualities that made Sweden borg relevant for a particu-
o lar period in his life. In short, an answer to these questions re-
D quires an explanation based not on theological resemblances,
U but on historical conditions.
C On one level, Suzuki's interest in Swedenborg hinges on the
T
simple fact that Sweden borg was "fashionable" in the late
I
nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, claiming the atten-
o
tion of Henri Bergson, W.B. Yeats, William james, and many
N
other prominent thinkers and writers. 14 Swedenborg was virtu-
ally unknown in japan; but between 1897 and 1908, Suzuki
lived in America, where Swedenborgian churches had prolifer-
ated throughout the nineteenth century. Encouraged by Zen
Abbot Shaku Soen, Suzuki spent eleven years in Illinois work-
ing for Paul Carus, a German immigrant who advocated the
reconciliation of scientific and religious thinking through his
"Religion of Science," or "Monism."15 Immersed in the
Monist project, Suzuki would have had ample exposure to
Sweden borg, a man who accounted for his own mystical expe-
riences and discoveries with the cool reason of a scientist.
But it was actually in London, on his way home to japan in
1908, that Suzuki was invited to grapple in depth with a work
by Sweden borg and translate it into japanese. The London-
based Sweden borg Society asked him to translate Heaven and
Hell, which was then published in 1910. In that same year,
Suzuki came back to England from Japan to serve as a "vice-
president" at the International Sweden borg Congress. 16 He
subsequently translated Sweden borg's The New Jerusalem and
Its Heavenly Doctrine (1914), Divine Love and Wisdom
(1914), and Divine Providence (1915).
 Primed by his experience with Monism, Suzuki was willing XIX
to do the initial translation of Heaven and Hell, but how do _
we explain his continued interest in Swedenborg? The preface I
to Suedenborugu possesses an urgency that shows Suzuki had N
more than a casual interest in this Swedish mystic: T
R
Now, in Japan, the field of religious thought is finally reaching o
a state of crisis. Those who wish to cultivate their spirit, those D
who bemoan the times, must absolutely know of this person U
[Swedenborg]. This is the reason for this book. 17 C
T
In the introduction following his preface, Suzuki explains
I
more clearly what he means by an impending "crisis":
o
Looking in particular at the current state of spiritual life in N
Japan, it seems that people are tired of the superficiality of our
materialistic, industrial culture, but do not know where to
turn. Both the government and the people feel the necessity for
religion, yet it has not been adequately investigated how this
need can be met. 18

During his time in America, Japan had undergone rapid ur-

banization and industrialization. Strikes had increased in tan-
dem with the number of factory workers, and more broad-
based protests, like demonstrations in 1906 against a rise in
streetcar fares, had become increasingly familiar. Educational
policies had swelled the ranks of the managerial classes, who,
though better off than manual laborers, also strained under
the pressure of a modern, capitalist economy. Alienated by the
demands of mechanized life, many in the educated middle
class turned to a search for their" deepest selves."
This "move inward," as Thomas Rimer calls it, was espe-
cially pronounced among the youth of Japan's higher schools
and universities. 19 After the Meiji restoration of 1868, the gov-
ernment orchestrated a massive effort to build modern institu-
tions, including a national school system. 20 But by the turn of
-
xx the century, Japan's privileged teenagers took these achieve-
ments for granted and spent more and more time in a search
I for personal meaning. This quest was shaped in large part by
N German idealism, proselytized by such figures as Raphael
T Koeber, professor of philosophy at Tokyo University from
R 1893 to 1914. "My students are all philosophers, and as
o philosophers they are soldiers fighting with spiritual arms for
D the expansion of the Zeitgeist," Koeber once said. Teacher-
U philosophers like Nishida Kitaro (who, incidentally, met
C
Suzuki at age seventeen and was a lifelong friend) brought this
T
zeal to the high-school level, forming extracurricular groups
like the Goethe Reading Society.21
o
But others among Japan's elite regarded this exploration of
N
the inner self to be unhealthy, for it undermined the Meiji ideal
of the publicly engaged "gentleman" (shinshi), now needed
more than ever to fortify the state against waves of social un-
rest. Anxiety about so-called "retreatism" (taihoshugi) was fu-
eled by the 1903 suicide of Fujimura Misao, a highschool boy
who leapt from the top of a three-hundred-foot cliff into the
basin of Japan's spectacular Kegon waterfall. Before killing
himself, he carved his epitaph, "Feelings at the Precipice," into
an oak tree. His last words read, in part:
There is, after all, only one word for truth: "incomprehensible."
My agony over this question has brought me, at last, to a de-
cision to die,
And yet now, standing at the precipice,
There is no anxiety in my heart.
For the first time, I realize that great sorrow is at one with
great happiness. 22

Fujimura became a national celebrity, dying as he did not for

family, school, or country, but for a purely "egocentric" cause.
Alarm over the loss of "state ideals," the symptoms of this loss
 -
being "retreatism" on the one hand and socialism on the other, XXI
increased through the first decade of the twentieth century and
resulted in the Boshin Imperial Rescript of 1908. This document I
condemned the excesses of "private activity" and emphasized N
the importance of "uniting sentiments of high and low" through T
"national morality" (kokumin d6toku).23 The task of renovating R
civic virtue was embraced by Buddhist and Christian organiza- o
tions alike, as well as by Shinto shrines, which were then being D
merged and abolished by the thousands to fulfill a government U
C
policy of administrative standardization. 24
T
The government's force-fed morality only intensified the
I
search among intellectuals for a preserve beyond the power of
o
the state, a realm that increasingly went under the rubric of
N
bunka, a Japanese approximation of the European word "cul-
ture. "25 This sacred space of personal cultivation, which tran-
scended the secular world of politics and "machine civiliza-
tion," was also frequently conflated with the realm of
"religion" and "spirituality." In 1909, at the high school
where Fujimura had committed suicide six years before, De-
bate Club members issued the following statement:

Today the Debate Club is moving quickly in the direction of

religious and spiritual matters .... Our attention to problems
of the external world is diminishing, and there is a feeling that
we should remove ourselves from direct involvement in dormi-
tory politics. 26

Replace the word "dormitory" with "state," and the above

declaration sums up the attitude of many intellectuals in the
wider society. Turning away from external affairs, such writers
as Abe Jiro and Kurata Hyakuzo produced an angst-ridden,
confessional literature that was popular among japan's
rapidly growing middle classes.
-
XXlI The producers of this literature rallied under the banner of
"individualism" (kojinshugi). Yet they were criticized by re-
I formists who appropriated the very same slogan. These in-
N cluded feminists, socialists, and other socially engaged individ-
T ualists who were not only disdainful of public morality but
R out to change it.27 Instead of viewing culture (or personalized
o "religion") as a cloister for permanent retreat, they saw it as a
D base from which to launch reformist social movements. Ikuta
U Ch6k6, publisher of the magazine Hanky6, summed up this
C dialectical position when he wrote in 1914, "It is only by im-
T
proving oneself that society can be improved; and it is only by
I
improving society that one can improve himself. "28
o Suzuki also advocated an engaged individualism that was
N
opposed to mindless statism on the one hand and self-centered
introspection on the other. From 1909 to 1921, Suzuki taught
English at the elite secondary school Gakushuin (Peer's
School). While there, he warned his privileged students:
Individualism is not selfishness; it means to become one's own
master. From the standpoint of ethics, this is something lacking
in young people today. Of course, individualism has dangers as
well, but one should not disregard its merits. As for me, I will
cling to its merits. 29

Suzuki did not publicly advocate an egalitarian individual-

ism. Echoing the noblesse oblige ethic of American liberalism,
he instead exhorted the educated elite to take advantage of its
privilege to help society.30 Nevertheless, such sentiments were
at odds with the martial spirit of Gen. Nogi Maresuke, head of
the Gakushuin, who displayed his ethic of unquestioning loy-
alty when he followed the Meiji emperor into death in 1912.
News of Nogi's suicide shocked the nation and whipped up a
storm of debate. Some condemned the gesture as perverse and
retrograde, while others praised its purity of spirit. Concern-
ing his superior's action, Suzuki argued that it was not up to
others to judge Nogi but added that "those who imitate him
are fools. "31
Upon the death of Emperor Meiji, and the devoted Gen.
Nogi, Japan entered a new reign under the Emperor Taisho.
-
XXlIl

I
N
The nation had already undergone wrenching changes in the T
years before, but the emperor's death seemed to many to punc- R
tuate the death of an old age and the birth of a new one. Wor- o
ries that had led to the Boshin rescript of 1908 only intensified D
with the shift into Taisho. Defenders of the state and civic U
virtue were especially anxious about the new generation, C
T
which was, in the words of journalist Tokutomi Soho,
I
all divided between disinterested, colorless youth and despair- o
ing youth who worry about the problems of life, success-ori- N
ented youth carried off by the fever of rising in the world [ris-
shin shusse), and examples of youth without ambition. These
are the youth of Taisho.32

The state's answer to these concerns was the promotion of

"national morality" through its system of Shinto shrines and
the Buddhist and Christian establishment. But amid this gen-
eral sense of spiritual crisis, Suzuki prescribes a very different
solution in his introduction to Suedenborugu. After noting the
need for a renewed spirituality to counter the "superficiality of
our materialistic, industrial culture," Suzuki writes:
Of course, institutional religion is linked up to the nation as a
whole; but in one respect, religion is thoroughly personal, gov-
erned by such things as the temperament, taste, education, and
circumstances of the individual. Therefore, even the state is
powerless to enforce religious devotion against people's will.
Furthermore, people's hearts cannot be won merely through
the inertia of tradition. Surely, religion bears fruit only from
within, blooming naturally like a flower. So in response to the
religious thirst in people's hearts, it is necessary to introduce
various creeds and philosophies from many places and have
-
XXIV people choose according to what speaks to their individual
tendencies;13
I In opposition to the state's policy of standardization, Suzuki
N promotes a "free-market" of religious ideas. Instead of fight-
T ing the consumer ethic of modern Japan, he says, educators
R
should accommodate it by stocking the spiritual supermarket
o with as many brands of thought as possible. Suzuki reiterates
D
his opposition to state control of religion when he notes in the
U
C
chapter on Sweden borg's "Character and Lifestyle" that Swe-
T den borg was forced to publish his religious works in England
I and Holland because his homeland, Sweden, would not allow
o the spread of his unorthodox teachings. 34
N Suzuki could have chosen from a number of freethinkers to
make his point, but it is Sweden borg's life that he decides to
present as "a model for the individual." What makes Sweden-
borg so appealing? Although Suzuki certainly admires his the-
ology, he is especially interested in portraying Swedenborg the
person: "He was a man of spirit; and now, in the twentieth
century, we are moved by the force of his personality. If only
for this reason, we should know about his life."31
In Suedenborugu, Suzuki divides this life into two halves,
devoting a chapter to each. In chapter 1, Suzuki recounts Swe-
den borg's scientific accomplishments, pointing out that these
were not limited to theoretical scholarship, but extended to
such practical technologies as metallurgy and engineering.
Sweden borg applied this knowledge while serving as "assessor
extraordinary for the Bureau of Mines," a critical post in Swe-
den at the time. Suzuki mentions that Swedenborg also wrote
a valuable work on fluctuations in the Swedish currency and
published the first algebra text in Swedish. In order to accom-
plish these tasks, Sweden borg studied abroad in countries like
Germany and Holland, where mathematics, physics, and other
sciences of the European Enlightenment were more advanced.
 The portrait we get of Sweden borg is of a practical young
man intent on transmitting the knowledge of continental Eu-
rope to his homeland, and no japanese reading this in 1913
would miss the parallel being drawn between Sweden borg in
-
xxv

I
N
the early eighteenth century and the creators of the Meiji state T
in the mid- to late-nineteenth century. The "Meiji oligarchs" R
also went on missions to Europe to gain first-hand knowledge o
of modern institutions and introduce them to japan, creating, D
as in Sweden's case, a nation-state that could compete with the U
C
rest of the modernized world. Sweden borg was a true shinshi,
T
a gentleman of solid character who embodied the Meiji values
I
of self-sacrifice and nationalism. He not only brought techni-
o
cal knowledge to his country, but also served in the House of
N
Peers from the time his family was ennobled in 1719 (when
Sweden borg was 31 years old). The fact that Sweden borg was
not a commoner but a baron must have had particular salience
for Suzuki, who was then teaching a mixture of English and
liberal ethics to the sons of japan's aristocracy.
In chapter 2, Suzuki recounts the mystical experiences that
transformed Sweden borg's life, noting that these experiences
at first caused him a great deal of anguish. But Sweden borg
eventually accepted his revelations and poured the energy
originally devoted to science into relating and interpreting his
encounters with the spiritual world. This latter half of Swe-
den borg's life, in which he turned from his study of the exter-
nal world to an exploration of the internal world, corresponds
to the general "move inward" among intellectuals of late
Meiji and Taish6 japan.
But Suzuki emphasizes that Swedenborg's turn to mysticism
and religion did not constitute a complete rejection of his for-
mer self. He shows that Sweden borg brought the same kind of
investigative enthusiasm to the spiritual world as he did to the
physical world:
-
xxvi Feeling that his previous philosophical and scientific studies
had been removed from the divine will and unrelated to his
true calling, his attitude completely changed. However, from
N what I have seen, there is not a huge, unbreachable gap be-
T
tween Sweden borg's so-called worldly career and his spiritual
R career, since his earlier thoughts and sentiments show a conti-
o nuity with his spiritual life .... 36
D
U
After discussing the Arcana Coeiestia, a multivolume expo-
C sition of the spiritual sense of the books of Genesis and Exo-
T dus, Suzuki also says:

o One thing that should be noted here is that, despite producing

N such a great work, Sweden borg continued to fulfill his duties
as a member of the House of Peers by voicing, without any
hesitation, his commanding views on Sweden's public finances
and administration. These opinions were not the vague, fanci-
ful, and abstract statements commonly made by scholars and
religious thinkers. His concrete plans always cut to the heart of
the evils of his day.37

Here Suzuki criticizes angst-ridden individualists and their re-

treat from politics. He demonstrates that there does not have
to be an "unbreachable gap" between the public duty of Meiji
and the private introspection of Taisho. One can indeed try to
improve society while pursuing personal enlightenment, and
without caving in to state ideology. The realm of "culture" or
"spirituality" should not be a permanent retreat from the
world, but a place to learn how to overcome the bonds of the
ego and help others instead. Suzuki stresses this point when he
says that according to Sweden borg,

By faith alone salvation is impossible; we must acknowledge

that not until charity and love are added is the fruit of salva-
tion born .... From the start, it is crucial to have a penitent
 heart and, recognizing one's sins, to accumulate good deeds as
befit love and wisdom. 38

In his introduction, Suzuki also cites a defense of Sweden-

-
XXVII

N
I

borg's religion by Count Anders von Hopken, who wrote that T

"This religion, in preference to, and in a higher degree than, R
any other, must produce the most honest and industrious sub- o
jects; for this religion properly places the worship of God in D
uses. "39 Later in the book, Suzuki further writes that Sweden- U
borg's lifestyle was extremely simple and that he continued to C
be frugal and industrious until the day he died. T
This promotion of religion as a means to build ethical char-
acter accords with a 1911 lecture that Suzuki gave on Zen o
N
Buddhism, which he portrayed at the time as a "moral anvil
on which your character is hammered and hammered. "40 But,
by the time he gave his 1936 lectures on Zen and Japanese cul-
ture in England and America (sponsored by the Japanese For-
eign Ministry), Suzuki had stopped expressing such senti-
ments. In the face of increasing militarism and nationalism, he
too retreated into a personalistic aesthetic. For example, con-
trast the previous statement on Zen as "moral anvil" with this
claim from Zen and Its Influence on Japanese Culture, a book
based mainly on his 1936 lectures:

Art impulses are more primitive or more innate than those of

morality. The appeal of art goes more directly into human na-
ture. Morality is regulative, art is creative. One is an imposi-
tion from without, the other is an irrepressible expression from
within. Zen finds its inevitable association with art but not
with morality. Zen may remain unmoral but not without
art.... 41

Later in this same work Suzuki writes that Zen has no special
doctrine or philosophy, so that "it may be found wedded to
 -
xxviii

I
N
anarchism or fascism, communism or democracy, atheism or
idealism, or any political or economic dogmatism. "42
Suzuki thus painted himself into exactly the apolitical, cul-
turalist corner that he had criticized through his work on Swe-
T denborg years before. As Robert Sharf notes in "Zen and
R Japanese Nationalism, "43 Suzuki also became increasingly
o chauvinistic. I am inclined not to condemn Suzuki for his cul-
D tural biases, because national pride is a powerful force to
U which even the most critical thinkers succumb. Furthermore,
C
Kirita Kiyohide has pointed out that, unlike a host of other
T
Zen Buddhists, Suzuki did not wholeheartedly support the
I
military, but instead spent the 1930s and 1940s focusing on
o Buddhist scholarship.44 Yet it is clear that Suzuki "did not take
N
a firm stance against the war or write essays criticizing the mil-
itary or Shinto nationalists head-on. "45 Not seeing any alterna-
tive, he retreated into a highly personalized religious aesthetic.
This shift away from sociohistorical concerns can already be
detected in Suzuki's second (and last) work devoted exclu-
sively to Swedenborg, "Suedenborugu: So no Tenkai to
Tarikikan" (Swedenborg's View of Heaven and 'Other-
Power'), which was first written as an article in 1924 and then
republished as a short chapter in his 1927 work Zen: Miscella-
neous Essays. In the 1913 Suedenborugu, Suzuki made some
comparisons between Swedenborgian and Buddhist thought,
but these were overshadowed by his presentation of Sweden-
borg as an exemplary person. The later essay, in contrast, dis-
penses with Sweden borg's biography (aside from a bare-bones
sketch in the last paragraph), and instead focuses on associat-
ing Sweden borg's heaven with the paradise of Pure Land Bud-
dhism. 46
As in so many of his writings, Suzuki is basically concerned
here with resolving the apparent contradiction between free
will and universal salvation, concepts spatially translated into
our conditioned world on the one hand and paradise on the
other. For example, earlier chapters in the 1927 book include
"Self-Power and Other-Power," "Zen and Nenbutsu," and
"Koan Zen and Nenbutsu Zen. "47 In all three of these essays,
-
XXIX

I
N
Suzuki tries to resolve the dissonance between the self-effort of T
Zen and the absolute faith of Pure Land teachings. To put his R
thinking in a nutshell, he concludes that Zen and Pure Land o
Buddhism both aim for the same goal of selflessness and that D
the decision to rely on other-power actually entails a measure U

of self-power, while self-power taken to an extreme eventually C

T
leads to an abandonment of the self and culminates in a re-
I
liance on other-power.
o
In the essay on Sweden borg, Suzuki again explores this issue
N
through the Swedenborgian vocabulary of angels, innocence,
divine love, and so on. Here he is not interested in portraying
Sweden borg as an historical individual, but as a timeless mys-
tic whose perception of truth differs from that of Buddhism in
form, but not substance. After writing that the doctrine of cor-
respondence can be fruitfully applied to Buddhist teachings, he
speculates, "If Sweden borg had not communicated with the
Christian heaven, and had instead mastered Buddhist philoso-
phy, what kind of 'hidden will' would he have discovered?"48
Ironically, because Suzuki found such a strong affinity be-
tween Buddhism and Swedenborgianism, Swedenborg largely
disappeared from his later writings. Suzuki did make occa-
sional references to the Swedish mystic; but, sufficiently
stocked with Buddhist terminology, he had no more need for
Sweden borg's particular imagery and doctrines. In time, Swe-
denborg became a "Buddha of the North," a figure in com-
plete concordance with Suzuki's vision of Buddhism, yet miss-
ing the unique contingencies that gave the Suedenborugu of
1913 its special urgency. As Suzuki withdrew from the histori-
cal arena of social change, his interest in Sweden borg shifted
xxx from his earthly life to his eternal truths; and the latter, as he
_ saw them, could just as well be expressed through the lan-
I guage of Buddhism, or, in a Christian context, through the
N works of someone like Meister Eckhart. Sweden borg, mean-
T while, vanished into the thin air of Buddhahood.
R
o
D Notes
U
C 1. This story is recounted in a footnote appearing in Corbin's Cre-
T ative Imagination in the Sufism of Ibn 'Arabi, trans. Ralph Manheim
I (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969) 354-355. The italics
o are Corbin's.
N 2. D.T. Suzuki, "Infinite Light," Collected Writings on Shin Bud-
dhism, ed. Eastern Buddhist Society (Kyoto, Japan: Shinshu
Otaniha, 1973), 152. An editor's note on page 129 reads, "This pa-
per seems to have been written around 1950, most likely as a series
of talks Dr. Suzuki gave in California which were later combined and
rewritten to form this single essay."
3. According to this doctrine, all things in the physical, mundane
world correspond to states in the spiritual world, which proceed in
stages to their source in the Divine. Michael Stanley, a longtime stu-
dent of Swedenborg's theology, compares this succession to a Chi-
nese box, a "series of forms within forms, with the one Source [the
Divine] at the centre of each and every form .... Higher forms give
being and purpose to lower forms, which themselves can look to the
higher forms on which they depend and which they serve." See
Michael Stanley, Emanuel Swedenborg: Essential Readings (Welling-
borough, UK: Aquarian Press, 1988),20.
4. Daisetsu Teitarc3 Suzuki, "Zen to Tetsugaku," Suzuki Daisetsu
Zenshu, ed. Hisamatsu Shin'ichi, Yamaguchi Susumu, and Furuta
Shokin, 30 volumes (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1968-1970), vol. 27,
41. In subsequent notes, Suzuki's collected works will be abbreviated
SDZ.
5. D.T. Suzuki, Mysticism: Christian and Buddhist, ed. Ruth
NandaAnshen (New York: Harper & Bros., 1957), 116.
 6. The references to Sweden borg listed here are not exhaustive.
There may be citations appearing elsewhere in the SDZ; further-
more, many of Suzuki's works have not been included in the SDZ.
(A more comprehensive bibliography of Suzuki's japanese works has
been compiled by Kirita Kiyohide of Hanazono University, Kyoto,
-
XXXI

N
while an English list has been drawn up by Wayne Yokoyama of T
Otani University, Kyoto). Still, it is unlikely that any substantial R
work on Swedenborg would have gone undetected by scholars. o
7. The present translation is based on the japanese as it appears in D
SDZ, vol. 24, 3-67. U
8. This essay (in japanese, "Suedenborugu: Sono Tenkai to C
Tarikikan") appears in SDZ, vol. 19,634-642, as the last chapter in T
the book Zen: Miscellaneous Essays (in japanese, Zen: Zuihitsu). I
This book was first published in 1927, but the chapter on Sweden- o
borg was originally published in February 1924 in the journal ChU- N
gai Nippo.
9. SDZ, vol. 19, 642.
10. Furuno Kiyoto, "Suzuki Daisetsushi no Profairu" (Profile of
Suzuki Daisetsu), Suzuki Daisetsu Zenshu Geppo (SDZ newsletter),
vol. 7, 1. The Geppo appear at the front of each volume of the SDZ.
11. Nagashima Tatsuya, "Daisetsu T. Suzuki, Internationally
Known Buddhist: Crypto-Swedenborgian?" New Church Life (May
1993),216-217.
12. Kirita Kiyohide, "Seinen Suzuki Teitaro Daisetsu no
Shakaikan" ("Young D.T. Suzuki's Views on Society"), Zengaku
Kenkyu 72 (Jan. 10, 1994): 21.
13. Suzuki, "Some Aspects of Zen Buddhism," The Eastern Bud-
dhist 1, no. 5 (May 1922): 341-342.
14. Furuno also makes this point about the popularity of Sweden-
borg. See Furuno, 1.
15. Robert H. Sharf, "The Zen of japanese Nationalism," History
of Religions 33 (Aug. 1993): 13-16.
16. Transactions of the International Swedenborg Congress, Held
in Connection with the Celebration of the Sweden borg Society'S
Centenary, London College, July 4-8, 1910, 2d ed. London: The
Swedenborg Society, 1911. A photo of Suzuki, with the title of "vice-
president" underneath, faces p. 352 of the Transactions. A
 -
XXXll full-length view of this photograph is reproduced as the frontispiece
of the present volume.
17. SDZ, vol. 24, 3.
I
18. Ibid., 11.
N 19. Thomas Rimer, ed., Culture and Identity: Japanese Intellectu-
T als during the Interwar Years (Princeton: Princeton University Press,
R 1990).
o 20. In 1868, a group of rebel samurai completed the overthrow of
D the Tokugawa Shogunate (1600-1868) and installed the Meiji Em-
U peror, who reigned until his death in 1912.
C 21. Donald Roden, Schooldays in Imperial Japan (Berkeley, CA:
T University of California Press, 1980), 160-161.
I 22. Ibid., 166.
o 23. Carol Gluck, Japan's Modern Myths: Ideology in the Late
N Mei;i Period (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985),271.
24. Pursued vigorously after the end of the Russo-Japanese War in
1905, the policy of isson issha (one village, one shrine) translated
into the merger and abolition of tens of thousands of shrines. This
strategy to reorient people's affiliations and practices caused great
anxiety and was implemented despite protest from those priests and
parishioners whose traditional independence was at stake. But by
the time Suzuki wrote Suedenborugu in 1913, the state's redistribu-
tion of Shinto shrines was a fait accompli. See Helen Hardacre,
Shinto and the State: 1868-1988 (Princeton: Princeton University
Press, 1989),38; 98.
25. H.D. Harootunian, "Introduction: A Sense of an Ending and
the Problem of Taisho," in Japan in Crisis: Essays On Taisho
Democracy, ed. Bernard S. Silberman and H. D. Harootunian
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1974), 15-18.
26. Roden, 211.
27. For an in-depth discussion of the varieties of individualism at
this time, see Sharon Hamilton Nolte, "Individualism in Taisho
Japan," Journal of Asian Studies (Aug. 1984): 667-684.
28. Matsuo Takayoshi, "A Note on the Political Thought of Nat-
sume Soseki in His Later Years," Japan in Crisis, 69.
29. Kirita Kiyohide, "D.T. Suzuki on Society and the State," in
Rude Awakenings: Zen, the Kyoto School, and the Question of Na-
tionalism, ed. James Heisig and John C. Maraldo (Honolulu, HI:
University of Hawaii Press, 1995),57-58.
30. "Most of you are children of the nobility. You form a special
class in Japan and receive privileged treatment from the imperial
family. You must remember that wherever special favor is shown,
-
XXX111

N
special responsibility is also demanded.... Natural ability means T
not claiming for your own that which does not belong to you and R
not entrusting yourself to good fortune. It is, in a sense, individual- o
ism. The only way to develop your natural abilities is to make full D
use of your independence and freedom .... " Ibid., 57. U
31. Ibid. C
32. Harootunian, 10. T
33. SDZ, vol. 24, 11. I
34. SDZ, vol. 24, 50. o
35. SDZ, vol. 24, 8. Italics are mine. N
36. SDZ, vol. 24, 21.
37. SDZ, vol. 24, 28. Italics are mine.
38. SDZ, vol. 24, 38.
39. SDZ, vol. 24, 11-12. Italics are mine.
40. D.T. Suzuki, Essays in Zen Buddhism: First Series (New York:
Grove Weidenfeld, 1949),29. This passage appears in the introduc-
tion to the Essays, which were first published in 1927. A footnote
says that this introduction was originally written as "one of the pop-
ular lectures prepared by the author for students of Buddhism,
1911."
41. D.T. Suzuki, Zen Buddhism and Its Influence on Japanese
Culture (Kyoto, Japan: The Eastern Buddhist Society, 1938),21.
42. Ibid., 36.
43. Sharf, 25-29.
44. Kirita, "D.T. Suzuki on Society and the State," 60-61.
45. Ibid., 62. Differing perspectives on the relationship between
nationalism and Zen Buddhist thinkers like Suzuki are presented in
Rude Awakenings.
46. Adherents of Pure Land Buddhism aim for salvation in Amida
Buddha's Pure Land, a paradise where all sentient beings can attain
enlightenment. While he was still a bodhisattva, or a being on the
path to buddhahood, Amida made the following vow: "If, after
 -
XXXIV

I
N
I have attained buddhahood, sentient beings in the ten directions
who have sincere minds, serene faith, and a desire to be born in my
country, should not be born there even with ten nenbutsu recitations
[Namu Amida Butsu, 'Homage to Amida Buddha'], may I not attain
perfect enlightenment.... " From Hisao Inagaki, A Dictionary of
T Japanese Buddhist Terms (Union City, CA: Heian International,
R 1989),109.
o 47. In Japanese, "Jiriki to Tariki," "Zen to Nenbutsu," and
D "Koan Zen to Nenbutsu Zen." Jiriki denotes the ability to save one-
U self, while tariki, in contrast, refers to the saving power of a Buddha
C or bodhisattva. Zen meditation is typically associated with the for-
T mer, and the Pure Land practice of calling Amida Buddha's name
I (nenbutsu) with the latter. A koan is a question, dialogue, or story,
o frequently paradoxical, that is used by Zen practitioners as an object
N
of meditation.
48. SDZ, vol 19, 524.
 P
A
R
T

o
N
E

Swedenborg
A Translation of Suedenborugu
D. T. Suzuki. 1958
 Preface to Suedenborugu

Revolutionary in theology, traveler of heaven and hell, cham-

pion of the spiritual world, king of the mystical realm, clair-
voyant unique in history, scholar of incomparable vigor, sci-
entist of penetrating intellect, gentleman free of worldly taint:
all of these combined into one make Sweden borg. Now, in
Japan, the field of religious thought is finally reaching a state
of crisis. Those who wish to cultivate their spirit, those who
bemoan the times, must absolutely know of this person. This
is the reason for this book.

October 1913 1
 CHAPTER I

Introduction

Sweden borg's name is relatively unknown to people in Japan.

When we speak of Martin Luther, John Wesley, George Fox,
and John Calvin, those who are somewhat interested in West-
ern religion probably know their names. However, very few
people know that about 150 years ago there was a Swedish
theologian unique in history. Not only did he make personal
tours of heaven and hell, but he also had audiences with im-
portant personages in heaven and, consulting with them, made
new discoveries in theology, philosophy, and psychology.
Even among those who have heard his name, there are
probably very few who believe that he is relevant to today's
culture and thought. If such people exist, they consider him to
be an extraordinary psychological phenomenon and make
him into a mere piece of data for research. However, those
who study Emanuel Sweden borg in earnest discover that he is
a very interesting subject for investigation from a number of
angles.
First of all, Sweden borg said that he traveled in heaven and
hell and witnessed in detail the actual state of people after
death. His statements are quite sincere. They are free of the
slightest exaggeration and, viewed from the standpoint of
common sense, seem to accord well with the truth. This is the
first reason that Sweden borg is of interest.
-
6 In this world of ours, there seems to be a spiritual realm sep-
arate from that of the five senses; and when we enter a certain
D. psychological state, we apparently can communicate with that
T. realm. Even if we think that the circumstances of this other
realm have no moral connection whatsoever to the mundane
s world, there is plenty that is of interest to science and philoso-
u phy. This is a second reason to examine Swedenborg.
z Sweden borg's theological doctrines greatly resemble those
U of Buddhism. He taught that, having discarded the proprium, 2
K one must act in accordance with the workings of the Divine,
I
that true salvation is the harmonious unification of belief and
action, and that the Divine manifests itself as wisdom and
love. Furthermore, he says that love is greater and more pro-
found than wisdom and that there is nothing great or small
that is beyond the reach of divine providence. There is not a
single thing in the world left to chance, and one can witness
the revelation of divine wisdom and divine love even in the
stroke of a pen, for it is deeply imbued with divine providence.
These sorts of issues attract the interest of religious scholars,
and especially Buddhists. This is the third reason that we
should study Swedenborg.
Just one of the above three points makes Sweden borg a man
worth studying. He also is historically unique. When we con-
sider how difficult it is to find a similar example, we cannot
help but feel that he must not be neglected. The fact that sci-
entific and religious genius marvelously combined to produce
a person of such unfathomable depth makes not only good
material from the viewpoint of psychological research; but be-
cause he was a man of great vitality and distinction who had
escaped the taint of worldliness, his life also serves as a model
for the individual, teaching numerous lessons. There are no
drastic changes in the course of his biography, so there is noth-
ing that especially dazzles us. But his eighty-four years of life
were completely devoted to science and religion, his everyday
existence filled with infinite wonders. He was a man of spirit;
and now, in the twentieth century, we are moved by the force
of his personality. If only for this reason, we should know
-
7

5
W
about his life. E
When we read his works, investigate his biography, and D
look into his thought, we feel as if Swedenborg's person ap- E
pears before our eyes. He is a likable old man, with an aura of N
renunciation flowing from his brow. Even though his physical B
body cannot be disentangled from the troubles of this defiled o
R
world, his mind's eye is always filled with the mysteries of
G
heaven. As he walks through the mist, a wonderful joy seems
to well up and play beneath his feet. If someone asks the old
man about such things as the way of heaven, like a mountain
stream that is never exhausted, he patiently and repeatedly ex-
pounds it. His accounts do not resemble bizarre illusions at
all. He relates them no differently than if they were mundane
events in our world of the five senses. Listeners are shocked,
their minds probably bewildered. Nevertheless, he coolly re-
gards these things as if they were daily fare. This is why it is
not easy to fathom him.
Given his character and teachings, Sweden borg ought to be
known to the world at large. He should be circulated among
us much like his contemporaries Kant and Wesley. However,
there are two main reasons that only a handful of people be-
lieve his words.
One is that his writing is extremely verbose. He repeats the
same things again and again, giving the impression of an old
man teaching a child. Generally, whether or not your name is
passed on to future generations does not depend on the lofti-
ness of your ideas. There are many cases of people's ideas be-
ing passed on, even if they are mediocre, due to their skillful
rhetoric. It is common for people to be inclined to listen to
-
8 someone who is dignified and charismatic, even if what he
says is not particularly clever. The foremost wish of the masses
D. is always to have their senses gratified. So, as they say, the
T. loftier the melody, the fewer the people in harmony. The teach-
ings of Mencius may not be as logically constructed as those of
s Hsiin Tzu, but people are more often pleased by Mencius be-
u cause his writing is elegant, while Hsiin Tzu's is plain and un-
z spectacular. However, Hsiin Tzu's way of reasoning surpasses
U that of Mencius. Viewed only from the standpoint of his logic,
K Hsiin Tzu should be widely read. 3 Swedenborg's case is also
I
like this. If his prose were elegant and eye-catching, he would
be loudly acclaimed by the public.
Secondly, because his statements concern a world that is
separate from our world of the senses, ordinary people find
many of them difficult to believe. This is compounded by the
fact that he speaks of these sorts of things without so much as
lifting an eyebrow, as if they were common fare. He is very
matter-of-fact and does not speak extravagantly, something
that makes readers suspicious. They might doubt whether the
author really had such an experience and ask how it is that the
things he says depart so much from common sense. Judging
from how calmly he speaks about these things, they might
consider him insane and wonder whether they can believe in
the words of a madman.
A third reason is that people think his descriptions too spe-
cific. If they are beyond ordinary understanding, then to enter
into such detail, to explain circumstances in full, gives rise to
doubt. It seems that people like Ralph Waldo Emerson could
not completely devote themselves to Swedenborg because of
this fact. For instance, if Sweden borg had only said that there
is a hell and a heaven, many people would probably believe
him. But he contends that such-and-such a person is currently
in anguish in the scorching heat of hell and that certain fa-
mous historical figures exist in the first level of heaven. Speak-
ing personally with these people and listening to them, he dis-
covered that their opinions had changed greatly since they had
left our world. When he claims such things, readers are
-
9

s
W
shocked, because the descriptions seem all too real. I believe E
that one reason people in this world have not been receptive to D
Swedenborg is that they think that he relates things in too E
much detail. N
In the final analysis, however, such matters are insignificant. B
We should have faith in the whole and not call logical possi- o
R
bilities into doubt. Sweden borg's accounts are consistent and
G
have an air of sincerity and honesty about them. He is by no
means a deceptive person. He relates things only as he has seen
and heard them, without any embellishments. Whether one
believes him or not is another problem, but there is certainly a
valid source for this kind of sincerity that is worth investigat-
ing. Considering that this fact is of special relevance to our
moral and religious life, we must not ignore it.
Looking in particular at the current state of spiritual life in
Japan, it seems that people are tired of the superficiality of our
materialistic, industrial culture but do not know where to
turn. Both the government and the people feel the necessity for
religion, yet no one has adequately investigated how this need
can be met. Of course, institutional religion is linked up to the
nation as a whole; but in one respect, religion is thoroughly
personal, governed by such things as the temperament, taste,
education, and circumstances of the individual. Therefore,
even the state is powerless to enforce religious devotion
against people's will. Furthermore, people's hearts cannot be
won merely through the inertia of tradition. Surely, religion
bears fruit only from within, blooming naturally like a flower.
So in response to the religious thirst in people's hearts, it is
necessary to introduce various creeds and philosophies from
-
10

D.
T.
many places and have people choose according to what speaks
to their individual tendencies. Of course, one does not have to
believe in all of Sweden borg's claims, but one also cannot say
that there are not diamonds in the rough. Jewels, in whichever
world, are jewels. It would be foolish to reject them simply be-
$ cause they come in a strange package.
U I believe that studying Swedenborg in present-day Japan is
Z extremely beneficial, and I will now give my reasons. Count
U
Anders von Hopken, who was prime minister of Sweden dur-
K
ing Sweden borg's lifetime, and knew him for forty-two years,
once sent a letter to a friend, saying:
I have sometimes told the King that, if ever a new colony were
to be formed, no religion could be better, as the prevailing and
established one, than that developed by Sweden borg from the
Sacred Scriptures, and this for the two following reasons: (1)
This religion, in preference to, and in a higher degree than, any
other, must produce the most honest and industrious subjects;
for this religion properly places the worship of God in uses. (2)
It causes least fear of death, as this religion regards death as
merely a transition from one state to another, from a worse to a
better situation; nay, upon his principles, I look upon death as
being of hardly greater moment than drinking a glass of water"

The truth of what Count von Hopken once said is not lost on
anyone today.
During the summer of 1910,s an international conference
was held in London to commemorate the founding of the
Sweden borg Society one hundred years before. I would like to
share here a portion of the inaugural address, which was given
at the opening of the conference by the elected president, Dr.
Edward John Broadfield. The speech was a very evenhanded
account of Sweden borg's character, achievements, and studies:
We are here honouring Sweden borg, probably from different
points of view. There are some who regard him as an illustri-
ous and far-seeing man of science; others who honour him as a 11
luminous and original philosopher; and a still larger number _
who look to him as an enlightened seer and a Heaven-directed $
theologian. But we all agree that he was a many-sided man, W
one of the profoundest students of his century, and, to adopt E
the words of Frederick Denison Maurice, we all recognize him D
as one of the great geniuses of his age. But whether you look at E
Sweden borg as a poet, as a philosopher, as a man of science, or N
as a theologian, you find in his career and in the successive B
ranges of his studies and investigations a remarkable series of 0
well-defined gradations. He advanced from stage to stage, but R
every stage was preparatory to its successor; and those of us G
who consider his Illumination as the starting-point of his
greatest period, recognize in all his previous experience an all-
embracing time of preparation. In thinking of him merely as a
subject of biography, one is reminded of a great mountain ris-
ing from the plain, stately and symmetrical when seen from a
distance, on which, as we approach nearer, we see peak rising
above peak, and so much grandeur hitherto unsuspected that
we find it difficult to make anything like a general survey.
Something like this, I think, all who ever made a systematic
study of the life and works of Sweden borg must have felt. And
the more closely we follow the incidents of his career, the more
confidently may we say that during his eighty years he wore
untarnished the white flower of a blameless life. He was un-
spoiled by fame. The favour of kings and princes never im-
paired his modesty, and the recognition of the splendour of his
achievements never excited his vanity. He never claimed prior-
ity in discovery, though others have often, with perfect justifi-
cation, done this for him; and this modesty was characteristic
of him throughout life. From the first, too, in his studies in sci-
ence and philosophy, he recognized the supreme power of an
all-loving, Infinite Deity, and he never seemed to think that he
had finished his inquiries unless he had discovered from them
something to help his fellow creatures. He strove always, in-
deed, for the practical; and perhaps many here present will be
-
12

D.
T.
surprised to hear of the extent of his powers of invention. The
list of his discoveries, descriptions of which he always wrote
down carefully, is almost unparalleled; and as a man of science
his range of study extended from Mathematics and Physics to
Astronomy, Mineralogy, Chemistry, Metallurgy, Anatomy,
s Physiology, Geology and Natural History. As a philosopher he
u studied all the systems known to his own time; and his own
z contributions to the study of different branches of philosophy
U were both far-reaching and original. Then he was a politician,
K an economist, a practical student of currency and finance, and
I in all these subjects he achieved distinction. 6
 CHAPTER 2

The First Half

of Swedenborg's Life

Emanuel Sweden borg was born in Stockholm, Sweden, on

January 29, 1688, into a family that originally had farmed and
later owned a number of mines. At the time, his father was an
army chaplain. Afterwards, he advanced to become a dean and
then a professor of theology at Uppsala University. Finally, he
was made bishop of Skara. Emanuel was this man's second
child. At that point he was called "Swedberg"; but in 1719,
when Emanuel was 31 years old, Queen Ulrika Eleonora en-
nobled the household and gave it the name "Swedenborg." In
this way, Emanuel was given a seat in the House of Peers and
put in the position of helping to devise national policy. Not
much about Sweden borg's childhood is known, only a letter
that he wrote to a friend in his later years, which reads, in part:

From my fourth to my tenth year my mind was constantly oc-

cupied with thoughts about God, salvation, and the spiritual
affections of man. I often revealed things in my discourse
which filled my parents with astonishment, and made them de-
clare at times that certainly the angels spoke through my
mouth. From my sixth to my twelfth year it was my greatest
delight to converse with the clergy about faith; to whom I of-
ten observed that charity or love is the life of faith, and this
vivifying charity or love is no other than the love of one's
neighbor; that God vouchsafes this faith to everyone, but that
it is adopted only by such as practice that charity.?
-
14 Apparently, Sweden borg had a strong inclination from
childhood toward religion. It goes without saying that he was
D. influenced by his family's instruction; but in view of the fact
T. that the maturity of his statements amazed his parents, he
must have possessed religious genius. When he was eleven
5 years old, he entered Uppsala University and chose to study
U linguistics, mathematics, mining, and natural philosophy. His
Z thesis dealt with the Roman philosopher Seneca, as well as
U [Publilius Syrus] Mimus,8 and he is said to have delivered his
K opinions on ethics with the robust force of a mature adult. At
I
this time, he also translated the twelfth chapter of Ecclesiastes
into Latin, which was published together with his father's
writing. 9 The verses are poetically refined and reveal his mas-
tery of the classics. His later works are written entirely in flu-
ent and clear Latin: there is no instance where one might say
his pen could not keep up with his ideas.
After Sweden borg left the university in 171 0, he studied
abroad for five years. He traveled to England, Holland,
France, and Germany, learning a great deal. Lamenting the
slow progress of mathematics and physics in his homeland, he
proposed to Uppsala University that it was imperative to em-
ploy professors in advanced mathematics, even if that meant
reducing its chairs in theology and history. To put mechanics
into actual practice, he also mastered technologies alongside
watchmakers, tools craftsmen, and lens grinders. Among his
mechanical inventions were an airplane, a submarine, a ma-
chine gun, an air pump, and a self-playing piano. We can see,
therefore, how modern he was. Around this time, he said in a
letter, "I wish 1 had some more of these novelties, aye, a nov-
elty in literary matters for every day in the year, so that the
world might find pleasure in them. There are enough in one
century who plod on in the old beaten track, while there are
scarcely six or ten in a whole century, who are able to gener-
ate novelties which are based upon argument and reason." 10
 -
Sweden borg's spirit at the time certainly made the rest of the 15
world pale in comparison.
His studies abroad were limited to the so-called physical sci- $
ences, consisting entirely of subjects like mathematics and W
physics. But even though it seems as if the religious and liter- E
ary tendencies of his youth were eclipsed, he continued to D
write poetry in Latin, so his taste for literature had apparently E
not dried up and disappeared. Also, if we remember that the N
object of his research was gradually progressing toward ulti- B
mate truth, it is clear that his religious spirit attained increas- o
R
ingly mature stages. 11
G
After returning home, Sweden borg published a journal de-
voted to mathematics, Daedalus Hyperboreus [The Northern
Inventor], under the patronage of King Charles XII, although
publication ceased two years later due to a lack of financing.
In 1718 (when he was 31 years old), Sweden borg published a
book on algebra, the first to be written in Swedish {Regel-kon-
sten farfattad i tijo backer}. Because mathematical studies
were so far behind [in Sweden], he was understandably afraid
that there was no one who could proofread the text.
Before traveling abroad, he had become acquainted with
Christopher Polhem, the great engineer known at the time as
"Sweden's Archimedes." After his return home, he was made
Polhem's assistant by royal decree and appointed assessor ex-
traordinary for the Bureau of Mines. Even though this post
did not come with much of a salary, Sweden borg's genius and
ability were recognized by the king.
Two years later, Charles XII attacked Norway, and Sweden-
borg transported ships a distance of seventeen miles overland
for the king. His writing at this time concerned studies in
mathematics and engineering, for example, "The Manufacture
of Copper Sheets and Their Use," "Tide Levels of Ancient
Times," and "Information on Docks, Canal Locks, and Salt
Works." 12 During the time that Sweden borg, the young and
-
16

D.
T.
able mathematician and engineer, served as Polhem's assistant
and apprentice, he constantly traveled to and from Polhem's
home. He eventually fell in love with Polhem's second oldest
daughter, Emerentia. Although she was still a young girl of 14,
both her father and the king were glad that she should become
s Sweden borg's future wife and gave their consent. However,
u when Emerentia grew older, she did not wish to be engaged to
z Sweden borg. He was in great despair and discouraged that she
U wanted to break off the engagement; but not wishing to make
K his loved one forever distressed because of him, he relin-
I
quished his claim on her. Throughout the rest of his life, he
never thought again of marriage, but single-mindedly pursued
his studies. As a result of this rebuff, he ended up gaining a
lifetime free from encumbrances and came to think of nothing
else but the divine will. It may be, then, that the divine will
was at work from the start.
In 1721, at the age of 33, Swedenborg traveled abroad and
published in Amsterdam a work on chemistry and physics
[Prodromus principiorum rerum naturalium, sive novorum
tentaminum chymian et physicam experimentalem geometrice
explicandiJ. This precursor to his later masterpiece Principia
tried to reduce natural phenomena to a geometrical system.
Beyond that, there were works on mineralogy and astronomy.
Swedenborg went from Holland to Germany, and in 1723, in
both Leipzig and Hamburg, published works on physics and
mineralogy. Each of these works was the result of in-depth re-
search in its field. Sweden borg's main purpose during these
travels was to inspect the mines of different countries, gaining
firsthand insights. All of his travel expenses were paid by
Duke Ludwig Rudolph of Brunswick. After traveling for fif-
teen months, he returned to Sweden.
Upon returning home, Sweden borg immediately published a
work on fluctuations in the Swedish currency. We do not cur-
rendy know about the book's particulars; but judging from the
fact that it was reprinted in Uppsala fifty years after it was first
published, there must have been valuable material in it. \3 It
seems that Sweden borg had an established reputation for his
-
17

$
W
views on monetary debates. E
Swedenborg began fulfilling his duties as assessor of the Bu- D
reau of Mines after his second trip abroad; and for the next E
eleven years, he did a great deal of research into both practical N
applications and scholarship. Throughout this period, Swe- B
den borg's practice and learning increased in brilliance. o
R
During this time, the chair in mathematics at the University
G
of Uppsala was vacant, so Sweden borg was invited to fill it.
But since his main interest was not in pure mathematics, he
declined.
In 1733, in the spring of his 45th year, Sweden borg again
traveled abroad and published Principia in Leipzig, the first
volume of his great work Opera Philosophica et Mineralia
[Philosophical and Mineralogical Works], which consists of
three volumes. This so-called "philosophy" is not what we
mean by the word philosophy today, but is instead the geo-
metric observation of the structure of the universe. According
to Sweden borg's explanation, there exists the infinite; and
from the existence of this free and independent infinite all
things are born. Within the infinite there is pure movement,
which gives rise to a point. From this single point all things
emerge. Broadly speaking, there is a force that creates move-
ment within the single body of the infinite, and the endless va-
riety created by this force is our universe. The form of this
movement is always twisted in a spiral. Sweden borg applies
this principle to the phenomenon of magnetism and then ex-
plains the process of the world's emergence, as well as the or-
ganization of the animal, plant, and mineral kingdoms. We
see, then, that this masterpiece is the result of many years of
-
18

D.
T.
research in the physical sciences. In the field of mineralogy, he
made precise empirical and scientific observations about met-
als such as iron, copper, and brass, thus making a great contri-
bution to the scientific world of his time. Sweden borg's scien-
tific studies were recognized in his lifetime and by later
s generations.
u In 1734, Sweden borg also published a small pamphlet enti-
z tled Outlines of a Philosophical Argument on the Infinite, 14
U which can be regarded as a supplement to the Principia. Due
K
to these works, Swedenborg is now famous throughout Eu-
I
rope; one after another, scholars from different countries look
to his teachings.
For the two years between 1734 and 1736, Sweden borg
stayed in his native land. During that period, he lost his father
and acquired a fair inheritance. Outside of the salary he made
as assessor, this inheritance would henceforth support his trav-
els, writing, and independent lifestyle. In the summer of 1736,
he again went abroad, this time to publish his new works.
During his travels, he kept a diary, and it demonstrates a very
broad scope of observations and interests. This great variety,
all of which is treated with a keen critical eye, ranges from salt
production and metallurgy to military drills. It also includes
the pros and cons of each polity, the aesthetic and moral char-
acter of religious ceremonies, the charms of the opera, archi-
tecture, and works of art.
While abroad, Sweden borg stayed mainly in Germany,
France, and Italy, where he seems to have finished both The
Economy of the Animal Kingdom and his masterpiece The
Animal Kingdom.1.S The general features of these books had
appeared previously in some pamphlets, and drafts had been
published over the course of several years; but Sweden borg's
research during these travels allowed him to complete the fine
points of the books. These two works were published in Hol-
land and London. This was an advance from his previous re-
 -
search into the inorganic world, for his study of the organic 19
world, and particularly the human body, was truly profound.
His thirteen years of study, starting with the Principia and cul- s
minating in the publication of these works, had led Sweden- W
borg to investigate the structure of the human body. From here E
he would advance further, not stopping until he had entered D
the spiritual world. E
These two books were the last that Sweden borg would pub- N
lish concerning worldly life. Even though some works remain B
in draft form, he had no desire to publish anything more; for o
R
soon after, he had his unprecedented encounter with the spiri-
G
tual realm and underwent a complete transformation. Feeling
that his previous philosophical and scientific studies had been
removed from the divine will and unrelated to his true calling,
his attitude completely changed. However, from what I have
seen, there is not a huge, unbreachable gap between Sweden-
borg's so-called worldly career and his spiritual career, since
his earlier thoughts and sentiments show a continuity with his
spiritual life. Of course, there occurred a revolution in his
writing, ideas, concepts, and arguments. Nevertheless, there
were aspects of the past that remained in the background. To
investigate the traces of this connection, we can look at what
Sweden borg wrote in The Animal Kingdom, and see where his
ideas were leading:

I intend to examine, physically and philosophically, the whole

Anatomy of the Body; of all its Viscera, Abdominal and Tho-
racic; of the Genital Members of both sexes; and of the Organs
of the Five Senses. Likewise,
The Anatomy of all parts of the Cerebrum, Cerebellum,
Medulla Oblongata, and Medulla Spinalis.
Afterwards, the cortical substance of the two brains; and the
fibre;'6 and the causes of the forces and motion of the whole or-
ganism: Diseases, moreover; those of the head particularly, or
which proceed by defluxion from the Cerebrum.
-
20 I purpose afterwards to give an introduction to Rational Psy-
chology, consisting of certain new doctrines, through the assis-
D. tance of which we may be conducted, from the material organ-
T. ism of the Body, to a knowledge of the Soul, which is
immaterial: these are, the Doctrine of Forms; the Doctrine of
s Order and Degrees; also, the Doctrine of Series and Society; the
u Doctrine of Influx; the Doctrine of Correspondence and Repre-
z sentation: lastly, the Doctrine of Modification.
U
From these doctrines I come to the Ratiortal Psychology it-
K
self; which will comprise the subjects of action; of external
I
and internal sense; of imagination and memory; also, of the
affections of the animus. Of the intellect, that is, of thought
and of the will; and of the affections of the rational mind:
also, of instinct.
Lastly, of the Soul; and of its state in the Body, its intercourse,
affection, and immortality; and of its state when the body dies.
The work to conclude with a Concordance of Systems.
From this summary or plan, the reader may see, that the end
I propose to myself in the work, is a knowledge of the soul;
since this knowledge will constitute the crown of my stud-
ies.... In order, therefore, to follow up the investigation, and
to solve the difficulty, I have chosen to approach by the ana-
lytic way; and I think I am the first who has taken this course
professedly....
In olden time, before any racer could merit the crown, he
was commanded to run seven times round the goal, which also
I have determined here to do ....
Thus I hope, that by bending my course inwards continually,
I shall open all the doors that lead to the soul, and enter di-
rectly within: by the divine permission. 17

Thus we can see that there was not a complete division be-
tween the spiritual life of Sweden borg's later years and the in-
tellectuallife of his earlier years. In 1744, when he turned 56,
he had an unprecedented spiritual experience and embarked
on a new life. It is not that this life had no connection to the
past. In one sense, it should be viewed as nothing more than
an extension of that previous life. Granted, his so-called "con-
templation of the Divine" may have differed from what he had
-
21

$
W
anticipated; but that is inconsequential from the perspective of E
his entire life's development. D
Sweden borg tried looking into the life of the Divine from in- E
tellectual and analytical angles. At first, he made a careful N
study of chemistry, physics, and engineering; continuing from B
there, he entered into biological and anatomical research. At o
R
this point, using all of his theoretical genius, he tried to pene-
G
trate the mystery of the Divine, but he was not fully satisfied.
As a result of meditation and esoteric practice, his mind's eye
gradually grew clearer, and he apparently gained the won-
drous ability to enter and leave the realm of the Divine at will.
Swedenborg himself considered his experience a result of
God's grace; and his adherents similarly believe that, due to
this experience, Swedenborg was favored by God. But even
though [Swedenborg's proponents] think that no technology
or science can give rise to such an experience, I privately feel
that this is not necessarily so.
Sweden borg wrote one book during the transition from his
intellectual to his spiritual career. Called The Worship and
Love of God, it was published in London in 1745. 18 In this
book, he discarded the mathematical format of the earlier
Principia and discussed the creation of the universe in artistic
and physical terms. For Swedenborg, God was a wellspring of
the sciences, and he considered the traces of wisdom and inge-
nuity appearing in the universe to derive from the divine
power's foresight and salvation. 19 Sweden borg's thoughts and
sentiments clearly took on more and more of a religious color;
and when he underwent his transformation, he immediately
wished to activate the religious aspect of his character. Never,
-
22 in the spiritual life of his latter years, was anything accom-
plished by chance. Gradually, he grew in stages, as naturally as
D. a tree sprouts buds, puts forth leaves, blooms with flowers,
T. and bears fruit. Of course, the outcome of his growth differed
greatly from what he had first expected, but it can still be con-
$ sidered a natural maturation.
U Sweden borg's spiritual encounters seem to have begun in
Z 1744, when he was 56. At that point, he was a genius who had
U excelled as a scientist. In regard to mining, mathematics, engi-
K
neering, crystallography, astronomy, etc., he did not merely re-
I
iterate the theories of those who had preceded him. Even in
such fields as anatomy, psychology, and philosophy, he ad-
vanced views that challenged those of his contemporaries, and
he anticipated many theories of our own age. Today, eminent
scholars in various fields recognize his contributions, and fur-
ther comment on my part would be superfluous. But more im-
portantly, it was in the latter part of his life that Sweden borg
realized his true nature, establishing his special and enduring
position in the religious world and providing unprecedented
research topics for psychology. Entering into this life in one
stroke, he dismissed his scientific ambitions and entirely gave
up his previous intellectual plans. With all of his talent and
spiritual strength, he devoted himself to his new career. Again,
this is the main subject of this book. If it had not been for the
life of his latter years, Sweden borg would have been admired
in future generations only by eminent scientists. Heaven's will
is always beyond people's ken, and nothing is settled until the
coffin is shut.
 CHAPTER 3

The Second Half

of Swedenborg's Life

Sweden borg's spiritual experiences did not begin suddenly but

came gradually. It was not as if he were thrust one day into his
new life. His encounters accumulated one after the other, fi-
nally giving rise to the determination to abandon his former
intellectual life. Until then, he was, of course, filled with con-
siderable anguish and struggle. At any rate, one of his first en-
counters occurred in 1745. He was in London, at the height of
his mental engagement with various metaphysical works,
when one evening, as always, he sat down to dinner. Taking
now from what Swedenborg himself [purportedly] said:

I was hungry, and ate with a good appetite. Towards the close
of the meal I noticed a sort of dimness before my eyes ... and
I then saw the floor covered with the most horrid crawling rep-
tiles, such as snakes, frogs, and similar creatures. . . . At last
the darkness increased still more; but it disappeared all at
once, and I then saw a man sitting in a corner of the room; as I
was then alone, I was very much frightened at his words, for
he said: "Eat not so much." All became black again before my
eyes, but immediately it cleared away, and I found myself
alone in the room.
Such an unexpected terror hastened my return home; I did
not let the landlord notice anything; but I considered well what
had happened, and could not look upon it as a mere matter of
chance, or as if it had been produced by a physical cause.
-
24

D.
T.
I went home; during the night, the same man revealed him-
self to me again, but I was not frightened now. He then said
that he was the Lord God, the Creator of the world, and the
Redeemer, and that He had chosen me to explain to men the
spiritual sense of the Scripture, and that He Himself would ex-
s plain to me what I should write on this subject; that same night
u also were opened to me, so that I became thoroughly con-
z vinced of their reality, the worlds of spirits, heaven, and hell,
U and I recognized there many acquaintances of every condition
K in life. From that day I gave up the study of all worldly science,
and laboured in spiritual things, according as the Lord had
commanded me to write. Afterwards the Lord daily opened
my soul's eyes, so that in the middle of the day I could see into
the other world, and in a state of perfect wakefulness converse
with angels and spirits.2o

Sweden borg related the above narrative to his friend Carl

Robsahm. Judging from this [report], it seems that he was pre-
pared to discard his intellectual life without any trouble. But
then again, according to other records, after having these sorts
of experiences, he would be distressed day and night for quite
some time.
Sweden borg possessed scientific genius and learning to such
a degree that he eclipsed the rest of his generation. After en-
joying extraordinary success in the field of science, he contin-
ued to be burdened with the expectations of others. Then, sud-
denly, he discarded his achievements and did not look back.
Not depending on his own efforts or intellect, he would be-
come an instrument of God's revelation. Today we can only
imagine how much turmoil and anguish was in Swedenborg's
heart.
For example, it is similar to a Buddhist who believes in self-
power turning around and becoming a believer in other-
power. Belief in other-power seems easy, but its austerities are
no different from those entailed by relying on self-power. 21
Those who spend their lives in religious practice know this
fact from personal experience. In April of 1744, during Easter
week, Sweden borg went to church. 22 While in line for com-
-
25

$
W
munion, he heard the hymn "Jesus is my best of friends."23 E
Returning home afterwards, the bud of his heart opened, and D
he perceived its green color. That night, he felt a peace of E
boundless purity. Feeling just as if he had risen into heaven, he N
cried out, "To the Highest be praise, honor and glory! ... B
Holy, holy, Lord God Zebaoth!"24 He also said, "God's will o
R
be done; I am Thine and not mine. God give His grace for this
G
[work]; for it is not mine."25
In this manner, Sweden borg leapt away in one bound from
his former scholarly concerns; and from this point until his
death, he spent all twenty-eight years realizing the word of
God. Sweden borg's spiritual activity in these twenty-eight years
was so impressive that it would have surprised him [if he had
known what was to comeJ when he was still in his prime of life.
Like other religious reformers, Sweden borg did not work on
a practical level but poured his efforts entirely into his writing.
In other words, seeing with his spiritual eye the structure, con-
tents, and activities of heaven and hell and the conditions in
which the angels, spirits, and devils of these regions existed, he
worked assiduously to transmit to people as much as the di-
vine will would allow. He believed without doubt that he was
a spiritual instrument for the fulfillment of God's commands,
so he was diligent in his work and did not weary of his labors
in the slightest. After receiving his mission, he continued for a
while to fulfill his duties under the king of Sweden as assessor
of the Bureau of Mines and a member of the House of Peers.
But in pursuing both his old and new life, his heart was split in
two. So, in 1747, when he was 59 years old, he resigned from
his thirty years of service to the king in the Bureau of Mines.
-
26

D.
T.
Holding his service in high regard, the king tried to promote
him in rank, but he adamantly declined. The king still gave
him half of his yearly salary after retirement. Sweden borg
said, "There is no other reason for my resignation now than to
newly exhaust all my strength in fulfilling a mission received
s from the Lord. When I retired from my post, the king told me
u of his intention to promote me in rank, but fearing the extent
z of my egotistical mind, I could not accept this. "26
U Sweden borg's first masterpiece, after embarking upon his
K
spiritual career, was the great work Arcana Coeiestia, a record
I
of heavenly mysteries transmitted from God, as well as his
own observations. Publishing the first volume in London in
1749, he completed the work in 1756. It consists of eight, large
quarto volumes with 10,837 sections. 27 Containing about ten
million words, and leaving nothing out, it delves in minute de-
tail into the spiritual meaning of the first two books of the Old
Testament, Genesis and Exodus. Throughout his commentary,
Sweden borg unreservedly praises the learning, aspirations, be-
liefs, and people depicted therein. John Lewis published these
mysterious volumes and was instructed by Sweden borg to
keep the author's name a strict secret. According to the pub-
lisher, it took a whole year for Sweden borg to write the first
volume. With hard work and diligence, Sweden borg produced
more and more manuscripts, and upon publication, paid £200
out of his own pocket. When the second volume was issued, he
again paid £200 to cover the bookseller's expenses. However,
he did not take one penny of the profits for himself; all of it
was donated to an association to propagate the Bible. Inciden-
tally, all of Sweden borg's philosophical and religious works
were written in Latin.
One thing that should be noted here is that, despite produc-
ing such a tremendous work, Sweden borg continued to fulfill
his duties as a member of the House of Peers by voicing, with-
out any hesitation, his commanding views on Sweden's public
finances and administration. These opInIons were not the
vague, fanciful, and abstract statements commonly made by
scholars and religious thinkers. His concrete plans always cut
to the heart of the evils of his day.
-
27

5
W
After publishing this great work [Arcana Coeiestiaj, Sweden- E
borg spent fifteen years-starting in 1756, when he was 68 D
years old-successively publishing his writings as if following a E
grand scheme. In 1758 Heaven and Hell appeared. This is a N
record of Sweden borg's firsthand encounters in heaven and hell B
and tells of such things as the structure, management, disposi- o
R
tion, and population of these realms (originally published in
G
London, 272 pages in quarto). The Japanese version of this
book was published in 1910. 28 Those who want to know
about Sweden borg's views on religion and spirituality must cer-
tainly read it. The Japanese translation is in small type and is a
bulky volume of over 500 pages. It is written in a fairly inac-
cessible style, but thoughtful people will gain insights from
reading through it. After giving its profound philosophy a care-
ful reading, one naturally finds certain points agreeable, even
though the work is initially intimidating. Those who seek the
Way require perseverance. 29 I present the table of contents to
allow a glimpse of the book's general features:

Heaven
Preface
The God of Heaven Is the Lord
It Is the Divine of the Lord That Makes Heaven
In Heaven the Divine of the Lord Is Love to Him and Charity
toward the Neighbor
Heaven Is Divided into Two Kingdoms
There Are Three Heavens
The Heavens Consist of Innumerable Societies
Each Society Is a Heaven in a Smaller Form, and Each Angel
in the Smallest Form
All Heaven in the Aggregate Reflects a Single Man
-
28

D.
T.
Each Society in Heaven Reflects a Single Man
Therefore Every Angel Is in a Complete Human Form
It Is from the Lord's Divine Human That Heaven as a Whole
and in Part Reflects Man
There Is a Correspondence of All Things of Heaven with All
$ Things of Man
u There Is a Correspondence of Heaven with All Things of the
z Earth
U
The Sun in Heaven
K Light and Heat in Heaven
I
The Four Quarters in Heaven
Changes of State of the Angels in Heaven
Time in Heaven
Representatives and Appearances in Heaven
The Garments with Which Angels Appear Clothed
The Places of Abode and Dwellings of Angels
Space in Heaven
The Form of Heaven That Determines Affiliations and Com-
munications There
Governments in Heaven
Divine Worship in Heaven
The Power of the Angels of Heaven
The Speech of Angels
The Speech of Angels with Man
Writings in Heaven
The Wisdom of the Angels of Heaven
The State of Innocence of Angels in Heaven
The State of Peace in Heaven
The Conjunction of Heaven with the Human Race
Conjunction of Heaven with Man by Means of the Word
Heaven and Hell Are from the Human Race
The Heathen, or Peoples outside of the Church, in Heaven
Little Children in Heaven
The Wise and the Simple in Heaven
The Rich and the Poor in Heaven
Marriages in Heaven
The Occupations of Angels in Heaven 29
Heavenly Joy and Happiness
The Immensity of Heaven -
s
w
The World of Spirits and Man's State After Death E
What the World of Spirits Is D
In Respect To His Interiors Every Man Is a Spirit E
The Resuscitation of Man from the Dead and His Entrance N
into Eternal Life B
Man after Death Is in a Complete Human Form 0
After Death Man Is Possessed of Every Sense, and of All the R
Memory, Thought, and Affection, That He Had in the G
World, Leaving Nothing Behind except His Earthly Body
Man after Death Is Such as His Life Had Been in the World
The Delights of Everyone's Life Are Changed after Death into
Things That Correspond
The First State of Man after Death
The Second State of Man after Death
Third State of Man after Death, Which Is a State of Instruc-
tion for Those Who Enter Heaven
No One Enters Heaven by Mercy Apart from Means
It Is Not So Difficult to Live the Life That Leads To Heaven as
Is Believed

Hell
The Lord Rules the Hells
The Lord Casts No One into Hell; this Is Done by the Spirit
All Who Are in Hell Are in Evils and Related Falsities Derived
from the Loves of Self and the World
What Hell Fire Is, and What the Gnashing of Teeth Is
The Malice and Heinous Artifices of Infernal Spirits
The Appearance, Situation, and Number of the Hells
The Equilibrium between Heaven and Hell
By Means of the Equilibrium between Heaven and Hell Man Is
in Freedom 30
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30

D.
T.
This list gives a picture of the kind of book Heaven and Hell
is. To all appearances, it seems rather absurd; but those who
have the enthusiasm, fortitude, and courage to give it a careful
reading will eventually be rewarded. A sampling of Sweden-
borg's writings is included at the end of this book, giving the
s reader a fair understanding of his work. Here I would like to
u cite one passage: a timeless maxim pronounced by Sweden-
z borg in Heaven and Hell, which says, "Will, namely love,
U makes the man" (Voluntas aut amor sit ipse homo). A synop-
K sis of paragraph 474 provides an explanation: 3!
I
[I]t is the will that makes the man, while thought makes the
man only so far as it goes forth from the will ... or what is the
same, it is love that makes the man, and faith only so far as it
goes forth from love. Consequently, the will or love is the man
himself.... It is not faith, but mere knowledge, which has no
spiritual life in it. Even though false love may give the appear-
ance of life, it is actually spiritual death, not life. 12

The Last Judgment and the Destruction of Babylon shows

how all the prophecies of the book of Revelation in the New
Testament were realized in Sweden borg's life (originally pub-
lished in London, 55 pages in quarto).33 The commentary on
the White Horse [De Equo Albo] is an excerpt from the Ar-
cana Coelestia. It deals with the "white horse" of Revelation
19, minutely explaining the text and its spiritual significance
(originally published in London, 23 pages in quarto). Earths
in Our Solar System describes the conditions of various
worlds, and the people, spirits, and angels who dwell in them
(originally published in London, 72 pages in quarto);14
The New Jerusalem and Its Heavenly Doctrine contains
Sweden borg's views on theology. Considered to have been dis-
covered by him in heaven, these are the articles of belief in-
forming the Swedenborgian church. The book interprets refer-
ences to a new Jerusalem and a new heaven and earth at the
beginning of Revelation 21 (originally published in London,
156 pages in quarto).3S
This book will also appear in Japanese in the not-too-dis-
tant future. Those who wish to know the general themes of
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31

s
W
Sweden borg's theology need to read it. These themes are: E
Good and Truth; Will and Understanding; Externals and In- D
ternals; Love in general; Loves of Self and the World; Love and E
Charity toward the Neighbor; Faith; Devotion; Conscience; N
Freedom; Merit; Repentance and Remission of Sins; Regener- B
ation; Temptation; Baptism; Communion; the Resurrection; o
R
Heaven and Hell; the Church; the Sacred Scripture, or the
G
Word; Divine Providence; the Lord; and the Governance of
Church and Society. This book contains extremely brief expla-
nations of the subjects listed above.
In 1763 (when Sweden borg was 75 years old), Divine Love
and Wisdom was issued. 16 As both a philosophical and theo-
logical work, it differs from the descriptive works written ear-
lier. It first states that the Divine consists of love and wisdom
and, using this as a foundation, establishes the main points of
Swedenborg's theology. Because this book is extremely impor-
tant in studying Sweden borg, I will give a summary of it here.
The entire book is composed of five chapters, which are fur-
ther subdivided into 422 sections. A quarto volume of 151
pages in length, it was published in Amsterdam. On the first
page, Sweden borg teaches that human life is love and that this
love is no different from God. Therefore, God is human life,
and people are the recipients of this life. Also, there is a dis-
tinction in the Divine between Esse (being) and Existere
(form). These are two, yet they are one. Love is being, wisdom
is form, and love depends on wisdom as wisdom depends on
love. The Divine is a combination of these. The Divine mani-
fests itself in the spiritual world as a sun, whose heat is love
and whose light is wisdom. The sun of our world depends on
this spiritual sun. Receiving its living heat and living light, the
-
32

D.
T.
natural sun gives rise to all creation and makes it flourish. The
purpose of the creation of the universe is to return all things to
their origin in the Lord of creation, or the Divine, and thus es-
tablish a correspondence and conjunction between them.
The third chapter is an analysis of degrees, Sweden borg's
s unique philosophy by which he explains the order of creation
u and the progress of the spirit. At once simultaneous and suc-
z cessive, discrete and continuous, the degrees of length and
U breadth are each divided into three parts. In making sense of
K
Sweden borg's theology, it is necessary to understand his analy-
I
sis of degrees. Next, he discusses the rationality and freedom
of the human mind, saying that evil results from damage to
these two forces.
In the fourth chapter, he teaches that the eternal God cre-
ated the universe and all things within it from himself, and not
from nothing. 37 He says that the true purpose of creation is
the realization of "uses" for each of its manifold forms and
concludes that uses progressively turn into the forms of cre-
ation. Within Swedenborg's philosophy of use are many points
that deserve close attention.
The fifth chapter is on psychology. According to Sweden-
borg, the human mind derives from will and understanding.
The will receives the divine love and understanding receives
the divine wisdom, both of them forming human life. Life, in
its first principles, is in the brain and, in its derivatives, in the
body. From these first principles, life is transmitted into its de-
rivatives; and from these derivatives, life is gathered into the
first principles. Therefore, it is the nature of our love that de-
termines the character of our understanding and personality.
In short, love makes the man. When, based on the principle of
correspondence, the relationship between wisdom and love is
applied to the body, the will becomes the heart and the under-
standing, the lungs. The operation of the body by the lungs
and heart is like the dependence of the human mind on will
and understanding (in regard to this, Sweden borg gives an

-
33
analysis of breath, fo'r there seems to be a close relationship
between the regulation of the breath and the activity of the s
spirit. Please consult his own discussion of his experiments).38 W
His explanation of the relationship of both is extremely thor- E
ough, extending finally to the relation between faith and char- D
ity. The publication of this book in Japanese is not far off. E
In the same year that Divine Love and Wisdom was pub- N
lished, or 1763, the new Swedenborgian teachings were pub- B
lished in four separate books on the themes of "the Lord," o
R
"the Sacred Scripture," "Life," and "Faith" (published in Am-
G
sterdam in quarto, these four books combined come to 177
pages).39 In 1764, when Sweden borg was 76 years old, Divine
Providence appeared. This work is another philosophical ex-
planation of his theology and is of the same importance as the
earlier Divine Love and Wisdom. It was published in Amster-
dam (quarto volume containing 214 pages divided into 18
chapters, with 340 subheadings).4o
The major theme of Divine Providence is that the purpose
of the universe, which is governed by a divine providence
based on divine love and divine wisdom, is to establish a
heaven from human beings. In discussing the laws of divine
providence, Swedenborg includes an argument on free will,
saying that providence causes people to act of their free will,
according to the faculty of reason. Therefore, from a human
standpoint, it seems we lack restraint, that we are unregulated,
without impetus. On our own, evil is eliminated and good en-
couraged. We feel as if there is nothing that does not depend
on our own faculties. But, in fact, this is not to say that noth-
ing depends on the power of the Divine, only that the extent of
divine providence is thereby unknown to people. Divine prov-
idence does not seek to restrain the human mind from with-
out, for again, it does not wish anyone to be conscious of its
influence. However, God asks that we humans seek out the
-
34

D.
T.
truth of the divine providence. This truth is universal, there
being no place where it does not reach. Therefore, it is not
subject to human calculations, and no matter what the roll of
the die, everything completely derives from divine providence,
which extends through eternity, determining everything before
s it happens. However, people are not able to know this. The
u mysterious workings of providence are not perceived by ordi-
z nary folk. All that people can do is to exhaust their faculty of
U reason and to exercise the power of their freedom, entrusting
K what remains to the workings of heaven. In this way, Sweden-
I
borg tried to skillfully harmonize the arguments for predesti-
nation and free will.
Sweden borg next discusses in this book the relationship be-
tween understanding and will, saying that things that enter
only into the understanding and not the will are like froth on
water. Because they stop at the surface of one's mind and do
not penetrate its core, they do not result in outward action. No
matter how much someone's understanding advances, when it
is not accompanied by feeling, it will hinder that person's spir-
itual progress. Therefore, people must first purify their feelings
and seek out those things in the will that are good.
Next, Swedenborg explains the reason there is evil and
falsehood in the world. This section resembles the Buddhist
teaching of expedient means.41 That is, it is divine providence
that allows evil and falsehood to strut about temporarily in or-
der that they may be overcome by good and truth. This is not
to say that providence does not manifest itself in both good
and evil people. Divine providence is continually inviting peo-
ple to enter heaven. People are free to respond to this and do
good and are also free not to respond and do evil. Evil use of
this freedom results from attachment to the self (proprium).42
Each person has the predisposition and capacity to be saved;
and not being saved, or falling from grace, comes from not
saving oneself. The road to salvation entails recognizing vari-
ous evils as sins against divine providence and shunning them.
Therefore, doing an evil act again and again after recognizing
it as evil is an offense against providence. It is not enough to
say that you have committed an evil; you must perceive its
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35

5
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greater religious significance and avoid it to the best of your E
ability while tending only toward good. This is the quickest D
route to salvation. Salvation comes gradually; it is not imme- E
diately actualized through the direct grace of God, for this is N
contrary to divine providence. By faith alone salvation is im- B
possible; we must acknowledge that not until charity and love o
R
are added is the fruit of salvation born. Passing through a life-
G
time committing sins, even if you say on your deathbed, "I beg
you, God, save me," this will not in one stroke wash clean the
stain of the previous years. From the start, it is crucial to have
a penitent heart and, recognizing one's sins, to accumulate
good deeds as befit love and wisdom. In this way, a peaceful
death is attained. These are the main features of Divine Provi-
dence. This book will probably be published [in Japanese] af-
ter Divine Love and Wisdom has already come out, and Swe-
den borg scholars will certainly need to read it.
Apocalypse Revealed {Apocalypsis RevelataJ was issued in
1766, when Swedenborg reached the age of 78. In this work,
he unveiled the secret meaning of the book of Revelation,
which has traditionally been attributed to John. Describing
things that he experienced in a spiritual vision, his statements
are extremely fantastic and shifting, and perplex the reader as
to their meaning. Sweden borg considered this work, that is, its
spiritual meaning, to have been transmitted by angels (pub-
lished in Amsterdam, 629 pages in quarto).
In 1768, the book Conjugial Love appeared. 43 Swedenborg
was 80 at the time. This work expounds on both purity and
impurity in love between the sexes. That which is pure arises
from heartfelt love and binds the two sexes, harmonizing the
husband's intelligence and the wife's affection. That which is
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36

D.
T.
impure manifests itself as mere external union and is perverse.
This book is divided into two parts containing 535 sections
(published in Amsterdam, 328 pages in quarto).
A Brief Exposition of the Doctrine of the New Church
[Summaria Expositio Doctrinae Novae Ecclesiaej was pub-
5 lished in 1769. It relates in simple terms the doctrine of the
U new church advocated by Swedenborg and clarifies the mean-
Z ing of the "new Jerusalem" in Revelation (published in Ams-
U terdam, 67 pages in quarto). In the same year, a small pam-
K phlet called The Interaction of the Soul and the Body was
I
issued in London. 44
In 1771, when he was 83 years old, Sweden borg published
his last work, True Christian Religion [Vera Christiana Reli-
gioj, in which he systematically explains his theology. First dis-
cussing absolute reality, he goes on to speak of the Savior's
teachings and follows this with fourteen chapters: the Holy
Spirit, the Trinity, the Sacred Scripture, the Exoteric and Eso-
teric Significance of the Ten Commandments, Faith, Love,
Free Will, Repentance, Reformation, Regeneration, Remission
of Sins, Baptism, Communion, the End of the Church, the
Lord's Coming, the New Heaven, and the New Church. This
huge book consists of 851 sections.
True Christian Religion was the last work that Sweden borg
published. On March 29 (a Sunday) of the following year,
1772, he announced in a London boarding house the termina-
tion of his life in this world. He was 84 years old. Besides his
published books, Swedenborg left a number of manuscripts.
For example, he preserved the details of his spiritual encoun-
ters in his Spiritual Diary, extending from 1747 to [1765].45
From the publication of Apocalypse Revealed in 1766, he
mentioned his experiences as "articles to be remembered" in
each of his works. They had all been previously collected into
the Spiritual Diary; however, a great many are not available to
the general reader.46 These manuscripts have been photolitho-
graphed one by one, and exist in the original text (in Latin).
The manuscripts are folded into two and the characters are
very small; they are orderly and exquisite to behold. An old
man in his seventies and eighties, every day ardently at work
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37

s
W
on his writing, leaving his country for Holland and England to E
get it published, not knowing a day's peace: when today's lazy D
scholars think of this, they feel like crawling into a hole. E
There was apparently a very strong bond between Sweden- N
borg and England,47 one not limited to the two or three visits B
he made to England to study abroad and publish, for it seems o
R
that he actually came to London with the intention of depart-
G
ing from this world. He made his final crossing to England in
the summer of 1771, after he had published True Christian
Religion in Amsterdam; and in March of the following year,
he abandoned his earthly body in a London boarding house.
He knew of his death beforehand, informing the proprietress
and maid. They said that, in watching the approach of his
death, Sweden borg was as delighted as a child who was going
off to a festival or out to play. During his lifetime, this old man
of 84 years had already witnessed conditions in the other
world. He had a personal and thorough knowledge of where
he would go. So, knowing that he would at last enter this re-
gion, why should he not be pleased?
His body was buried in London in a cemetery affiliated with
the Swedish church; but in 1908 (the same time that I was in
England), after 136 years had elapsed, the king of Sweden en-
dorsed the National Academy'S wish to have Swedenborg's
body moved back to his homeland. It was transported by the
Swedish navy and reburied at the Cathedral in Uppsala. In or-
der to memorialize him, [the Swedish] Parliament erected a
marble sarcophagus. The nation's great figures are buried at
Uppsala Cathedral, which can be compared with England's
Westminster Abbey.
 CHAPTER 4

A Singular Spiritual Vision

In contemporary Japan, there has been a lot of commotion

surrounding psychological research into clairvoyance and
clairvoyants. Should we not say that someone like Sweden-
borg provides excellent material for this research? Making
personal circuits of heaven and hell, he discussed their organi-
zation in tangible terms, including descriptions of angels, spir-
its, devils, and other residents dwelling there. This alone,
viewed from the standpoint of psychology, makes him a figure
requiring thorough investigation. In addition, he presents
other questions concerning religion and philosophy. His clair-
voyant abilities and his power to view the past would be par-
ticularly good research topics for psychologists. Sweden borg
could have used his spiritual powers to gain fame and fortune,
had he so desired. There appears to be evidence, difficult to
disprove, that he truly had this kind of mysterious, spiritual
communication. However, in fulfilling his noble life's work, he
did not display to others such coarse abilities. Even though
people came and asked him to demonstrate his powers, he did
not readily acquiesce, saying that a rapport with the realm of
the dead could be granted only by the Lord God. He said that,
unless it were an emergency, he could not enter a [spiritual] ex-
change. Since it was the existence of divine providence, in its
profundity, that discriminated the path between this world
-
40

D.
T.
and the next, it could not be recklessly attempted through the
faculties of ordinary people. He also said that what allowed
for his interaction with the spirit world was the fact that God
had given commands expressly to him and that there was
nothing at all exotic about this. To vainly please the hearts of
5 worldly folk would be to forget the purpose of his mission.
U The divine will did not lie here, he said.
Z Of course, this kind of statement might seem like pretense.
U The general reader naturally desires proof of Sweden borg's so-
K called clairvoyant abilities. Therefore, I will provide an exam-
I
ple that will not allow any doubts to remain: an exhaustive in-
vestigation made by Immanuel Kant, a contemporary of
Sweden borg, in the name of psychological research. In a letter
dated August 10, 1758 (but actually written in 1768), Kant in-
formed Charlotte Von Knobloch: 48

The following occurrence appears to me to have the greatest

weight of proof, and to place the assertion respecting Sweden-
borg's extraordinary gift beyond all possibility of doubt. In
September of 1756 (it actually occurred in July of 1759), on
Saturday at four o'clock, p.m., Swedenborg arrived at Gothen-
burg from England, when Mr. William Castel invited him to
his house together with a party of fifteen persons. About six
o'clock, Sweden borg went out, and returned to the company
quite pale and alarmed. He said that a dangerous fire had just
broken out in the southern district of Stockholm (about 300
English miles from Gothenburg), and that it was spreading
very fast. He was restless, and went out often. He said that the
house of one of his friends, whom he named, was already in
ashes, and that his own was in danger. At eight o'clock, after
he had been out again, he joyfully exclaimed, "Thank God!
The fire is extinguished, the third door from my house." This
news occasioned great commotion throughout the whole city,
but particularly amongst the company in which he was. It was
announced to the governor the same evening. On Sunday
 morning, Sweden borg was summoned to the governor, who
questioned him concerning the disaster. Swedenborg described
the fire precisely, how it had begun, and in what manner it had
ceased, and how long it had continued. On the same day the
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41

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W
news spread through the city, and as the governor had thought E
it worthy of attention the consternation was considerably in- D
creased; because many were in trouble on account of their E
friends and property, which might have been involved in the N
disaster. On Monday evening a messenger arrived at Gothen- B
burg, who was dispatched by the Board of Trade during the o
time of the fire. In the letters brought by him the fire was de- R
scribed precisely in the manner stated by Sweden borg. On G
Tuesday morning the royal courier arrived at the governor's,
with the melancholy intelligence of the fire, of the loss which it
had occasioned, and of the houses it had damaged and ruined,
not in the least differing from that which Sweden borg had
given at the very time when it had happened, for the fire was
extinguished at eight 0'c1ock. 49

There are further occurrences that attest to the singularity

of Sweden borg's spiritual vision, but since these sorts of things
will not raise or lower estimations of his true character, I will
not prattle on about them now. I wish to conclude only by
noting that he had these sorts of experiences.
 CHAPTER S

Character and Lifestyle

As for Sweden borg's appearance, there is no reliable docu-

mentation to which we can refer. We know how he looked
only from his portraits, and it seems there are not many good
ones. One was painted for Swedenborg's close friend Count
Anders J. von Hopken, with the original hanging in the Grip-
sholm National Museum Of Art.50 You see the wisdom that
abounds in his features and sense the prudence and steadfast-
ness of his will. In particular, you see in the glint of his eyes a
dignity and magical power, and know he is not an ordinary
man.
In his latter years, Sweden borg had a friend in Amsterdam
named John Christian Cuno, who, although not a devotee of
Swedenborg, was captivated by his personality. Cuno left a
very interesting account of him, saying, " ... when he gazed
on me with his smiling blue eyes-as he always did in convers-
ing-it was as if truth itself was speaking from them. "51 It
seems that, when faced with these eyes, even those who jeered
at him were filled with awe. Cuno also said:
I often noticed with surprise how scoffers, who had made their
way into large societies where I had taken him, and whose pur-
pose it had been to make fun of the old gentleman, forgot all
their laughter and their intended scoffing, and how they stood
agape and listened to the most singular things which he like an
-
44

D.
T.
open-hearted child told about the spiritual world without re-
serve and with full confidence. It almost seemed as if his eyes
possessed the faculty of imposing silence on every one.52

When one claims to have already toured heaven and hell, to

have received direct orders from the Lord God, and so forth,
5
it is only human nature to hold oneself up high arrogantly, or
U
to be intolerant, harsh, and incompatible with others. But
Z
Swedenborg was the complete opposite of this. He was child-
U
K
like and innocent in all matters, with the air of a transcendent
I mystic who had escaped defilement. Count von Hopken said:

I have not only known him these two-and-forty years, but also,
some time since, daily frequented his company5.1.... I do not
recollect to have known any man of more uniformly virtuous
character than Sweden borg; always contented, never fretful or
morose .... He was a true philosopher and lived like one. He
labored diligently, and lived frugally.... He possessed a sound
judgment upon all occasions ... and expressed himself well on
every subject. 54
[He strongly rejected worldly philosophers. He was a model
of sincerity, virtue and piety, and from what I have seen, there
is no one in my country possessing as profound a knowledge
as that of Sweden borg. )5.1

Sweden borg's lifestyle was extremely simple, in accordance

with his principal occupation. In regard to his life in Amster-
dam, Cuno said:

He lived with simple burgher folks, who kept a shop in which

they sold chintz, muslin, handkerchiefs, and the like, and who
had quite a number of little children. I inquired of the landlady
whether the old gentleman did not require very much atten-
tion. She answered, "He scarcely requires any; the servant has
nothing else to do for him, except in the morning to lay the fire
in the fireplace. Every evening he goes to bed at seven, and gets
 up in the morning at eight. We do not trouble ourselves any
more about him. During the day he keeps up the fire himself;
and on going to bed he takes great care, lest the fire should do
any damage. He dresses and undresses himself alone, and
-
45

$
W
waits upon himself in everything, so that we scarcely know E
whether there is anyone in the house or not. I should like him D
to be with us for the rest of his life. My children will miss him E
most; for he never goes out without bringing them home some N
sweets; the little rogues also dote upon the old gentleman so B
much, that they prefer him to their own parents. I imagine that o
he is very rich .... ".16
R
At this time, Sweden borg was already over 80 years old. G
Although an old man in his seventies and eighties, he crossed
the ocean alone, traveling from Sweden to Holland and Eng-
land without any companion. That was a different age from
today; he did not have the convenience of trains and
steamships. Even crossing from England to Holland with a fa-
vorable wind took over a week's time, so that far and wide
people sang about the troubles of the journey. Yet this vigor-
ous old mystic bounced from one port to another, and
thought of nothing but publishing the works he believed he
had written under heaven's orders.
As Milton said, "To share in sacred meals with the gods,
one must eat modestly. "57 Indeed, it seems that gluttony and
spiritual discipline cannot coexist. Swedenborg always
warned against being overcome by bodily desire, as evil
energy exudes from the pores of those who indulge in a lavish
diet, and this intent gives rise to maggots and worms that fill
the room. When he first began having his spiritual experi-
ences, the quality of his food was no different from that of
ordinary people, and he merely refrained from taking more
than small portions. But during the last fifteen years of his
life, he hardly ever ate meat, and only occasionally ate fish,
usually eel. His main meals were limited to bread, butter,
-
46 milk, coffee, almonds, raisins, vegetables, biscuits, cake, and
gingerbread. He would always distribute sweets among small
D. children. He also drank a lot of water and especially liked
T. coffee. It seems there is a very close relationship between
philosophers and caffeine. Even in Japan's case, tea was first
5 imported from China through Buddhist monks; and since
U then, a special bond has developed between Buddhist priests
Z and tea.
U Sweden borg was greatly fond of snuff, and today particles
K of it still remain among his manuscripts, exuding a lingering
smell. Because of this smell, curiously enough, his manuscripts
have escaped damage from bookworms. Although we cannot
go so far as to call him a vegetarian, he did not have much of
a liking for meat, and it appears he recognized that a taste for
meat tended to be contrary to the way of heaven. He said:

People in very ancient times did not eat meat, for they consid-
ered killing animals to be atrocious. But later, as time passed,
people's hearts grew cruel and brutal. They came to think
nothing of slaughtering living creatures and eating their flesh.
As long as human beings possess this character, I suppose it is
impossible for them to stop eating meat. 58

It seems that eating meat is incompatible with pure and lofty

thoughts.
Sweden borg's dress was very simple, with no adornments to
attract the eyes of others, but that was quite suitable for some-
one of his character. When he went out, according to the cus-
tom of the time, he wore a wig, but it was not very long. At his
waist he wore a sword in a strange sheath, and in his hand he
carried a cane with a gold head. On his feet he wore shoes
whose buckles were adorned with silver and gold, and inlaid
with jewels. Granted, silver, gold, and jewels might seem
rather ostentatious; but for people in Swedenborg's station at
the time, these were not especially remarkable. Moreover, as
the end of his life approached, it is said his heart became so
completely absorbed in his calling that, when he went out,
there might be something strange about his costume; and that
when there was no one around to put it right, he would walk
-
47

$
W
into the crowds without noticing it. One time, he went some- E
where in response to an invitation but wore shoes with mis- D
matched buckles. When he arrived at the house, the young E
ladies there reportedly laughed at him. N
As Sweden borg grew older, he became completely oblivious B
to such things as what the date might be, or whether it was o
R
day or night, and worked diligently on his writings. He went
G
to bed whenever he felt sleepy, without regard to a fixed time.
Once, he slept for thirteen hours without waking. When he
entered a kind of meditative state, he would lie in bed for days
without eating and working. When his death was not far off,
he immersed himself in this sort of meditation for three or
four weeks, not taking any nourishment. Afterward, Sweden-
borg got up and returned to his former self, or so it is re-
ported. In these instances, he allowed no one to approach,
saying that he must arise naturally by himself. When he woke
up from this type of sleep, he would immediately kindle the
fire and take up his pen.
His indifference to money is a documented fact. In addition
to his pension from the Swedish government, he had a fair
number of assets; the interest provided for his daily life, trav-
els, and publishing expenses. Because he already had this in-
come, he took no profits from his publications and did not
plan any other money-making ventures. In this regard, he for-
tunately had gained a great deal of independence.
He also did not care for loans and detested almsgiving, say-
ing, "The world's beggars, when they are not lazy, are ruffians.
Even if they are pitiable, when you do not investigate them
and give indiscriminately, you actually fail them. "59 This is
certainly sound reasoning. Today's philanthropy is based on
-
48

D.
T.
this principle, so that individuals do not give alms on the
street, and money and goods are not the only things offered.
According to Sweden borg's thinking, lending money was
tantamount to losing money. Moreover, since he needed all of
his income for his travels and publishing, he did not finance
$ other people, and he also did not take on debt. But although
U he budgeted carefully, when the landlord asked for his rent, he
Z had the man go to the place where Sweden borg kept his purse
U and take the amount required as he pleased. In addition, all
K
those who had financial dealings with him said he was gener-
I
ous.
The number of works written by Swedenborg over sixty-
three years is surprisingly large. If all of them were put in oc-
tavo volumes of 500 pages each, it would come to 60 volumes.
However, this is actually not all of his work, for there are also
unpublished manuscripts located in the National Library in
Stockholm, many of which are being researched by scholars.
All of them deal with very profound thoughts, and are not
products of one night's hasty work. Of course, in places, it
seems as if the same points are repeated again and again; but
the fact that Sweden borg could not desist-pressed as he was
to meet the demands of divine revelation-does not detract
from the quality of his writing as a whole. This is because his
elder brother-in-law, Bishop Benzelius, trained him to be very
economical with his time. If it were not for this, he would not
have been able to produce works so rich in both quality and
quantity.
Also surprising is the fact that he wrote all of his works
completely by himself, without the assistance of a secretary
or copyist. Each volume is orderly and systematic, without
one line out of place. He set up a sort of index right from the
beginning, so when he wrote a book, any references or cita-
tions to previously published sections were well-organized
and free of mistakes. This index was also compiled into one
large volume, giving those who look at it an understanding 49
of just how many dictums Swedenborg bequeathed. Abbe _
Anton Joseph Pernety said, "Swedenborg was an indefatigi- s
ble man who wrote day and night."60 Cuno said in his mem- w
Olrs: E
D
[H]e labours in a most astonishing and superhuman manner at E
his new work. Sixteen sheets, in type twice as small as those N
used in his former works, are already printed. . . . for every B
printed sheet he has to fill four sheets in manuscript. He now 0
has two sheets printed every week. These he corrects himself; R
and consequently he has to write eight sheets every week. 61 G

This was certainly industrious, for at this point, Sweden-

borg was just three days short of 83 years. Although people
say Sweden borg's work was wild and confused, that was cer-
tainly not the case. When it came to important matters, he
would revise his drafts a number of times; and if the results
were not satisfactory, he would throw them away and not
look at them again. After entering old age, because he spent
much of his time traveling-or, rather, since there was no need
for them-he did not carry even one reference work, making
only a portion of the Hebrew scriptures his library.
Swedenborg's works on religion were published in England
and Holland, but not in his homeland; for at the time, only the
former two countries possessed freedom of religion. At first he
thought he would print True Christian Religion in Paris; but
when he petitioned the censor's bureau, he was told that if, "as
always," he indicated under the title that it was published in
London or Amsterdam, the book could be published in Paris.
Even in such a small matter, Sweden borg did not wish to de-
ceive the world, so taking the book to Amsterdam, he had it
printed there.
I would like to share one final story concerning his character
and conduct, as told by the Swedish historian Anders Fryxell:
-
50

D.
T.
My grandmother, when she was a girl of fifteen or sixteen,
lived with her father not far from Sweden borg's house, and
was thus on friendly terms with him. My grandmother, the
young lady, was impelled by her childlike curiosity, and often
asked "Uncle Sweden borg" to show her a spirit or angel. At
last he consented, and leading her to a summer-house in his
s
u garden, he placed her before a curtain ... and then said, "Now
z you shall see an angel!" and as he spoke, he drew up the cur-
U
tain, when the young lady beheld herself reflected in a mirror. 62
K
I
 CHAPTER 6

General Views and Statements

As for Sweden borg's experiences of visiting heaven and hell,

the purpose of the present book is not to argue whether they
truly derived from the hidden will of the Lord God or not. At
any rate, it seems that these experiences of Swedenborg's were
closely related to his breathing, causing him to perform exten-
sive research into the art of respiration. According to his the-
ory of "correspondence," the lungs of the human body corre-
spond to understanding, and the heart corresponds to love.
Since the spiritual connection between love and understanding
is the same as that between the heart and lungs, if you know
one, then you can discern the other. Correct regulation of the
breath, therefore, advances understanding. In breathing, there
is a distinction between internal and external, with external
breath coming from the mundane world and internal breath
from the spiritual world. When people die, their external
breath ceases. However, the tranquil and soundless inner
breath continues endlessly. While people are still in a corpo-
real state, it is difficult for them to feel their internal breath,
because it is tranquil. This breath, which arises entirely from
the true faith possessed by the spirit, is the life of the spirit. Ac-
cordance with the spiritual world depends on this breath.
Sweden borg discussed his personal experience of this
breathing:
-
52 I was first accustomed thus to feel my internal breath in my
early childhood, when saying my morning and evening
D. prayers, and occasionally afterwards, when exploring the har-
T. monies of the lungs and heart, and especially when deeply en-
gaged in writing philosophical works. For a course of years I
s continually observed that there was a tacit respiration, scarcely
U perceptible, concerning which it was subsequently given me to
% reflect, and then to write. I was thus from the period of child-
U
hood able to stop my external breathing and activate only my
K internal breath, especially by means of absorbing speculations,
I as otherwise the intense study of truth is scarcely possible. Af-
terwards, when heaven was opened to me, and I was enabled
to converse with spirits, I scarcely breathed by inspiration at
all for the space of an hour.63

Although not all of us can perceive the distinction between

external and internal breath in the way Sweden borg did, there
is doubtless a close relation between regulation of the breath
and cultivation of the mind and body. The fact that Sweden-
borg could feel this almost from birth probably holds some
significance for the mission of his later years.
Having attained the spiritual realm, Sweden borg set out to
inform his readers about the things he had observed there.
Looking at the chapter titles in Heaven and Hell, we discover
these observations throughout, but now I should give one or
two examples. The first comes from section 232 in Conjugia/
Love, the second relation in "Universals concerning Mar-
riage" (see also section 333 in True Christian Religion):
After some time I again heard from the lower earth, as before,
the cries "0 how learned!" and "0 how wise!" And I looked
around to see what angels were then present, and lo! those
were there who were from the heaven immediately over them
that were crying "0 how learned!" And I spoke to them about
the cry. They said, "These 'learned' are they that merely reason
whether a thing is or is not, and rarely think that it is so, and
therefore are like winds that blow and pass away, or like barks
upon trees without a heart, or as shells of almonds without
any kernel, or rinds upon fruits with no pulp. For their minds
are without interior judgment and are united with the bodily
senses only. If therefore the very senses do not judge, they can
-
53

s
W
E
form no conclusion. In a word they are merely sensual, and by D
us are called 'reasoners' because they never come to any con- E
clusion but take up whatever they hear and discuss whether it N
is, by perpetually contradicting. And they like nothing more B
than to attack very truths, and so by bringing them into dis- o
pute to tear them in pieces. These are they who believe them- R
selves learned above all in the world." G
Hearing these things I asked the angels to conduct me to
them. And they brought me to a cavern from which steps led
down to the lower earth. We descended and followed the cry
"0 how learned!" and behold, some hundreds were standing
in one place beating the ground with their feet.
Surprised at this at first, I asked, "Why do they thus stand
and beat the ground with the soles of their feet?" and said
"They may thus hollow out the ground with their feet." At this
the angels smiled and said, "They appear to stand thus, be-
cause they do not think concerning anything that it is so, but
only think and discuss whether it is, and as the thought makes
no further progress they appear merely to tread and grind a
single clod, and not to advance." But then I went toward this
congregation, and lo! they appeared to me men of not unhand-
some face and in comely raiment. But the angels said, "In their
own light they thus appear, but if light from heaven flows in,
their faces, and their garments also, change." And it was so.
They then appeared with swarthy countenances, and clothed in
black sack-cloth. But when this light was withdrawn, they ap-
peared as before.
Presently I spoke to some of them and said, "I heard the mul-
titude about you shouting '0 how learned!' May I then be per-
mitted some conversation with you, to discuss subjects of pro-
foundest erudition?"
-
54

D.
T.
They answered, "Say whatever you please and we will sat-
isfy you."
And I asked, "What must the religion be whereby a man is
saved?"
They replied, "We must divide the question into several,
5 and cannot give answer until we have formed a conclusion
U upon them. The first consideration must be, Whether religion
Z is anything? The second, Whether there is salvation or not?
U
The third, Whether one religion is more effective than an-
K other? The fourth, Whether there is a heaven, and a hell? And
fifth, Whether there is eternal life after death? Besides oth-
ers."
I asked about the first question, "Whether religion is any-
thing?" And they began to discuss it, with abundance of argu-
ments as to whether there is religion, and whether what is
called so is anything. And I begged that they would refer it to
the congregation, and they referred it. And the common re-
sponse was that this proposition required so much investiga-
tion that it could not be finished within the evening.
I asked, "Can you finish it within a year?" And one said it
could not be done within a hundred years.
I replied, "Meanwhile you are without religion."
And he responded, "Should it not first be shown whether
there is religion, whether what is so-called is anything? If it is,
it must be for the wise also. If not, then it must be only for the
common people. It is known that religion is called a bond; but
it is asked, 'For whom?' If only for the common people, in itself
it is nothing. If also for the wise it is something."
Hearing these things I said to them, "You are anything but
learned, for you are only able to think whether a thing is, and
to turn it this way and that. Who can become learned unless he
knows something for certain, and goes forward in that as a
man advances from step to step, and so on successively into
wisdom. Otherwise you do not so much as touch truths with
the fingernail, but put them more and more out of sight. To
reason only whether a thing is, is it not like arguing about a
 cap which is never put on? or a shoe that is never worn? What

-
55
comes of it except that you do not know whether there is any-
thing? That is to say, Whether there is salvation? Whether there s
is eternal life after death? Whether one religion is more effec- W
tive than another? Whether there is a heaven and a hell? You E
cannot think of anything about these things so long as you D
stick fast in the first step and beat the sand there, and do not E
set foot beyond foot and go forward. Beware lest your minds, N
while they stand thus without outside of judgment, grow hard B
within and become statues of salt, and you, friends of Lot's o
wife." R
Having said this I went away, and they in indignation threw G
stones after me. And then they appeared to me like graven im-
ages of stone, wherein there is nothing of human reason. I asked
the angels respecting their lot; and they said, "Their lot is that
they are let down into the deep, and into a desert there, and are
set to carrying packs; and then being unable to bring forth any-
thing from reason, they chatter and talk nonsense. And from a
distance they appear then like asses bearing burdens. "64

I do not know whether or not Sweden borg saw the fate of the
so-called scholars in the spiritual world, but his words pierce
the heart like a sharp knife. In the end, are learned people
asses bearing burdens?
Swedenborg's spiritual visions are not all like this, and I pre-
sent it only as one example. Sensitive readers will perceive that
this story contains a logic that only seems illogical, that what
seems absurd is actually rich in common sense and in accord
with human nature and everyday experience. As for its signifi-
cance, we must say that Sweden borg is a great and unique critic.
In order to know Swedenborg, one must first know Heaven
and Hell. His theological teachings, or what he attempted to
transmit to human beings through his heavenly mission, con-
cern the existence of a spiritual world. I will now cite some of
his assertions on this matter:
-
56

D.
T.
As there are infinite varieties in heaven, and no one society nor
anyone angel is exactly like any other, there are in heaven gen-
eral, specific aad particular divisions. The general division is into
two kingdoms, the specific into three heavens, and the particular
into innumerable societies. Each of these will be treated of in
$ what follows. The general division is said to be into kingdoms,
u because heaven is called "the kingdom of God."
z There are angels that receive more interiorly the Divine that
U
goes forth from the Lord, and others that receive it less interi-
K
orly; the former are called celestial angels, and the latter spiri-
I
tual angels. Because of this difference heaven is divided into
two kingdoms, one called the Celestial Kingdom, the other the
Spiritual Kingdom.
As the angels that constitute the celestial kingdom receive
the Divine of the Lord more interiorly they are called interior
and also higher angels; and for the same reason the heavens
that they constitute are called interior and higher heavens.
They are called higher and lower, because these terms designate
what is interior and what is exterior.
The love in which those are, who are in the celestial kingdom
is called celestial love, and the love in which those are who are
in the spiritual kingdom is called spiritual love. Celestial love is
love to the Lord, and spiritual love is love towards the neigh-
bor. And as all good pertains to love (for good to anyone is
what he loves) the good also of the one kingdom is called celes-
tial, and the good of the other spiritual. Evidently, then, the
two kingdoms are distinguished from each other in the same
way as good of love to the Lord is distinguished from good of
love towards the neighbor. And as the good of love to the Lord
is an interior good, and that love is interior love, so the celestial
angels are interior angels, and are called higher angels.
(HH 20-23)

That there is light in the heavens those who think from na-
ture alone cannot comprehend; and yet such is the light in the
heavens that it exceeds by many degrees the noonday light of
the world. That light I have often seen, even during the evening
and night. At first I wondered when I heard the angels say that
the light of this world is little more than a shadow in compari-
son with the light of heaven; but having seen it I can testify
that it is so. The brightness and splendor of the light of heaven
-
57

s
W
E
are such as cannot be described. All things that I have seen in D
the heavens have been seen in that light, thus more clearly and E
distinctly than things in this world. (HH 126) N
But it is better to present the evidence of experience. When- B
ever I have talked with angels face to face, I have been with o
them in their abodes. These abodes are precisely like abodes on R
the earth which we call houses, but more beautiful. In them G
there are chambers, parlors, and bedrooms in great number;
there are also courts, and there are gardens and flower beds
and lawns round about. Where they live together their houses
are near each other, arranged one next to the other in the form
of a city, with avenues, streets, and public squares, exactly like
cities on the earth. I have been permitted to pass through them,
looking about on every side, and sometimes entering the
houses. This occurred when my inner sight was opened, and I
was fully awake. (HH 184)

I have seen palaces in heaven of such magnificence as cannot

be described. Above they glittered as if made of pure gold, and
below as if made of precious stones, some more splendid than
others. It was the same within. Both words and knowledge are
inadequate to describe the decorations that adorned the
rooms. On the side looking to the south there were parks,
where, too, every thing shone, in some places the leaves glis-
tening as if made of silver, and fruit as if made of gold; while
the flowers in their beds formed rainbows with their colors.
Beyond the borders, where the view terminated, were seen
other palaces. Such is the architecture of heaven that you
would say that art there is in its art; and now wonder, because
the art itself is from heaven. The angels said that such things
and innumerable others still more perfect are presented before
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58

D.
T.
their eyes by the Lord; and yet these things are more pleasing
to their minds than to their eyes, because in everyone of them
they see a correspondence, and through the correspondences
what is Divine. (HH 185)

In trying to judge the whole work from only the above pas-
s
sages on heaven and angels, one might misinterpret it. My
u
z purpose in using them here is to show what Swedenborg's atti-
U tude was toward recording circumstances in the realm of the
K dead. Readers need to be attentive and look at them again.
I Next, as for what he said about hell:

The way that leads to heaven and the way that leads to hell
were once represented to me. There was a broad way tending
towards the left or the north, and many spirits were seen going
in it; but at a distance a large stone was seen where the broad
way came to an end. From that stone two ways branched off,
one to the left and one in the opposite direction to the right.
The way that went to the left was narrow or straightened,
leading through the west to the south, and thus into the light
of heaven; the way that went to the right was broad and spa-
cious, leading obliquely downwards towards hell. All at first
seemed to be going the same way until they came to the large
stone at the head of the two ways. When they reached that
point they divided; the good turned to the left and entered the
straightened way that led to heaven; while the evil, not seeing
the stone at the fork of the ways fell upon it and were hurt;
and when they rose up they ran on in the broad way to the
right which went towards hell. (HH 534)

I have also been permitted to look into the hells and to see
what they are within; for when the Lord wills, the sight of a
spirit or angel froin above may penetrate into the lowest
depths beneath and explore their character, notwithstanding
the coverings. In this way I have been permitted to look into
them. Some of the hells appeared to the view like caverns and
dens in rocks extending inward and then downward into an
 abyss, either obliquely or vertically. Some of the hells appeared
to the view like the dens and caves of wild beasts in forests;
some like the hollow caverns and passages that are seen in
mines, with caverns extending towards the lower regions.
-
59

s
W
Most of the hells are threefold, the upper one appearing within E
to be in dense darkness, because inhabited by those who are in D
the falsities of evil; while the lower ones appear fiery, because E
inhabited by those who are in evils themselves, dense darkness N
corresponding to the falsities of evil, and fire to evils them- B
selves. Those that have acted interiorly from evil are in the o
deeper hells, and those that have acted exteriorly from evil, R
that is, from the falsities of evil, are in the hells that are less G
deep. Some hells present an appearance like the ruins of houses
and cities after conflagrations, in which infernal spirits dwell
and hide themselves. In the milder hells there is an appearance
of rude huts, in some cases contiguous in the form of a city
with lanes and streets, and within the houses are infernal spir-
its engaged in unceasing quarrels, enmities, fightings, and bru-
talities; while in the streets and lanes robberies and depreda-
tions are committed. In some of the hells there are nothing but
brothels, disgusting to the sight and filled with every kind of
filth and excrement. Again, there are dark forests, in which in-
fernal spirits roam like wild beasts and where, too, there are
underground dens into which those flee who are pursued by
others. There are also deserts, where all is barren and sandy,
and where in some places there are ragged rocks in which there
are caverns, and in some places huts. Into these desert places
those are cast out from the hells who have suffered every ex-
tremity of punishment, especially those who in the world have
been more cunning than others in undertaking and contriving
intrigues and deceits. Such a life is their final lot. (HH 586)

In order to understand correctly Sweden borg's vision of the

spiritual world, we need to know about his doctrines of repre-
sentation, correspondence, degrees, and influx. Since this
book does not go into such depth, the reader must make a
close study of Heaven And Hell, Divine Love and Wisdom,
-
60

D.
T.
and Divine Providence. However, one thing to note here is
that Sweden borg's heaven and hell are not conditioned by time
and space, as they are a kind of spiritual state. Therefore, nei-
ther heaven nor hell exists apart from this world, although this
world also does not equal heaven or hell. Perhaps we should
s say that the relationship between them [heaven and hell and
u the material world] is neither one of equivalence nor separa-
z tion. When we consider that our spiritual lives have no begin-
U ning in time or space and that the circumstances of heaven and
K
hell are produced from these lives, then clearly we should not
I
take Swedenborg's statements literally. This is the basis for the
doctrines of correspondence and representation. The reader
should not form hasty opinions.
To demonstrate some of Sweden borg's teachings, I will pro-
vide selections from his work:

That it is not so difficult to live the life of heaven as some be-

lieve can now be seen from this, that when any thing presents
itself to a man that he knows to be dishonest and unjust, but to
which his mind is borne, it is simply necessary for him to think
that it ought not to be done because it is opposed to the divine
precepts. If a man accustoms himself so to think, and from so
doing establishes a habit of so thinking, he is gradually con-
joined to heaven; and so far as he is conjoined to heaven the
higher regions of his mind are opened; and so far as these are
opened he sees whatever is dishonest and unjust, and so far as
he sees these evils they can be dispersed, for no evil can be dis-
persed until it is seen. Into this state man is able to enter be-
cause of his freedom, for is not anyone able from his freedom
to so think? And when man has made a beginning the Lord
quickens all that is good in him, and causes him not only to see
evils to be evils, but also to refrain from willing them, and fi-
nally to turn away from them. This is meant by the Lord's
words, "My yoke is easy and My burden is light" (Matthew
11:30). But it must be understood that the difficulty of so
thinking and of resisting evils increases so far as man from his
will does evils, for in the same measure he becomes accus-
tomed to them until he no longer sees them, and at length loves
them and from the delight of his love excuses them, and con-
firms them by every kind of fallacy, and declares them to be al-
lowable and good. This is the fate of those who in early youth
-
61

s
W
E
plunge into evils without restraint, and also reject Divine D
things from the heart. (HH 533) E
What love of self is can be seen by comparing it with heav- N
enly love. Heavenly love consists in loving uses for the sake of B
uses, or goods for the sake of goods, which are done by man in o
behalf of the church, his country, human society, and a fellow- R
citizen; for this is loving God and loving the neighbor, since all G
uses and all goods are from God, and are the neighbor who is
to be loved. But he who loves these for the sake of himself
loves them merely as servants, because they are serviceable to
him; consequently it is the will of one who is in self-love that
the church, his country, human societies, and his fellow-citi-
zens, should serve him, and not he them, for he places himself
above them and places them beneath himself. Therefore so far
as anyone is in love of self he separates himself from heaven,
because he separates himself from heavenly love. (HH 557)
[A]ll things that have form in the natural world are effects,
and all things that have form in the spiritual world are the
causes of these effects. There does not take place a natural that
does not derive its cause from a spiritual. (DLW 134)

The more one is absorbed in so-called philosophy, the

greater is one's delusion and blindness. Delusion and philoso-
phy walk together. There are many cases which provide testi-
mony to this fact. (Commentary on the Book of /saiahr
I have also been taught by experience, when in the heavens, I
was led about hither and thither, which happened when I was
awake-that when I lapsed into thoughts concerning worldly
things, that which I had perceived in the heavenly mansion in-
stantly disappeared; so that those who let their thoughts down
into the world fall down from heaven. (SD 304)
-
62

D.
T.
[W]hen, however, I intensely adhered to worldly things in
thought, as when I had care concerning necessary expense,
about which I this day wrote a letter, so that my mind was for
some time detained therewith, I fell, as it were, in a corporeal
state, so that the spirits could not converse with me, as they
s also said, because they were as though absent [from me].
(SD 1166)
u
z In the natural world the speech of man is twofold, because
U his thought is twofold, exterior and interior; for a man can
K speak from interior thought and at the same time from exterior
I thought, and he can speak from exterior thought and not from
interior, yea, contrary to interior thought, whence come dis-
simulations, flatteries, and hypocrisies. But in the spiritual
world man's speech is not twofold, but single. He there speaks
as he thinks, otherwise the sound is harsh and offends the ear;
but yet he may be silent, and so not publish the thoughts of his
mind. Therefore, a hypocrite, when he comes among the wise,
either goes away, or retires to a corner of the room and with-
draws himself from observation, and sits silent. (AR 294)

[T]o do good to the neighbor for the sake of God, and thus
with God, and from God, is what is called religion. (AR 484)

In a word, love of self and love of the world are altogether

contrary to love to the Lord and love towards the neighbour;
and therefore love of self and love of the world are infernal
loves; indeed, they reign in hell and they also make hell with
man. But love to the Lord and love towards the neighbour are
heavenly loves; they reign in heaven and also make heaven
with man. (New Jerusalem and Its Heavenly Doctrine 78)

There are five sorts who read my works: first, those who re-
ject them from the start, either because they possess completely
different beliefs, or because they do not have any beliefs at all.
As for the second type, they consider my words to be mere
phenomena of the mundane world, reading them only to sat-
isfy their curiosity. A third class reads with discriminating in-
 tellect, enjoying them somewhat, but as for truly applying

-
63
them to life, not a trace of progress can be seen. Those in the
fourth class receive with faith, so that their lives are improved s
to a certain degree, and they make use of them. Those of the W
fifth sort accept with joy, and are confirmed in their practical E
lives. (SD 2955).66
D
Love is the union of spirits. Love is spiritual fire, spiritual E
heat. Within people's hearts is the heat of the living spirit, and N
feeling this is love. The power of love does not go out; it is like B
heat, like fire. o
R
Love is the life of man; therefore, love makes the man. (The G
above two passages appear throughout Conjugial Love.)67

People's humanity lies in their love and will, not in their in-
tellect. Therefore, no matter how great their intellect, if their
love is meager, they will be manipulated by love. (This is Swe-
den borg's principal doctrine; it appears throughout his writ-
ings.)68

[I]nnocence is the essence of every good, and good is good so

far as innocence is within it; and as wisdom is of the life and
thence of good, wisdom is wisdom so far as it partakes of inno-
cence. And so with love, charity, and faith. And then it is that
no one can enter heaven unless he is in innocence. (CL 414)

Notes

1. In the original Japanese, Suzuki wrote, "Second year of

Taisho." In Japan, time is divided according to the reigns of emper-
ors; the Taisho emperor's reign lasted from 1912 to 1926. All notes
in the translation are supplied by the translator and are not found in
Suzuki's original manuscript.
2. Suzuki includes the Chinese character for the word self along-
side the Latin proprium. Proprium, meaning "what belongs to one-
self," is the word Sweden borg uses for our capacity to experience life
-
64

D.
T.
as if we were independent of the One (God). See Michael Stanley,
Emanuel Swedenborg: Essential Readings (Welling borough, UK:
Aquarian Press: 1988),27-28.
3. Mencius (Meng Tzu) and Hsiin Tzu were Confucian thinkers
active in the fourth and third centuries B.C.E. in China.
4. See R.L. Tafel, Documents concerning the Life and Character
s of Emanuel Swedenborg, vol. 2 (London: Sweden borg Society,
u 1877),416.
z 5. In the original Suzuki wrote "Meiji 43." The Meiji period dates
U from 1868 to 1912.
K 6. "Opening Session," Transactions of the International Sweden-
I borg Congress, Held in Connection with the Celebration of the Swe-
denborg Society's Centenary, London, July 4 to 8, 1910 (London:
The Swedenborg Society, 1912), 1-2.
7. Sweden borg to Dr. G.A. Beyer, Stockholm, 13 Nov. 1769. See
Tafel, vol. 2, doc. 243, pp. 279-280.
8. The thesis is entitled L. Annaei Senecae et Pub. Syri Mimi . ..
Publico examini modeste submittit Emanuel Swedberg, Upsla, 1709
(Select Sentences from Publius Syrus Mimus and L. Annaeus Seneca
... ). For more information, see Cyriel Odhner Sigstedt, The Swe-
denborg Epic: The Life and Works of Emanuel Swedenborg (New
York: Bookman Associates, 1952), 12. Suzuki wrote, "Swedenborg
was graduated at the age of 22, receiving a degree in philosophy."
However, Sigstedt points out Sweden borg's "graduation" did not in-
volve the granting of a degree in the modern sense.
9. This little-known work is entitled The Rule of Youth (1709). In
the manuscript it states, "Executed for the most reverend and the
most deserving father and bishop, Doctor Jesper Swedberg'S, The
rule of youth and mirror of old-age."
10. Sweden borg to Eric Benzelius, 21 January 1718. See Tafel,
vol. 1, doc. 77, p. 294.
11. The Buddhist term "ultimate truth" (in Japanese, Daiichigitai;
in Sanskrit, Paramartha-satya) refers to one of two aspects of reality,
the other being reality in the conditional or worldly sense (in Japanese,
Sezokutai; in Sanskrit, Sa11Jvrti-satya). For a reference work on Japan-
ese Buddhist terminology, see Hisao Inagaki, A Dictionary of Japanese
Buddhist Terms (Union City, CA: Heian International, 1989).
12. Concerning the latter two works, Suzuki is referring to Om
wattnens hogd och forra werldens starcka ebb och (lod (On the
depth of water and strong tides in the primeval world) and Under-

-
65
rettelse om docken, slysswercken, och saltwercket (Information on
docks, canal locks, and salt works), both published in 1719. The
$
treatise on copper sheets may be a 1722 treatise entitled Stor-
miigstigste Allernadigste Konung (Most mighty and gracious king), a W
memorandum on an improved process for working copper. E
13. This work is titled Odmiukast Memorial (Most humble D
memorial) and is generally called "The State of Finances in Sweden. " E
14. Prodromus philosophia rationcinantis de infinito et causa fi- N
nali creationis: Deque mechanismo operationis animae et corporis B
(The philosophical discourse on the infinite and the final cause of o
creation; and on the mechanism of the soul and body) (Dresden and R
Leipzig: Frederick Hekel, 1734). G
15. The first treatise mentioned is Oeconomia regni animalis
(London and Amsterdam, 1740-41), a two-part work. The second
work is Regnum animale, a treatise in three parts. Parts 1 and 2 were
published in The Hague in 1744, the first part concerning the viscera
of the abdomen (in Sweden borg's terminology, the "organs of the in-
ferior region"); the second, the viscera of the thorax (the "organs of
the superior region"). Part 3 of Regnum animate, published in Lon-
don in 1745, deals with the skin, the senses of touch and taste, and
organic forms in general.
16. Where Suzuki simply writes "fibre" (sen-i), Sweden borg
wrote, "and their medullary fibre; also the nervous fibre of the body;
and the muscular fibre." See The Animal Kingdom, trans. James
John Garth Wilkinson (London: Swedenborg Society, 1843; rpt.
Bryn Athyn, PA: Sweden borg Scientific Association, 1960), 10.
17. The Animal Kingdom, 10-11; 12. Swedenborg's final sentence
reads, "Thus I hope, that by bending my course inwards continually,
I shall open all the doors that lead to her, and at length contemplate
the soul herself: by the divine permission."
18. De cultu et amori Dei is a three-part work that is unlike any
other work by Sweden borg. It is written in the form of a fable or
creation drama; however, not all of it was published during Sweden-
borg's lifetime.
19. The word I've translated as "salvation" is hongan in Japanese
(purva-prandihana in Sanskrit). It means literally "original vow"
and typically refers to a vow made by Amida Buddha (amita or "in-
finite" Buddha in Sanskrit) to save all sentient beings. Adherents of
-
66

D.
T.
J6do ("Pure Land") Buddhism aim for salvation in Amida's Pure
Land, a realm where all sentient beings may attain enlightenment.
For more information, see n. 46 in the introduction.
20. See R.L. Tafel, Documents, "Robsahm's Memoirs of Sweden-
borg," vol. 1, doc. 5, pp. 35-36. Where Suzuki writes, "Afterwards
the Lord daily opened my soul's eyes," Tafel has translated, "After-
5 wards the Lord opened, daily very often, my bodily (lekamlig) eyes."
U 21. In Japanese, the terms for "self-power" and "other-power"
Z are jiriki and tariki, respectively. Tariki refers to the saving power of
U a buddha or bodhisattva, in particular, to that of Amida Buddha (see
K note 19, above). Understanding that reliance upon oneself is not suf-
I ficient for salvation, believers in tariki put their complete faith in
Amida's vow to save them.
22. Suzuki mistakenly wrote "1747."
23. Suzuki actually wrote, "Jesus is my best light," but that is not
the correct translation of the original Swedish Jesus ar min van then
baste. See Emanuel Swedenborg's Journal of Dreams, trans. C.T.
Odhner (Bryn Athyn, PA: The Academy Bookroom, 1918), 21, sec.
45, April 4-5.
24. Ibid., 24, sec. 45, April 5-6. For the Hebrew term Zebaoth,
Suzuki has translated "Lord of Hosts."
25. Tafel, vol. 2, pt. 1, doc. 209, p. 172. The Journal of Dreams
(translated into English after Suzuki produced Suedenborugu) con-
tains similar sentiments: "The thought at once occured to me, how
great is the grace of the Lord, which accounts to us that we have re-
sisted in temptation, and which is imputed to us, when nevertheless
it is nothing but the grace and operation of God, being His and not
our own, and He overlooks the weaknesses that we have shown in it.
. . ." (Journal, 23, sec. 42, April 5-6). And "I ought not to ascribe
anything to myself, but that everything is His, although He of grace
appropriates the same to us" (Journal, 29, sec. 60, April 6-7).
26. I have translated this passage directly from Suzuki's Japanese;
he does not provide his source. There is a similar wording in Swe-
den borg's letter to Thomas Hartley in 1769, known as "Sweden-
borg's Autobiography: Responsum ad Epistulam ab Amico ad me
Scriptam." Here Sweden borg wrote, "My sole object in tendering
my resignation was, that I might have more leisure to devote to the
new office to which the Lord had called me. A higher post of honour
was then offered me, which I positively declined, lest my heart
should be inspired with pride" (Tafel, vol. 1, doc. 2, p. 7). Sweden-
borg's official letter of resignation to the king can be found in Tafel,
vol. 1,doc. 166b,pp.464-465.
27. Actually, the standard edition of Swedenborg's Arcana Coeles-
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67

5
W
tia contains twelve volumes. See Arcana Coeiestia, trans. John E
Clowes, rvd. John F. Potts (West Chester, PA: The Sweden borg Foun- D
dation, [v.d]). Further references to this work will be cited in the text E
as AG. N
28. Suzuki wrote "Meiji 43," according to the Japanese system. B
29. The "Way" (Tao) denotes the ultimate truth in Chinese phi- o
losophy. R
30. See Heaven and Its Wonders and Hell: From Things Heard G
and Seen, trans. J. c. Ager (West Chester, PA: Sweden borg Founda-
tion, rpt. 1995), v-viii. All subsequent quotations are taken from
this edition and will be cited in the text as HH. The original Latin ti-
tle is De Coelo et Ejus Mirabilibus, et de Inferno. Suzuki translated
this work into Japanese (Tenkai to Jigoku) in 1910.
31. Sweden borg assigned paragraph numbers to his works. These
numbers are uniform in all editions and are used in Sweden borg
studies in place of page numbers.
32. The last sentence seems to be paraphrased from the longer
passage in Heaven and Hell: "[LJikewise, what a deed or work is
apart from love, namely, that it is not a deed or work of life, but a
deed or work of death, which possesses an appearance of life from
an evil love and a belief in what is false. This appearance of life is
what is called spiritual death."
33. De Ultimo Judicio, et de Babylonia destructa: ita quod omnia,
quae in Apocalypsi praedicta sunt, hodie imp leta sint. Ex auditis et
visis (London: 1758). This work contains a uniquely Swedenborgian
claim: that the last judgment predicted in the Bible had already taken
place in the spiritual world in the year 1757. Sweden borg regarded
this judgment as signalling the end of the "old" Christian church,
with the second coming of Christ ushering in a new Christianity, cul-
minating with the establishment in the spiritual world of a new
Christian church in the year 1770. See G.F. Dole and R.H. Kirven, A
Scientist Explores Spirit (West Chester, PA: The Sweden borg Foun-
dation, 1992), 75. Later references in the text to this work are taken
-
68 from The Last Judgment, in Miscellaneous Theological Works of
Emanuel Swedenborg, trans. John Whitehead, 2nd. edition (New
York: Sweden borg Foundation, 1996), and will be referred to in the
D.
text as LJ.
T. 34. De Telluribus in Mundo nostro Solari, quae vocantur Plane-
tae: et de telluribus in coelo astrifero: deque illarum incolis; tum de
s spiritibus et angeli ibi; ex auditis et visis (London: 1758). This work
u is often referred to as Earths in the Universe.
z 35. De Nova Hierosolyma et ejus Doctrina coelesti: ex auditis e
U coelo. Quibus praemittur aliquid de Nova Coelo et nova Terra (Lon-
K don: 1758). Suzuki translated this work into Japanese (Shin
Erusaremu to Sono Kyosetsu) in 1914.
36. De Divino Amore et de Divina Sapientia (Amsterdam: 1763).
Suzuki translated this work into Japanese (Shinchi to Shin'ai) in
1914. Later references in the text to this work are taken from Divine
Love and Wisdom, trans. John C. Ager, 2nd edition (West Chester,
PA: Sweden borg Foundation, 1995), and will be referred to in the
text as DLW.
37. The word here translated as "himself" is jibun in Japanese, a
word that is actually not gender specific. Since the texts used by
Suzuki would have assigned the male pronoun to God, that is what
is used here.
38. Concerning Swedenborg's breathing techniques, see Sigstedt,
Swedenborg Epic, pp. 5, 144,221, and 462, n. 374.
39. The works Suzuki refers to are Doctrina Novae Hierosolymae
de Domino ("the Lord"), Doctrina Novae Hierosolymae de Scrip-
tura Sacra ("Sacred Scripture"), Doctrina Vitae pro Nova Hi-
erosolyma ex Praeceptis Decalogi ("Life"), and Doctrina Novae Hi-
erosolymae de Fide ("Faith").
40. Sapientia Angelica de Divina Providentia (Amsterdam: 1764).
Suzuki translated this work into Japanese in 1915 (Shinryo Ron).
Later references to this work are taken from Divine Providence,
trans. William F. Wunsch, 2nd edition (West Chester, PA: Sweden-
borg Foundation, 1996), and will be referred to in the text as DP.
41. In Japanese, the phrase "expedient means" is hoben and in
Sanskrit, upaya.
42. In Swedenborg's use, proprium, or an illusion of self-reliance,
is not always a negative concept. The term has variant senses, such
as proprium that is angelic, diabolical, human, divine, infernal, intel-
lectual, voluntary, etc. In its negative usages, it often means very
much the same as pride. From "Glossary of Swedenborgian Terms,"
Emanuel Swedenborg: A Continuing Vision, ed. Robin Larsen, et al
(New York: The Swedenborg Foundation, 1988),515.
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69

5
W
43. Delitiae Sapientiae de Amore Conjugiali; post quas sequuntur E
voluptates insaniae de Amore scortatorio (Amsterdam: 1768). Here- D
inafter references to this work will be cited as CL. This work is also E
entitled Marital Love, trans. W. E Wunsch (New York: Swedenborg N
Foundation, 1938). B
44. De Commercio Animae et Corporis. Concerning this work, o
James Hyde notes, "The book was not 'published' in the general ac- R
ceptance of the word, but distributed privately. Copies were sent to G
the various scientific societies and universities of England and
France" (A Bibliography of the Works of Emanuel Swedenborg, ed.
J. Hyde [London: The Sweden borg Society, 1906],519). This work
is also called Soul-Body Interaction.
45. Suzuki indicated that the Spiritual Diary, also known as the
Memorabilia, covers "from 1747 to his last year," i.e., 1772. How-
ever, Sweden borg stopped writing down his thoughts and experi-
ences in this form in 1765, although in works dated 1766-1771, he
included material similar to much of the data in this work, identify-
ing these accounts as "memorable relations" or "memorable occur-
rences." The first such work to contain these experiences is Sweden-
borg's Apocalypse Revealed, published in 1766. In a letter written to
his friend Dr. Gabriel A. Beyer, Sweden borg states:

I have at last brought the Book of Revelation to a close ... At

the conclusion of every chapter there are memorable relations
separated from the text by asterisks which you will please to
read first. From these a thorough knowledge may be gathered
of the wretched state into which the Reformed Churches have
been brought by Faith alone.

See second letter of Sweden borg to Beyer, 8 April 1766 (Tafel, Doc-
uments, vol. 2, pt. 1, doc. 223, p. 239).
46. The first collected edition in Latin of Swedenborg's spiritual
experiences is Eman. Swedenborgii Diarii Spiritualis, ed. J.EI. Tafel,
-
70

D.
T.
5 vols. (London: Wm. Newbery, 1843-47). The first complete Eng-
lish translation is The Spiritual Diary of Emanuel Sweden borg, be-
ing the record during twenty years of his supernatural experience,
ed. George Bush, John H. Smithson and James Buss,S vols. (Lon-
don: James Speirs, 1883-1902). Subsequent references to The Spiri-
tual Diary will be cited in the text as SD.
s 47. I have translated the Japanese term innen as "strong bond" in
u this sentence, but it could also be translated as the Buddhist term
z karma.
U 48. This letter was dated "1758" in Borowski's Life of Kant, but
K subsequent scholarship has disputed its date. Tafel originally placed
it at 1768 (Documents, vol. 2, pt. 1, doc. 272); Signe Toksvig agreed
with Tafel (Emanuel Swedenborg: Scientist and Mystic [New Haven:
Yale University Press, 1948; rpt. New York: Sweden borg Founda-
tion, 1983), 373, n. 14]). However, CO. Sigstedt has shown that
that letter was written in 1763 (Swedenborg Epic [New York: Book-
man Associates, 1952],472, n. 567). Likewise, although the German
original says the fire took place in September 1756, it actually hap-
pened on July 29, 1759. The parenthetical statements that note these
discrepancies are Suzuki's own.
49. See Tafel, Documents, vol. 2, part 1, doc. 273, 628-629.
50. The portrait was painted for Count von Hapken by P. Krafft,
the elder, about the year 1770. In the portrait, Sweden borg holds in
his left hand a book inscribed Apocalypsis Relevata (sic) in Qua De-
teguntur Arcana Qua ipsi (sic) Praedicta Sunt. The picture appeared
as a frontispiece in Suedenborugu.
51. Tafel, vol. 2, part 1, doc. 256, p. 445.
52. Ibid., 445-446. In the Japanese, Suzuki omits Cuno's initial
expression of surprise. Otherwise, Suzuki's version is close enough to
Tafel's English that I have quoted directly from Tafel.
53. The Japanese mistakenly states that von Hapken knew Swe-
denborg for "forty-five" years.
54. Tafel, vol. 2, part 1, doc. 252a, pp. 407-408.
55. The bracketed paragraph is translated directly from Suzuki
but is not found in Tafel immediately following the preceding para-
graph. In document 252a, a letter dated May 11, 1772, Count von
Hapken writes, "[Swedenborg] was likewise a natural philosopher,
but on Cartesian principles. He detested metaphysics, as founded on
fallacious ideas, because they transcend our sphere, by means of
which theology has been drawn from its simplicity, and become arti-

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71
ficial and corrupted" (Ibid.) In a later letter, dated May 21, 1773, the
count writes, "The late Sweden borg certainly was a pattern of sin-
cerity, virtue, and piety, and at the same time, in my opinion, the
s
W
most learned man in this kingdom" (Tafel, vol. 2, part 1, doc. 252b,
p. 410). It appears that Suzuki paraphrased these two sentiments in E
creating his own paragraph. D
56. Tafel, vol. 2, pt. 1, doc. 256a, p. 446. E
57. Characteristically, Suzuki did not provide the reference for N
this quotation. B
58. This passage may be a loose translation from Arcana Coeles- o
tia 1002, which states the following: R
Eating the flesh of animals, regarded in itself, is something pro- G
fane, for in the most ancient time they never ate the flesh of any
beast or bird, but only seeds, especially bread made from
wheat, also the fruit of trees, vegetables, various milks and
what was made from them, such as various butters. To kill ani-
mals and eat their flesh was to them a wickedness, and like
wild beasts. They took from them only service and use, as is ev-
ident from Genesis i. 29, 30. But in the process of time, when
men began to be as fierce as wild beasts, and even fiercer, they
then for the first time began to kill animals and eat their flesh;
and because such was man's nature, it was permitted him to do
this, and is still permitted, to this day; and so far as he does it
from conscience, so far it is lawful for him, since his conscience
is formed of all that he supposes to be true and thus lawful.
59. This passage may be a paraphrase of a quote from Robsahm's
memories, as recorded by Tafel: "Those who are poorest are either
lazy or good for nothing; and, moreover, alms are often injurious to
those that receive them, when anyone from mere goodness of heart
takes pity on the indigent." Robsahm then continues, "He did not
lend money; 'for,' said he, 'this is the direct way to lose it;' moreover,
he added, that he had need of all his money for his travels, and for
the printing of his works." These latter statements are echoed by
Suzuki in the following paragraph. See Tafel, vol. 1, doc. 5, p. 42.
60. Tafel, vol. 2, pt. 2, doc. 305, p. 790. Pernety was a Benedictine
monk who became abbot of St. Germain. A catalog of Swedenborg's
-
72

D.
T.
writings is included in his French translation of Heaven and Hell
(Les Merveilles du Ciel et de [,Enfer ... [Berlin, 1782]).
61. Tafel, vol. 2, part 1, doc. 256f, p. 482.
62. Tafel, vol. 2, part 2, doc. 291, p. 725. This anecdote was re-
lated by Fryxell to the secretary of the Swedish Academy, Baron von
Beskow. The first few sentences of Tafel's version differ slightly from
s Suzuki's version: "My grandmother, Sara Greata Askbom, who was
u married to Anders Ekman, councillor of commerce and burgomaster,
z had grown up in the neighbourhood of Bjorngardsgatan in the So-
U derma 1m, where her father lived not far from Swedenborg, with
K whom he had frequent intercourse. The pretty maiden, only fifteen
or sixteen years old, had often asked 'Uncle' Sweden borg to show
her a spirit or an angel. ... "
63. The Spiritual Diary of Emanuel Swedenborg, trans. George
Bush and John H. Smithson (London: James Speirs, 1883), vol. 3, p.
70, para. 3464. There are some slight discrepancies between Suzuki's
translation and the Bush/Smithson translation. Where Suzuki says,
"I was first accustomed thus to feel my internal breath," The Spiri-
tual Diary reads, "I was first accustomed thus to respire .... " Where
Suzuki writes, "and especially when deeply engaged in writing philo-
sophical works," The Diary states, "and especially when deeply en-
gaged in writing the works that have been published." Finally, where
Suzuki writes, "I was thus from the period of childhood able to stop
my external breathing and activate only my internal breath," The
Diary states, "I was thus during many years, from the period of
childhood, introduced into such respirations .... "
64. CL 239-242.
65. Emanuel Swedenborg, A New Translation from the Hebrew
of the Prophet Isaiah . .. , trans. J. H. Smithson (London: Longman,
Green, Longman, and Roberts, 1860). Suzuki did not supply the
paragraph number for this citation. However, Sweden borg expressed
similar sentiments in his Spiritual Diary, vol. 1, 767 and vol. 2,
2263.
66. This entry is dated August 27, 1748. Suzuki's version differs
enough from that of Bush and Smithson that the above text is trans-
lated directly from the Japanese. Bush and Smithson's translation
reads as follows:
1 spoke with spirits (as to) how my writings concerning these
things seem to be received when they become public; for evil
 -
spmts sometimes infused that no one would perceive these 73
things, but that (men) would reject them. Now while in the
street and talking with spirits, it was given to perceive that s
there are five kinds of reception: First, (those) who wholly re- W
ject, who are in another persuasion, and who are enemies of E
the faith. These reject; for it cannot be received by them, since D
it (can) not penetrate their minds. Another class, who receive E
these things as scientifics, and are delighted with them as scien- N
tifics, and as curious things. A third class, which receives, intel- B
lectually, so that they receive with sufficient alacrity, but still
o
remain (in respect to) life as before. A fourth class (receives)
R
persuasively, so that it penetrates to the improvement of their
G
lives; they recur to these in certain states, and make use of
them. A fifth class, who receive with joy, and are confirmed.

67. For example, see CL 183(3), 269(2), 361, and 380(6). The
parenthetical remark is Suzuki's.
68. For example, see AC 33 and 10130(2); HH 479 and 481(2).
The parenthetical remark is Suzuki's.
 P
A
R
T

T
W
o
Swedenborg~s View of Heaven
and cCOther-Power"
A Translation of "Suedenborugu:
Sono Tenkai to Tarikikan"
D. T. Suzuki. 1963
 Swedenborg's View of Heaven
and "Other-Power"

Sweden borg's religious philosophy is unfathomably deep; and

since it is fairly difficult to grasp, few people have made a
scholarly study of it. However, when you carefully read his
seemingly absurd writing with a calm mind, you find that
many elements become rather difficult to dismiss. In particu-
lar, Swedenborg's Heaven and Hell contains profound and fas-
cinating points. Among his many works, this is the one most
widely read; and having formerly translated it into Japanese, I
would like to take the opportunity to express my feelings on it,
although this essay is really no more than an introduction.
Sweden borg does not give a very clear definition of heaven.
It might be considered a state after death, or it might be that
this world, just as it is, is heaven-or hell, depending on how
you take it. In truth, even among the spirits dwelling in heaven,
there are very few who can see what heaven is. Because of this,
it may be impossible to explain to ordinary people like us.
Be that as it may, we can see heaven as a kind of ideal realm
with a relationship to the material world of the five senses that
is one of neither equivalence nor separation. Sweden borg uses
the word "state" to describe it.
Heaven comprises the good of love and the truth of enlight-
enment. When good and truth return to a state of innocence,
they reveal a perfect heaven. Unless one enters a state of "no
-
78 false thoughts" or "artlessness,"1 even good is not divine good
and truth is not divine truth. One aspect of this condition is
D. reflected in the speech and actions of children. However, the
T. innocent nature of children is unrefined, so it cannot be called
the genuine state.
$ As for the source of innocence, it spontaneously floods the
U inner life when we completely give up our own thoughts.
Z Doing good, we do not think it good. When others comment
U on it and call it good, that good is not something that arises
K from the self but arises from the Divine. Nothing results from
I
self-power; everything is achieved through the addition of di-
vine power to oneself: "Those who are in a state of innocence
attribute nothing of good to themselves, but regard all things
as received and ascribe them to the Lord ... and wish to be led
by Him and not by themselves.... "2 All of the highest angels
dwell in the purity of this innocence. When the degree of pu-
rity is low, the angel's position in heaven naturally falls as well.
The quality of innocence is actually the fundamental principle
on which heaven's organization is based.
Because heaven derives from innocence, the fact that the Di-
vine in heaven is also innocent is a self-evident truth. Sweden-
borg occasionally spoke with angels and related what tran-
spired. Innocence is the essence of every good and good is
truly good to the extent that it has innocence within it. What
we call wisdom is wisdom only when it arises from this inno-
cence, and the same holds true for love, charity, and faith.
Therefore, when they are not innocent, people cannot enter
heaven. The Lord expressed this meaning in the following
verse: "Let the children come to me; do not try to stop them;
for the kingdom of heaven belongs to such as these. I tell you,
whoever does not accept the kingdom of God like a child will
never enter it" [Mark 10:14; Luke 18:16]. The children spo-
ken of here signify innocence. According to Sweden borg, the
Bible is composed of many of these symbols. Having become
conscious of their hidden meanings, he wrote a number of dif-
ferent works. This awareness is not something that came from
his own mind. He personally entered heaven and experienced
-
79

o
T
it as it flowed from God. H
Swedenborg's symbolic philosophy is built on the principle E
of correspondence. Because this principle is one of the major R
tenets of his philosophy, one certainly must know about it to
p
understand Swedenborg. I believe the principle of correspon-
dence originally comes from the idea in the Bible that "God o
W
created man in his own image" [Genesis 1:27].
E
Those without the perfect good of love and the perfect truth
R
of wisdom cannot understand the hidden will of heaven. Peo-
ple have both an internal and an external; and not being able
to make an adequate correspondence between them, they can-
not comprehend [heaven's will]. One way to grasp it, however,
is through the phenomena of the sensual world as perceived
through the five senses. All of these phenomena contain signif-
icance. The caw of a crow or the song of a sparrow are not
simply a caw and a song: there are heavenly significance and
infernal significance. This kind of reading depends on the
principle of correspondence. Therefore, while people are on
the earth, they are free to unveil their correspondence with
heaven according to the nature of their internal enthusiasm.
That is, this world of suffering can also be considered a Pure
Land of tranquillight. 3 Those who grasp the principle of cor-
respondence stroll through a kingdom of significance.
Heaven, in fact, is composed solely of this significance; it is
a place governed by pure love and pure truth. Love is warmth
and corresponds to the human heart. Truth is light and corre-
sponds to the human lungs. Located in the thorax, the heart
and lungs are distinguished from other organs. When love
stirs, the heart throbs and heat is released. When truth shines,
-
80

D.
T.
the breath is regulated and there is silence. However, when
there is no heat, there is no light, so light is of secondary im-
portance. Even without light, there is heat, heat being the fun-
damental principle. Dark heat is the fire of hell, and it is from
here that all pain is born. Heat with light brings spring to the
s universe, and it always feels like spring in heaven. 4 Here we see
u the truth of correspondence.
z The perfect union of love and wisdom is the individual per-
U son, and all of heaven exhibits itself through the appearance of
K
an individual. The full realization of a person's integrity can be
I
seen only in the realm of divine good and divine truth. Among
modern philosophers, there are those who say things such as,
"God is a perfect individual. Human consciousness, try as it
might, can never seize the singularity of the individual. Yet it
always tries to grasp it, and this longing is first satisfied upon
arrival at the Divine. The reason for the existence of this long-
ing is simply that the Divine realizes itself in individual human
beings." Can we not see traces of Sweden borg in this?
The doctrine of correspondence is profound. In terms of
Buddhism, it is similar to the Shingon philosophy of phenom-
ena. 5 One can also interpret the idea of the Pure Land accord-
ing to the doctrine of correspondence. Even if we say that all
phenomena interpenetrate without obstacle, we cannot iden-
tify hell with paradise. 6 Although we can say that the Pure
Land's significance is found in this world of suffering, hell, be-
ing hell, is not paradise; and Kannon, Amida, Fud6, Yakushi,
and the eight million gods exist just the same. 7 The principle of
correspondence cannot be divorced from human conscious-
ness. Viewed from the doctrine of correspondence, I believe
Shingon teachings on such things as mudras can be interpreted
in an interesting fashion. 8 If Sweden borg had not communi-
cated with the Christian heaven, and had instead mastered
Buddhist philosophy, what kind of "hidden will" would he
have discovered? I believe it is worth engaging in this kind of
speculation.
Previously, I noted that the essence of heaven is innocence
and that, because this innocence cannot be achieved through
-
81

o
T
ordinary knowledge, it must be reached through a perfect en- H
lightenment beyond knowledge. What I call enlightenment is E
the perception that we cannot independently achieve good R
separate from the Lord God in heaven. Without this percep-
p
tion, we cannot attain innocence.
Since heaven derives from innocence, its opposite, hell, o
W
would have to signify non-innocence. In other words, those
E
who believe in self-power without relying on other-power will
R
always fall into helP When my ego's purpose suddenly arises, I
shoot into hell like an arrow. The purpose of the ego, accord-
ing to Sweden borg, is self-love and worldly love. When the
vault of hell is opened, the raging fire and smoke that one sees
rising up is what springs from the blaze of these two loves.
Those who are in hell in bodily form are completely consumed
by these flames. As I said before, there is also heat in heaven,
the heat of divine love. However, this heat is like the warmth of
spring, and once this warmth flows into the blaze of hell, the
blaze cools and becomes extremely cold. The heat of heaven
acts in this mysterious way. Flowing from the depths of the Di-
vine is a power that cannot be judged by human perception.
Sweden borg was allowed by the Lord to witness hell. A por-
tion of his record reads:
The hells are everywhere, and their entrances, when looked
into, appear pitch black. But those who dwell in them think it
to be bright. This is because their eyes are adapted to this de-
gree of light. The cave openings first extend inward, and then
twist obliquely. Some plunge downward into a bottomless
abyss, and appear like the caves of wild beasts. Other hells
seem like the ruins of houses and cities after conflagrations.
-
82

D.
T.
The spirits living here are engaged in unceasing quarrels, enmi-
ties, fightings, and brutalities. Throughout the scorched city,
bands of thieves and robbers swagger about. In some of the
hells there are nothing but brothels, filled with every kind of
filth and excrement. Again, there are thick forests in which
5 spirits roam like wild beasts, and where, underground, there
U are dens into which those flee who are pursued by others.
Z Some are wastelands where there is only sand. There are those
U
who flee as far as such places. In particular, those who con-
K trived intrigues and deceits while in the world are driven into
I the desert, where they must spend their lives. 10

I believe there is no one who has written as minutely about

the nature of heaven and hell as Swedenborg. Dante skillfully
applied his art, and he should be recognized as an exponent of
medieval beliefs; but Sweden borg, with an intellectual faculty
forged through science and with his amazing power of imagi-
nation and insight, exhaustively described the spiritual world.
At first his writing seems ridiculous, but as you read on, you
are drawn into it. Although it might contain a number of fan-
tasies, it undoubtedly includes many truths as well.
Swedenborg said that heaven arises from love toward the
Lord and knowledge of the Divine. Hell, conversely, is realized
through love of self and love of the world, as well as through
consciousness of both these loves. Heaven and hell are oppo-
site poles. Recognizing these poles, Sweden borg made human
beings the mid-point. Self-love means grabbing pleasure from
others and gathering it only to yourself. Worldly love is the de-
sire to make another person's possessions your own. Those in
the midst of this sort of love may wish to share their own en-
joyment with others; but since the focus of that motive is still
themselves, they do not increase the enjoyment of others, but
instead reduce it. Sweden borg said he personally experienced
this in the spiritual world. Before Sweden borg applied himself
to religion, he was a prominent scientist, so he did not give ab-
stract explanations. He taught through his own observations.
Thus, in the spiritual world, he sensed that when an egotist
merely approached a heavenly society, the level of enjoyment
among the angels in that society would decline. Sweden borg
-
83

o
T
said the degree of this decline was proportional to the intensity H
of self-love felt by infernal beings. He never explained by way E
of argument or speculation, but with the attitude of a scientist R
describing actual experiences. In this respect, he had a unique
p
worldview.
Heaven is divine love, and hell is self-love, while we, in be- o
W
tween, must decide our lot for ourselves. Sweden borg called
E
this freedom equilibrium. I find it interesting how his choice of
R
the word "equilibrium" demonstrates that he was a scientist.
In any case, we are free and may head toward the love of
heaven or love of hell as we please. Without free and indepen-
dent action, true regeneration and salvation are not possible.
Without freedom, we cannot act according to our own love.
Love that flows from the internal originates with the Lord; but
when we do not act from this love, we never attain our true
life. Because the external comes from memory, it works only
through thought, and conceptual living cannot save people. In
all cases, it is necessary to express the internal will, for it is in
this that correspondence with heaven may take place.
According to Sweden borg's description, there are two gates
that people open. One leads to hell and the other to heaven.
Evil and falsehood flow from one direction, and good and
truth from the other. Evil people open wide the gate to hell and
wantonly accept its flow. As for the gate to heaven, several
rays of light barely thrust through a crack above. The fact that
evil people also possess the faculties of thought, philosophical
reasoning, and linguistic expression is due to the power of this
light. However, they do not recognize that these [faculties] are
from heaven, thinking them only to be [the properties] of their
own reasonable minds. Because of this, the true nature of
-
84 these reasonable minds is love for the infernal. All of their
thoughts are stained by this love and are in darkness. How-
D. ever, they imagine they are in the light. Sweden borg entered
T. into and observed the interior of these sorts of people. Stand-
ing at the entrance to the gate of hell, they smell the foul
s stench that spills out-a stench that induces nausea and dizzi-
u ness-and laughing merrily, take pleasure in it. If, by any
z chance, they feel the breath of heaven, these people cannot en-
U dure the internal suffering, and with one loud voice cry,
K "What pain!"
I
From the viewpoint of human beings, this is a manifestation
of free nature; but the divine will, which has granted to hu-
mans the sensation of freedom, tries, based on this freedom, to
build the salvation of people through their volition. In truth,
the desire of people to go to heaven is an act of the divine will,
or other-power. Again, to have this intention, to be reborn in
heaven, is impossible without the other-power of the divine
will; but from the perspective of freedom, everything seems to
be the result of the self-power of human beings. The reason
that people must perceive the reasoning of an autonomous
will is that, if they do not, they will not be able to think about
and intend evil and falsehood. A thinking consciousness is a
condition for this freedom, which allows for the manifestation
of an internal that tends toward good and truth. Despite the
teaching of salvation through other-power, if we first do not
recognize the consequences of karma and the depth of our evil
passions,ll other-power can do nothing to help. The possibil-
ity of listening stems from free consciousness.
Through the freedom and reason that are granted by other-
power, a Buddhist recognizes his or her sins and achieves re-
birth in paradise, while a Christian gains repentance and res-
urrection. The need to repent comes from the fact that we are
originally in a state of degeneration. Our life is nourished by
the heat and light of heaven on the one hand, but fueled by
self-love and worldly love on the other. Through these two
loves, divine good and divine wisdom are suppressed; stopped
by various falsehoods and evils, we forget to advance. We are
awakened from this by the words of the Bible, or in Buddhism,
-
85

o
T
by the name of Amida, the name that sounds throughout the H
ten directions. When freedom and reason are not guided by in- E
fernallove, but instead turn toward the sun in heaven-that is, R
the chief direction of the Divine-the love and light of the Di-
p
vine flood that person's interior to the point of overflowing,
and in this is the reality of regeneration. This regeneration is o
W
accompanied by a heavenly joy. At first, we think this joy is
E
something natural and do not recognize its origin in the Di-
R
vine; but the moment of recognition finally comes, and this
moment is perfect enlightenment. We realize that various
goods and truths stem from the other-power of the Divine and
that the consciousness of autonomous self-power comes from
a blind thought, marked with traces of self-love. Without the
truth of this enlightenment, there is no real regeneration. The
perfect union of this truth with divine love allows us to lead a
spiritual life. This is said to be the moment when we live the
life of the internal.
Evil people too are able to discern through reason what is
good. Yet, because that good has not entered into their lives,
their interiors are not illuminated by the light of regeneration,
and they turn their backs to the Divine. Because Swedenborg
witnessed this in the spiritual world, it must be true. Imagine
here a conversation between two people. It appears very inti-
mate, and when you listen to them, it feels as if you can dis-
cern their internal love. However, viewed with Sweden borg's
insight, these two people are standing back to back, and the
waves of love arising from their inner hearts are dark in color.
It looks as if they are crashing into each other. The internal
and external of this world are separated in this way, so that
the activity of spiritual reason is not clear. But when we enter
-
86 the world of the internal, everything is unconcealed and
naked. The Bible says, "For there is nothing hidden that will
D. not become public, nothing under cover that will not be made
T. known" [Luke 8:17]. When we recall this, everything is a self-
evident truth, says Sweden borg. This is again the force of
s other-power.
u There is a great deal I wish to write concerning Sweden borg,
z but that remains for another day. He was a Swede who died in
U England in 1772, that is, 155 years ago. He was a man of sci-
K ence until age 55, and his works on theology, more than most
I
could write in a lifetime, span the next [twenty-nine] years.
When he was 84 years old, he predicted the time of his death
and accordingly returned to heaven.

Notes

1. In japanese, shija-nashi and muk6y6. The quotation marks ap-

pear in Suzuki's text.
2. Emanuel Sweden borg, Heaven and Its Wonders and Hell, 2nd
ed., trans. john C. Ager (West Chester, PA: The Swedenborg Foun-
dation, 1995), 277. As is standard in Swedenborgian studies, the
number refers to a paragraph, not a page.
3. In japanese, "this world of suffering" is shaba and in Sanskrit,
saha. This is the mundane world in which people endure various
forms of pain. In japanese, jakk6j6do is a standard designation for a
Buddhist Pure Land. In the context of this essay, Suzuki is referring to
the Pure Land of Amida Buddha. See my introduction, n. 46, p. xxxiii.
4. The phrase translated here as "universe" is sanzendaisensekai
in Japanese and trisahasra-mahasahasrak lokadhatavak in Sanskrit.
The term means literally "triple-thousand great one-thousand
world." A thousand worlds make a small one-thousand world
(sh6sen-sekai); a thousand of these make a medium one-thousand
world (chusen-sekai); a thousand of these make a great one-thou-
sand world (daisen-sekai). See Hisao Inagaki, A Dictionary of
Japanese Buddhist Terms (Union City, CA: Heian International,
1989),277.
5. Shingon is a school of esoteric Buddhism founded in japan by
Kukai (774-835). Within the history of Shingon, there have been dif-
ferent ideas and practices surrounding the term ;iso ("phenomena");
-
87

o
T
it is not clear to exactly what Suzuki is referring. But, in general, H
Shingon practitioners maintain that the phenomena of the tangible E
world are aspects of Mahavairocana Buddha's continual preaching. R
Kukai equated Mahavairocana (in japanese, Dainichi Buddha) with
the Dharmakaya (in japanese, hosshin), which is the "dharma- p
body" or Buddha body of ultimate reality. In doing so, Kukai trans- o
formed the ultimate body of the Buddha from something formless W
and beyond conceptualization into a dynamic force approachable E
through the particular and concrete. Because the Dharmakaya re- R
veals itself through "all objects of sense and thought," one can learn
this language and attain enlightment "in this very existence," as
Kukai put it. See Yoshito S. Hakeda, "Essentials of Kilkai's Esoteric
Buddhist Thought and Practice," in Kukai: Ma;or Works, Translated
with an Account of His Life and a Study of His Thought (New York:
Columbia University Press, 1972), 76-100. See also Taiko Ya-
masaki, Shingon: Japanese Esoteric Buddhism (Boston, MA: Shamb-
hala, 1988).
6. The term "interpenetrate" is taken from the japanese ;i;imuge.
This concept, encapsulated by the simple phrase "the one in the
many and the many in the one," is attributed primarily to the Hua-
Yen school of Buddhist philosophy (in japanese, the "Kegon"
school), but it has also been embraced by other Buddhist schools. In
Thomas Cleary'S words, it means that "each and every phenomenon
implies and reflects the existence of each and every other thing; the
existence of all is inherent in the existence of one" (Entry into the In-
conceivable: An Introduction to Hua- Yen Buddhism [Honolulu, HI:
University of Hawaii Press, 1983],33).
7. Regarding Amida, see my introduction, n. 46. Kannon (in San-
skrit, AvalokiteSvara) is a bodhisattva who takes on numerous
forms, both male and female, and is commonly depicted as an atten-
dant of Amida. Fud6 (in Sanskrit, Acala) is a fierce spirit who is of-
ten depicted holding a sword in his right hand and a rope in his left.
He is one of the myoo (in Sanskrit, vidya-ra;a), divinities who
-
88 protect Buddhists and the Buddhist Dharma. Yakushi, whose full
name is Yakushi-ruriko (in Sanskrit, Bhaisa;ya-guru-vaidurya-
prabha) is known as the "Medicine Buddha" because one of the
D.
twelve vows he made as a bodhisattva was to cure disease.
T.
8. Mudras (in japanese, ingei) are ritual hand gestures associated
with certain Buddhas and bodhisattvas. Shingon practitioners often
s form these gestures during meditation.
u 9. In japanese, "other-power" is tariki, the saving power of the
z Buddha.
U 10. This passage seems to be a paraphrase from Heaven and Hell,
K paragraphs 584 and 586.
I 11. In japanese, bonno; in Sanskrit, kleSa.
 AFTERWORD

The Dharma of Emanuel Swedenborg:

A Buddhist Perspective

by David Loy

In January 1887 a former Swedenborgian minister named Carl

Herman Vetterling, who now called himself Philangi Dasa, be-
gan publishing the first Buddhist journal in the United States.
The inaugural issue of The Buddhist Ray, which he edited
from his cabin in the mountains above Santa Cruz, California,
proclaimed itself "devoted to Buddhism in general, and to the
Buddhism in Sweden borg in particular." The prospectus on
the first page informed readers that it would "set forth the
teachings imparted by the Mongolian Buddhists to Emanuel
Swedenborg, and published by him in his mystic writings." As
this declaration suggests, Philangi Dasa was not afraid of con-
troversy; and whatever the scholarly shortcomings of his jour-
nal, it was not dull. "Delivering his unorthodox views with
self-righteous conviction, he offended readers regularly, but
his outspoken brand of sincerity made The Buddhist Ray one
of the liveliest Buddhist journals ever." I
In the same year Philangi Dasa also published Swedenborg
the Buddhist, or The Higher Swedenborgianism, Its Secrets
and Thibetan Origin. George Dole has tactfully described it
as "rather strange,"2 yet the book is not without its charm.
Presented as a 322-page dream, it takes the form of a
-
90

D
A
conversation among Sweden borg himself, a Buddhist monk, a
Brahmin, a Parsi, a Chinese, an Aztec, an Icelander, and "a
woman." The result is an amiable theosophical synthesis of re-
ligious beliefs and mythologies from many lands. As one
V would expect from his background and the texts available in
I his time, Philangi Dasa knew more about Sweden borg than
D about Buddhism; and his ostensible aim, to show that Sweden-
borg was really a Buddhist, is shadowed by another concern,
L using Buddhism to reveal the shortcomings of Swedenborgian-
o ism. The tone is that of a disappointed lover:
y
Although I set much by Swedenborg, I would as soon put a ra-
zor in the hands of an infant as to put his theological writings
into the hands of a man not versed in the spiritual teachings of
Asia in general, and in the teachings of Buddhism in particular;
for, he might embrace them and, with a large number of mem-
bers of the "New Church" society, die in doubt and despair. 3

Philangi Dasa's journal and book have long been forgotten,

yet he was not the only one to notice the similarities between
Sweden borg and Buddhism. A few years later D. T. Suzuki
was introduced to Sweden borg sometime during his years
working with Paul Carus in Illinois (1897-1908).4 As Andrew
Bernstein has explained in his introduction to this volume,
Suzuki's interest in Swedenborg was particularly intense over a
five-year period (from 1910 to 1915) when he translated into
Japanese four of Swedenborg's works and wrote a biography
and overview of the Swedish seer's career. Then, in 1924
Suzuki published a nine-page article suggesting that Sweden-
borg's doctrine of correspondences may be compared with the
Shingon doctrine that phenomena are aspects of Mahavairo-
cana Buddha's ceaseless teaching. The last paragraph con-
cludes: "There is still a great deal I wish to write about Swe-
den borg, but that remains for another day." Unfortunately,
that day never came: Suzuki's writings on Sweden borg ceased
after this article, although he continued writing for another
fifty years, the majority of his books (totaling perhaps 20,000
pages) being written after his mid-fifties.
-
91

A
F
Curiously, these later Buddhist writings contain very few al- T
lusions to Sweden borg, despite the fact that there are refer- E
ences to, and sometimes detailed discussions of, many other R
Western writers, including Christian mystics such as Eckhart. W
It is not clear why Sweden borg figures so little in these many o
R
works, although evidently it was not due to any disaffection:
D
all of Suzuki's published references to Sweden borg are posi-
tive, and he was fond of mentioning Sweden borg in conversa-
tion. According to his private secretary Mihoko Bekku, as late
as the 1950's, he would sometimes remark, in response to an
inquiry, "Well, Sweden borg would say ... "5 And when we
consider the direction that Suzuki's life took after his en-
counter with Sweden borg, doesn't it suggest that the latter's
personal example-Sweden borg's singleminded yet humble
devotion to the task of recording his spiritual insights-may
have served as an important model for Suzuki?
However influential Suzuki's translations may have been for
the development of Japanese Swedenborgianism, his contribu-
tion to the dialogue between Buddhism and Sweden borg
seems, like Dasa's, to have been forgotten. Nevertheless, their
insight was not misplaced, for there indeed are profound simi-
larities between what Sweden borg writes and what Buddhism
teaches; and today we have reached a point where we can ap-
preciate them more fully. In recent years the dialogue between
Buddhism and Christianity has become an important develop-
ment in contemporary religious thought, yet as far as I know
this dialogue has overlooked Sweden borg. The purpose of this
afterword is to note some of the more important parallels be-
tween Sweden borg and Buddhism and to reflect on their
92 meaning for us. These similarities are all the more interesting
_ because reliable Buddhist teachings and texts were not avail-
D able in Europe during his time. 6
A Sweden borg's views will be presented by focusing mainly on
V Heaven and Hell, his best-known work, which is also the best
I summary of his voluminous writings. Since I want to refer to
D more than one Buddhist tradition, my Buddhist citations will
be more eclectic.
L
o
y
The Concept of the Self

The first similarity to be discussed is also the most basic one.

Heaven and Hell presents a vision of human and postmortem
existence that contrasts sharply with our postmodernist suspi-
cion of grand narratives that propose to explain everything.
No narrative is or could be grander than Swedenborg's. Yet,
like Buddhism with its doctrine of anatman (Sanskrit, "no
self"), his vision is postmodern insofar as it denies an ontolog-
ical self.
In our century psychoanalytic and deconstructive ways of
thinking have provided us with some homegrown handles to
grasp what remains a very counter-intuitive concept: the no-
tion that our sense-of-self is not self-evident or self-present but
a mental construction. Sweden borg agrees with Buddhism that
the self (his Latin term is proprium, literally "what belongs to
oneself," for him the understanding that one thinks and wills
from oneself) is an illusion. According to both, the sense-of-
self-the sense that I am a self-existing being whose thoughts
and actions are self-generated-is better understood as the ef-
fect of an economy of forces. For Sweden borg these forces are
spiritual-that is, spirits. Good spirits (angels) and bad spirits
(demons) are always with us, and their influence accounts for
much of what we understand as our mental and emotional
life. The evil spirits take up residence in our evil affections and
bond there, as do the good spirits in our good affections (HH
295)/ It is because their influence harmonizes with our own
affections and tendencies that it enters our way of thinking
-
93

A
F
and is accepted. In this way harmful spirits reinforce our bad T
character traits, and good spirits our better character traits. E
Some spirits are the source of our anxiety and depression (HH R
299). Even diseases (including the toothache that bothered W
Swedenborg!) and death can be caused by infernal spirits. o
R
Each of us has free will-that is, our ability to choose is pre-
D
served-because we are balanced between these two com-
plexes of positive and negative spiritual forces.
The natural Buddhist parallel to such an economy of forces
is the five skandha, "heaps" or aggregates, whose interaction
creates the illusion of self, according to the Pali Sutras. How-
ever, this particular similarity mayor may not be very deep,
for within the Buddhist tradition (which, we must remember,
originates in oral teachings over 2400 years old, creating tex-
tual quagmires that Swedenborgians do not need to worry
about) it is not altogether clear what each skandha refers to
(rupa, vedana, sam;na, satrJskara, and vi;nana may be trans-
lated in various ways) or how their interaction is to be under-
stood (they are usually taken ontologically, but they may refer
to five different stages in the cognition of something). There-
fore, it is unclear how "spiritual" each skandha is, although
the earliest Pali commentaries seem to understand them more
impersonally and mechanically as processes that lack a self do-
ing them.
What remains important, however, is how both deconstruc-
tions-of-self challenge the religious and philosophical climates
of their own time by denying the existence of a Cartesian-type
soul defined by its self-consciousness, which is to be liberated
so it can become pure consciousness. Just as Buddhism contra-
dicts the Hindu notion of a pure soul or consciousness covered
-
94 with karmic impurities, so Sweden borg contradicts the West-
ern tradition (going back at least as far as Plato) of a sinful or
D confused psyche that needs to be cleansed so it can shine forth
A in its uncorrupted glory. Instead, each individual is one's in-
V most affection or ruling love (HH 58). In place of such a pris-
I tine self-consciousness, Sweden borg emphasizes that what I
D love is what I am. What we do, motivated by such love, seems
free to us. The religious task is not to discover what resides
L behind this love-some pure consciousness that is supposedly
o doing the loving-but to transform myself by changing my
y
ruling love (from love of self to love of God and neighbor).
Perhaps this understanding of our mental life becomes more
meaningful if we relate Swedenborg's doctrine to two funda-
mental Mahayana Buddhist teachings: the denial of a duality
between subject and object and the denial of duality between
mind and body. Both resonant deeply with important Sweden-
borgian claims.
The denial of subject-object nonduality is found in many
Mahayana canonical texts and commentaries. As the Japanese
Zen master Dagen put it, "I came to realize that mind is no
other than mountains and rivers and the great wide earth, the
sun and the moon and the stars."8 If there is no self inside, it
also makes no sense to talk about the world as being "out-
side" one's mind. Everything becomes "my" mind. 1 think this
illuminates a Swedenborgian claim that is otherwise difficult
to understand: Sweden borg writes that the divine influx is not
experienced as coming from our internals; rather it comes
through the forehead into our internals: "The influx of the
Lord Himself into man is into his forehead, and from there
into the whole face" (HH 251).9 If I understand this correctly,
the implication is a very Buddhist one: not that we must real-
ize the God within (as in so much Christian mysticism), but
that the sense of a within apart from the world is the self-delu-
sion that needs to be ovecome.
 How is this delusion of self to be overcome? Dagen also
provides a succinct explanation of the Buddhist approach:
To study the buddha way is to study the self. To study the self
is to forget the self. To forget the self is to be actualized by
-
95

A
F
myriad things. When actualized by myriad things, your body T
and mind as well as the bodies and minds of others drop away. E
No trace of realization remains, and this no-trace continues R
endlessly. 10 W
Since there has never been a self, only the illusion of self, the o
point of the Buddhist path is not to eliminate the self but to R
D
forget oneself, which is accomplished by becoming so ab-
sorbed into one's meditation-exercise that one becomes it.
When my sense-of-the-self evaporates, I realize that I am the
world. Instead of attaining immortality, I realize that I cannot
die because I was never born.
And how is delusion of self overcome according to Sweden-
borg? The Spiritual Diary, in which he first described his own
experiences in the afterworld, records several conversations
with spirits who did not understand that "we are to undergo
a process of annihilation, or becoming nothing," to which
Sweden borg replied that "this was what I desired, to wit, to be
absolutely nothing, for then I should first begin to be some-
thing":
They were afterwards instructed that by nothing was meant that
a man should lose all that was his own, that is, his cupidities,
and so his iniquities, ... and that they could never be anything
until they had lost that which was theirs, and that in proportion
as they experienced that loss, or were reduced to nothing, they
would begin to be something, and that then they would have
whatever they desired or thought .... (SD 2043-4)11
For Sweden borg as much as for Buddhism, the path is letting-
go of one's self.
By transforming observed objects into manifestations of
nondual mind, not only the so-called material world but the
-
96 events of "my" mental activity become more "animated," that
is, they gain more of a life of their own, independent of being
D thought by me. Swedenborg says something very similar:
A
[T]hose things of wisdom and love which are called thoughts,
V
perceptions, and affections, are substances and forms ... The
affections, perceptions and thoughts there [in the brain] are
D
not exhalations but are all actually and really subjects, which
do not emit anything from themselves, but merely undergo
L
changes according to whatever flows against and affects them.
o (DLW 42)12
y
Then perceptions, thoughts, and feelings are not what "I" do;
it is more accurate to turn that around and say that my sense
of self is a function of what they do. In this way Sweden borg's
understanding of our mental life accords with his understand-
ing of how influx operates, both that from the Lord (usually,
mediately through angels) and that from evil spirits.
This nonduality of subject and object also has profound
consequences for our experience of mind-body duality. So
much of twentieth-century philosophy has been concerned
with deconstructing dualisms such as mind-body and mind-
matter, which are now seen as problematical and alienating,
that it is necessary to remember Sweden borg was writing in
the eighteenth century when it was less clear that there was
any problem or what alternatives there might be. Sweden-
borg's view of their relation is, therefore, all-the-more striking.
In the afterworld, the body of every spirit is the outer form of
that spirit's love, corresponding exactly to the inner form of
his so~l or mind (e.g., HH 363). From a person's face, in par-
ticular, all the more inward affections are visible and radiate,
because faces are the very outward form of these affections
(HH 47). From conversation, too, the wiser angels know the
whole condition of another person (HH 236). After death, an-
gels carefully examine one's body, beginning with the face,
then the fingers, and so on, because the details of one's
thought and intention are written on the entire body as well
(HH 463). The new spirit is later "devastated" because the
outward and inward elements must correspond and act as one
-
97

A
F
(HH 498, 503). The result is that the mind and body of a spirit T
come to correspond so completely that it is no longer mean- E
ingful to distinguish between them. This is the basis of that R
complete conjugial union experienced most fully in the after- W
world and sometimes even in this life, for both soul and mind, o
R
although they appear to be in the head, are "actually in the
D
whole body" (CL 178).\3
The fact that such union can occur in this world as well re-
minds us not to draw too sharp a line between the world to
come and this one. Bioenergetic therapies such as rolfing con-
firm that the body is not just a vehicle for mind, for it retains
memories of past traumas that can be stimulated by massage.

The Love of the Self

The love of self, which closes our inmost parts to the divine in-
flux (HH 272), is the problem to be overcome. With the sup-
port of his rationality, man has corrupted the output of the
spiritual world within himself "through a disorderly life. So he
must be born into complete ignorance and be led back from
there into the pattern of heaven by divine means" (HH 108).
The need to become ignorant suggests a Buddhist-like cri-
tique of conceptualization, which Sweden borg also makes: in-
sights, being outward truths, do not by themselves save us, but
the way those insights change us (HH 517). Innocence is the
esse of everything good, and everything is good to the extent it
contains innocence (HH 281). To a Buddhist this sounds like
tathata, the "just this!" -ness that describes the unselfconscious
wayan enlightened person lives. Having given up the love of
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D
A
self, and let go of the sense of self, we do not attain some other
reality but realize the true nature of this one, which is all we
need. That is why the essence of Zen can be "chopping wood
and carrying water."
V The importance of this can hardly be overemphasized be-
I cause this is how both traditions solve the problem of life. To
D be spiritual is nothing more than being open to, and thereby
united with, the whole: that is, to accept one's position and
L therefrom manifest the whole, in contrast to self-love (Sweden-
o borg) and the delusion of separate self (Buddhism). The essen-
y
tial point is that this is not something that can happen only af-
ter we die. We are in heaven right now if our internals are
open, according to Sweden borg, and nirva'IJa is to be attained
here and now, according to Sakyamuni Buddha. In fact, nir-
va1J(l is nothing other than the true nature of samsara, accord-
ing to the Mahayana tradition. One version of this is that the
passions, just as they are, are wisdom and enlightenment. This
contradicts the more orthodox view of earlier Pali Buddhism,
which understands desire as the source of our dulJkha (suffer-
ing, dissatisfaction); but the Mahayana point is that our desires
can be transmuted from selfish cravings into self-less joys. Swe-
den borg's attitude towards the pleasures of life makes the same
critique of earlier ascetic, life-denying versions of Christianity:

It is by no means forbidden anyone to enjoy the pleasures of

the body and of sensual things; ... for these are outermost or
corporeal affections from interior affection. The interior affec-
tions, which are living, all derive their delight from good and
truth; and good and truth derive their delight from charity and
faith, and then from the Lord, thus from Life itself; and there-
fore the affections and pleasures which are from thence are
alive. (AC 995)14

This does not imply that the spiritual life is an epicurean-

like devotion to "higher" pleasures, for there is another aspect
of tathatil-activity that Sweden borg and Buddhism both em-

-
99
phasize: that, as Swedenborg puts it, the Lord's kingdom is a
kingdom of "uses which are ends,"-that is, purposes that are A
functions; divine worship is not a matter of attending church F
but living a life of love, charity, and faith (HH 112, 221). T
"People who like to do good for others, not for their own E
sakes but for the sake of good, are the ones who love the R
neighbor; for good is the neighbor" (HH 64). Compare to this W
a Buddhist proverb that in the beginning one does good deeds o
for the sake of the neighbor; later (when one has realized that R
D
the neighbor too has no self) one does good for the sake of the
Dharma (the "Higher Law" of the nature of things as taught
by Buddhism); but finally one does good for no reason at all,
which in Sweden borg's terms is to attain the highest inno-
cence. For Buddhism such a life is best exemplified by the bod-
hisattva, who, being un-self-preoccupied, is devoted to the
endless work of universal salvation. A bodhisattva is so unself-
conscious that when he or she gives something to someone, it
is without the awareness that one is giving, that there is some-
one else who receives, or even that there is a gift that is given.
Such generosity is emphasized as the first and most important
(because it is said to include all the others) of the prajfzil-
pilramitils, the "higher perfections" developed by those who
follow the bodhisattva path. This corrects the "spiritual mate-
rialism" inherent in the more popular Buddhist attitude to-
ward doing good deeds, which is concerned .with accumulat-
ing good karma. For Sweden borg too, those who are led by
the Lord think of nothing less than the merit that their good
works might accrue (AC 6392). His account of this would fit
comfortably into a Mahayana scripture:

When an angel [or bodhisattva!] does good to anyone he also

communicates to him his own good, satisfaction, and blessed-
ness; and this with the feeling that he would give to the other
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D
A
everything, and retain nothing. When he is in such communi-
cation good flows into him with much greater satisfaction and
blessedness than he gives, and this continually with increase.
But as soon as a thought enters, that he will communicate his
V own to the intent that he may maintain that influx of satisfac-
tion and blessedness into himself, the influx is dissipated; and
D
still more if there comes in any thought of recompense from
him to whom he communicates his good. (AC 6478)

L
o Unlike those who have retired from the world to live a soli-
y tary and devout life, an "angel's life is happy because of its
blessedness and is made up of serving good purposes which
are works of charity" (HH 535). Both traditions deny that sal-
vation is effected by performing rituals, or faith alone, or
deeds alone, or even by having mystical experiences. To be
spiritual is to live a certain kind of life, in which love of self is
replaced by selfless love.
In order to be able to live this way, we must be regenerated,
which for Sweden borg involves an opening-up of our internals
that seems very similar to the enlightenment or parclVrtti,
"turning around," of Buddhist liberation. The origin of evil is
that "man turned himself backwards, away from the Lord,
and round towards himself" (CL 444); we need to "turn back
around" away from self and towards the Lord. This turning-
around liberates the Lord's influx to flow into us. This influx
is life itself. We have no other life of our own, being recepta-
cles of this divine life. The question is how much of this influx
we are open to. Depending on my ruling love, this influx is
choked and constricted (by self-love) or flows like a fountain
(into love of God and neighbor).
This points to the solution of a perennial religious problem:
the relationship between personal effort and transcendental
grace. This tension recurs in the argument between Augustine
and Pelagius; in the Hindu Visi~advaita debate about "cat sal-
vation" (a mother cat carries her kittens) versus "monkey sal-
vation" (a baby monkey must cling to its mother's chest); and
in the Japanese Buddhist problem of the relationship between
tariki, "other effort" (throwing oneself on the mercy of the
-
101

A
F
Buddha), and jiriki, "self-effort" (which requires one's own ef- T
forts to become liberated). All "I" can do is to open up to the E
spiritual influx by my ego getting out of the way, that is, let- R
ting-go of myself, whereupon this influx necessarily fills me, W
just as the sun shines when the clouds dissipate. But this let- o
R
ting-go is rarely easy: insofar as the self is the problem, it is not
D
something that the self can do. In Zen, for example, letting-go
is not subject to my willing; during zazen, I learn how to "for-
get myself" indirectly, by concentrating on and becoming-one-
with my meditation practice. LI

Identification of the Divine

Although the issue is complicated, 1 think that Sweden borg's

conception of the Divine avoids the extremes of a personal
and impersonal Absolute in much the same way that
Mahayana Buddhism does. The dilemma is that a completely
impersonal Absolute, such as is found in certain types of
Vedanta, must be indifferent to our situation; whereas a more
personal God, understood to have a will and desires analo-
gous to ours, may choose some people (or some peoples) for a
special destiny-perhaps without their doing anything special
to deserve it (e.g., predestination). Yet there is another alterna-
tive, if God is not other than us, if he is, in fact, the life-giving
force in everything: our being, as Sweden borg might express
it, or our lack of being, as Mahayana might express it-or
both, as the thirteenth-century Christian mystic Meister Eck-
hart does express it, since both descriptions are ways to com-
municate the same insight, that there is no dualism between
-
102 God and us. So Eckhart can play with the binary terms "Be-
ing" and "Nonbeing" by nonchalantly reversing their mean-
D ing. Sometimes he refers to the being of creatures and de-
A scribes God as a nothing, without the slightest bit of existence.
V At other times Eckhart contrasts the "nullity" of all creatures
I with the being of God, in which case it is not that God has be-
D ing, or even that God is being, but that being is God (esse est
deus). If God is the life or being in everything, then it is just as
L true to say that nothing has any being of its own. Is this also
o an adequate explanation of the sunyata (emptiness) of beings,
y
according to Mahayana, and of the nature of the Lord for
Sweden borg?
The nature of God and the role of Christ for Sweden borg
are two difficult issues that are not fully addressed in Heaven
and Hell; and even when we consider other writings that ad-
dress those matters more fully-especially Divine Love and
Wisdom and Arcana Cadestia-I do not find what he writes
entirely clear or satisfactory. Curiously, however, there is some
of the same ambiguity within the Buddhist tradition. Let us
consider the two issues separately.
For Sweden borg, God is life itself, of which angels and spir-
its and humans are recipients. This divine essence manifests as
love and wisdom, which are inseparable in the same way as
the sun's heat and light are-an inspired analogy or rather cor-
respondence that Sweden borg makes much of, since in heaven
God appears as (but is not himself) a sun (HH 116-140).
When, however, we inquire into the nature of God in himself,
apart from all the things infused and the activity of infusing
them, what Sweden borg writes is less helpful. He emphasizes
repeatedly that God is a man, or human. Three main reasons
are given for this: humans, like angels and spirits, derive their
form from God, "there being no difference as to form, but as
to essence" (AE 1124; DLW 11);16 heaven is in the form of a
man, both in whole and in part (HH 59-72); and humans

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103
should conceive of God as a man, for it is not possible to think
of, love, and be conjoined with something indefinite and A
therefore incomprehensible (e.g., HH 3; TCR 787; AC 8705, F
7211,9354). T
What seems significant is that none of these reasons unam- E
biguously implies theism as that term is usually understood. R
The first two do not require that God has a self-existence W
apart from his universe (in general) and from those beings o
who experience his influx (in particular); they imply some- R
D
thing important about the form we and the universe necessar-
ily embody as recipients of influx, yet nothing about the form-
in-itself of the source of that influx. The third reason, the only
one that offers an argument rather than an assertion, is more
difficult to evaluate because it appears in several different ver-
sions; its general thrust, however, addresses what we should
think rather than what is the case. Sweden borg is clearly con-
cerned about the dangers of conceiving of God in the wrong
way, insofar as this can lead us astray. Those who believe in an
invisible Divine called the Reality of the Universe, the source
of all that exists, end up believing in no divinity at all, because
such a Divine "is no fit subject for thought" (HH 3); those
who acknowledge what is incomprehensible "glide in thought
into nature, and so believe in no God" (AC 9354). Yet, no one
in heaven "can have any conception of the Divine in itself....
For the angels are finite and what is finite can have no concep-
tion of the infinite. In heaven, therefore, if they had not an
idea of God in the human shape, they would have no idea, or
an unbecoming one" (AC 7211).
In sum: inasmuch as God is infinite, all our conceptions of
him must miss the mark, but inasmuch as we need a concep-
tion of him, the best image is that of a man. To a Buddhist, this
is reminiscent of the old nineteenth-century argument that,
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D
A
since a religion must have a God, Buddhism cannot be a reli-
gion. The question this begs is: is it possible to have a religion
(such as Buddhism) that criticizes all conceptions of the Di-
vine, including the image of God as human, yet still functions
V as a religion because its spiritual practices nonetheless pro-
I mote the divine influx?
D Insofar as Sweden borg's quintessential teaching is that the
Lord's love and wisdom flow into everything, then clearly no
L being exists apart from God, and the fact that God is human
o does not necessarily imply that God exists as human-like apart
y
from beings. But this may be taken a step further. If we ex-
trapolate from Swedenborg's favorite analogy-God as a
formless, radiating sun-the Lord may be understood as a po-
tentiality that achieves form only in his creation. From that
perspective, God needs us in order to become fully real, both
individually (as we open to his influx) and collectively (as his
heaven grows and ramifies).
If this understanding is acceptable (and it may not have
been to Sweden borg himself),17 it is consistent with much of
Buddhism and may even help to clarify some aspects of Bud-
dhist teaching. Central to Mahayana is the concept of sunyata,
usually translated as "emptiness." For Nagarjuna, the most
important Mahayana philosopher, that things are sunya is a
shorthand way to express that no thing has any self-being or
self-presence of its own. In the succinct Heart Sutra, a famous
summary of the prajiiaparamita scriptures, the bodhisattva
Avalokitesvara realizes that "form is sunyata and sunyata is
form; form is no other than sunyata and sunyata is no other
than form." Unfortunately, the usual English translation
"emptiness" does not convey the full connotations of the orig-
inal, for the Sanskrit root su literally means "swollen," not
only like an inflated balloon but also like a pregnant woman
swollen with possibility. According to Nagarjuna, it is only be-
cause things are sunya that any change, including spiritual de-

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105
velopment, is possible.
Sunyata, then, invites interpretation as a formless spiritual A
potential that is literally no-thing in itself yet functions as the F
"empty essence" that gives life to everything and enables it to T
be what it is. Such an influx is experienced as "empty" for two E
reasons: it has no particular form of its own/in itself, and inso- R
far as I am it, I cannot know it. This is consistent with Swe- W
denborg's understanding of the Lord as constituting the life in o
all of us, the heat and light that flow into us to the extent that R
D
we are receptive to it. On the Buddhist side, this also helps to
avoid the nihilistic interpretation of sunyata that the rather-
too-negative term has sometimes invited.
Sakyamuni Buddha, the historical founder of Buddhism
who lived about five hundred years before Christ, did not urge
his disciples to unite with God or experience his influx. In-
stead, he taught them to follow in his own footsteps by pursu-
ing the same types of spiritual practice in order to attain the
same nirva1}a. However, this difference is less problematical
than it might seem. For one thing, the nature of nirva1}a is no-
toriously obscure, since the Buddha refused to say much about
it except that it is the end of suffering and craving; those who
want to know what nirva1}a is must attain it for themselves. In
addition, the comparative study of religion has led us to an in-
sight that is difficult to deny today but would have had little
meaning in Sweden borg's time: that very similar experiences
may be subjected to different and incompatible explanations,
according to the tradition one is familiar with. In Sakyamuni's
time Indian popular religion was polytheistic, which means
that he did not teach in the context of an absolute God tran-
scending or incorporating all other gods; nor does he seem to
have been familiar with the Upanishadic conception of an im-
personal Brahman, another alternative being developed by
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A
other sages about the same time. So it is hardly surprising that
Sakyamuni did not communicate his own spiritual insight-
the influx of love and wisdom that dissolved his ego-self-in
either terms but instead created his own religious categories
V (no-self, nirva1Ja, etc.), unlike Sweden borg, who naturally un-
I derstood his own experience in terms of the developed Christ-
D ian tradition that he had grown up within, centered on the
idea of an absolute Lord.
L Later, and in different social contexts, theistic conceptions
o did become important in popular Buddhism, such as the
y
Amida Buddha worshipped in more devotional sects of Bud-
dhism. These devotional schools-which, as Sweden borg no-
ticed, require that we think of the Divine as human-have un-
doubtedly been more important for more Buddhists than the
dialectics of Buddhist philosophers such as Nagarjuna.
In these ways Christian theism as Sweden borg explains it-
the Lord as our life, due to his influx of love and wisdom-be-
comes more compatible with the sunyata of Buddha-nature as
many Buddhists have understood it.
Except for the unique role of Christ for Sweden borg. Here
too, however, it seems to me that his understanding is not un-
problematic. Taken as a whole, Sweden borg's writings contain
a tension between two different positions that never quite be-
come compatible. On the more orthodox side, he defends the
uniqueness of Christ as God-Man and the importance of ac-
cepting him as our savior. On the other, more ecumenical side,
his emphasis on the influx of love and wisdom leads him to re-
duce the salvific role of Christ so much that he can be recon-
ceptualized without much difficulty as one avatar among
many, a view quite compatible with Buddhism.
Nevertheless, there is no doubt that Sweden borg under-
stands the historical Christ as unique and the Christian church
as special. Before Christ's advent, the Lord's influence was me-
diated through the angelic heavens, yet from the time God be-

-
107
came human, it has been immediate. Since then the Christian
church has formed the heart of the human race on earth and in A
heaven as well. Christians constitute the breast of the Grand F
Man, the center towards which all others look. It is not neces- T
sary that all or most people accept Christianity, but it is very E
important that some people do, "for from thence there is light R
to those who are out of the Church and have not the Word" W
(DLW 233; AC 637; DP 256).18 o
Yet who is in the Lord's spiritual church? R
D
[I]t is throughout the whole terrestrial globe. For it is not lim-
ited to those who have the Word, and from this have obtained a
knowledge of the Lord, and some truths of faith; but it is also
with those who have not the Word, and are therefore entirely
ignorant of the Lord, and consequently do not know any truths
of faith (for all truths of faith refer to the Lord); that is, with the
Gentiles remote from the church .... And although ignorant of
the Lord while in the world, yet they have within them the wor-
ship and tacit acknowledgement of Him, when they are in good;
for in good the Lord is present. (AC 3263; my emphasis)

During his visits to hell Swedenborg encountered Church

dignitaries learned in the Christian Word, "but in evils as to
life," while in heaven he met both Christians and Gentiles
"who were in falsities" and "were yet in good as to life" (AC
9192). When we are being regenerated, we can fight against
falsities "even from truth not genuine if only it be such that it
can be conjoined by any means with good; and it is conjoined
with good by innocence, for innocence is the means of con-
junction" (AC 6765). From passages such as these-and there
are many of them-it is difficult to conclude that it is neces-
sary or even important to be a Christian. The point is not sim-
ply that one is saved by living a good life, but that one lives a
-
108

D
A
good life because one has become receptive to the influx of di-
vine love and wisdom. And insofar as this influx is "inno-
cent," it is unclear why it should be necessary to believe in any
particular doctrine whatever. If we accept this important ecu-
V menical strand within Sweden borg's writings, a strand that
I has been even more important in Buddhism, then there is no
D need for anyone to be a Christian or a Swedenborgian or a
Buddhist, except insofar as those teachings and communities
L help us to turn away from self-love and open up to the influx
o of self-less love and wisdom.
y
Why did God manifest on earth as man? The internals of
humans are under the dominion of either spirits from hell or
angels from heaven; when in the course of time the hellish in-
fluence became stronger and "there was no longer any faith
nor any charity," God's advent was necessary to restore order
and redeem man (AC 152). This may be a good reason for the
appearance of a savior, but it is a poor argument for the
uniqueness of Christ as the savior. In fact, it is the same reason
given in the Bhagavad-Ctta for the periodic appearance of
avatars, and in Buddhism for the periodic appearance of Bud-
dhas (the one previous to Sakyamuni was Dipamkara; the
next will be Maitreya}.19

Spiritual Interdependence

In the previous section, the sCtnyata "emptiness" of Mahayana

Buddhism was interpreted as a formless spiritual potential that
gives life to everything, an understanding that I have argued is
consistent with Swedenborg's conception of God's influx into
each of us. This approach to sCtnyata has been especially im-
portant as a way to understand the dharmakaya ("Truth-
body"), the highest reality according to Mahayana teachings,
as we shall see shortly when we turn to the Tibetan Book of the
Dead. However, this has not been the only understanding of
sunyata in Buddhism, and it is questionable whether it would
have been acceptable to Nagarjuna himself, who argued for the
-
109

A
F
sunyata of things not by referring to influx but by demonstrat- T
ing interdependence (things are sunya because they have no E
self-existence, being dependent on many other phenomena). R
This emphasis on interdependence became an essential W
Mahayana teaching-in fact, the essential teaching of Hua- o
yen, a Chinese school of Buddhism that describes this relation- R
D
ship using the metaphor of Indra's Net:

Far away in the heavenly abode of the great god Indra, there is a
wonderful net that stretches out infinitely in all directions ....
[There is] a single glittering jewel in each "eye" of the net, and
since the net itself is infinite in all dimensions, the jewels are in-
finite in number.... [I]n its polished surface there are reflected
all the other jewels in the net, infinite in number. Not only that,
but each of the jewels reflected in this one jewel is also reflect-
ing all the other jewels, so that there is an infinite reflecting
process occurring. 20

Indra's Net "thus symbolizes a cosmos in which there is an

infinitely repeated interrelationship among all the members of
the cosmos. "21 Each jewel is nothing other than a function of
the relationships among all the others, and likewise may be
said to contain all the others within itself. All is one and one is
all: the whole world is contained in each thing, and each thing
is nothing other than a manifestation of the whole world.
Is there anything comparable in Swedenborg? The analogy
is hard to miss. All the realms of the heavens constitute a
whole (HH 59-67)-in fact, a Grand Man-as does hell (HH
553); in that Grand Man who is heaven, for example, infants
form the region of the eyes (HH 333). Each of heaven's com-
munities is also a single person (HH 68-72), and conversely
-
110 each angel is a heaven in smallest form (HH 53); the same re-
lationship seems to hold for the hells and the demons in them. 22
D For Buddhism, however, there is a potential problem with
A this second conception of interdependence, which can under-
V stand the world as merely a mechanical relationship among
I material forces, something that is clearly not what Mad-
D hyamika and Hua-yen are wanting to describe. Understanding
sunyata as influx avoids this.
L We end up with two different types of dependence: depen-
o dence of non-self-existent things on the influx of spiritual po-
y
tentiality that gives them being/life, and the organic or "eco-
logical" interdependence of each such thing on the functioning
of all other things. What seems significant is that both types of
dependence are important both to Mahayana and to Sweden-
borg. The interpenetration of one in all and all in one in Swe-
denborg's afterlife presupposes the divine influx that permeates
all the realms, including hell where it is perverted into self-love.
In Buddhism these two interpretations of sunyata have often
been antagonistic to each other, but Sweden borg's vision re-
minds us that they do not need to exclude each other.
This dependence/interdependence must be understood dy-
namically. Like Buddhism from its inception, Sweden borg em-
phasizes process (the Buddist anitya, impermanence) over sub-
stance (svabhava, self-existence): persistence is a continual
occurrence (HH 106), and enduring a constant emergence
(HH 9). This is true even of Swedenborgian regeneration and
Buddhist enlightenment. The regenerated are regenerated con-
tinually through life and also in the afterlife; heaven as it
grows becomes more and more a Grand Man. Most Buddhist
schools emphasize the need for continual practice, even for the
deeply enlightened, and the urge to deepen one's practice end-
lessly is a sign of genuine realization. There is a saying in Zen
that even Sakyamuni Buddha is only halfway there.
Consequences of Evil

Perhaps the clearest parallel of all is with Sweden borg's ac-

count of evil and its punishment, which is so Buddhist in spirit
-
111

A
F
that it could be used to explain the Buddhist doctrines of T
karma and san;zskara; again, Sweden borg's explanation per- E
haps helps to clarify the Buddhist perspective. Like Sakyamuni R
Buddha and, for that matter, Christ himself, Sweden borg em- W
phasizes intention (e.g., HH 508). In this way evil becomes o
tied to its own punishment: R
D
Every evil carries its punishment with it, the two making
one; therefore whoever is in evil is also in the punishment of
evil. And yet no one in the other world suffers punishment on
account of the evils that he had done in this world, but only on
account of the evils that he then does; although it amounts to
the same and is the same thing whether it be said that people
suffer punishment on account of their evils in the world or that
they suffer punishment on account of the evils they do in the
other life, since everyone after death returns into his own life
and thus into like evils; and the person continues the same as
he had been in the life of the body.... But good spirits, al-
though they had done evils in the world, are never punished,
because their evils do not return. (HH 509)

The Lord does not do evil to anyone. (HH 550)

Evil has its own punishment, thus hell, goodness its own re-
ward, thus heaven. (AC 9033)

This is, in effect, a sophisticated account of karma that

avoids both the problem with a more mechanical understand-
ing of moral cause-and-effect (common in popular Buddhism)
and the problem with a more juridical understanding of hell as
punishment for disobeying divine authority (common in popu-
lar Christianity). Sweden borg's central insight is that people
-
112

D
A
suffer or are rewarded not for what they have done but for
what they have become, and what we intentionally do is what
makes us what we are. That is why, in most cases, there is no
difference between the evil things done in the world and the
V evil things that one is inclined to do in the afterworld. This
I conflation makes no sense if karma is understood dualistically
D as a kind of moral dirt obscuring one's mirror-like pure self. It
makes a great deal of sense if I am my intention or ruling love,
L for then the important spiritual issue is the development of
o that ruling love. In the latter case, my actions and my inten-
y
tions build my character-that is, my spiritual body-just as
surely as food is assimilated to become my physical body.
All schools of Buddhism similarly emphasize the importance
of our san;zskaras, which are mental tendencies: one's habitual
ways of intending and reacting to particular situations. In
Buddhism, too, these san;zskaras are the vehicles of karma.
They survive death and cause rebirth; in fact, they are what is
reborn, since there is no pure self to be reincarnated. And how
are such mental tendencies formed?
We can now see that it is not so hard to lead a heaven-bound
life as people think it is because it is simply a matter, when
something gets in the way that people know is dishonest and
unfair, something the spirit moves toward, of thinking that they
should not do it because it is against divine precepts. If we get
used to doing this, and by getting used to it gain a certain dis-
position, then little by little we are bonded to heaven. As this
takes place, the higher reaches of the mind are opened; and as
they are opened, we see things that are dishonest and unfair;
and as we see things as they are, they can be broken apart ....
But it must be understood that the difficulty of so thinking
and of resisting evils increases so far as man from his will does
evils, for in the same measure he becomes accustomed to them
until he no longer sees them, and at length loves them and
from the delight of his love excuses them, and confirms them
 by every kind of fallacy, and declares them to be allowable and
good. (HH 533)

A person suffers not because of "inherited evil" but "be-

-
113

A
F
cause of the realized evil that does belong to him-that is, the
T
amount of inherited evil that he has made his own by his life E
activities" (HH 342). In this way Swedenborg and Buddhism R
both present a psychological version of karma that denies any W
sharp distinction between the one who intends and the inten- o
tion itself. I am my predominant intentions, which means that R
habitually acting in certain ways is what constructs me. That D
is why a person with bad san;zsktlras-a "bad character"-
cannot be saved in spite of himself: because he is those
san;zsktlras, which cannot dwell in heaven because they would
not be comfortable there. Therefore, they spontaneously go to
where they are comfortable, which happens to be where there
are others with similar san;zsktlras. One of the reasons evil peo-
ple suffer in the afterworld is the same reason good people are
blessed there: they end up living with others just like them.

The Spirit World

Swedenborg's account of the world of spirits (part two of HH)

has many similarities with the Tibetan understanding of the
afterlife and the rebirth process, which provides by far the
most detailed account among the various Buddhist traditions.
However, there are some problems in working this out. The
Bardo Thado/ Chenmo text, first translated by W. Y. Evans-
Wentz and published as The Tibetan Book of the Dead, is only
one of several such Bardo texts in the Tibetan tradition; and
because that particular text was composed with reference to a
tantric mandala of 110 peaceful and wrathful deities, there is
much obscure symbolism about those deities.23
-
114

D
A
Yet even if one ignores this difficult iconography-to which
I will return later-there remains a sophisticated description
of death, intermediate life, and rebirth that resonates deeply
with Swedenborg's account. Both emphasize the importance
V of one's last thought (HH 444 )-in other words, the particu-
I lar san:zskara activated at the moment of death-and that all
D one's san:zskaras survive death, along with a psychic body that
duplicates one's physical body: "after death, man is possessed
L of every sense, and of all the memory, thought, and affection
o that he had in the world, leaving behind nothing except his
y
earthly body" (HH, title of chapter 48). Even as God does not
turn his face from anyone and does not cast anyone into hell
(HH 545), so the luminosity of the dharmakaya (experienced
as a primordial clear light comparable to the divine sun in
Swedenborg's heaven), which is nothing other than one's own
sunyata mind, does not reject anyone. For both there is a self-
judgment that occurs in the presence of God/the dharmakaya,
in which the true nature of one's san:zskaras/ruling affections
becomes revealed to oneself. In the Bardo tradition, too, the
good and wise are attracted to the pure, formless dhar-
makaya, and the texts urge them to become one with it; yet
since it mirrors all one's karma, those less good are repulsed
by it and are attracted to the smnsaric realm that corresponds
to their ruling karma.
Sweden borg emphasizes the limits of the Lord's mercy: no
one enters heaven by direct mercy (HH 521-527), for the Lord
does not and evidently cannot violate the design that he is (HH
523). Since this mercy is constant with each individual and
never withdraws, everyone who can be saved is saved; but
those whose ruling affection is evil have learned to shut out his
influx. In the intermediate Bardo realm, too, even a Buddha
cannot stop someone who wants to go somewhere, since (as
Sweden borg expresses it) he or she is that attraction/affection
and could not be stopped without being annihilated (HH 527).
 There are, nevertheless, some important differences. For

-
115
Sweden borg the world of spirits is an intermediate one be-
cause there one is "devastated": that is, outward elements A
must be changed until they conform with inward elements F
(HH 426). One's inmost level can no longer be reformed, but T
the outward elements must be gradually set in order until one's E
ways of thinking and feeling are consistent with one's deepest R
intentions. Yet, as the meaning of the Tibetan title ("The Great W
Liberation through Hearing in the Bardo") suggests, the pre- o
supposition of the Bardo ("intermediate realm") texts is that it R
D
is still possible to exercise some freedom in the Bardo world,
that despite the karmic attraction there may still be some
choice in the matter-perhaps because there may be more than
one "ruling" love. I can think of two ways to resolve this dif-
ference. One is to understand the Bardo Thodo/ less ingenu-
ously as a book meant for the living rather than the dead, as a
way of encouraging the survivors to reform their lives-their
sa~skaras-while they still can. Reading it orally beside the
corpse, surrounded by the chastened mourners, certainly
serves this function, yet there is another way to look at it. I
wonder if there is some inconsistency in the way that Heaven
and Hell emphasizes that one's ruling love cannot be changed
to eternity (HH 477f£.), while also describing incidents such as
angels' attempts to influence new spirits (e.g., HH 450), which
efforts would be largely wasted if they could have no effect
whatsoever on one's ruling love (and therefore one's eventual
place in heaven or hell). It also seems debatable whether we al-
ways have only one ruling love; maybe there are some cases,
or many cases, where two or more affections contend with
each other throughout one's life and even afterwards. Perhaps
Swedenborg's book is the disingenuous one.
A difference of emphasis, or more, follows from the distinc-
tion between morality and insight. They are closely related,
yet to the extent that they may be distinguished, Buddhism as
-
116

D
A
a "wisdom tradition" emphasizes wisdom more, while Swe-
denborg emphasizes morality. One of the ways this difference
shows itself is in the distinction that Buddhism makes between
"heaven" as one of the six realms of samsara-pleasurable yet
V complacent, therefore not as good a place to be as our present
I human realm-and the liberation that is nirva1Ja. From a Bud-
D dhist perspective, even good karma is troublesome insofar as it
operates mechanically; better is the prajfia wisdom that frees
L one from all karma and, therefore, from all the realms of sam-
o sara. A good example of this is the Bardo Thodol understand-
y
ing of what happens after death when a new spirit encounters
the pure luminosity of the dharmakaya. One is encouraged to
unite with the white light by realizing that one is it; in com-
parison to this, even the most sublime of the peaceful deities,
which represent good karma, is nothing more than a higher
form of delusion. I do not find this distinction in Sweden borg.
This leads us to consider the most important difference be-
tween Sweden borg and Buddhism, and what is undoubtedly a
major obstacle to any conflation. Swedenborg's Christian con-
ception of the afterdeath drama is orthodox in understanding
this life as a one-chance preparation for heaven or hell, since
one's ruling love never changes, even to eternity (HH 477,
480). In contrast, all traditional schools of Buddhism under-
stand the alternative to nirva1Ja as rebirth in one of the six
samsaric realms (heaven, titan, human, hungry ghost, animal,
and hell), which includes the possibility of returning as a hu-
man being. 24 However, even this difference is complicated by
the fact that some Bardo Thodol passages warn the spirit
about never being able to escape from where one is inclined to
go: "now is the time when by slipping into laziness even for a
moment you will suffer forever." "If you go there you will en-
ter hell and experience unbearable suffering through heat and
cold from which you will never get out. "25 Theoretically,
though, escape is always possible no matter where you are, if 117
you realize the sunyata of your own mind. The corresponding _
experience in Sweden borg would be regeneration even in hell, A
by the opening up of one's internals to the Lord's influx and F
the transformation of one's ruling love; yet he does not allow T
for that possibility, despite the fact that divine love never with- E
draws from anyone (DP 330). R
w
o
Living Correspondences R
D

As a final comparison, let us briefly consider Sweden borg's

doctrine of correspondences and representations, which con-
stitutes a version of afterlife idealism: although the afterworld
is in many ways similar to this one, things there are not as
fixed or stationary, for their condition varies according to the
angels that perceive them, and they disappear when those an-
gels depart (HH 173ff.):

As all things that correspond to interiors also represent them

they are called representations; and as they differ in each case
in accordance with the state of the interiors they are called ap-
pearances. Nevertheless, the things that appear before the eyes
of angels in heaven and are perceived by their senses appear to
their eyes and senses as fully living as things on earth appear to
man, and even much more clearly, distinctly and perceptibly.
(HH 175)

To any Buddhist philosopher this sounds very similar to the

Buddhist school known as Yogacara or Vijfianavada (some-
times translated as "the Representation-only School"). This is
the other important philosophical school of Mahayana, along
with Nagarjuna's Madhyamika, with which it eventually
merged. In contrast to the detailed correspondences offered by
118 Sweden borg, Yogacara addresses the issue on a more abstract
_ level which, frankly, I have not found very interesting. More il-
D luminating is the parallel with the Bardo Thodol, which un-
A derstands all postmortem experiences as mentally-projected
V images, making the world beyond "a karmically correspond-
I ing image of earthly life":
D
The descriptions of those visions which, according to the
L Bardo Thadol, appear in the intermediate state (bar-do) fol-
o lowing death are neither primitive folklore nor theological
y speculations. They are not concerned with the appearances of
supernatural beings ... but with the visible projections or re-
flexes of inner processes, experiences, and states of mind, pro-
duced in the creative phase of meditation. 26

The challenge of the Bardo realm is to recognize the peace-

ful and wrathful deities that appear as the karmic projections
of one's own mind. "If all the temptations of deceptive vision-
ary images, which are constantly referred to in the texts as
hostile forms of the intellect, can be recognized as empty cre-
ations of one's own mind and can be immediately penetrated,
one will attain liberation. "27
The difference, as we have already noted, is that the Bardo
Thodol urges the deceased not to identify with any such im-
ages in order to attain to the liberating luminosity of the dhar-
makaya, while Sweden borg's angels dwell happily in a mental
world that changes constantly according to their affections.
Perhaps the common ground between them is that neither
spirit is deceived by those correspondences into believing that
the things of one's world are real, a delusion that occurs when
samsaric attachments and delusions motivate us to fixate on
them. One who must play cannot play, while those who know
things are correspondences are not trapped by and in those
correspondences.
The Secret of Great Tartary

If the above parallels are genuine, they raise a concluding

question that should not be ignored: why are Buddhist and
-
119

A
F
Sweden borg's teachings so similar in these ways? There are T
various possibilities, which readers can work out for them- E
selves; but one ramification in particular deserves to be ad- R
dressed: did Sweden borg become acquainted with Buddhism W
through his travels in the afterworld? One of the most intrigu- o
ing references in his voluminous works is an allusion to R
D
"Great Tartary" where the teachings of the Ancient Church
have been preserved:

I have spoken with spirits and angels who came from there,
and they said that they possess a Word, and have from ancient
times; and that their divine worship is performed according to
this Word, which consists of pure correspondences . ... They
said that they worship Jehovah, some as an invisible, and some
as a visible God. Moreover they said that they do not permit
foreigners to come among them, except the Chinese, with
whom they cultivate peace, because the emperor of China is
from their country.... Seek for it in China, and perhaps you
will find it there among the Tartars. (AR 11; my emphasis)28

What does this refer to? And where? Anders Hallengren dis-
cusses this matter in his article "The Secret of Great Tartary. "29
After reviewing the historical evidence, he concludes that the
most probable reference is the Buddhism of Mongolia and Ti-
bet (since Kublai Khan, founder of the Chinese Yuan dynasty,
was converted by a Tibetan rinpoche in the thirteenth century,
Mongolian Buddhism has been a version of Tibetan Bud-
dhism). To this I can add only one point, concerning the curi-
ous fact that their worship "consists of pure correspon-
dences." What can this mean? The Vajrayana Buddhism of
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120

D
A
Tibet and Mongolia is a Mahayana form of tantra that em-
ploys meditative practices such as ma1JQalas (complex visual
images, usually paintings), mantras (the repetition of sacred
sounds), mudras (hand movements), and so forth. In the case
V of a ma1JQala, for example, a practitioner typically meditates
I on its visual form until he or she is able to reproduce it com-
D pletely-indeed, it is said to be clearer-in the mind's eye; fi-
nally one unites with the deities depicted, who represent as-
L pects of one's own Buddha-nature. The complex symbolism of
o most ma1JQalas is not very relevant to the theoretical concerns
y
of most Buddhist philosophers, while the opposite is true for
meditators. Tantra is by nature esoteric because it is a noncon-
ceptual symbolic system: "the mandala is a microcosmic im-
age of the universe;"3o it "is, above all, a map of the cosmos. It
is the whole universe in its essential plan, in its process of em-
anation and reabsorption."3! This suggests that meditations
employing these images might be the pure correspondence that
Sweden borg mentions. I do not know how to evaluate this
supposition, but in the future I will be less inclined to dismiss
such images as "mere iconography."

Conclusion

Here it has been possible to mention only some of the more

provocative parallels between Swedenborgianism and Bud-
dhism. It has, nevertheless, been enough to suggest that
Sweden borg could serve as an important bridge in the contem-
porary dialogue between Christianity and Buddhism. Sweden-
borg's double emphasis on divine love and wisdom, which
forms the core of his theology, is reproduced in the relation-
ship between Christianity and Buddhism, which respectively
emphasize the way of love and the way of wisdom-and, as
Sweden borg and Buddhism both emphasize, each way entails
 -
the other. I also hope to have shown how Sweden borg and 121
Buddhism can illuminate each other. In particular, Buddhism,
with probably the world's richest collection of meditative tech- A
niques and practices, has much to offer those Swedenborgians F
who seek more specific guidance on how to "let go" of them- T
selves in order to realize personally the spiritual influx that E
Swedenborg's grand metaphysical system describes so well. R
Unfortunately, we cannot expect this bridge to carry much W
traffic, for the same reason that Sweden borg's eschatology has o
R
been ignored by the mainstream Christian tradition: his grand
D
conception of the afterworld, and of this world, is too depen-
dent on his own extraordinary spiritual experiences, which
few if any of us seem able to confirm for ourselves.
Not having visited heaven or hell, I can only hope that, if
they exist, they function in the way Sweden borg has de-
scribed. After one studies his remarkably detailed yet well-
structured eschatology, others begin to lose their credibility.
This response is itself a remarkable fact, pointing to the utter
plausibility of this grandest of narratives. If the universe
doesn't function in the way Sweden borg explained, well, it
should. 32

Notes

1. Tricycle: The Buddhist Review (Fall 1991): 6-7.

2. George Dole, Review of How the Swans Came to the Lake,
Chrysalis 9, no. 1 (Spring 1994): 75.
3. Philangi Dasa, Swedenborg the Buddhist, or The Higher Swe-
denborgianism, Its Secrets and Thibetan Origin (Los Angeles: The
Buddhistic Swedenborgian Brotherhood, 1887), 14. I am grateful to
Leonard Fox for providing me with a photocopy of this book.
4. Did Suzuki read The Buddhist Ray while he was working for
the Open Court Publishing Company? It is likely that Paul Cams
was aware of it.
-
122 5. Mihoko Bekku, personal communication. Yukie Dan, secretary
of the Eastern Buddhist Society (which publishes The Eastern Bud-
dhist, a journal founded by Suzuki), has provided me with a list of
D
Swedenborg references in Suzuki's collected writings (in Japanese): a
A total of ten, in addition to the studies and translations already men-
V tioned. "Generally, Sweden borg is not thought to be of much impor-
I tance to Suzuki, who does not mention him overtly. But this infor-
D mation sheet, listing fairly explicit mentions of ES, would suggest
that Sweden borg was never apart from Suzuki. So we now believe he
L is significant, but significant in which way has yet to be elucidated."
o (Yukie Dan, personal communication.)
y 6. Contact between India and Europe occurred long before
Alexander's conquests (326-323 B.C.), and Marco Polo gives an ac-
count of the legend of the Buddha. In the thirteenth century papal
envoys visited the Mongol Khan, and their accounts aroused much
interest in Europe. Later missionaries also sent back numerous re-
ports; but since few of these were published, it is difficult to deter-
mine how much correct information on Buddhism reached Europe
before the nineteenth century. The important exception, curiously,
was Tibet. At the end of the sixteenth century, Jesuit missionaries be-
lieved that Christians lived there, and a series of Catholic missionar-
ies visited, beginning in 1624. One of them, Ippolito Desideri, stayed
in Lhasa for five years (1716-1721) and acquired an excellent
knowledge of Tibetan language and religion; he wrote a "Relazione"
on his studies during his return but this was not published until
1904. Only in the nineteenth century did systematic studies of Bud-
dhism begin and reliable translations begin to appear. See J.W. De
Jong, A Brief History of Buddhist Studies in Europe and America
(Delhi, India: Sri Satguru Publications, 1987),5-15.
7. See Emanuel Sweden borg, Heaven and Its Wonders and Hell,
trans. George F. Dole (New York: Swedenborg Foundation, 1976),
hereinafter referred to as HH. In the Swedenborgian tradition, num-
bers following a title's abbreviation refer to the numbered para-
graphs in each work, not to page numbers.
8. As quoted in Philip Kapleau, ed., The Three Pillars of Zen
(Tokyo: Weatherhill, 1965),205. The original reference is from the
Sokushin-zebutsu fascicle of Dogen's ShObOgenzo, but the same
point is made by Dogen in other fascicles as well.
 9. See also HH 145. While the spiritual importance of the fore-
head and the top of the head (the parietal aperture left by the
fontanelle) has been largely ignored in the Christian tradition, it has
been emphasized in the Buddhist tantric and Indian yogic traditions,
which have a system of seven chakras that puts greatest importance
-
123

A
F
on the "third eye" in the middle of the forehead and the chakra at T
the top of the head (according to the Tibetan tradition, the latter E
chakra is the best way for the mental body to exit the physical body R
after death). W
10. In "Genjo-koan," the first and most important ShobOgenzo o
fascicle, as translated in Moon in a Dewdrop: Writings of Zen Mas- R
ter Dogen, ed. Kazuaki Tanahashi (San Francisco: North Point Press, D
1985), 70.
11. Emanuel Sweden borg, Spiritual Diary, five volumes, trans.
and ed. George Bush, John H. Smithson, and James Buss (London:
James Speirs, 1883-1902), hereinafter referred to as SD.
12. Emanuel Sweden borg, Divine Love and Wisdom, trans. John
C. Ager, 2nd edition (West Chester, PA: Sweden borg Foundation,
1995), hereinafter referred to as DLW.
13. Emanuel Swedenborg, Marital Love and Its Wise Delights,
trans. William F. Wunsch (New York: Sweden borg Foundation,
1856). This work also is called Conjugial Love and will be referred
to in the text as CL.
14. Emanuel Sweden borg, Arcana Coelestia, trans. John F. Potts
(New York: Swedenborg Foundation, 1837), hereinafter referred to
as AC.
15. Swedenborg says little about meditation practices, although
True Christian Religion 767 mentions the Lord appearing as a sun
before angels when they practice spiritual meditation. Sweden borg's
own preferred practice was meditating on the meaning of the Bible
and allowing his mind to be guided by the Lord into an awareness of
its spiritual significance. He also practiced breathing exercises,
which Suzuki discusses in his study. See Emanuel Sweden borg, True
Christian Religion, trans. John C. Ager (New York: Swedenborg
Foundation, 1898), hereinafter referred to as TCR.
16. See Emanuel Sweden borg, Apocalypse Explained, trans. John
C. Ager, rvd. John Whitehead (New York: Sweden borg Foundation,
1896), hereinafter referred to as AE.
-
124 17. TCR 19-20 emphasises that God is both substance itself and
form itself (each of which requires the other) and that the substances
and forms of both angels and humans are derived from God.
D
18. See Emanuel Swedenborg, Divine Providence, trans. William
A F. Wunsch, 2nd edition (West Chester, PA: Swedenborg Foundation
V 1996), hereinafter referred to as DP.
I 19. Krishna: "Whenever there is a decline in righteousness and
D rise of unrighteousness, then I send forth [incarnate] Myself. For the
protection of the good, for the destruction of the wicked, and for the
L establishment of righteousness, I come into being from age to age"
o (Gita 4:7-8).
y 20. Francis H. Cook, Hua-yen Buddhism: The Jewel Net of lndra
(University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1977),2.
21. Ibid.
22. Much of Sweden borg's vision of the afterworld, and this as-
pect in particular, is compatible with John Hick's concluding theory
in Death and Eternal Life (London: Collins, 1976), an almost ex-
haustive historical study of Christian eschatology that, characteristi-
cally of modern theology, ignores Sweden borg's. "The distinction be-
tween the self as ego and the self as person suggests that as the
human individual becomes perfected he becomes more and more a
person and less and less an ego. Since personality is essentially out-
ward-looking, as a relationship to other persons, whilst the ego
forms a boundary limiting true personal life, the perfected individual
will have become a personality without egoity, a living consciousness
which is transparent to the other consciousnesses in relation to
which it lives in a full community of love. Thus we have the picture
of a plurality of personal centres without separate peripheries. They
will have ceased to be mutually exclusive and will have become mu-
tually inclusive and open to one another in a richly complex shared
consciousness. The barrier between their common unconscious life
and their individual consciousnesses will have disappeared, so that
they experience an intimacy of personal community which we can at
present barely imagine" (Hicks, 459-60).
Not a bad description of Swedenborg's heaven; compare AC
2057: "Mutual love in heaven consists in this, that they love the
neighbor more than themselves. Hence the whole heaven presents as
it were a single man; for they are all thus consociated by mutual love
from the Lord. Hence it is that the happinesses of all are communi-
cated to each, and those of each to all. The heavenly form is there-
fore such that everyone is as it were a kind of center; thus a center of
communication and therefore of happiness from all; and this accord-
ing to all the diversities of that love, which are innumerable."
23. On the Bardo Thodol, see Glenn H. Mullin, Death and Dying:
-
125

A
F
The Tibetan Tradition (London: Arkana, 1986),21-22. T
24. HH 256 gives an alternative explanation for the belief that E
people "can return to a former life": occasionally a confused "recol- R
lection" can occur due to experiencing the memories of spirits that W
always accompany us. o
25. The Tibetan Book of the Dead, trans. with commentary by R
Francesca Fremantle and Chogyam Trungpa (Boston: Shambhala, D
1992),199;212-213.
26. Lama Anagarika Govinda, Foundations of Tibetan Mysticism
(New York: Samuel Weiser, 1969), 122.
27. Detlef Ingo Lauf, Secret Doctrines of the Tibetan Book of the
Dead (Boston: Shambhala, 1989),69.
28. See also CL 77; The Coronis 39 (found in Emanuel Sweden-
borg, Posthumous Theological Works, vol. 1, trans. John White-
head, 2nd edition [West Chester, PA: Sweden borg Foundation,
1996]); and SD 6077.
29. Arcana 1, no. 1 (Fall 1994): 35-54.
30. Lauf, Secret Doctrines, 65.
31. Giuseppe Tucci, The Theory and Practice of the Mandala
(London: Rider and Co., 1969),23.
32. I am grateful to many Swedenborgian scholars, especially
Leonard Fox, Donald Rose, Dan Synnestvedt, Erik E. Sandstrom,
and Jane Williams-Hogan, for their comments on earlier drafts of
this paper.
 Index

Abe jiro, xxi Buddhism. See Mahayana Bud-

algebra, 15 dhism, Vajrayana Buddhism,
Amida Buddha, xxxiii (n. 46), 65 Zen Buddhism.
(n. 19),66 (n. 21), 80, 85 Buddhist Ray, 89, 121 (n. 4)
anCltman (no-self), 90
angels, 35, 52, 53, 56, 57, 78, 92, Calvin, john, 5
96,118 Carus, Paul, ix, xviii, 90, 121 (n.
Animal Kingdom, 18-20, 65 (n. 4)
15) chakras, 123 (n. 9)
Apocalyse Revealed, 35, 36, 62 charity, 35
(extracts), 69 (n. 45) Charles XII (king of Sweden), 15
Arcana Coelestia, 26,27,30,98 Christianity, viii, xvii
(extract),102 Confucianism, xvii
Avalokitesuara, 104 Con;ugial Love, 35-36, 52-55 (ex-
tract), 63 (extract)
Bardo Thodol Chenmo, 113-116, Corbin, Henry, xv
118 correspondence, Swedenborgian
Bergson, Henri, xviii theory of, x, xv, xvi, xxx (n.
Bhagavad-Gita, 108 3),32,51,59,60, 79-80, 90,
Bible, 78 102, 117 passim
Blake, William, x Cuno, john Christian, 43, 49
bodhisattva, xxxiv (n. 47), 66 (n. currency, Swedish, 16
21),99
Bonney, Charles Carroll, xii (n. Daedalus Hyperboreus (Northern
3) Inventor), 15
breath (breathing), 33, 51-52 Dante, 82
Brief Exposition of the Doctrine of Dasa, Philangi, 89-90
the New Church, 36 death,114
Broadfield, Edward john, 10; degrees, Swedenborgian theory of,
speech, 10-12 32,59
-
128 dharmakaya, 87 (n. 5), 108, 114, God. See Divine, the.
116,118 Grand Man, Swedenborgian the-
Divine, the, 6,21,31-32,85,101 ory of, 107, 109, 110
I passim Great Tartary, 119-120
N Divine Love and Wisdom, x, xviii,
D 31-33,59,61 (extract), 96 Heart Sutra, 104
E (extract), 102 heat, 31,80,81,102,105
Divine Providence, x, xviii, 33-35, heaven, 25, 27, 56-58, 60, 77-84,
X
60 116
D6gen, 94, 95, 122 (n. 8) Heaven and Hell, x, xviii, 27-30,
duhkha (suffering), 98 52,56-61 (extracts), 77, 92
passim, 115
Earths in Our Solar System, 30 hell, 25, 27, 58-59, 60,80,81-84,
Eastern Buddhist, xvii 107
Eckhart, Meister, xvi, xxx, 91, hidden will (of heaven), 79, 80
101-102 h6ben (expedient means), 34, 68
Economy of the Animal Kingdom, (n.41)
18,65 (n. 15) Hopken, Count Anders von, 10,
ego, 81. See also self. 43,44
Eliade, Mircea, xv Hsiin Tzu, 8, 63 (n. 3)
Emerson, Ralph Waldo, xvii, 8 Hua-Yen (school of Buddhism), 87
engineering, 15,22 (n. 6), 109
England,37
enlightenment, 81, 85, 100, 110 idealism (German), xvii, xx
equilibrium, x, 83 Ikuta Ch6ko, xxii
esse (being), 31 Imakita Kosen, vii
evil, 32, 34-35, 83, 100, 111 pas- Indra's Net, 109
sim individualism, xxii
existere (form), 31 infinite, the, 17-18
Exodus, 26 influx, Swedenborgian theory of,
59,94,96,100,103,106,
faith (alone), 35, 100 108, 110
free will (freedom), x, 33-34, 83- innocence, 63, 77-78, 80, 97
84, 93. See also will. Interaction of the Soul and Body,
Fox, George,S 36
Fryxell, Anders, 49-50 interdependence (spiritual), 108-
Fud6, 80, 87 (n. 7) 110
Fujimura Misao, xx Islam (Mohammedanism), viii, xvii

Gakushitin (Peer's School), x, xxii James, Henry, Sr., ix

Genesis, 26 James, William, ix, xvii, xviii
 love, divine, 6, 31-32, 83, 102,

-
japan, xix-xxiv; 9-10 129
Boshin Imperial Rescript, xxi, 120
XXIII Ludwig Rudolph, duke of
bunka (culture), concept of, xxi Brunswick, 16 I
isson issha (one village, one Luther, Martin, 5 N
shrine), xxxii (n. 24) D
ko;inshugi (individualism), Madhyamika (school of philoso-
E
XXII
phy),117
magnetism, 17 X
kokumin dotoku (national
morality), xxi Mahavairocana Buddha, 87 (n. 5),
Meiji, xix, xxv, xxvi, xxxii (n. 90
20),64 (n. 5) Mahayana Buddhism, xi, xv-xvi,
shinshi (gentleman), concept 94,98,101,104,110
of, xx, xxv ma1}gala, 120
taihoshugi (retreatism), xx mantra, 120
Taisho, xxiii, xxv, xxvi, 63 (n. mathematics, 14, 15,22
1) meditation, 123 (n. 15)
jesus Christ, 102, 106-108 Mencius (Meng Tzu), 8, 63 (n. 3)
iiriki (self-power), xxxiv (n. 47), mercy, 114
66 (n. 21),101 Mimus,14
mineralogy, 16, 18
Kannon, 80, 87(n. 7) Monism, ix, xvii, xviii, xix
Kant, Immanuel, 7,40 mudras, 80, 88 (n. 8), 120
karma, 84,99, 111, 112, 113, 114,
Nagarjuna, 104, 107
116
new jerusalem, xv, 30, 36
koan, xxxiv (n. 47)
New Jerusalem and Its Heavenly
Koeber, Raphael, xx
Doctrine, x, xviii, 30-31, 62
Kukai, 87 (n. 5)
(extract)
Kurata Hyakuzc3, xxi
nirvana, 98, 105, 116
Nishida Kitaro, xx
Lane, Beatrice
Nogi Maresuke, xxii
education, ix
nonduality (subject/object), 94, 96
marriage to D.T. Suzuki, ix-x
Shingon School of Mahayana "other power" (tariki), xxix, 24,
Buddhism, ix 66 (n.21),81,84,85,86
Last Judgment and the Destruction
of Babylon, 30, 67 (n. 33) Pali Sutras, 93, 90
Latin, xiii, 14,26,37 paravrtti (turning-around), 100
Lewis, john (publisher), 26 passions, 98
light, 31, 56-57, 80, 102, 105, 106 Pernety, Anton joseph, 49, 71 (n.
love. See ruling love. 60)
-
130

I
N
philosophy,S, 17,22
physics, 14, 16
Polhem, Christopher, 15-16
Polhem, Emerentia, 16
prajilliparamitas, 99
sun (spiritual), 31,102,104,114
sunyata (emptiness), 102,
104-105,106,108-109,110
Sweden borg Congress, Tenth Inter-
national, x, xviii, 10
D predestination, 34, 101 Sweden borg, Emanuel
E Principia, 17, 18, 19,21 appearance, 43-44, 46-47
proprium (self), 6, 34, 63 (n. 2), 68 assessor in Bureau of Mines,
X
(n. 42), 92 15, 17,22,25
providence, divine, 6, 33-35, 38 attitude toward money, 47-48
psychology,S, 22, 32, 39 breathing techniques, 51-52
Pure Land Buddhism, xxvii-xxix, change from worldly to spiri-
xxxiii (n. 46), 65 (n. 19), 79, 80 tual concerns, 19-22
childhood, 13-14
regeneration, 85, 110, 117 clairvoyance, 39-41
representation, 59, 60, 117 death, 36-37
Revelation, 30, 35, 36 eating habits, 45-46
Robsahm, Carl, 24 education, 14,64(n.8)
Royce, Josiah, ix early inventions, 14
ruling love, Swedenborgian con- early spiritual experiences,
cept of, 32, 94,100, 112,114, 22-26
115,116,117 family background, 13
personality, 44
Sakyamuni Buddha, 98,105-106 poetry, 15
salvation, 6, 21, 34-35, 65 (n. 19), publishing abroad, 16, 18,37,
100 49
samsara, 98, 116 scientific publications, 15-19
sa~skara, 93, 111, 112-113, 114 studies in Europe, 14-15
Santayana, George, ix style of writing, 7-9
self (ontological), 92, 95, 97 pas- Swedish House of Peers, 13,
sim 25,26
self-power (jiriki), xxix, 24, 66 (n. theology, 31-33, 36,101 passim
21), 78, 81, 85, 101 work habits, 48-49
Seneca, 14 Suzuki, Daisetsu Teitaro
Shaku Soen, vii, xii (n. 3), xviii attitude toward Japanese na-
Shingon (school of Buddhism), 80, tionalism, xxvii-xxviii
87 (n. 5) interest in Sweden borg, ix, xi,
skandha, 93 xii (n. 3), xv, xvii-xix, 91, 122
spirits, 92-93, 96, 113 passim (n.5)
Spiritual Diary, 36,61-63 (ex- marriage to Beatrice Lane, ix
tracts), 69 (n. 45), 95 named "Daisetsu," vii
 Suedenborugu, x uses, Swedenborgian theory of, 131
"Suedenborugu:Sono
Tenkai to Tarikikan," x,
XXVIII-XXIX

teaches at Gakushuin (Peer's

xxvii, 32, 99

Vajrayana Buddhism, 119

Vedanta, 101
-
N
School), X, xxii Vetterling, Carl Herman. See Dasa, D
translation of Sweden borg's Philangi.
E
works, x, xviii
Wesley, John, 5, 7 X
Zen training, vii
White Horse, 30
will, 30, 32, 34, 79, 80, 83. See
tantra, 120
also free will; hidden will (of
Taoism, xvii
heaven).
tariki (other-power), xxxiv (n. 47),
wisdom, divine, 6, 31-32, 102,
66 (n. 21), 88 (n. 9), 101
120
tathata, 97, 99
Worcester, William, ix
theism, 103, 106
World Parliament of Religions
Tibetan Book of the Dead, 113
(1893), xii (n. 3)
Tokutomi Soha, xxiii
Worship and tove of God, 21, 65
transcendentalism, xvii
(n. 18)
True Christian Religion, 36, 37,
49,52 Yakushi, 80, 87 (n. 7)
truth, viii-ix, xvii, 79 Yeats, William Butler, xviii
Yogacara (school of Buddhism),
Ulrika Eleonora (queen of Swe- 117-118
den),13
understanding, 32, 34, 51 Zen Buddhism, xi, xv, xvii, xxvii,
Uppsala University, 14, 17 101
 About the Contributors

Daisetsu Teitaro Suzuki (1870-1966) is credited with intro-

ducing the West to Zen Buddhism. Suzuki pursued his reli-
gious and philosophical studies at Tokyo University. After a
ten-year sojourn in the United States, where he worked as an
editor of Oriental Studies for Open Court Press, Suzuki re-
turned to his native japan where he undertook the translation
of Sweden borg's works into japanese. Throughout his long
life, this Buddhist scholar taught at colleges in japan, the
United States, and Europe, including Columbia, Yale, Har-
vard, Cambridge, and Oxford. His works are collected in the
32-volume Suzuki Daisetsu Zenshu (Tokyo: 1968). Among his
works available in English are Essays in Zen Buddhism, Mysti-
cism: Christian and Buddhist, and Zen and Japanese Culture.

Andrew Bernstein received his B.A. from Amherst College and

his M.A. in religion from Columbia University, where he is
currently working toward his Ph.D. Between college and grad-
uate school, he spent several years in Tokyo as a journalist. He
plans to return to japan to do research for his dissertation on
the relationship between Buddhism and japanese intellectuals
in the early twentieth century.
-
134 David Loy, a professor in the Faculty of International Studies,
Bunkyo University, Japan, has published widely in the field of
c comparative philosophy and religion. His books include Non-
o duality: A Study in Comparative Philosophy (1988) and Lack
N and Transcendence: Death and Life in Psychotherapy, Exis-
T tentialism and Buddhism (1996). A student of Zen for many
R years, he is qualified as a sensei (teacher) in the Sanbo Kyodan
I lineage. He lives with his wife and son in Kamakura, the his-
B toric old capital of Japan.
U
T
Tatsuya Nagashima received his B.A. in Latin and his M.A. in
o philosophy from Sophia University in Tokyo; he also holds a
R
B.Th. from Seinan Gakuin University in Fukuoka. He trans-
S
lated the Nuntium Apostolorum into Japanese. He is currently
a professor at Shikoku University in Tokushima, Japan; and
manager of the Arcana Press, which published the first Japan-
ese translations of Sweden borg's writings from the original
Latin.