CHAPTER 2

ADVAITA

Philosophy is a normative enquiry, which is also a second order study.

Philosophy is a second order study because it is a study about other studies.

It deals with what ought to be the case rather than what is the case. What is

the case shall be normative, descriptive or even explanatory but what ought

to be the case becomes a second order, normative and philosophic and thus

Philosophy. G.T.W. Patrik, in his ‘Introduction to Philosophy’ introduces

philosophy through an anecdote of a little girl looking outside through the

window and wondering how it all came into being1. He suggests that such

wonder is the beginning of Philosophy. We know that all knowledge

whatsoever begins with Philosophy and all knowledge whatsoever eventually

enters Philosophy. One can say therefore, that knowledge is rooted in

Philosophy and get fruited also in Philosophy.

When someone asks the question, what is philosophy, the answer becomes

difficult. When a similar question is asked about any other discipline, it is

possible for one to give a straight and direct answer in terms of the subject

matter of the discipline or what the discipline is dealing with. When it comes

to Philosophy, such an answer is impossible because Philosophy has no

definite subject matter because everything is the subject matter of

Philosophy.

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These days we hear some discussions about multi-disciplinary,

interdisciplinary etc. Often times these concepts are also used without much

clarity. If we look at Philosophy through a similar perspective, it becomes

evident that neither the concept of interdisciplinary nor the concept of

multidisciplinary can be extended to Philosophy since Philosophy by its very

being is trans-disciplinary.

All these may belong to the Western way of looking at Philosophy. In India

Philosophy belongs to different realms of experiencing. Experience here is

not sense object contact experience or cognitivity in the Western sense of

the term: experience in India shall amount to experiencing the inner core

through the inner consciousness of the experiencer. This is anubhava jnana

as against vijnana. In India, all these things are darsanas. These experiential

darsanas are equivalent to the hymns of Vedas which are experiences of our

Maha Rishis.

In India, through ages, Philosophy enjoyed a much esteemed position as a

master knowledge and served as an inspiration for all other fields of study.

Hence scholars used to call it as the mother of all knowledge. Bharata

Varsha has always been a land of wonders. It is inhabited by one of the

oldest populations of the world, for whom, Philosophy, Religion, Art, Culture

and Science are not entirely different watertight compartments, but

complementary to one another. Our ancestors always went on enriching their

fields of knowledge by adding new, polishing the old and removing the

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needless. Above all other things, they valued reason and always went for

what is the best.

2.1. Vedas

Indians regard four Vedas as sacred texts. They form the basis of Indian

thought. The four Vedas- Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda and Atharva

Veda (collectively known as Chathurveda) - contain the oldest record of

philosophical thinking in the world. They are the original scriptures of Indian

teaching and contain spiritual knowledge encompassing all aspects of our

life. Vedic literature with its philosophical maxims has stood the test of

millenniums and is the highest religious authority for all sections of Indians in

particular and for mankind in general.

In simple terms, the Vedas are the compilation of the mantras or the hymns.

The word ‘mantra’ originates from the Sanskrit word ‘manana’ which

suggests ‘thinking’, ‘pondering’ or ‘contemplating’. Most of the mantras are in

the form of the metered verse.

The term, “Veda” means wisdom, knowledge or vision, and it manifests the

language of the Absolute in human experience. The laws of the Vedas

regulate the social, legal, domestic and religious customs of the Indians to

the present day. All the obligatory duties of the Indians at birth, marriage,

death etc. owe their allegiance to the Vedic ritual, Shodasa Samskara. They

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draw forth the thought of successive generation of thinkers, and so contain

within them the different realms of thought.

It is very difficult to say when the earliest portions of the Vedas came into

existence as the historical recordings of the ancient Hindus differ from that of

the Greeks. Western historians provide us many guesses but none of them is

free from ambiguity.

The Rig Veda is a collection of inspired songs or hymns and is a main source

of information on the Indian civilization. It is regarded as the oldest book in

any language and contains the earliest form of all Sanskrit mantras that date

back to 12000 BC - 4000 B.C. Some scholars date the Rig Veda only as

early as 1500 B.C. - 1000 B.C. The Rig-Vedic ‘Samhita’ or collection of

mantras consists of 1,017 hymns or ‘suktas’, covering about 10,600 stanzas,

divided into eight ‘astakas’ each having eight ‘adhayayas’ or chapters, which

are sub-divided into various groups. The hymns are the work of many

authors or seers called ‘Rishis’. There are seven primary seers identified:

Atri, Kanwa, Vashistha, Vishwamitra, Jamadagni, Gotama and Bharadwaja.

The Rig Veda accounts in detail the social, religious, political and economic

background of the Rig-Vedic civilization. Even though there are many deities,

the ultimate character of Vedic religion is Monism.

The Sama Veda is purely a liturgical collection of melodies (‘saman’). The

hymns in the Sama Veda, used as musical notes, are almost completely

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drawn from the Rig Veda and have no distinctive lessons of their own.

Hence, its text is a reduced version of the Rig Veda. So, if the Rig Veda is

the word, Sama Veda is the song or the meaning. Ragas are introduced in

the recitation of Rig Veda and that becomes Sama Veda.

The Yajur Veda is also a liturgical collection and was made to meet the

demands of a ceremonial religion. The Yajur Veda practically served as a

guidebook for the priests who execute Yagas muttering simultaneously the

prose prayers and the sacrificial formulae (‘yajus’). There are no less than six

complete recessions of Yajur Veda - Madyandina, Kanva, Taitiriya, Kathaka,

Maitrayani and Kapishthala. There are two primary versions or Samhitas of

the Yajur Veda: Sukla (white) and Krishna (black). Both contain the verses

necessary for rituals, but the Krishna Yajur Veda includes the Brahmana

prose discussions mixed within the Samhita, while the Sukla Yajur Veda has

separately a Brahmana text, the Satapata Brahmana.

The last of the Vedas, Atharva, is completely different from the other three

Vedas and is next in importance to Rig-Veda with regard to history and

sociology. A different spirit pervades this Veda. Its hymns are of a more

diverse character than the Rig Veda and are also simpler in language. In

fact, many scholars do not consider it as part of the Vedas at all. The Atharva

Veda consists of spells and charms prevalent at its time, and portrays a

clearer picture of the Vedic society.

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Rig Veda and Rig Vedic developments through Sama and Yajur Vedas were

not the only transcendental aspirations of the Vedic civilization expressed

during them. There were also many other practices which were sometimes

even occult. The Vedic tradition up to Yajur Veda had a common character of

indriya jitatva, or the controlling senses to transcend the sense organs. The

other types of practices existed had a common technique of saturating the

demands of indriyas that would lead one to the realization of their emptiness.

Here, the indriyas are not controlled but are allowed to go ahead with their

mundane needs. These practices were codified by the forth Veda namely,

Atharva Veda.

It is believed that humans did not compose the revered compositions of the

Vedas (apaurusheya). The term apaurusheya or divine nature of the Vedas

must not be taken literally. Veda is apaurusheya because the transcendental

experiences of the Rishis are apaurusheya. The Vedas are said to be

compiled by Vyasa Krishna Dwaipayana around the time of Lord Krishna.

The total concept of Veda includes four parts – the Samhitas (Hymns), the

Brahmanas (Rituals), the Aranyakas (Theologies) and the Upanishads

(Philosophies). The collection of mantras or hymns is called the Samhita.

The Brahmanas are ritualistic texts and include precepts and religious duties.

Each Veda has several Brahmanas attached to it. The Upanishads form the

concluding portions of the Veda and therefore called the “Vedanta” or the

end of the Veda and contains the essence of Vedic teachings. The

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Upanishads and the Aranyakas are the concluding portions of the

Brahmanas, which discuss philosophical problems. The Aranyakas (forest

texts) intend to serve as objects of meditation for ascetics who live in forests

and deal with transcendentalism and symbolism.

The Samhitas and the Brahmanas form the Karma-Kanda segment of the

Vedas. They are apparently concerned with the ceremonial rites and rituals.

The Aranyakas and the Upanishads form the Jnana-Kanda segment of the

Vedas. They explicitly focus on the philosophy and spiritualism.

The Samhitas form the first part of each of the Vedas. A Samhita is a

collection of mantras, so the Samhitas are sometimes also referred to as the

‘mantras’. Most of the mantras or hymns were concerned with the nature and

the deities. The ancient man worshipped the elements of nature as deities

though it is believed that these deities are symbolic.

Generally, the mantras are addressed to the gods and goddesses. Some

scholars believe that the Vedic man used the mantras in sacrificial

ceremonies and for performing mystic rituals. This may be true for a number

of mantras. Apparently, many mantras or hymns were meant for devotional

or ceremonial purposes. In fact, they seem to be symbolic and need

exceptional scholastic efforts to decipher them.

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The Samhitas are named after the Vedas they belong to. For example,

the Samhita of the Rig Veda is called the Rig-Veda-Samhita or the Rig-

Samhita.

The Rig-Samhita contains the mantras or the hymns known as ‘rigs’. These

hymns are metered verses.

The Sama-Samhita contains mantras in the form of songs meant for liturgy or

public worship.

The Yajur-Samhita contains verities of mantras composed in the poetical and

the prose forms.

The Atharva-Samhita contains mantras meant for routine rites and rituals.

The Brahmanas constitute the second part of the Vedas. With the passage of

time, the newer generations found the mantras of the Samhitas difficult to

understand. An elaborate explanation of the mantras became necessary.

The result was the Brahmanas. The Brahmanas are explanatory in nature.

The Brahmanas are mostly in prose. The word ‘Brahmana’ has its root in the

word ‘braahman’ which means ‘prayer’ or ‘devotion’. The word ‘braahman’ is

distinct from the word ‘Brahman’ which means ‘the Ultimate Reality’.

The Brahmanas hint at ‘the magic’ or ‘the secret power’ of the sacrificial

rituals. The Brahmanas are concerned with the religious rites and rituals. But

their covert meanings often baffle the researchers. The Rig Veda has

two Brahmanas – Aitareya Brahmana and Shankhayana Brahmana. Of all

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the Brahmanas of all the Vedas, the Shat-Patha Brahmana of Yajur Veda is

the largest.

The Aranyakas form the third part of the Vedas. However, it should be noted

that the Aranyakas are sometimes considered as parts of the Brahmanas.

The Sanskrit word ‘aranya’ means a forest. The Aranyakas were developed

by the sanyasins, living in the forests. Due to the limited resources in the

forests, they could not perform the conventional sacrifices, nor could they

adhere to the rituals. It was then that the Aranyakas were developed.

With the advent of the Aranyakas, the emphasis on the sacrificial rites seems

to be diluting. The shift towards philosophic and spiritual interpretation of the

rituals and ceremonials is evident.

The Aranyakas reflect an explicit transition in the philosophy of life of man.

The speculative and intuitive thinking seems to be developing. Meditative

thinking is conspicuous. The Vedic man seems to be turning from the gross

to the subtle. His quest for knowledge seems to be intensifying.

The Upanishads are the concluding portions of the Vedas. The

Upanishads are referred to as the Vedanta. The word Vedanta is a

compound word made up of two Sanskrit words: ‘Veda’ and ‘anta’. The word

‘anta’ means an end. The Vedanta essentially refers to the philosophy

pronounced in the Upanishads, the final parts of the Vedas. This is not to

mean that the Upanishads form the final Chapter of the Vedas. They are

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separate books but they fall under the tradition of the concerned Vedas.

Here, Upanishads are Vedanta in the sense that they form ultimate

knowledge, end knowledge after mastering the full Vedic Tradition. Let me

put it this way: A person who is having jnana trishna goes to quench his thirst

for knowledge through the path of mastering many areas and eventually

reaches the Vedas. Even with the Vedas when his thirst for the knowledge is

not quenched, at the end of Mastering Vedas, Upanishads are given to him.

Upanishads are the Ultimate, Final and End knowledge and hence, Vedanta.

Some scholars consider the Upanishads as the extended portions of

the Aranyakas or the Brahmanas. For instance, Brihadaranyaka Upanishad

is considered to be the final chapter of the Shat-Patha Brahmana. Some

scholars even treat the Vedas and the Upanishads altogether separately.

2.2. Upanishads

The word ‘Upanishad’ is derived from the Sanskrit root Sad. The Sanskrit

verb sad refers to the knowledge or the satya. The words ‘upa’ +

‘ni’ suggests ‘sitting (before someone) with a determination’. The word

‘Upanishad’ can be understood as: To sit near (close to) a guru with an

objective to acquire knowledge.

Most of the Upanishads are in forms of dialogues between a master and a

disciple. In Upanishads, a seeker raises a topic and the enlightened guru

satisfies the query aptly and convincingly. Thus, the Upanishads contain the

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sublime knowledge that deals with the topic at great depth. The Upanishads

enrich the human mind immensely as they discuss the Brahman, the atman,

the existence, life and death, moksha (mukti), the Jagat, the knowledge

(the para-vidya and the apara-vidya), the Brahma-jnana (or the atma-jnana)

and many other related issues elaborately.

It is not known how many Upanishads existed originally. We do not know

who composed them. Some of the Upanishads are in the prose form and

some others in the verse form. Some of them are partly composed in prose

and partly in verse. Some of the Upanishads have been composed in recent

times. It is difficult to ascertain the precise number of the original, ancient

Upanishads. One hundred and eight Upanishads are believed to belong to

the ancient times. Of the 108 Upanishads, ten Upanishads are considered

exquisite by distinguished scholars.

The ten outstanding Upanishads are: Isa, Kena, Katha, Prasna, Mundaka,

Mandukya, Chandogya, Brihadaranyaka, Aitareya and Taitiriya.

Some scholars also attach due importance to Svetaswatara and Maitri. Some

others opine that even Kautishaki is equally valuable.

It is believed that the Rig Veda has 10 Upanishads. The number of

Upanishads for Sukla Yajur Veda is 19, for Krishna Yajur Veda 32 and for

Sama Veda it is 16. Atharva Veda has 31 Upanishads.

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Aitareya Upanishad is associated with Rig Veda. Kena Upanishad is

associated with Sama Veda.

Isa Upanishad is a part of Sukla Yajur Veda. Katha Upanishad is associated

with Krishna Yajur Veda.

Prasna Upanishad is associated with Atharva Veda.

The most exalted Rishis and the enlightened celebrities have contributed to

the Upanishads. Some of them are Maharshi Yajnavalkya, Rajarshi Janaka,

Mandukya Muni, Pippalada Muni etc. Maharshi Yajnavalkya has contributed

significantly to the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad.

2.3. Other Sources

Besides Vedas and Upanishads, each system of Indian Philosophy, which is

designated as darsana, has its own source books such as Sutras, Bhashyas

etc. Sutras contain highly condensed form of philosophic thought and hence

require interpretations and commentaries for ordinary men to follow their

meaning. Examples of Sutras are: Nyaya Sutra of Gautama, Samkhya Sutra

of Kapila, Yoga sutra of Patanjali, Vedanta Sutra of Badarayana etc.

Sutras are minimum words with highly condensed and compressed

meanings that require keys to open each sutra (stanza) which is some kind

of a lock. A commentary on the Sutra is called Bhashya. For example, Sutra

Bhashya of Sankaracharya and Sri Bhashya of Sri Ramanuja are

commentaries on Vedanta Sutra of Badarayana.

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2.4. Vedanta

Six orthodox Indian Schools of thought or Sad darsanas namely - Nyaya of

Gautama, Vaisesika of Kanada, Samkhya of Kapila, Yoga of Patanjali,

Mimamsa of Jaimini and Vedanta of Badarayana - accept the authority of the

Vedas: Yet, the Nyaya, Vaisesika, Samkhya and Yoga do not directly

originate from Vedas; but from corresponding sutras.

Mimamsa and Vedanta, unlike the other four thoughts of the Orthodox group

are direct interpretations of Vedic Philosophy. Jaimini in his Mimamsa Sutra,

interprets Karma kanda (Mantras, Brahmanas and Aranyakas) portion of

Vedas, as giving the real purport of Vedas; where as, Vedanta Sutra is

upholding Jnana kanda portion (Upanishads) as of philosophic worth. The

two sutras; Mimamsa and Vedanta, together investigate the whole of Vedic

philosophy.

The term ‘Vedanta’ literally means the end of the Vedas, which are the

Upanishads. The views of Upanishads also constitute the final aim of the

Vedas or the essence of the Vedas. The Vedanta sutra of Badarayana, the

classical Upanishads such as Isa, Kena, Katha, Prasna, Mundaka,

Mandukya, Aitareya, Taitiriya, Chandogya and Brihadaranyaka together with

Bhagavad Gita constitute the fundamental texts of Vedanta school. These

three sources -Upanishads, the Vedanta Sutra and Bhagavad Gita- belong to

three different categories or prasthanas. The Upanishads belong to Sruti

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prasthana, Vedanta Sutra to Nyaya Prasthana, and the Bhagavad Gita to

Smriti Prasthana. Hence these three texts are together called prasthana

thraya (three prasthanas) of the Vedanta darsana.

2.4.1. Vedanta Sutra

The Vedanta Sutra is also known as Brahma Sutra because it is an

exposition of the doctrine of the Brahman. This is again called Saririka Sutra

because it deals with the embodiment of the unconditional self. Thus unlike

the Mimamsa Sutra of Jaimini that investigates the duties enjoined by the

Veda, together with rewards there to, the Vedanta Sutra of Badarayana

describes the philosophical and theological views of the Upanishads. It is a

systematic investigation of the various views of the Upanishads.

The Vedanta Sutra consists of 550 Sutras. The sutras are highly intelligible

by themselves and leave everything to the interpreter. As a result, we get

different kinds of Vedantic schools, of which Sankaracharya’s Advaita, Sri

Ramanuja’s Visistadvaita and Madhvacarya’s Dvaita are most famous.

These three Schools are noteworthy because they represent three distinct

ways of understanding the ultimate reality, the Brahman. Advaita stresses

the non-dualistic view, Visistadvaita stands for the qualified non-dualistic

view and Dvaita puts forward the dualistic view, and all these schools base

their different arguments on Brahma Sutra by giving different interpretations.

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The Vedanta Sutra has four adhyayas (chapters)-Samanvaya, Avirodha,

Sadhana and Phala. The first namely Samanvaya adhyaya deals with theory

of Brahman. Its purpose is reconciliation of the different views on the

Brahman such as cosmic view, acosmic view etc.

The second chapter is called Avirodha adhyaya where the author meets the

objections brought against these views of Brahman and he criticizes the rival

theories.

The third chapter is called Sadhana adhyaya in which the ways and means

of attaining Brahma Vidya is discussed in detail.

The fourth and last chapter namely Phala adhyaya deals with the fruits of

Brahma Vidya, and also the description of pitryana (rituals to ancestors) and

devayana (way to devotion).

For Badarayana, Veda is eternal. He declares that there is no possibility of

discovering metaphysical truth by means of tarka (yukthi) or reflection. Sruti

and Smriti are two sources of knowledge. By Sruti Badarayana meant

Upanishads and by Smriti he meant Bhagavad Gita, and Mahabharata.

Smriti is dependent on Sruti. But Sruti is independent and self-evident. But,

to the question whether cosmic view or acosmic view is the higher view,

Sutra does not give a clear answer. There fore, Adi Sankaracharya, the chief

exponent of Advaita interprets the Sutra view as acosmic view, while, both

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Sri Ramanuja and Madhavacharya interpret the same as cosmic view. It is

on the acosmic view, thus, the doctrine of Advaita is built upon.

2.5. A Brief Introduction of Advaita

Advaita is the Vedantic name for the doctrine of monism. Advaita can be

literally translated as non-dualism, but is generally referred to as monism. It

is not the same as monotheism, which is the belief that there is only one

God, as contrasted with polytheism which believes in many gods. Advaita is

not even the same as pan-theism, “all things are God'. The basic principle of

Advaita is that there are no 'things' - there is only Ultimate Reality.

2.5.1. Life of Adi Sankaracharya

Sankaracharya is the greatest exponent of Advaita Vedanta. He believed in

the greatness of the holy Vedas and was a major proponent of the same. Not

only did he infuse a new life into the Vedas, but also advocated against the

Vedic religious practices of ritualistic excesses.

Adi Sankaracharya was born as Sankara in around 788 AD in a Brahmin

family in Kaladi village of Kerala. He was born to Sivaguru and Aryamba a

number of years after their marriage. It is said that Aryamba had a vision of

Lord Shiva, in which he promised her that He would incarnate Himself in the

form of her first-born child. The life history of Adi Sankaracharya tells us that

he showed great intelligence right from his childhood. He mastered all the

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Vedas and the Vedanta in Guru Kula itself and could recite the epics and

Puranas by heart.

Adi Sankaracharya was attracted towards sanyasa right from his childhood.

One day, while bathing in the Purna River, Sankaracharya was attacked by a

crocodile. Seeing his mother's incapability to rescue him, he asked her to

give him the permission to renounce the world. Left with no other option, she

agreed to it. Sankaracharya recited the mantras of renunciation and

immediately, the crocodile left him. Thus started the life of Sankara as an

ascetic; Jagat Guru Adi Sankaracharya. He left Kerala and moved towards

North India in search of a Guru.

On the banks of Narmada River, Sankara met Govinda Bhagavatpada. When

the Bhagavatpada asked him “Who are you?” he replied in six slokas

(Nirvana shatakam2) as:

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36
(I am not mind, intellect, ego and the memory. I am not the sense

of organs: ears, tongue, nose, eyes and skin.

I am not the five elements: sky, earth, fire, air and water.

I am supreme bliss and pure consciousness, Siva.

I am not Energy nor five vital airs nor the seven essential

materials, nor the five sheaths of the body.

I am not speech, nor hand nor the leg, nor the organs of

procreation or the elimination.

I am supreme bliss and pure consciousness, Siva.

I have neither hatred nor love, neither extravagance nor

ambitions.

I have neither pride nor haughtiness, nor jealousy.

I have neither duty to perform, nor wealth nor lust.

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 I have no liberation either.

I am supreme bliss and pure consciousness, Siva.

I have neither virtue, nor vice. Nor pleasure or pain,

I do not need mantras, nor pilgrimages nor scriptures, nor rituals.

I am neither the enjoyed nor the enjoyer, nor enjoyment.

I am supreme bliss and pure consciousness, Siva.

I have neither fear of death nor distinction of caste.

I have no father or mother, I have no birth.

I have no relatives, nor friend, nor the guru, nor the disciple

I am supreme bliss and pure consciousness, Siva.

I am formless and error free. I exist everywhere and pervade all

senses. Always I am the same;

I am neither free nor bonded.

I am supreme bliss and pure consciousness, Siva.)

Impressed by his knowledge of the Vedas and the Vedanta, he took Sankara

under his tutelage. Under the guidance of his Guru, he mastered Hatha, Raja

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and Jnana Yogas. Thereafter he received brahmadiksha in the knowledge

of Brahman. Thus was born Adi Sankaracharya, whose aim in life was to

spread the Vedic teachings of the Brahma Sutras throughout the world.

The philosophy and teachings of Adi Sankaracharya are based on the

Advaita Vedanta. He preached 'Non-Dualism'. It means that each and every

person is essentially divine, one with the Ultimate Reality. The mere thought

that human being is finite with a name and form subject to earthly changes, is

to be discarded. The bodies are diverse, but the soul of all the separate

bodies is the same, the Divine One.

Shri Sankaracharya established four ‘mutts’ or monastic centers in four

corners of Bharata Varsha and put his four main disciples to head them and

serve the spiritual needs of the ascetic community within the Vedantic

tradition. Each mutt was assigned one Veda. The mutts are Jyothir Mutt at

Badrinath in northern India (Uttaranchal) with Atharva Veda; Sarada Mutt at

Sringeri in southern India (Karnataka) with Yajur Veda; Govardhan Mutt at

Jaganath Puri in eastern India (Orissa) with Rig Veda and Kalika Mutt at

Dwarka in western India (Gujarat) with Sama Veda.

He classified the wandering mendicants into 10 main groups to consolidate

their spiritual strength. Adi Sankaracharya biography reveals that he was

also the founder of Dashanami monastic order (Saraswati, Tirtha, Aranya,

Bharati, Ashrama, Giri, Parvata, Sagara, Vana and Puri) and the Shanmata

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tradition of worship (Worship of Siva, Vishnu, Sakti, Ganesa, Surya and

Skanda).

It is believed that Sankaracharya attained videha mukti in Kedarnath after 32

years of jivan mukta life.

2.5.2. Advaitin’s interpretation of Scriptures

In Advaita point of view the Upanishads are for the sake of the establishment

of the immediate experience of Brahman. They are capable of generating

immediate as well as mediate knowledge. For example the statement “you

are the tenth man” certainly results immediate knowledge of one man being

the tenth person for the one who lost himself in counting. Like wise, by

listening to the Upanishads one can get immediate intuition of Brahman. If

one does not experience so, it is not because the Upanishads are incapable

of it. It is only because there is no experiencing involved.

According to Advaita, the Brahman alone is real and it is known by Sruti. But

Sruti itself is unreal in the third and highest level of reality. Though unreal, it

can sublate the illusory world and reveal Brahman. It is like roar of the

dream-lion that can wake one up.

The Scriptures (the Vedas and the Upanishads) are the record of spiritual

experience and they do convey an idea of what the Ultimate is like. The

special merit of the Scriptures lie in that they alone can reveal any knowledge

about the Ultimate.

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The Scriptures are composed of sentences or vakyas which in their turn, are

composed of words arranged in specific order so as to convey certain

meaning words are the vehicles of thought. ‘Sabda’ means sound and word.

Sabda pramana is, thus the knowledge derived from the authority of words.

2.5.2.1. Advaitin’s interpretation of Upanishads

The Advaitins have commentaries on all the ten important Upanishads and

one later Upanishad. They are Isa, Kena, Katha, Prasna, Mandukya,

Chandogya, Thaithiriya, Aithareya, Mundaka and Brihadaranyaka along with

Svetasvaratha.

The Advaita interprets the Upanishads as the proclamations of acosmic view

of the Brahman. Whatever appears to be describing the cosmic view of the

Brahman is ascribed to the vyavaharika level of reality. It is meant for the

ordinary people to understand the basic principles of philosophy. So, it must

not be taken up as anti-Advaitic. All descriptions of whole and parts absolute

and relative, finite and infinite are transcendent in the Brahman.

When the Isavasya Upanishad declares: (isavasyam idam

sarvam) 3, the Advaitin interprets it in different way. Traditional meaning is

that “the Lord Isvara dwells everywhere in this world.” But the Advaitin

explains this as “the world must be covered with Isvara” and so on and this

does not harm the Advaitic concept of “Jagat midhya”.

41
The Mundaka Upanishad definitely speaks pure Advaita when it describes

the individual soul, like an arrow reaches the target the Brahman and

becomes one with it4.

In this way, all the major Upanishads are skill fully interpreted in the Advaitic

line of thinking. Thus, we can see that the Sruti never contradicts the

doctrines of the Advaita Vedanta. Sruti, in fact, has given the philosophical

back ground upon which the system of Advaita stands.

2.5.2.2. Advaitin’s interpretation of Bhagavad Gita

The Bhagavad Gita belongs to the Smriti Prasthana. It is an important source

of the school of Advaita. Of the three prasthanas, the Upanishads (Sruti

prasthana) give the philosophical back ground for Advaita, where as, the

Brahma Sutra (Nyaya prasthana) supplies a logical standpoint of reason. The

Advaitins look forward to the third prasthana, the Bhagavad Gita, for the

guidelines to practice Advaita in daily life for the common people. According

to them, the Bhagavad Gita teaches how to live a life worthy of living, in

accordance with the system of Advaita.

The Bhagavad Gita is the teaching of Lord Sri Krishna to Arjuna on the

battlefield of Kurukshetra. The Bhagavad Gita’s importance in the religious

and philosophical literature of India is second only to the Upanishads. The

poem, with its 18 chapters form a part of the great epic Mahabharata, where

42
it describes the two rival armies of the Pandavas and the Kauravas engaged

against each other.

The occasion, which calls forth the teaching is of extreme seriousness (when

the fate of the country as well as the righteousness in peril). It is written in a

simple and charming style and is in the form of a dialogue, which gives it a

dramatic appearance. The massage that it gives is of supreme value and is

applicable to every man in every country. It does not discuss in detail any

deep philosophical problems or subtle details of ethics but, only gives broad

principles relating to term. The most significant attraction of the Bhagavad

Gita is its spirit of dharma, which is the most important characteristic of

Indian thought.

The central teaching of the Bhagavad Gita is actionism or karma yoga (There

are many techniques of transcendence in the Vedic tradition. Depending on

the sthayibhava of different people one may chose any of the techniques for

moksha. Among these are jnana yoga, bhakti yoga, karma yoga etc.) To

understand clearly the meaning of ‘Karma yoga’, the words ‘Karma’ and

‘Yoga’ are to be analyzed separately. ‘Karma’ means ‘what is done’ or ‘a

deed’. Karma Signifies that particular form of activity, which is taught in the

Karma Kanda of the Vedas namely sacrifice (yoga). But in Bhagavad Gita it

signifies duty in accordance with custom and tradition, which were found,

associated at the time with particular section or class of people, the

43
Varnadharmas, as they are called. Again Karma is used in a sense as to

signify divine worship or devotional duty (puja).

The meaning the Bhagavad Gita admits for Karma is that of ‘Social

obligation’. The word ‘yoga’ means ‘harnessing’ or ‘applying’ to oneself. So

by ‘karma yoga’ the Bhagavad Gita means ‘devotion to the discharge of

social duty’.

The Bhagavad Gita stresses ‘nishkama karma’ or performing the duties

without the least desire for its results. People do karmas because they are

attracted by the fruits of the karmas (Karma phala). This is not the kind of the

karma, the Bhagavad Gita advocates since this kind of Karma is not pure. It

is tainted by desire (Kama). For the Gita, Karma is not a means to an end,

but an end in itself. Therefore, the very thought for the result must be

dismissed all together from the mind, before as well as during and after the

karma. Such an act is called ‘nishkama karma’ or selfless, detached action.

The Advaitins have not even the slightest objection to the concept of the

nishkama karma. They accept it whole-heartedly. This becomes the ground

action side of Advaita Vedanta.

Again for those who cannot take up ‘Karma yoga’, the Bhagavad Gita

suggests ‘Karma Sanyasa’. That is, through renunciation too, the seeker can

find his liberation. This, also, is in tune with the Advaitic View. One who is in

the Paramarthika level of reality is above and beyond all the Karmas.

44
The Bhagavad Gita puts forward, the concept of the Sthitha prajna. The

Sthitha prajna is a man of steady wisdom. He is liberated from the chain of

endless karmas. He is the Jivan Mukta upon whom Advaita Vedanta showers

all its praises.

The picture of the God, Purushotama, as shown by the Bhagavad Gita suits

to the Suguna Brahman or Isvara of the Advaita Vedanta. He is the very

embodiment of existence, essence and excellence of all the qualities.

Thus, in short the Bhagavad Gita, as a source book, demonstrates that the

philosophy of Advaita Vedanta is not other-worldly and self- centered. Gita

teaches us how Advaita can be practiced in common life and how it leads

one to moksha prapthi.

2.5.2.3. Mandukya Karika

Among the secondary sources of the Advaita Vedanta, the Mandukya Karika

by Sri Gaudapadacharya holds a very high position. Gaudapadacharya is the

Guru of the Guru of Sri Sankaracharya and therefore, known as the ‘Parama

Guru’.

On the first look, the Mandukya Karika is a commentary on the Mandukya

Upanishad. But, in fact, by writing a commentary on the Mandukya

Upanishad, Sri Gaudapada Acharya is establishing the system of Advaita

Vedanta.

45
Sri Gaudapada Acharya bases his philosophy on the doctrine of no-

origination or ‘ajathi vada’. Through the Mandukya Karika (other wise called

Gaudapada Karika) he establishes the reality of non-dual self.

The Mandukya Upanishad begins with the equation Aum = All = Brahman =

Self and proceeds to describe the three states of the self namely; Jagrat

(waking), Swapna (Dreaming), Sushupti (deep sleep) and Thuriya (Forth

stage). Sri Gaudapadacharya makes this declaration of the Upanishad as the

basis of his metaphysical quest and seeks to show through reasoning that no

originate is the final truth.

The Gaudapada Karika gives clear evidence that Sri Gaudapadacharya is

the first systematic exponent of Advaita Vedanta. The central principles of

the Advaita school of thought such as orders of reality, the identity of the

individual soul (atman) and Brahman, the concept of Maya, the inapplicability

of causation to the ultimate reality and Jnana as the direct means to Moksha

are all set forth in the Mandukya Karika.

During Gaudapada Acharya’s period, Vijnanavada of Nagarjuna Buddhists

was seriously in discussion. Gaudapada Acharya challenges the

Vijnanavada by using their own categories to demonstrate that the

Sunyavadins are wrong on the final analysis.

Mandukya Karika explains Mayavada. Vyavaharika loka is understood and

explained through Mayavada. Though Nirguna, Brahman does not need

46
Mayavada at all for its ontology. Saguna Brahman, Isvara can be understood

only through concept of Maya and vyavaharika loka.

The term ‘Advaita’ simply means ‘non-dual’ or ‘not two’. In other words,

plainly speaking, the absolute self, the Brahman and the individual self, Jiva

are not two. By using the term 'Advaita', it can be said that the scholars

prefer to indirectly imply the Oneness of the Brahman and the Jiva, rather

than stating it directly5. Therefore, Advaitins do not directly say that the Jiva

and Brahman are one and the same, but say that both are not different from

each other.

2.5.3. Nature of Bondage in Advaita

In Advaita we have the concept of ultimate reality, Brahman, developed by

Badarayana and Adi Sankara. They took up the idea from the Upanishads

where it is denoted by the names, Brahman, Atman, Purusa, Isvara, Tatjalan,

Aum and so forth.

When we consider the world of finite objects from the logical or the

cosmological or even the moral point of view, we find that all things and all

arguments lead to a supposition of something that is necessarily larger than

the finite. Every explanation, every affirmation and denial pertaining to a finite

thing involve a reference to something real and more than finite.

When we say that Brahman is reality, we mean that it is not spatial or

temporal. It is not phenomenal or cognizable. Brahman is not a thing

47
because it has no attributes. Brahman is not a thing because it has no

relations, either spatial or temporal. Brahman has nothing similar to it

because it is not a species under a genus. It has no genus. It is the unique

and highest universal.

The Brahman is one without a second and is non-dual (Advaita) 6.

All descriptions of whole and parts, absolute and relative, finite and infinite

are transcendent in Brahman.

To understand the nature of Brahman, we should let go the finite and formal.

When the Upanishads speak of the Absolute as Nirguna (devoid of qualities),

what is meant is that it is beyond experience, and beyond the empirical. No

gunas, therefore, can belong to the Brahman. Brahman is Nirguna because it

is beyond all gunas. It is nirakara, because it is beyond all akaras (forms). It

is nishprapancha, because it is beyond Universe.

The Brahman is of the nature of ultimate consciousness. Jnana or knowledge

is not its property, but its very essence. Brahman is Jnana. It does not lead to

any truth, but it is itself the highest truth.

Brahman is sat because it is not asat. Brahman is cit because it is not acit.

Brahman is ananda because it is not of the nature of dukha. It is highest

truth, perfect being and fullest freedom. The characteristics sat, cit and

48
ananda are not qualities but only negations of non-being. Any quality is a

determination and any determination is a negation.

The system of Advaita admits three levels of realties: Prathibhasika satya,

vyavaharika satya and satya. Prathibhasika satya is the reality one

experience in his state of dreaming. It remains true till he wakes up.

Vyavaharika satya refers to the empirical reality. It is experienced by many,

and hence accepted as true. It lasts till the dawn of Brahma jnana.

Paramarthika satya is the absolute reality or state of Brahman. It is the

highest end of all.

Since the mankind views things from the empirical point of view, it demands

things to be described in its own way. Thus in the vyavaharika level of reality

Brahman is viewed as Saguna against its Nirguna aspect in the

Paramarthika level. Thus empirically Brahman is described as Saguna and

as the personal god, the creator, the preserver and the refuge of all worlds.

Here it is called Isvara. Isvara, in fact is only our conception of Brahman

since we are with in the limits of the vyavaharika world. In short, Brahman of

Nirguna nature as viewed in the Paramarthika level is the supreme reality.

In Advaita the individual soul is designated as Jiva. According to the Advaitin

the Jiva is not a devotee nor a dependent nor a friend nor an equal to the

Brahman. It is Brahman it self. Thus Advaita reaches the climax of theistic

49
speculation where, in a sense the soul and the supreme spirit or the self and

God are one and the same.

In Advaita, Jiva is nothing else but Brahman itself .Adi Sankaracharya says

the difference observed in the empirical level is an illusion and the world itself

is a midhya (appearance).

What makes the Jiva think itself to be different from the Brahman is the

Bondage in which it finds itself. Thus it takes itself as a body as existing in a

Jagat (world) as mortal, as always finite and limited. This happens because,

being attached with body it loses the sight of the satya and is confined to the

empirical world of name and form (namarupa), Time and Space.

Thus, it is only a change in the point of view that causes all the problems for

the Jiva. Jiva loses the Paramarthika point of view and in its place take up

the less real vyavaharika point of view. It has to remain in this state of

imprisonment, where it is limited by avidya or ignorance. It has only finite

knowledge and limited powers. It is conditional, pragmatic and psychological.

The Jiva is personal due to the presence of the mind (manas), intellect

(buddhi) and ego (ahankara).

Jiva is the doer (karmin) and enjoyer (bhoktr). It has the characteristics of

merit and demerit, pleasure and pain, attachment and aversion, desire and

volition. The Jiva remains in the waking, sleeping and dreaming stages. It is

subjected to action, bondage, liberation and transformation. To Jiva, all these

50
state of affairs continue, till the final release, the Moksha, where it is

identified with the Brahman.

Karma and Maya are the bonds that bind the Jiva, and they own a very

important position in the philosophy of Advaita.

2.5.3.1. Karma

The term Karma has two meanings. One is the deed or the action and the

other is the fruit of an action. Being attached with the material body the Jiva

cannot help doing karmas7. It is always doing Karmas. Karmas have their

fruits. The doer has to enjoy them irrespective of being good or bad. And this

enjoyment leads in to doing further Karmas. They also have their after

effects. And this chain continues ad infinitum. In this way the Jiva falls deeper

and deeper into the tight grip of Karma. “Mysterious is the way of Karma”,

says Bhagavad Gita8: ( ) Where ever the Karma is leading

the Jiva or whatever problems it is causing to the Jiva are always unknown

and beyond predictions. It leads Jiva from one birth to another and again,

from one Karma to another. Thus it goes on accumulating in the Jiva’s

account. For not even a single moment, the Jiva is free from karma.

The Advaita prescribes Jnana or knowledge as the means to release from

the Karma.

2.5.3.2. Maya

No other single term, in the entire history of philosophical world, has

triggered off such a vast population of arguments, disputes and controversies

51
as the term Maya has provoked. It is the very basis of the Advaita theory of

causation called vivertha vada. The concept of Maya is implicit in the

teachings of the Vedas and the Upanishads and Sankaracharya has brought

it to the explicit.

The term Maya has no unalterable and fixed meaning in the history of Indian

Thought. Because of the fluidity of the term and its unfixed meaning, it has

been a much misunderstood and much abused word in the Indian

Philosophy. Because of these reason, the term Maya has been the target of

much adverse criticism even by eminent Indian Philosophers, from Sri

Ramanuja in the eleventh century down to Sri Aurobindo in the twentieth.

The different meanings suggested for the term Maya has great significance

in the present study. Hence they are examined separately.

Maya is the power or the energy of the Supreme spirit that appears as the

world, in a mysterious way. It is the ‘finite-ising’ principle which provides the

dynamics of the one appearing as many9. The distinction between Subject

and Object leads to the experience of manifoldness and this is called Maya.

It is the totality of appearances10. Maya is the mother of infinite riddles11. It is

the indescribable world of experience in its entirety.

Maya is the principle which makes the one appears as many12. It is the ontic

noetic state wherein limitations or upadhis are imposed upon reality13. All

cognitions, percepts, logic, memories, attachments, aversions, fears, dreams

52
etc; are the work of Maya. Maya appears whenever we fail to realize the

oneness of the real14. It means the contradictoriness of the world15. The

principle of Maya is what makes a thing appear as real from one standpoint

but reduces it to be unreal from another16.

Maya implies that the world of experience is the sphere of relativity, which is

not unreal or illusory or void or ultimately real in self-existence, but it is a form

of manifestation of the Absolute Spirit which, in essence, is logically

indeterminable17.

2.5.3.2.1. Etymological Meaning of Maya

The term Maya has its origin from the Sanskrit root ma which means to

measure, to build, to know etc; but generally it means the first one: to
18
measure (miyate anayati) i.e., by which is measured; or we can say the

illusive projection of the world by which the immeasurable Brahman appears

as if measured. The same root also means to build, leading to the idea of

appearance or illusion19.

According to Sayanacharya, the word Maya is derived from mad mane

20
where ma means to measure and to know- miyante jnayante iti karmani .

The root ma also means to show as ma iti (svatmanam) darsyati iti Maya

i.e. that which shows itself- that which appears to our view (without having
21
any real existence) . Now, we can infer that when Maya means the causal

will power, ichcha sakti , the root ma would mean to know and when Maya

53
means the effectual state of the world as illusion, ma would mean to build,

to mean, to measure etc.

In Indian Philosophy the term Maya has been used to denote different

meanings. The conception of the term Maya is as old as some of the later

books of Rig Veda where its forms are clearly noticeable and that it is

gradually developed through the speculation of the Upanishads and passing

through the hands of Gaudapada and Sankaracharya, was crystallized into a

technical form, elaborated more and more as the time went on 22. Let us now

see how the concept has originated.

2.5.3.2.2. Vedic Concept of Maya

Vedas do not give a fixed meaning to Maya. It does not have the same

meaning in all the contexts, where it appears. The word in one form or the

other occurs more than one hundred times in Rigveda23. Let us examine

them one by one.

2.5.3.2.2.1. Maya as Prajna

Nighantu, the most ancient available dictionary of Vedic words describes

Maya as one of the eleven names of prajna or intelligence24. Yaska, the great

commentator on Nighantu gives the same sense of prajna while explaining

adhenva carati Mayayasah25. Following Yaska, Sayanacharya in most

cases, gives the meaning prajna26.

54
2.5.3.2.2.2. Maya as Kapata

Along with prajna, Sayanacharya gives another meaning of Maya: Kapata.

He often suggests both the meanings at one time. For instance, even in the

very first hymn (Rig Veda i.11.7) in which the word appears as Mayavin and

Mayavinam, Sayanacharya suggests these two meanings 27. P.D. Sastry

says that the two chief meanings which are assigned to the word Maya in the

Rig Veda are Prajna and Kapata28.

2.5.3.2.2.3. Maya as mysterious and magical element

Atharva Veda stresses the mysterious magical element in the meaning of

the term Maya. Here, the word can generally be rendered as magic, sorcery

and witchcraft29. Even then, it can be seen that the underlying idea is that

of mysterious, in comprehensible power or intelligence. In Rig Veda, Indra is

spoken of as assuming many different forms and it is not done by his

physical power but simply by his wonderful and extraordinary will power. He

wills and he may assume such and such forms and it is realized; hence Indra

is very often termed as mayin in Vedic hymns30. This extra ordinary will

power and its concrete realization perplex ordinary under understanding and

hence the idea of something mysterious is implied.

In the Vedas, the concept of magic is prevalent. Magic and its material

effects were regarded as real. When they were understood as unsubstantial,

the creations of Maya came to mean illusion such as is created by magic 31.

55
The mysterious and magical element of the power spoken of in the Rig Veda

is seen more emphasized in Atharva Veda.

2.5.3.2.2.4. Maya as Sakti

In order to denote both the mental power and the concrete form in which it is

realized, the Vedas use the term Maya. Commenting on Rig Veda iv.30.21

and v.30.6, Sayanacharya explains the word as Sakti or Power. Here, Maya

means intelligence or mental power, but this has such an application in

connection with crafts, fine arts etc. It stands for creative power32.

In the Taitiriya Brahmana, occurs the term Mayaya which according to

Sayanacharya means divine power33. In addition, the Satapata Brahmana

gives the forms Mayavant, Maya and Mayam, where the word means

supernatural power34. The Pancavimsati Brahmana also has the word

Maya in the same sense. Sayanacharya translates Maya in this context as

aghatita-ghatana-sakti 35 or inconceivable supernatural power.

It must be noted that the power, here does not mean physical power but

spiritual power and hence it is often explained as sankalpa sakti. The

possessors of Maya get control over others.

2.5.3.2.2.5. Maya as knowledge of Sacred Rites

Sayanacharya in his commentary on Rig Veda36 explains the meanings of

Maya as karma vishaya jnana, the knowledge of Sacred Rites are known37.

Even earthly sacrificers becomes mayin or Mayavan 38

56
In the rituals of Vedic cult, Maya is found. The ritualistic God par excellence,

Agni, possesses Maya and in him all the Maya and Mayins are brought

together. Even the earthly sacrificer becomes himself possessed of Maya as

a result of the ritual39.

2.5.3.2.2.6. Maya as Wondrous Art

Many Rig Vedic passages explain Maya as Wondrous Art. Rig Veda i.160.4

is an example which says that “among the skillful Gods, most skillful is he

who made the two world halves and who with wisdom measured out both the

regions and established them with undecaying pillars. Here it refers to the

craft of building”40. Maya has originally denoted extraordinary knowledge and

proficiency in respect of the arts and crafts.

2.5.3.2.3. Upanishadic Concept of Maya

Various Upanishads mentions the doctrine of Maya under one name or the

other. Sankaracharya only fixes the place and function of it in Advaita41.

However, the term Maya has different meanings in different Upanishads and

even in the same Upanishad; it has different meanings in different contexts.

“The Doctrine of Maya as it is found in Sankara’s works is an indigenous

development of the Upanishadic views. It is a natural corollary from his

epistemological and ontological position”. 42

2.5.3.2.3.1. Maya as Prakriti

Svetaswatara Upanishad uses the term Mayam in the sense of Prakriti of

Samkhya Philosophy. The Upanishadic texts describe Maheswara as

57
possessing Maya, the primal cause of the Universe.43 Maya refers to Prakriti

and mayin to Maheswara; and the world as interpreted with the powers of the

lord is a partial revelation of God, moreover, a theory a kin to the theistic

Samkhya is countenanced here. 44

Maya has been identified with Prakriti in Svetaswatara Upanishad and the

famous verse ‘agam ekam’, etc; evidently represents it as composed of three

45
gunas symbolized by the three colors, red, white and black. It can easily be

seen that the term Maya here means Prakriti, the revelation of God’s

supernormal power in various forms.

2.5.3.2.3.2. Maya as Prapancha

In the Svetaswatara Upanishad, 1.10, and iv.1.10, we see that the word

Maya gives the meaning ‘Prapancha’, the one manifesting itself as the many.

In his commentary on the passage1.10, Sankaracharya adds, “sukha dukha

mohatmaka sesa-prapancha. i.e., the whole world as a sum total of

pleasures, pain, delusion, etc

2.5.3.2.3.3. Maya as Illusion

The miserable condition of the Bhutatman, the elemental self, is described in

the Maitri Upanishad (iv.2). The elemental self is the self who inspires the

body that is formed by the combination of the subtle and gross elements. It is

intoxicated with delusion (moha) as with wine, blinded by passion as by

night, of the nature of appearance (Maya - Mayan) like a magical illusion

58
(indrajalpa); false like a dream, unsubstantial like the pith of a banana tree,

changing its dress like an actor, falsely delighting the mind like a painted

wall.46 The Maitri Upanishad is very near the early Buddhist Period. Thus it is

very clear that the word Maya, by that time, acquired the meaning of an

appearance, an unsubstantial fabric, an illusion.

2.5.3.2.3.4. Maya as Mystery

The last of the five sections of the Sarvopanishadsara gives a good

47
description of Maya. Here and in the following stanza, the great lord is

called Mayi. By his Maya sakti, 48 he has created the Universe.

2.5.3.2.4. Maya in the Bhagavad Gita

The term Maya does not occur very frequently in the Bhagavad Gita. ‘Maya’

is used in three senses in different contexts. They are as; supernatural

power, Prakriti and ignorance of the individual soul.

2.5.3.2.4.1. Maya as Supernatural power.

In the Bhagavad Gita, Sri Krishna, speaking as Supreme God, says:

“Although I am unborn and of immutable and indestructible nature, and the

Supreme lord of all that exists, still retaining my nature as it is or controlling

my own Prakriti, the Maya which has three gunas for it self.” 49

59
Here Maya means the unusual or supernatural power of God. It also said that

God dwells in the heart of all beings set in the machine 50.

Here also the term Maya denotes the same meaning – the supernatural

power51.

2.5.3.2.4.2. Maya as Prakriti

The Bhagavad Gita says that God has two Prakritis-one higher Prakriti and

the other lower Prakriti. The life principle by which the world is upheld is

called the higher Prakriti. The lower Prakriti is called Maya 52. Deluded by this

Maya, Men regard God as born, though he is really unborn, imperishable and

immutable. Here, Maya means lower Prakriti.

2.5.3.2.4.3. Maya as the ignorance of the individual soul

The Bhagavad Gita also says that Maya is the ignorance of the individual

soul. Sri Krishna says: “Those persons of bad conduct, whose knowledge

60
had been stolen by Maya, whose minds are immersed in worldly objects and

in the pleasure they derive from them , who are of vile and demon-like nature

do not seek me” 53.

Also, God is said to have veiled by his Yoga-Maya which is not

comprehended by all, people do not know him as unknowable and

immutable54.

It is clear that Maya here means the ignorance of the individual Soul55.

2.5.3.2.5. Maya in the Brahma Sutra

In Brahma sutra56, the term Maya occurs only once as

Here the term means illusion. Commenting on the context, P.D. Sastri

suggests: “Doubtless, the word means ‘illusion’ here, as it is quite in keeping

57
with the spirit of the preceding two sutras; which also bear on the same

subject of the unreality of the dream world” 58.

61
2.5.3.2.6. Maya in the Gaudapadakarika

Gaudapadacharya, the Parama Guru (Guru of Guru) of Sankaracharya has

written a verse commentary on Mandukya Upanishad called Mandukya

Karika or Gaudapadakarika. It is the oldest known systematic exposition of

Advaita Vedanta. The Karika falls into four sections namely Agama

Prakarana, Vaitathya Prakarana, Advaita Prakarana and Alatashanti

Prakarana.

The first section is a brief systematic exposition of the Upanishadic text,

following its distinction of the four states of consciousness. Several of the

most important commentators even treat the 29 slokas of the Agama

Prakarana as part of the scriptural text of Mandukya Upanishad.

The second section moves beyond the text of the Upanishad to establish the

unreality of the things experienced in dreams and, by analogy, the things

experienced in the waking state. All these are but Maya, illusion. Gaudapada

emphasized the essential unity of waking and dreaming, arguing the waking

world is as unreal as the dream-world. Sankaracharya will emphasize the

distinction between the two, to avoid the collapse into subjective illusionism.

The Advaita section of the Karika presents a clear, positive statement of the

Non-Dualist position: Atman/Brahman alone is real, all else is illusion.

Gaudapadacharya teaches the Ajata doctrine: the doctrine of No-Becoming.

62
The fourth section of the Karika, Alatashanti Prakarana expounds the means

of removing the illusion of duality. Essentially this is the ASPARSHA YOGA

mentioned in section three.

Gaudapada Acharya uses the term in his Mandukya Karika or

Gaudapadakarika to denote the following senses.

2.5.3.2.6.1. Maya as illusion or appearance

Gaudapadacharya says that the non dual spirit is the sole reality and that the

world of plurality is an illusory appearance induced by Maya59. The first

Prakarana itself establishes through tarka, that the Universe is really non-

existent. Existence can be ascribed to the real alone and never to the non-

real. Even during the time of delusion of rope-snake, the snake does not

exist in the rope or is it really removed when the error is corrected. Likewise,

the Universe does not really exist, even though it appears.

(Whatever that appear as dual is nothing but Maya. Advaita is the

Ultimate reality.) 60

Thus the world is unreal, but appears to be real. It is neither separate from

reality nor non-separate. Gaudapadacharya calls this particular nature of

appearance as Maya or indeterminacy.

63
2.5.3.2.6.2. Maya as principle of individuation

All individuation is due to Maya61. Therefore, Maya is the very principle of

individuation. Phenomena are differentiated among themselves in form,

function and name. They have substantiality, causality and motion,

empirically and practically. In their own sphere, they have purposive ness

too. Thus, we see that Gaudapadacharya indicates the grounds of

differentiation of phenomenon62.

2.5.3.2.6.3. Maya as Prana

As the principle of differentiation, Maya is also called Prana which has two

stages called avyakta and vyakta. Prana in the stage of avaktavya is

synonymous with Maya.63 Again in its vyakta stage; it is the same as Isvara

or personal God. 64

2.5.3.2.6.4. Maya as Principle of creation

Gaudapadakarika, sometimes, uses term Maya as the principle of creation.

According to the Karika, the Self, Maya and Mind are responsible for the

manifestation of the world65. But the self, Atman, is eternal and unchanging.

Therefore, it cannot be the cause of anything all by itself. Hence it is said to

be the ground of the apparent manifestation of the world through Maya 66. “Of

what is sat, birth is intelligible only through Maya and not in reality” 67 Hence,

it is the self as conditioned by Maya, is the cause of the world68. It can be

seen that the third factor ‘mind’ is used to denote Self in this context 69. It

64
stands for the ground of the world as conditioned by Maya. Thus Maya is

also used to give the idea of the principle of creation.

2.5.3.2.6.5. Maya as Power of Isvara

“All organs are like a dream and are projected by the Maya of Atman”70 says

Gaudapadacharya. Thus Maya, in Gaudapadakarika, indicates the power of

Isvara or God to bring about an appearance to imagine things 71. An

interesting remark here is that it can delude even the Atman. Thus in

Gaudapadakarika, Maya is associated with the idea of the imaginary

construction of the world. Jivas and the other objects external and internal

are imagined by Atman by His power Maya. That is, Maya is a cosmic power

that can delude even Atman.

It is evident that from Vedas and Upanishads, we get the raw material out of

which the doctrine of Maya was built. It is a slow evolution of a line of thought

which was later systemized and developed into a full fledged philosophy by

Sri Sankaracharya.

2.5.3.2.7. Significance of the concept of Maya

The problem of one and the many is a vital question to be answered by a

monist. He has to explain, how the one appears as many. Hence the doctrine

of Maya is cardinal to the school of Advaita Vedanta. Maya is the seed of the

world of difference. It is the indescribable world of experience in entirety.

Maya is the Principle which makes the one appears as the many.

65
Maya is not an entity, not a substance and it does not affect the Brahman.

This disparity between appearance and reality is mainly due to the inherent

limitation of the Jiva. Maya is the statement of this fact. In Advaita it acts as

the connecting link between the infinite and the finite.

The system of Advaita denies any kind of change in the absolute, Brahman.

It does not under go any transition. The physical world of multiplicity or Jagat

is only a vivertha or appearance. This appearance is due to Maya.

In Vivertha Vada of causation the cause is not transformed into the effect but

the true nature of the cause is hidden; screened and in its place the world of

variety and form is projected. In Advaita, vivertha stands for the appearance

of one, pure, quality-less Brahman as characterized by a world of various

qualities and attributes.

Brahman, which is beyond the scope of space and time, is brought under the

categories of space and time. This is happening due to adhyasa (super

imposition). It is exactly as perceiving a snake that is actually not presented.

World is Maya. It is only a vyavaharika satya. In order to understand Maya

one has to rise from vyavaharika level to the Paramarthika level.

Maya is not real because it can be overcome by Brahma Jnana. Maya is not

unreal also, because unlike the "hare's horn" it is not a mere absurdity. It is

our subjective mode of experience. Hence Maya is said to be anirvachaniya

(that cannot be defined). It is not a substance with a function. It has two

66
properties-avarana (covering) and Vikshepa (projection). Avarana is negative

and Vikshepa is positive. It is through Maya, name and form (bhavarupa)

evolve.

As energy of ‘Isvara’, Brahman as viewed from empirical level, Maya

represents force, power and energy (Sakti). Sakti is the character of Prakriti

(primal matter). Maya is therefore, identified with Prakriti. Maya is

unintelligent and therefore it is called Jada. Maya is also Anadi (beginning

less) in the vyavaharika level.

Maya is inexplicable; in the sense that it is not self - explanatory. For one

who knows Brahman there is no Maya. But one who takes his standpoint of

logic and reasoning can never understand the relation between Maya and

Brahman. It is because to know Brahman is to be Brahman. Thus, through

reason, we can never understand how the ultimate is related to the world.

From all these it is evident that from the Vedas and Upanishads, we get the

raw material out of which the doctrine of Maya is built upon. It is a slow

evolution of a line of thought which was later systemized and developed into

a full-fledged Philosophy by Sri Sankaracharya.

2.5.4. Concept of Liberation in Advaita

Advaita is unique in its treatment of knowledge, because it believes that to

escape sansara is to know Brahman and to know Brahman is to be

Brahman. The point Advaita wants to make clear is that bondage is due to

67
the soul’s ignorance. This ignorance is not due to any other reality either

inherent or external. The ignorance is like a rope-snake. It ceases to be a

snake when knowledge arises. Like wise, with the rise of knowledge of

Brahman (Brahma Jnana), all illusions disappear. There occurs

Brahmatmaikatva or the realization of the identity of the Atman or self with

the Brahman. This is the final end of the life, according to Advaita.

2.5.4.1. Means to Liberation

As mentioned earlier, Jnana and Jnana alone is the means to attain mukti.

Jnana destroys Karma and removes Maya as fire destroys fuel and light

removes darkness respectively.

Brahma jnana is a result of study of Vedanta, which includes the learning of

the Vedas and the Upanishads. The Vedas and Upanishads are said to be

apaurusheya (not created by human beings or God). Since Sruti is the only

record of what occurred in moments of exalted imagination, to the minds of

saints and sages, there can be nothing that is accidental or contingent in it.

They are eternal truths.

The truths that are enshrined in Sruti can be verified by anyone. They are not

the exclusive monopoly of the enlightened Ones. But to get the knowledge,

one has to go through the disciplines that are laid down for him by the sages.

68
2.5.4.2. Eligibility for Liberation

Sankaracharya speaks of four fold eligibility (Sadhana chatushtaya) in Viveka

Chudamani. It consists of Nityanitya vastuviveka, Ihamutra phala

bhogaviraga, Samadamadi Sadhana Sampath and Mumukshutva72.

Nityanitya Vastuviveka is the ability to discriminate between the transient

(ever changing) and the eternal. The world of senses consists of objects

which are transient. Those which are coming and going cannot be eternal.

But there must be some eternal being which is the ground of these eternal

things. To know that the self alone is eternal and all else is non-eternal is

called Nityanitya vastu Viveka.

Ihamutrabhala bhoga viraga is the absence of desire for securing pleasure or

avoiding pain here or else where. One should not desire for any kind of this

worldly or other worldly pleasures.

Samadamadi Sadhana sampath involves attainment of six sadhanas. They

are Sama (calmness), Dama (temperance), Titiksha (the spirit of

renunciation), Uparathi (fortitude), Sraddha (power of concentration of the

mind) and Samadhana (faith in truth).

69
An aspirant who has attained these six qualities will find that the sacrificial

injunctions have no value.

Once the individual attains the three qualities of Nityanitya vastu viveka and

Samadamadi Sadhana sampath, he will be a true sanyasin and will have

constant desire for freedom.

Mumukshuthva is the earnest desire to know the truth as such. One who

attains this eligibility can approach a proper teacher (Guru), who himself is an

enlightened one, a released soul (Brahmanishta); to study the Sruti.

Of the four fold path of the Sadhana chatushtaya, it can be seen that earlier

one is the cause of the each subsequent one; as, when there is the

discrimination between eternal, and non-eternal, there is non-attachment to

all kinds of pleasures too; when this detachment is cultivated, there arise

Samadamadi Sadhana Sampath and so on.

The One, who performs the four Sadhanas and seeks the help of a proper

Guru, can hear from the Guru, the secret of the Upanishads. This stage is

called Sravana (hearing). What is heard from the teacher is to be reflected

upon to get intellectual conviction.

The disciple is not asked to accept dogmatically whatever is taught by the

Guru, even though, the Guru is a competent authority. He can verify it by

reasoning (yukthi). This stage is called Manana.

70
But to get direct experience of reality, reason cannot help. Only experience

(anubhava) can help. Thus manana is to be followed by the next stage,

Dhyana or Niddhidhyasana. Here what has been convinced through reason

is to be meditated upon and the result is to be one with that or more

correctly, to get Sakshatkara which Sri Sankara designates to be the

supreme anubhava, namely, the Advaitanubhuti.

Thus, the procedure is not at all dogmatic. Importance is given to the reason

and the experience. Sankaracharya employs the method of objection (purva

paksha) and answer (Siddhanta). This is a clear evidence for the Advaitin’s

disregard for dogmatism.

The Advaitins, even when they study the Sruti, are not taking a dogmatic or

authoritarian attitude. Even the Sruti is put to the test of reason. They apply

Sadlinga or six characteristic marks to examine the Sruti. They are,

i. Upakarma-Upasamhara- The harmony of the initial and

concluding passages.

ii. Abhyasa- Repetition (purportful passage will repeated).

iii. Apurvata- Novelty of the idea.

iv. Phala- Fruitfulness.

v. Arthavada- Glorification by enlogistic passages.

vi. Upapathi - Intelligibility in the light of reasoning.

71
Thus, by doing four Sadhanas, listening to the words of the Guru and by the

study of Sruti, one can attain Liberation.

From Advaitin’s point of view, Jnana alone liberates. But this assertion does

not mean that virtue is of less importance in Advaita. Though non duality is

the highest truth, Advaita recognizes a lower stand point where all

differences are real. At this level, there is full scope for all the obligations of

moral life.

Therefore, the Advaitin accepts all the standards of moral values, as long as

he is in the vyavaharika world. They exhort us to avoid sins forbidden by the

Sastras. The person, who properly discharges all the obligations, will exhibit

certain characteristics, which will qualify him for the study of Vedanta.

According to Sankaracharya, Karma is not the direct means to liberation.

Instead, it is the direct means to knowledge. So, one should not give up

karmas while he is in the vyavaharika level.

Advaitins accept devotion or Bhakti as essential for the ‘Vikshepa dosha’ of

the mind which causes lack of concentration.

Bhakti implies disinterested services to God. So it is also a form of karma.

The object of devotion is personal God; Isvara. Isvara is the protector of his

devotees. For his grace absolute faith and dependence are necessary.

By devotion, the mind becomes steady. By removed of the Vikshepa, one

becomes free from the evil desires that make the mind impure. In the

72
absence of Vikshepa, one can detach from the various attachments of the

world.

When one surrenders himself wholeheartedly to God, he becomes free from

all types of the worldly attachments. Thus he can perform his karmas

correctly.

However, Bhakti is essential only for whose intellect is fickle. Whose mind is

pure and intellect is steady need not take up Bhakti, even though it is not

prohibited to him.

Advaita rejects the total synthesis of action, devotion and knowledge. But

Advaitins are not against their partial synthesis. It is called Karma

Samuchaya.

Karma and Jnana cannot be placed on the same footing. The cessation of

the false world of multiplicity and the realization of one’s true nature which

constitutes liberation is possible only through Jnana; and not through Karma,

or Bhakti or Karma and Jnana together or Bhakti-Jnana coordination.

Knowledge is the sole means. Therefore, sama samuchaya (total synthesis)

of Jnana, Karma and Bhakti is rejected since they are meant for three

different levels of intellect.

2.5.5. State of Mukti

Mukti is the realization of one’s own true nature. The Jiva or the soul is

always free in its nature and its essence. It is ever infinite, ever conscious

73
and ever blissful. It has the nature of Brahman. It has Brahman or it is

Brahman.

Owing to ignorance, Jiva does not realize its own essence. So in Advaita,

mukti is the process by which the ignorance of the soul is removed, so that

the soul can have a clear vision of itself as Brahman. It is the effect of the

ignorance that veils the real conscious of the Jiva. Thus, it thinks itself to be

different and separate from Brahman. Therefore, according to Advaita

Vedanta, Mukti is not a new state to be newly attained; but it is the very

nature of the self or Jiva.

It is knowledge that can destroy ignorance and bring about mukti. This brings

about the self-realization. It is the highest goal of one’s life. This realization

that results in the identification of the self with Brahman is called

Brahmanubhava.

Brahmanubhava is anirvachaniya since it means knowing by being and not a

knowing in the ordinary sense of the term. Brahmanubhava gives the highest

insight into the Brahman and he who has it knows the answers to every

question of the nature of the Brahman as pure being, pure consciousness

and pure bliss.

Liberation, in a negative sense, is characterized by the cessation of sorrow,

which is an effect of ignorance. Sorrow is the result of the superimposition of

the non-self on the self. The self attaches itself to the psycho-physical

74
organism. As a result of liberation, the self realizes that its previous

attachment with worldly matters was unreal. This removes misery owing to

ignorance. The soul was thinking that it was a worldly creature. But through

the knowledge generated by the Vedantic text “Tatavamasi” (that thou art)

the self removes its wrong thought and realizes its true nature.

Again, positively, liberation means the attainment of perfect bliss. Once

liberated, the Jiva attains unparalleled happiness. This happiness or infinite

bliss is not extrinsic. It is a result of the newly attained power of the

discrimination of the eternal from the non-eternal. It is of the nature of

Brahman and hence, is the supreme bliss. Here, the happiness and the one

who experiences the happiness know no distinctions because the knower of

happiness becomes one with the happiness. That is the knower of Brahman

becomes one with the Brahman.

To realize the happiness of Brahma-jnana one does not need any ideal, or

any effort, since it is eternally established. What is required is the cessation

of ignorance and when that is done, the self-luminous Brahman shines of its

own accord.

One can achieve mukti while he is alive. This stage of release-while-living is

called Jivan mukti. The soul in such a state of release is called Jivan mukta.

A Jivan mukta acts as if not living in this world, but he lives in it. He is beyond

the world. He does Karmas, but the Karmas are no longer attached to him

75
since he is a released one. The purpose of his Karma is the welfare of the

world or loka samgraha.

Jivan Mukta transcends the barriers produced by logic, morality and religion.

He guides the world through his acts, speech and thought. He is the

spokesman of the Absolute. He is the witness of all things and thoughts, but

without the least interest in or attachment with them. He has no desire since

he owns the most desired position of release. Though he appears to be living

in the world, he is completely beyond its scope and limits.

Though knowledge of absolute reality (Brahma Jnana) removes avidya, the

Jivan Mukta’s prarabdha Karmas remain. Because of this prarabdha Karma,

he has to remain in this world, for the time being. He lives till he finishes off

his prarabdha Karma and then leaves his body. This kind of release is called

Videha mukti; because, it is the release without the body.

Unlike the Jivan Mukta, the Videha mukta cannot help society. Only the Jivan

Mukta can do service for the sake of the society.

Hence, Advaita gives very much importance to the state of Jivan mukti. The

Jivan Mukta, being himself liberated, can help others to attain liberation. In

the world, he appears as an embodiment of true life, true love and true light.

He is a fountain-head of Brahmanubhuti who can lead the aspirants towards

Brahman.

76
Advaita can be regarded as the climax of philosophy, pinnacle of thought that

dares to equate the Individual Self with the Supreme Absolute Self, beyond

which no thinker can ever go.

77
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80
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81
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82
53. Ibid vii 15

54. Ibid vii 25

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57. Ibid iii.2.2, iii.2.2

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60. Gaudapadakarika 1.17

61. ibid iii.19

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63. Kokileswar Sastri, Maya in Sankara Vedanta, Jha Commemoration

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83
68. T.M.P. Mahadevan op cit

69. Mandukya Karika iii.10, Central Chinmaya Mission Trust, Mumbai,

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84