FMDS0511 Lightning Protection System

FM Global
Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets 5-11

April 2012
Page 1 of 70
LIGHTNING AND SURGE PROTECTION FOR ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
Table of Contents
Page
1.0 SCOPE ................................................................................................................................................... 4

1.1 Changes ............................................................................................................................................ 4
2.0 LOSS PREVENTION RECOMMENDATIONS ....................................................................................... 4
2.1 Electrical .......................................................................................................................................... 4
2.1.1 Direct Stroke Protection ........................................................................................................ 4
2.1.2 Installation of Arresters .......................................................................................................... 4
3.0 SUPPORT FOR RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................................................... 5
3.1 Loss History ..................................................................................................................................... 5
4.0 REFERENCES ....................................................................................................................................... 6
4.1 FM Global ........................................................................................................................................ 6
4.2 Other ................................................................................................................................................ 6
APPENDIX A GLOSSARY OF TERMS ....................................................................................................... 7
APPENDIX B DOCUMENT REVISION HISTORY ..................................................................................... 10
APPENDIX C SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION ................................................................................... 10
C.1 General ......................................................................................................................................... 10
C.2 Lightning Charge Formation .......................................................................................................... 11
C.3 Characteristics of a Lightning Stroke ............................................................................................ 11
C.3.1 Current ................................................................................................................................ 11
C.3.2 Voltage ................................................................................................................................ 11
C.3.3 Waveshape ......................................................................................................................... 11
C.3.4 Polarity ................................................................................................................................ 11
C.3.5 Charge ................................................................................................................................ 12
C.3.6 Frequency ........................................................................................................................... 12
C.3.7 Cold and Hot Lightning ....................................................................................................... 12
C.3.8 Direct Strokes ..................................................................................................................... 12
C.3.9 Induced Surges ................................................................................................................... 13
C.3.10 Bound Charges ................................................................................................................. 14
C.3.11 Surge Propagation ............................................................................................................ 14
C.4 Protection Against Direct Strokes (Shielding) ............................................................................... 15
C.4.1 Cone of Protection .............................................................................................................. 15
C.4.2 Substations ......................................................................................................................... 18
C.5 Switching Surges .......................................................................................................................... 19
C.6 Overvoltage Due to Surges from Other Sources ......................................................................... 19
C.6.1 Physical Contact With a Higher Voltage System ............................................................... 20
C.6.2 Reasonant Effects in Inductive-Capacitive Circuits ............................................................ 20
C.6.3 Forced Current Zero Interruption ........................................................................................ 20
C.6.4 Autotransformer Connection — Neutral Ungrounded ........................................................ 21
C.7 Surge Protection Devices ............................................................................................................. 21
C.7.1 Protective Gaps .................................................................................................................. 21
C.7.2 Valve-Type Arresters ........................................................................................................... 21
C.7.3 Expulsion Arresters and Protector Tubes ........................................................................... 27
C.7.4 dc Arresters ......................................................................................................................... 28
C.8 Arrester Application ....................................................................................................................... 29
C.8.1 Arrester Rating .................................................................................................................... 31
C.8.2 Arrester Class ..................................................................................................................... 34
C.8.3 Location of Arresters ........................................................................................................... 34
C.8.4 Shielding ............................................................................................................................. 34
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5-11 Lightning and Surge Protection
Page 2 FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets
C.9 Protection of Distribution Systems ................................................................................................ 54

C.9.1 Selection of Arrester Rating ................................................................................................ 56
C.9.2 Insulation Coordination ....................................................................................................... 57
C.9.3 Arrester Lead Wires ............................................................................................................ 57
C.9.4 Arrester Clearances ............................................................................................................ 57
C.9.5 Protection of Capacitor Banks ............................................................................................ 58
C.9.6 Protection of Switches, Reclosers, etc. .............................................................................. 58
C.9.7 Protection of Series Windings ............................................................................................ 58
C.9.8 Protection of Equipment on Underground Systems ........................................................... 58
C.9.9 Contaminated Atmospheres ............................................................................................... 59
C.9.10 Example Calculations for Determining Adequacy of Surge Protection ............................ 59
List of Figures
Fig. 1.
Annual mean number of days with thunderstorms. (U.S.A.) (U.S. Dept. of Commerce) ................ 13
Fig. 2.
Traveling waves caused by lightning stroke to power line. .............................................................. 14
Fig. 3.
Plot of data from Table 3, with 150 ft (45m) radius circle inscribed. ............................................... 16
Fig. 4.
Lightning protection from single mast or wire. ................................................................................. 17
Fig. 5.
300-ft rolling sphere principle. .......................................................................................................... 18
Fig. 6.
Station-type arresters. (Upper) Thyrite Magne-valve station-class arresters. For important
and valuable equipment in power stations and substations. Also made in line type. (General
Electric) (Lower) Autovalve type S.V. arresters. Heavy construction for power stations
and important substations. (Westinghouse) ..................................................................................... 22
Fig. 7. Intermediate arresters, line type. Pellet arresters, 300-volts minimum to 15-kv maximum.
(General Electric) .............................................................................................................................. 23
Fig. 8. Distribution arresters, valve type L.V. Rating 3 to 15 kv. (Westinghouse) ....................................... 23
Fig. 9. Tranquell (metal oxide) station surge arrestor. (General Electric Co.) ............................................ 24
Fig. 9a. Alugard 30-kv station arrester. (General Electric Co.) ................................................................... 25
Fig. 10. De-ion protector tube. For outdoor service. ................................................................................... 27
Fig. 11. dc capacitor-type arrester, 0 to 750 volts.
Molded insulation cover removed from one terminal. (General Electric) ....................................... 28
Fig. 12. Capacitor-type arrester, 751 to 2000 volts. (General Electric) ....................................................... 28
Fig. 13. Capacitor-type capacitor arrester, 2001 to 3900 volts. (General Electric) ..................................... 29
Fig. 14. Type MP valve arrester for dc circuits. (Westinghouse) ................................................................ 30
Fig. 15. Type RVS signal arrester for indoor a-c and dc circuits. (Westinghouse) ..................................... 30
Fig. 16a. Probable impulse withstand, volt-time, for a-c rotating machinery. .............................................. 44
Fig. 16b. Fundamental protection scheme. ................................................................................................. 45
Fig. 16c. Practical means of obtaining series inductance. .......................................................................... 46
Fig. 17. Additional arresters provided for line used to provide inductance and not shielded. .................... 46
Fig. 18. Length of line used as inductance with overhead shielded wire. .................................................. 47
Fig. 19. Basic scheme for providing lightning protection for machines directly connected to overhead
lines. ................................................................................................................................................ 48
Fig. 20. Protection for surge-grounded neutral machines and ungrounded neutral machines to 6900 volts. . 48
Fig. 21. Protection for machines rated at 11.5 kV and above, metallically connected to overhead lines,
not effectively grounded. ................................................................................................................. 49
Fig. 22. Base case for separate calculations. ............................................................................................. 51
Fig. 23. Multi-line, two-transformer station. .................................................................................................. 52
Voltage at Transformer
Fig. 24. Curve for determining a =
Voltage at Arrester. ........................................................................... 53
Fig. 25. Sample one-line diagram (partial) for examples 1 and 2. (for evaluation of adequacy of
transformer surge protection using methods of ANSI/IEEE standard C62.2-1981). ..................... 60
Fig. 26. Plan view and schematic of substation shown in Figure 27. ......................................................... 62
Fig. 27. Sectional view of substation shown in Figure 26. .......................................................................... 63
Fig. 28. Illustration of Step 1. ....................................................................................................................... 67
Fig. 29. Illustration of Step 2. ....................................................................................................................... 68
Fig. 30. Insulation coordination by the curve method. ................................................................................ 70
©2007 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved.

Lightning and Surge Protection 5-11
FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets Page 3
List of Tables
Table 1. Lightning Losses by State and Province, 1973 to 1982 .................................................................. 6
Table 2. Number of Thunderstorm Days Per Year, Canada ........................................................................ 12
Table 3. Protection Angles for 99.5% Protection ......................................................................................... 15
Table 4. Recommended Currents for Determining Discharge Voltages ...................................................... 18
Table 5. Voltage Ratings in kV ..................................................................................................................... 26
Table 6. Station and Intermediate Arrester Characteristics (ANSI C62.2-1981) ......................................... 32
Table 6a. Valve-Type Distribution Arrester Characteristics (ANSI C62.2-1981) .......................................... 33
Table 7. Protective Characteristics of Station Valve Arresters (ANSI C62.2-1981) .................................... 35
Table 7a. Protective Characteristics of Intermediate Valve Arresters (ANSI C62.2-1981) ........................ 36
Table 8. Relationships of Nominal System Voltage to Maximum System Voltage and Basic Lightning
Impulse Insulation Levels (BILs) for Systems 1100 kV and Below (ANSI C57.12-1980) ............ 37
Table 9. Interrelationships of Dielectric Insulation Levels for Liquid-Filled Transformers Used on Systems
with BILs 2425 kV and Below (ANSI C57.12-1980) ...................................................................... 38
Table 10. Insulation Levels for Dry-Type Transformers (ANSI C57.12.01-1979) ....................................... 39
Table 11. Rated Voltages and Insulation Levels for AC Switchgear Assemblies ........................................ 40
Table 12. Voltage Ratings for Metal-Enclosed Bus ..................................................................................... 41
Table 13. Electrical Characteristics of Transformer Bushings (applies only to bushings 34.5 kV and
below not listed in ANSI/IEEE Std 24-1977.) (ANSI C57.12-1980) ............................................ 42
Table 14. Commonly Applied Voltage Ratings of Arresters on Distribution Systems (ANSI C57.12-1980) . 43
Table 15. Protection Levels of Station-Type Arresters Designed for Machine Protection .......................... 49
Table 16. Maximum Allowable Separation ................................................................................................... 50
Table 17. Factors for Estimating Withstand Voltages of Mineral-Oil-Immersed Equipment ........................ 54
Table 18. Valve-Type Distribution Arrester Characteristics ......................................................................... 55
Table 19. Protective Characteristics of Distribution Valve Arresters ............................................................ 55
Table 20. Protective Characteristics of Secondary Valve Arresters ............................................................ 55
Table 21. Commonly Applied Voltage Ratings of Arresters on Distribution Systems .................................. 56
Table 22. Recommended Minimum Clearances .......................................................................................... 58

1.0 SCOPE
This data sheet describes modern procedures and practices for protecting industrial power distribution
systems and associated equipment from damage caused by overvoltages due to lightning, switching, or a sys-
tem abnormality.
The protection of chimneys, stacks, and related equipment against lightning is covered in Data Sheet 1-13,
Chimneys, and of ignitable liquid storage tanks in Data Sheet 7-88, Storage Tanks for Ignitable Liquids.
Grounding details are covered in Data Sheet 5-10, Protective Grounding for Electric Power Systems and
Equipment.
In the United States, lightning protection requirements for ordinary buildings, miscellaneous structures, and
special occupancies can be found in UL 96A, Installation Requirements for Lightning Protection Systems.
Other countries may have their own codes.
1.1 Changes
April 2012. Terminology related to ignitable liquids has been revised to provide increased clarity and consis-
tency with regard to FM Global’s loss prevention recommendations for ignitable liquid hazards.
2.0 LOSS PREVENTION RECOMMENDATIONS
2.1 Electrical
2.1.1 Direct Stroke Protection

2.1.1.1 Overhead Ground Wires. For severe exposure (more than 40 thunderstorm days a year), install ground
wires so the protected conductors are within an angle of 20° of a plumb line through the ground wire. For mod-
erate exposure, use a protective angle of 30° to 45°. Ensure the overhead ground wire shields the substa-
tion, including the transformer and any switchgear and the supply line for at least 1⁄2 mile. However, shielding
the entire length of line is preferred. Have the overhead ground wire grounded at every pole to a low-
resistance ground connection.
2.1.1.2 Masts. Where a single mast is employed for shielding an outdoor substation or similar apparatus,
ensure the mast is high enough so the equipment being protected lies within the protected zone of a sphere
150 ft (45 m) in diameter, where the top of the mast is not over 150 ft (45 m).
2.1.1.3 Aerial Cable. Ground the steel messenger supporting an aerial cable and the cable sheath at every
pole through a low-resistance ground.
2.1.2 Installation of Arresters

2.1.2.1 Location. Locate surge arresters close to the terminals of the equipment being protected. If they are
installed remote from the equipment they are intended to protect and one set of arresters is used to pro-
tect two or more pieces of apparatus, evaluate the ‘‘separation effect’’.
2.1.2.2 Grounding. Have the surge arrester ground terminals interconnected with the grounded parts of the
protected equipment; make the line and ground connections as short as possible; and ensure the path to
ground from the lightning arrester and the protected equipment has sufficiently low impedance to limit the volt-
age to ground to a safe value. The resistance to earth of the grounding electrode alone should not exceed
1 ohm.
In areas where the water table fluctuates or soil conditions vary, have annual tests of the resistance to earth
of the grounding electrode made. In areas where these conditions remain reasonably stable, a check every
five years is sufficient. Have all grounding connections inspected annually to ensure they are electrically
and mechanically sound.
2.1.2.3 Underground Cables. Where underground cables supplying important or valuable equipment are con-
nected to exposed overhead power lines, install surge arresters at the junction point and provide them with
a low ground resistance.
2.1.2.4 Dry-Type Transformers. When a dry-type transformer is connected directly to overhead lines or sup-
plied through another transformer, install special low-breakdown arresters at the primary terminals of the dry-
type transformer and interconnect the ground wire with the transformer case and a low ground resistance
of 1 ohm or less.

2.1.2.5 Substations. In addition to shielding the substation, ensure each entering exposed overhead line is
shielded and protected with a set of surge arresters. Additional arresters may be needed to protect the trans-
former depending upon the distance between the arresters and the transformer, the system voltage, and
the method of grounding. See Examples 1 and 2 in Figure 16c.
2.1.2.6 Rotating Machines. Protect important motors or generators with station-type arresters installed in par-
allel with surge capacitors at the machine terminals, and interconnect them with the machine frame and a
ground resistance of 1 ohm or less.
1. Provide each medium voltage (5 kV to 15 kV) motor above 500 hp with surge protection as described
above.
2. Ensure each motor over 200 hp connected to open overhead lines at the same voltage level as the motor
is similarly protected.
3. Protect all unit-connected generators with surge arresters and capacitors as recommended above, except
that on generators which have single-turn windings, the capacitor is not required.
2.1.2.7 Switchgear
2.1.2.7.1 In areas where lightning exposure is severe, have metal clad switchgear directly connected to over-
head circuits through roof entrance bushings or through noncontinuous metallic sheath cable protected with
station-type arresters.
2.1.2.7.2 Where the switchgear is connected through continuous metallic-sheath cables to overhead lines,
install arresters at the cable junction. They also may be needed at the switchgear depending upon the length
of cable, method of neutral grounding, and the class of arrester installed at the cable junction.
2.1.2.8 Protect buildings containing or processing ignitable liquids or flammable gases that are of signifi-
cant value or importance with lightning rods, especially if located in high-risk lightning areas. Refer to NFPA
780, Standard for the Installation of Lightning Protection Systems for details.
3.0 SUPPORT FOR RECOMMENDATIONS
3.1 Loss History

A study of lightning losses at FM Global client properties in the United States and Canada for the 10-year
period 1973 through 1982 shows that a total of 2926 losses occurred during this period.
The number of lightning incidents varied considerably in different states and provinces depending on the fre-
quency of thunderstorm days. (See Table 1 and Figure 1.) The actual number of lightning losses that occurred
in each state or province is shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Lightning Losses by State and Province, 1973 to 1982

State Number Ikl* State Number Ikl State Number Ikl
Maine 1 20 Alabama 21 60-70 North Dakota 0 30
New Hampshire 7 20 Mississippi 30 60-70 South Dakota 0 30-40
Vermont 4 20 Florida 65 70-100 Nebraska 8 50
Massachusetts 32 20 Ohio 85 40-50 Colorado 5 50-60
Rhode Island 11 20 Indiana 49 40-50 New Mexico 3 40-70
Connecticut 21 20 Kentucky 20 50 Idaho 1 20-40
New York 30 30 Tennessee 40 50-60 Nevada 1 10-30
New Jersey 53 30 Louisiana 18 50-60 Utah 1 30-40
Maryland 12 30 Michigan 41 30 Arizona 4 10-40
Delaware 1 30 Wisconsin 62 30-40 Washington 2 10-20
Pennsylvania 89 30-40 Iowa 15 40-60 Oregon 3 10-20
Virginia 16 30-40 Illinois 80 40-60 California 19 5-10
West Virginia 8 40-50 Missouri 45 50
North Carolina 93 40-50 Arkansas 14 50-60
South Carolina 28 50 Oklahoma 19 50
Georgia 45 50-60 Texas 72 30-60 *Isokeraunic
level
CANADA
Province Number
Quebec 20
Ontario 35
New Brunswick 4
Brit. Columbia 0
Manitoba 4
Alberta 1
More lightning losses occurred in North Carolina, 93, than in any other state. Pennsylvania was second with
89. Six other states had more than 50 lightning losses: Ohio, 85; Illinois, 80; Texas, 72; Florida, 65; Wisconsin,
62; and New Jersey, 53.
In Canada more lightning losses occurred in Ontario, 35, than in any of the other provinces. Only a total of
65 occurred in all of the provinces.
Many transformers were damaged by lightning. There were 204 oil-insulated units, most of which were rated
in excess of 600 volts; 62 were of the dry type and 89 were miscellaneous types, such as current and potential
transformers.
The principal type of equipment damaged by lightning in the remaining losses included motor starters,
synchronous motors, generators, circuit breakers, bus ducts, furnace transformers, distribution panels, switch-
gear, and wiring.
Many of these losses could have been prevented if proper shielding, surge arresters, and effective grounding
had been provided.
4.0 REFERENCES
4.1 FM Global
Data Sheet 1-13, Chimneys.
Data Sheet 5-10, Protective Grounding for Electric Power Systems and Equipment.
Data Sheet 7-88, Storage Tanks for Ignitable Liquids.
4.2 Other
1. American National Standard for Surge Arresters for Alternating — Current Power Circuits. ANSI/IEEE
C62.1-1981. (New York: IEEE, 1981)

2. American National Standard Guide for the Application of Valve-Type Surge Arresters for Alternating Current
Systems. ANSI C62.2-1981. (New York: American National Standards Institute, 1981).
3. IEEE Guide for Surge Voltages in Low Voltage AC Power Circuits. IEEE Std. 587-1980. (New York: IEEE,
1980).
4. American National Standard Test Specifications for Gas Tube Surge Protective Devices. ANSI/IEEE
C62.31-1981 (formerly IEEE Std. 465-1977). (New York: IEEE, 1977).
5. Johnson, I.B., et al. Surge Protection in Power Systems. IEEE Tutorial Course 79 EH0144-6-PWR.
(Piscataway, N.J.: IEEE, 1978).
6. IEEE Working Group Progress Report. Impulse Voltage Strength of AC Rotating Machines. 81 WM 182-5,
1981 PES Winter Meeting.
7. Jackson, D.W. Discussion of Paper No. 81 WM 182-5 Impulse Voltage Strength of AC Rotating Machines.
1982 PES Winter Meeting.
8. Houghtaling, D.W. Discussion of Paper No. 81 WM 182-5 Impulse Voltage Strength of AC Rotating
Machines. 1981 PES Winter Meeting.
9. Rhudy, R.G. and Walsh, G.W. Closure of 81 WM 182-5. 1981 PES Winter Meeting.
10. Walsh, G.W. A Review of Lightning Protection and Grounding Practices. IEEE Transactions on Industry
Applications, March/April 1973.
11. Towne, H.M. Lightning Protection of Substations, March 29-30, 1951 Conference of Southeastern Electric
Exchange, October 1, 1954.
12. Station Surge Arrester Seminar. (Pittsfield, MA: General Electric Company, n.d.).
13. Boice, W.K. Suppression of Secondary Surges Caused by Lightning Overvoltages at Transformer
Primaries. (Piscataway: IEEE, 1980).
14. Surge Protection for Rotating Machines. Application Data 38-423 (Bloomington, IN: Westinghouse
Electric Corporation, 1970).
15. Walsh, G.W. A New Technology Station Class Arrester for Industrial and Commercial Power Systems.
(New York: IEEE, 1977).
16. Doble Client Committee on Arresters, Capacitors, and Insulators. Metal Oxide Surge Arresters. Minutes
of the 49th Annual Doble Client Conference, Section 9D-01. (Watertown, MA: Doble Engineering Company,
1982).
17. Doble Client Committee on Arresters, Capacitors, and Insulators. Arrester Field Test Guide. (Watertown,
MA: Doble Engineering Company, 1976).
18. Lee, R.H. Protection Zone for Buildings Against Lightning Strokes Using Trnasmission Line Protection
Practice. IEEE IAS 1977 Annual Transactions. (New York: IEEE, 1977).
19. Standard for the Installation of Lightning Protection Systems. NFPA 780 (National Fire Prevention
Association, 1983). Quincy, MA.
Note: The manufacturer’s literature for each surge arrester must be consulted for the characteristics of each
device. This literature is far too voluminous to list here.
APPENDIX A GLOSSARY OF TERMS

The various terms used in this data sheet applying to surge arresters and their application are defined as
follows:
Surge Arrester: a protective device for limiting surge voltages on equipment by discharging or bypassing
surge current. It prevents continued flow of follow current to ground and is capable of repeating these functions
as specified.
Valve Element: a resistor that, because of its nonlinear current-voltage characteristic, limits the voltage across
the arrester terminals during the flow of discharge current and contributes to the limitation of follow current
at normal power-frequency voltage.

Expulsion Element: a chamber in which an arc is confined and brought into contact with gas-evolving material.
Series Gap: an intentional gap(s) between spaced electrodes. It is in series with the valve or expulsion
element of the arrester, substantially isolating the element from line or ground, or both, under normal line
voltage conditions.
Valve Arrester: an arrester that includes a valve element.
Classification of Arresters: station valve arrester. Intermediate valve arrester. Distribution valve arrester.
Distribution Expulsion valve arrester.
Grading or Control Ring: a metal part usually circular or oval in shape, mounted to modify electrostatically
the voltage gradient or distribution.
Discharge Counter: a means for recording the number of arrester discharge operations.
Arrester Disconnector: a means for disconnecting an arrester in anticipation of, or after, a failure in order to
prevent a permanent fault on the circuit and to give indication of a failed arrester.
Lightning: an electric discharge that occurs in the atmosphere between clouds or between clouds and ground.
Lightning Surge: a transient electric disturbance in an electric circuit caused by lightning.
Wave: the variation with time of current, potential, or power at any point in an electric circuit.
Surge: a transient wave of current, potential, or power in an electric circuit.
Impulse: a surge of undirectional polarity.
Oscillatory Surge: a surge that includes both positive and negative polarity values.
Crest (Peak) Value (of a wave, surge, or impulse): the maximum value that it attains.
Wave Front (of a surge or impulse): that part which occurs prior to the crest value.
Wave Tail (of an impulse): that part between the crest value and the end of the impulse.
Wave shape (of an impulse test wave): the graph of the wave as a function of time.
Wave Shape Designation (of an impulse): the wave shape of an impulse (other than rectangular) of a current
or voltage is designated by a combination of two numbers. The first, an index of the wave front, is the virtual
duration of the wave front in microseconds. The second, an index of the wave tail, is the time in microseconds
from virtual zero to the instant at which one half of the crest value is reached on the wave tail. Examples are
1.2/50 and 8/20 waves.
The wave shape of a rectangular impulse of current or voltage is designated by two numbers. The first
designates the minimum value of current or voltage that is sustained for the time in microseconds designated
by the second number. An example is 75A - 1000 µsec wave.
Virtual Zero Point (of an impulse): the intersection with the zero axis of a straight line drawn through points
on the front of the current wave at 10% and 90% crest value, or through points on the front of the voltage
wave at 30% and 90% crest value.
Nominal Rate of Rise (of an impulse): of a wave front, the slope of the line that determines the virtual zero.
It is usually expressed in volts or amperes per microsecond.
Disruptive Discharge: the sudden and large increase in current through an insulating medium, due to the
complete failure of the medium under the electrostatic stress.
Flashover: a disruptive discharge around or over the surface of a solid or liquid insulator.
Sparkover: a disruptive discharge between electrodes of a measuring gap, voltage-control gap, or protective
device.
Impulse Sparkover Volt-Time Characteristic: the sparkover response of the device to impulses of a designated
wave shape and polarity, but of varying magnitudes. Note: For an arrester, this characteristic is shown by
a graph of values of crest voltage plotted against time to sparkover.
Power Frequency Withstand Voltage: a specified root-mean-square test voltage at power frequency that will
not cause a disruptive discharge.

Impulse Withstand Voltage: the crest value of an impulse that, under specified conditions, can be applied
without causing a disruptive discharge.
Voltage Rating: the designated maximum permissible operating voltage between its terminals at which an
arrester is designed to perform its duty cycle. It is the voltage rating specified on the nameplate.
Power-Frequency Sparkover Voltage: the root-mean-square value of the lowest power frequency sinusoidal
voltage that will cause sparkover when applied across the terminals of an arrester.
Impulse Sparkover Voltage: the highest value of voltage attained by an impulse of a designated wave shape
and polarity applied across the terminals of an arrester prior to the flow of discharge current.
Discharge Current: the surge current that flows through an arrester when sparkover occurs.
Discharge Voltage (IR): the voltage that appears across the terminals of an arrester during passage of
discharge current.
Discharge Voltage-Current Characteristic: the variation of the crest values of discharge voltage with respect
to discharge current. Note: This characteristic is normally shown as a graph based on three or more
current-surge measurements of the same wave shape but of different crest values.
Discharge Withstand Current Rating: the specified magnitude and wave shape of a discharge current that
can be applied to an arrester or specified number of times without causing damage to it.
Follow (Power) Current: the current from the connected power source that flows through an arrester during
and following the passage of discharge current.
Grounded System: an electric system in which at least one conductor or point (usually the neutral conductor
or neutral point of transformer or generator windings) is intentionally grounded, either solidly or through a
grounding device.
Coefficient of Grounding: the ratio ELG/ELL, expressed as a percentage, of the highest root-mean-square
line to ground power-frequency voltage ELG on a sound phase, at a selected location, during a fault to ground
affecting one or more phases to the line-to-line power frequency voltage ELL which would be obtained, at
the selected location, with the fault removed.
Notes:
1. Coefficients of grounding for three-phase systems are calculated from the phase-sequence impedance
components as viewed from the selected location. For machines use the subtransient reactance.
2. The coefficient of grounding is useful in the determination of an arrester rating for a selected location.
3. A value not exceeding 80% is obtained approximately when for all system conditions the ratio of
zero-sequence resistance to positive-sequence reactance is positive and less than three, and the ratio
of zero-sequence resistance to positive-sequence reactance is positive and less than 1.
Withstand Voltage: highest value of applied voltage at which an arrester will not flash over.
Ungrounded System: without an intentional connection to ground. Note: Although called ungrounded, this
system in reality is capacitively coupled to ground through the distributed phase-to-ground capacitance of the
windings and phase conductors of the systems.
Effectively Grounded: intentionally connected to earth through a ground connection or connections of
sufficiently low impedance where the coefficient of grounding does not exceed 80%, and having sufficient
current-carrying capacity to prevent the buildup of voltages that may result in undue hazard to connected
equipment or to persons.
Non-Effectively Grounded: the Coefficient of Grounding exceeds 80%.
Insulation Coordination: the process of correlating insulation strengths of electrical equipment with expected
overvoltages and with characteristics of surge protective devices.
Withstand Voltage: the voltage that electrical equipment is capable of withstanding without failure or disruptive
discharge when tested under specified conditions.
Transient Insulation Level (TIL): an insulation level expressed in terms of the crest value of the withstand
voltage for a specified transient wave shape; for example, lightning or switching impulse.
Basic Lightning Impulse Insulation Level (BIL): a specific insulation level expressed in terms of the crest
value of a standard lightning impulse.

Basic Switching Impulse Insulation Level (BSL): a specific insulation level expressed in terms of the crest
value of a standard switching impulse.
Lightning Impulse Protection Level (LPL) (of a protective device): the maximum lightning impulse voltage
expected at the terminals of a surge protective device under specified conditions of operation.
Switching Impulse Protection Level (SPL) (of a protective device): the maximum switching impulse expected
at the terminals of a surge protective device under specified conditions of operation.
Switching Surge Protective Level (SSP): the greater of switching surge sparkover or switching discharge
voltage.
Chopped Wave (CWW): an impulse voltage wave that is suddenly reduced substantially to zero value by
the sparkover of an air gap.
Front of Wave Sparkover (FOW): the maximum spark-over on a linearly rising impulse front. The rate of rise
of the front increases with arrester rating.
Let-through Sparkover (LT): a measure of the highest lightning surge an arrester is likely to withstand without
sparkover in 3 µsec or less.
Temporary Overvoltage (TOV): an oscillatory overvoltage associated with switching of relatively long duration
which is undamped or slightly damped.
Arrester Recovery Voltage: the crest voltage that occurs across the terminals of an arrester following a unit
operation.
Research Voltage Rating of an Arrester: the maximum arrester recovery voltage permitted for a specified
time following one or more unit operations with discharge currents of specified magnitude and duration.
APPENDIX B DOCUMENT REVISION HISTORY

April 2012. Terminology related to ignitable liquids has been revised to provide increased clarity and consis-
tency with regard to FM Global’s loss prevention recommendations for ignitable liquid hazards.
September 2007. Minor editorial changes were made for this revision.
January 2001. The document has been reorganized to provide a consistent format.
August 1984. Completely revised.
February 1974. First issued.
APPENDIX C SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION
C.1 General
Electrical breakdowns caused by overvoltages due to lightning are responsible for considerable property dam-
age and business interruption. No section of the United States is immune, although in the Pacific Coast area
lightning storms are infrequent. The Southeastern and South Central States experience the largest number
of lightning storms each year.
In Canada lightning storms are fairly frequent in the provinces of Ontario and Quebec and less frequent in
the other provinces. In Newfoundland they occur relatively infrequently.
Procedures outlined herein for protecting against overvoltages comply with the standard of the Institute of
Electronic and Electrical Engineers and the American National Standards Institute, the requirements of the
National Electric Code, and the recommendations of the manufacturers of electrical equipment.
Determining the surge protection requirements for a particular installation is a specialized job. The assis-
tance of manufacturers’ representatives in selecting suitable arresters and other safeguards is recom-
mended if experienced personnel are not available.
Overvoltages on power systems are produced in a number of different ways; those of particular concern
are listed below and are discussed later in more detail.
1. Lightning.
2. Contact with higher voltage systems.
3. Resonance effect in inductive and capacitive circuits.
4. Ferro-resonance.
5. Switching surges.
6. Forced current zero interruption.
7. Autotransformer connection.
8. Loss of neutral ground on a normally grounded system.
9. Sudden loss of load and/or generator overspeed.
C.2 Lightning Charge Formation

The manner in which charges are developed in thunderclouds is still somewhat controversial. There are
several theories that have been advanced, some of which have been partially verified by laboratory
experiments. A thorough understanding of charge formation is not necessary to apply lightning protection
principles. A knowledge of the nature of the lightning discharge and its effect on the power system is important,
however.
It is generally agreed that the accumulation of electricity in clouds takes place in the presence of ionized
air, moisture in the atmosphere, and upward moving air currents. Also, the lower part of the cloud is
predominantly negatively charged while the upper parts are predominantly positive.
C.3 Characteristics of a Lightning Stroke

The important characteristics of a lightning discharge are the current, voltage, waveshape, polarity, charge,
and frequency of occurrence.
C.3.1 Current
Current measurements of more than 4000 strokes to high voltage transmission lines ranged from 2400 amps
to 218,000 amps. Fifty percent of the strokes equaled or exceeded the median value of 14,000 amps. Super
strokes in the order of 300,000 to 400,000 amps have been recorded in the United States and Europe, but
these occur infrequently and their magnitude is an estimate because of the limitation of instrumentation.
C.3.2 Voltage
The voltage of a lightning stroke is difficult to measure, but it has been estimated that the potential difference
between a charged cloud and the earth ranges from 5 to 50 MV. With voltages of this magnitude, it is obvious
why it is impossible to insulate a power system sufficiently to withstand a direct lightning stroke.
C.3.3 Waveshape
The waveshape of a lightning surge is usually referred to by the wave front and the wave tail. The front is
the time required to reach crest magnitude; the tail is the time to decay to half the crest value.
Characteristically, a lightning discharge will crest in several microseconds and decay to half the crest value
in 20 to more than 100 microseconds.
The maximum or crest value of this impulse voltage is often higher than the impulse strength of the insulation
of transformers, generators, motors or other electrical equipment on the system. Insulation failures are to
be expected unless proper surge protection is provided.
In the application of surge protection, the effective rate of rise is of greater importance than the elapsed time
from the beginning of the surge to the crest value.
C.3.4 Polarity
Based on thousands of measurements, 90% of the strokes to earth have negative polarity, resulting from a
negative charge center in the lower part of a cloud and a positive charge in the earth below.

C.3.5 Charge
The quantity of charge in a stroke may range from 2 to 200 coulombs (ampere-seconds), while the average
is about 20 coulombs. A lightning stroke may have a peak current of 200,000 amps or more but being so
short-lived, the surge current can easily be handled by a small conductor. The largest recorded conductor to
be vaporized by a stroke is a No. 10 AWG.
C.3.6 Frequency
The frequency that lightning strokes occur to transmission lines in open country indicates the degree of
exposure that occurs to a power system. Figure 1 is an isokeraunic map which shows the number of
thunderstorm days per year that occur in the United States.
Table 2 shows the number of thunderstorm days per year that occur in each of the Canadian provinces for
the period 1941 to 1970; more recent data is not yet available. The table shows the minimum and maximum
number of thunderstorm days reported for each province depending on the location of the weather stations.
Table 2. Number of Thunderstorm Days Per Year, Canada

Province Minimum and Maximum Number
British Columbia 0.7 to 23.9
Alberta 8.6 to 25.8
Yukon & N.W. Territories 1.1 to 12.3
Saskatchewan 7.2 to 25.3
Manitoba 5.7 to 25.9
Ontario 9.2 to 33.9
Quebec 1 to 27
New Brunswick 5.4 to 13.4
Nova Scotia 8.1 to 11.7
Prince Edward Island 7.4 to 10.8
Newfoundland 1.5 to 7.4
The number of lightning strokes to a transmission line or to open ground is assumed to vary directly with
the isokeraunic level (IKL).
An analysis of several thousand strokes to transmission lines protected with a single 100-ft (30-m) high ground
wire indicated that it would be struck 100 times per 100 miles per year in an area having an IKL of 30.
C.3.7 Cold and Hot Lightning

Lightning strokes may be divided into two broad categories: cold and hot. A cold lightning stroke has very
high currents of relatively short duration and usually causes severe physical damage, such as splitting a tree
from top to bottom. Hot lightning strokes are typified by low currents of relatively long duration which
frequently set fires in forests and farm buildings.
C.3.8 Direct Strokes

Direct lightning strokes may cause damage to overhead transmission lines, to transformers, and other
equipment in outdoor substations, as well as to indoor electrical apparatus supplied directly from exposed
overhead lines.
Direct strokes produce about half of the significant surges that occur on power lines. However, they are
attracted to power lines from only within a narrow band adjacent to it. This is illustrated by an incident where
lightning struck within 200 ft (60 m) of a transmission line owned by the Public Service of New Jersey, and
a lightning recording station 1600 ft (480 m) away showed no surge voltage on the phase wires.
In most cases where a lightning stroke hits directly on phase wires or equipment terminals, a high voltage
is produced that will flash over solid insulation on cables or transformers if there is no surge protection. If the
flashover occurs in air or across porcelain insulation, no serious damage usually results.

Fig. 1. Annual mean number of days with thunderstorms. (U.S.A.) (U.S. Dept. of Commerce)
C.3.9 Induced Surges

A lightning stroke terminating near a power line can also induce a voltage in the circuit. These voltages rarely
exceed 500 kV. Experience has shown that 69 kV lines and above that are shielded with overhead ground
wires are usually sufficiently insulated that flashovers by voltages in this range do not occur. Lower voltage
lines, which in most cases do not have overhead ground wires, are subject to flashover by induced surges.
Discharge currents range from 50 to 2000 amperes.

Fig. 2. Traveling waves caused by lightning stroke to power line.
C.3.10 Bound Charges

When an electrically charged cloud floats in the air, electrical charges are induced on all conductors or metallic
objects at or near the surface of the earth. These charges are bound as long as the nearby cloud is charged.
When the cloud charge is neutralized by a lightning stroke to the earth or to another cloud, the bound charges
are suddenly released and traveling wave propagates in both directions and takes the easiest paths to ground.
Frequently, combustible material is ignited, and sometimes the insulation of electrical equipment is punctured.
Equipment for protection against direct strokes and surges also provides adequate protection from the
release of bound charges.
C.3.11 Surge Propagation

When a lightning stroke terminates on a power system, it initiates voltage and current waves which travel
in both directions from the terminating point. In a line, these travel at about 1000 ft/µsec and in a cable, about
600 ft/µsec. As shown in Figure 2, with linear impedance, the voltage and current will have the same wave
shape. They are represented by the following equation:
E = IZ,
in which E is the voltage, I the current of the traveling wave, and Z the surge impedance of the conductor.
A typical surge impedance of a conductor of the power lines is 500 ohms, for a cable 30 ohms, and for rotating
machines 50 to 1000 ohms.
If it is assumed that the current in the lightning stroke is 8000 amps and it divides evenly where it strikes,
then the conductor voltage would be equal to:
IZ 8,000 × 500
E= , or E = = 2,000,000 Volts.
2 2
In other words, a traveling wave current of 8,000 amps will generate 2000 kV on the power line.
The traveling waves caused by the lightning stroke will continue along the line until they encounter a change
in impedance, such as when they come to a transformer, a circuit breaker, an open circuit, another connected
line, or a short circuit. At this point, the voltage and current waves are reflected back upon the line, while
at the same time they travel beyond this point. Upon encountering a transformer, the reflected waves combine,
resulting in double the traveling wave voltage at the transformer. The current wave at an open circuit
termination is also reflected, but being of opposite polarity the result is zero current at the end of the line.
When a line ends in a short circuit, the incoming and reflected voltage waves have the same magnitude and
opposite polarity, resulting in zero voltage at the terminal. However, the current waves have the same
magnitude and the same polarity which doubles the traveling wave current, a well-known phenomenon. This
doubling of the traveling wave current is an important factor to consider in the application of a surge arrester

on the end of a line. The resistance of an arrester is very low compared to the surge impedance of the line,
and the current that it will be required to discharge is nearly double the traveling wave current.
C.4 Protection Against Direct Strokes (Shielding)

One or more ground wires, often called ‘‘static’’ wires, supported parallel to and several feet or more above
the conductors of overhead transmission lines, are very effective in preventing direct strokes to the
transmission lines. However, in practice the possibility of a stroke to a phase conductor always exists. The
static wires must be properly located and adequately grounded. This form of protection is expensive and can
seldom be added at reasonable cost to an existing line of any great length.
C.4.1 Cone of Protection

Tall transmission lines are frequently protected with two overhead ground wires to shield the conductors below.
If the ground wires are too high above the conductors or improperly located with respect to the conductors,
lightning can still strike the conductors below. The practice in the past has been to install the ground wires
so that they are at the peak of an imaginary tent within which the protected conductors are sheltered, one-half
the base of the tent being equal to the height of the ground wire for important cases, and up to twice the
height for less important cases.
A recent study of this so-called ‘‘cone of protection’’ has shown that the vertical boundary of the cone is not
linear, as it has been assumed in the past, but is a circular arc having a radius of 150 ft (45 m) and tangent
to the ground. Therefore, many high structures do not provide the expected protection against direct stroke
for lower objects that are well within the cone of protection.
In the formation of a lightning stroke, a step leader that originates in a cloud charge center progresses in
separate elements and is predominantly just over 150 ft (45 m) in length. As the stepped leader nears the
earth it must be within about 330 ft (100 m) of an object of opposite polarity to progress toward that object.
At the same instant, a short streamer is likely to extend from that object toward the approaching stepped
leader and when they meet, which is somewhere in the vicinity of 330 ft (100 m), the actual stoke occurs.
It follows that if the stepped leader nears the earth more than 330 ft (100 m) from a high object, it probably
will not be attracted to that object and may strike the earth or some other object beyond the 330 ft (100 m).
A complete explanation of the development of the ‘‘300 FT D. Rolling Sphere Principle’’ is available in a paper
by Ralph H. Lee published in the 1977 annual report of the Industrial Applications Society of IEEE. This
concept is based in part on the above explanation of the formation of lightning strokes and the results of a
research project by the Edison Electric Institute for improving the lightning protection of high voltage
transmission lines. As a result of this project, Table 3 was developed showing protection angles that should
be provided for different heights of the overhead ground wires to afford 99.5% protection against lightning
damage. By decreasing the protection angle 10°, the protection is increased to 99.9%.
Table 3. Protection Angles for 99.5% Protection

Height Above Ground Protection Angle
(25 ft) (60°)*
(50 ft) (47°)*
75 ft 33°
100 ft 20°
125 ft 10°
150 ft 0°
175 ft –10°
200 ft –20°
* Extrapolated for 25-ft and 50-ft heights.
The table shows that at 150 ft (45 m) above ground, a zero angle of protection is provided by the higher
conductor. Above 150 ft (45 m), the negative angles indicate that the overhead ground wire should extend
beyond the position of the conductor being protected.
The data in Table 3 was then plotted on a linear scale. When the plotted points were connected, as shown
in Figure 3, they formed almost exactly the arc of a circle of 150 ft (45 m) radius tangent to the earth’s surface

at a point 150 ft (45 m) away from the 150 ft (45 m) high (zero protection angle) point. It should be noted
that the 150-ft (45-m) radius criterion matches well with the 45 meter predominant step leader length
mentioned previously.
Fig. 3. Plot of data from Table 3, with 150 ft (45m) radius circle inscribed.
By applying this same concept to the protection that would be afforded by a single elevated rod or wire, an
object above ground level will be protected against direct lightning strokes if it does not protrude above the
surface of an inverse circular sided cone of 150-ft (45-m) radius. (See Fig. 4.)

Fig. 4. Lightning protection from single mast or wire.
To better visualize this concept, imagine a sphere of 150-ft (45-m) radius [300-ft (91-m) diameter] rolling
over the surface of the earth, up and over all projections above the earth surface. All objects which the sphere
touches are susceptible to direct stroke, while those which the sphere does not touch because of being lifted
over them by higher (protecting) objects are not susceptible to direct stroke. It is obvious that objects more
than 150 ft (45 m) away from almost any high structure will receive little or no protection from that structure.
The Rolling Sphere Principle is further illustrated in Figure 5. Structure B, which lies below the 150-ft (45-m)
radius curve, would be protected, but any object that projects through this radius, such as Structure A, would
be exposed to direct stroke.
The new protection curve to the left of the mast is a combination of two 150-ft (45-m) radius curves intersecting
on Structure A or the locus of a 150-ft (45-m) radius sphere rolling up and over Structure A, then from the
roof of A until it touches the mast at Point C. The height of the mast above Point C provides no additional
protection and is called ″useless height.″
Other factors in addition to tower height that influence the lightning performance of a transmission line are
the number of ground wires, the number of insulators, and the resistance of the tower footings. Lines that are
shielded with two ground wires usually perform better than those with only one ground wire, due to the lower
surge impedance and better coupling with the phase conductors.
A ground or coupling wire sometimes installed below the phase conductors and shield wires of a transmission
line will also help to prevent flashovers. Due to the increased coupling, the potential difference between phase
conductors and grounded wires is lowered because the percentage of the ground wire potential impressed
on the phase conductor is raised following the termination of a stroke on the shield wires or structure.
Transmission lines are generally considered to be ‘‘lightning-proof’’ if they are designed so that outages due
to lightning are limited to one or less per 100 miles (160 km) per year. This is commonly accepted as an
economical and practical design standard.
Flashovers on transmission lines due to switching surges are prevented by providing an adequate number
of insulators. The number necessary is determined by the magnitude of the switching surges expected, the
surge impedance of the conductors, overhead ground wires, and resistance of the tower footings.

Fig. 5. 300-ft rolling sphere principle.
C.4.2 Substations
Lightning surges can enter a substation either by a direct stroke to the equipment or through transmission
lines that are connected to it. The degree of shielding is vitally important in determining the protection needed.
Overhead ground wires or masts are generally employed to shield against direct strokes, and surge arresters
are installed to limit the magnitude of any surge voltages entering over the transmission lines. The arresters,
when properly applied, will also protect against those surges that are generated within the system during
switching operations.
For a small station, one or two overhead ground wires strung above the station from adjacent line towers
are usually sufficient to protect all parts of the station. For larger substations, additional overhead ground wires
may be used, or if this is not feasible, masts or rods may be erected at the corners or over vertical columns
to protect all equipment within the substation.
The degree of shielding provided for a substation and its connected lines determines to a large extent the
magnitude of the surge current that flows through a surge arrester when sparkover occurs. This is termed the
discharge current, and will vary from 1000 to 20,000 amperes with effective shielding, depending upon the
system voltage. Table 4 shows the discharge currents for various system voltages.
Table 4. Recommended Currents for Determining Discharge Voltages

Maximum System Voltage, kV Discharge Current, amperes
15 . . . *
36. 5 . . . *
72. 5 5000
121 5000
145 5000
242 10000
362 10000
550 15000
800 20000
* Generally unshielded lines.

An installation is considered effectively shielded against direct strokes if the station and all connecting lines
are shielded. To be effective, the shielding should extend for at least one-half mile from the station.
C.5 Switching Surges

Transient overvoltages occur in power systems during abnormalities or when they transfer from one operating
condition to another. The overvoltage surges can take several forms, depending upon the kind of disturbance.
The most common surges are those due to line switching when the line is energized or reclosed following
a fault.
A switching surge differs from a lightning surge in that the switching surge voltage is lower and lasts longer
because the energy source is that stored in the system capacitance. Switching surges are generated within
a power system by the following methods.
1. De-energization of capacitor banks, underground cables, or lines with or without connected transformers
and/or shunt reactors.
2. Energizing or de-energizing busses with airbreak switches. (Wave fronts of 10 microseconds or less are
generated, which may affect the surge arresters, control circuits, and relay circuits.)
3. Energizing lines or cables with or without connected transformers and/or shunt reactors.
4. High-speed reclosing of lines with or without shunt reactors.
5. Energizing and de-energizing transformers with or without connected shunt reactors.
6. De-energizing shunt reactors.
7. Sudden loss of load on long lines with or without connected transformers.
8. Out-of-phase switching.
High transient overvoltages can be produced when inductive loads are switched, such as opening the
magnetizing current of transformers.
When a line is initially energized, a surge is transmitted down the line increasing to its maximum value, the
crest system voltage, as the system surge impedance is lowered. When it reaches the end of the line, the
wave will be reflected. If the line is open circuited, the reflected wave will be a maximum.
The maximum surge that can occur when switching a single phase line is twice the system crest voltage.
This is also the maximum value that can be generated by closing one phase of a 3-phase transmission line.
If the other two phases are closed, the maximum surge will be increased as much as three times.
When a line consisting of a voltage source and a circuit breaker is de-energized, it can be represented as
a generator, a switch, and a capacitor. Inasmuch as the switching device tends to interrupt the circuit at current
zero and the current in a capacitive circuit leads the voltage by 90 degrees, a voltage equal to the system
crest voltage remains on the line when it is disconnected from the generator. This voltage is referred to as a
‘‘trapped charge.’’ If the circuit breaker is reclosed with the trapped charge still on the line, the voltage across
the breaker will be doubled and the transmitted surge is twice the surge due to energizing. When this surge
reaches the open end of the line and crests at opposite polarity to the trapped charge, the resulting
overvoltage will be there times the initial voltage. If the circuit breakers have no contact shunting resistances,
transient network analyzer studies show that the resulting overvoltage may be in excess of five times the
initial voltage.
Severe overvoltages are also produced when transmission lines or capacitor banks are de-energized.
Restriking, that is, momentary re-establishment of the arc across the interrupting contacts of the circuit
breaker, may occur because the recovery voltage builds up at a faster rate than the interrupting medium, and
severe overvoltages are the result.
C.6 Overvoltage Due to Surges from Other Sources

Energization or de-energization of equipment with a disconnecting switch will cause a surge.
Load shedding can cause temporary overvoltages (TOV). When a large load is dropped at the end of a long
transmission line, the effect is delayed at the generator because of the time lag, and a traveling wave is
generated.

Temporary overvoltages (TOV) are produced by sudden loss of load or generator overspeed and voltage
regulation. When a line is open circuited during heavy load conditions, it is acting like a capacitor bank and
the voltage regulators are higher than necessary. The overvoltage will be sustained until the regulator is
lowered. Likewise, the generator will tend to accelerate and increase both the voltage and frequency until
the governor reduces the speed of the unit. In machines that have slow governor action, such as on
water-wheel generators and nuclear units, this latter effect is very important.
In the majority of cases, the switching surges that occur on a system are sufficiently small that they do not
cause an insulation breakdown or trip a protective device.
Power systems are commonly protected from switching surges either by controlling the magnitude of the
surge when it is generated or by limiting the effects of the surge. The magnitude of the surge may be limited
by incorporating surge suppression resistors in the switching device, whether it be a circuit breaker or a
disconnecting switch. The magnitude may also be limited by controlling the point on the voltage wave at which
the contacts close. The generated surge will be greatly reduced if the contacts close at a time that the voltage
across them is at a minimum.
In the case of a trapped charge on the line, a surge can be controlled by draining the charge from the line
before it is allowed to reclose. A power transformer that is connected to the line will accomplish this when the
line is opened. However, if shunt reactors are connected on the line they limit, the effective Ferranti rise on
the line which can lead to reduced transient and temporary overvoltage.
Other means of suppression and control of switching surges are effective neutral grounding, excitation and
speed control, potential transformers, intermediate switching stations, transformer tertiaries, circuit
configuration and parameters, transfer trip, and surge arrestors.
C.6.1 Physical Contact With a Higher Voltage System

Accidental contact occasionally may occur between the primary and secondary windings of a transformer
or on overhead circuits on pole lines. If the low voltage system is ungrounded, its potential will be raised to
that of the high voltage system, or flashover will occur. If the neutral of the low voltage system is well
grounded, the voltages appearing on the low voltage system will be much lower, but there will be high values
of current flowing from the high voltage system.
C.6.2 Reasonant Effects in Inductive-Capacitive Circuits
C.6.2.1 Parallel Inductive-Capacitance Resonance

Ungrounded neutral ac systems are subject to overvoltages due to the unintentional connection of an inductive
reactance between a phase conductor and ground. This can occur in several ways, such as by the operating
magnetic coil in a motor starter being accidentally connected between phase and ground by a ground fault
in a control wire. The ratio of the inductive reactance of the line-to-ground circuit to the total capacitive
reactance of the system controls the extent of overvoltage. When these two reactances are equal, the
overvoltages at this point may be 10 to 20 times normal. However, with a two-to-one range of reactance,
overvoltages of three times normal or more would result.
C.6.2.2 Ferro-Resonance
A ground fault in a potential transformer or an ungrounded system, the core of which becomes saturated,
can be responsible for damaging overvoltages. The effective reactance of the inductive circuit becomes much
lower than the unsaturated reactance and the voltage will tend to oscillate between voltage limits. This causes
the effective inductive reactance to match the capacitive reactance value. This performance is known as
ferro-resonance.
C.6.3 Forced Current Zero Interruption

The term ‘‘forced current zero’’ or ‘‘interruption off of current zero’’ is used to describe the interrupting
mechanism of a fuse, switch, section of a small wire conductor, or vacuum switch which can force the current
zero value ahead of the normal current zero of the circuit. Any element in the circuit that can develop a high
potential drop during the current flow will cause an overvoltage to appear on the connected circuit. This
overvoltage will persist until the current is restored to zero.

Current limiting fuses and vacuum breakers, for example, have the property of being able to reduce the current
to zero value ahead of the inherent normal current zero. During the operation of these devices, the
overvoltage developed can be dangerous at some insulation levels.
C.6.4 Autotransformer Connection — Neutral Ungrounded

Autotransformers are occasionally used to interconnect two industrial electric systems of different insulation
levels. Due to the common metallic interconnection between the two systems formed by the autotransformer
windings, the lower voltage winding is subjected to about the same transient voltages as those that occur
on the higher system voltage level. Installations of this type should be avoided unless the neutrals are solidly
grounded.
C.7 Surge Protection Devices

To protect against damage due to surges generated on the system, protective gaps and arresters are
commonly employed.
C.7.1 Protective Gaps

The simplest type of surge protective device is the rod gap, ring-to-rod gap, or Shephard’s hook which is
simply a spark gap connected between line and ground. Rod gaps or line entrance gaps on a power system
are primarily used to protect open circuit breakers on an overhead line so that flashovers will occur from
line to ground and not across the open contacts of the circuit breaker. In those areas where a momentary
power interruption may be tolerated, rod gaps are sometimes used for the protection of transformers. The
latter should have relatively high BILs when so protected. They are usually installed at the line side of the
primary bushings and grounded to the tank. The adjustment of the gap is fairly critical so that when a high
voltage surge occurs, the flashover will take place at some point below the impulse strength of the equipment
it is protecting.
One disadvantage of the rod gap is that the gap can be too close so that it will flash over during moderate
surges. Another major disadvantage is that the gaps are subjected to wide variations in sparkover due to
polarity effects and atmospheric conditions such as temperature, pressure, and precipitations. When they
flash over they cause a system fault that must be cleared by a circuit breaker or other interrupting device.
It is not practicable to provide sufficient insulation on electrical equipment to withstand the maximum crest
voltage of lightning surges. Available equipment for protection against lightning is more economical and
practical. Lightning arresters should be installed to protect all important electrical equipment exposed to
lightning potentials, and the arresters should be located as near as possible to the terminals of the equipment
to be protected. The purpose of the arrester is to reduce the crest voltage of the surge so that it is less than
the impulse strength of the insulation (BIL), the chopped-wave withstand voltage (CWW), and the basic
switching impulse insulation level (BSL) of the protected equipment.
The extent of reduction of the crest voltage depends on the impedance of the path through the arrester to
ground, including the resistance between the ground electrode and the earth. Even with good grounding
conditions, the voltage drop of the surge current through the arresters and the ground connection combined
may be greater than the impulse strength of the insulation of the protected equipment.
The part of the surge voltage that reaches the insulation can be limited to the voltage drop through the lightning
arresters alone. In properly engineered installations, this voltage drop is well under the impulse breakdown
strength of the protected insulation. This is accomplished by connecting the grounding conductor from the
arrester to the frame of the protected equipment, as well as to the ground connection. The ground connection
should have a resistance of 1 ohm or less.
C.7.2 Valve-Type Arresters

The valve arrester is most commonly used for the protection of electrical circuits and its connected equipment.
The arresters shown in Figures 6, 7 and 8 consist of one or more gaps in series with a dielectric element
or so-called ‘‘valve material.’’ Under normal conditions, the gap insulates the line from ground, and the
dielectric element, which is a nonlinear resistor, offers a high resistance to power frequency follow current.
Where exposed to lightning potentials or other surge potentials, the air in the gap becomes ionized and it
sparks over, permitting the surge current to pass to ground. The valve block offers low resistance to the surge
current which results in a low discharge voltage. After the surge has passed, the voltage across the valve
block drops to the system voltage and a high resistance is again offered to the power frequency follow current.

Fig. 6. Station-type arresters. (Upper) Thyrite Magne-valve station-class arresters. For important and valuable equipment
in power stations and substations. Also made in line type. (General Electric) (Lower) Autovalve type S.V. arresters. Heavy
construction for power stations and important substations. (Westinghouse)
Valve arresters are divided into four main classes: station (2.4 kV - 765 kV) (Figs. 6, 9, and 9a); intermediate
(3 kV - 120 kV) (Fig. 7); distribution (1 kV - 30 kV) (Fig. 8); and secondary (0.175 kV - 0.65 kV). Each of
these have different sparkover and discharge voltage characteristics for the same nominal voltage rating of
the arrester. The root-mean-square voltage ratings in kilovolts are as shown in Table 5.

Fig. 7. Intermediate arresters, line type. Pellet arresters, 300-volts minimum to 15-kv maximum. (General Electric)
Fig. 8. Distribution arresters, valve type L.V. Rating 3 to 15 kv. (Westinghouse)

Fig. 9. Tranquell (metal oxide) station surge arrestor. (General Electric Co.)

Fig. 9a. Alugard 30-kv station arrester. (General Electric Co.)

Table 5. Voltage Ratings in kV

Secondary Arresters Distribution Arresters Intermediate Arresters Station Arresters
0.175
0.650
1
3 3 3
6 6 6
9 9 9
10
12 12 12
15 15 15
18
21 21 21
24 24
25
27
30 30 30
36 36
39 39
48 48
60 60
72 72
90 90
96 96
108 108
120 120
144
168
180
192
240
258
276
294
312
372
396
420
444
468
492
540
576
612
648
684
Note: Because of the more stringent requirements for the protection of rotating machines, the use of arresters
(all classes) rated 4.5, 7.5, 16.5, 18, 19.5, 22.5, 24, 25.5, and 27 kV is recognized for this application.
The metal oxide arrester shown in Figure 9 is a relatively new development in a station surge arrester in
which the series gap has been eliminated. The valve elements are highly nonlinear resistors formulated from
a zinc oxide compound. This arrester differs from the conventional arrester in that it responds to over-voltages
promptly. Since there is no gap, no abrupt transient can occur such as when sparkover in the conventional
arrester occurs, and there is negligible power follow current after a surge operation.

The number of parts in the metal oxide arrester is considerably reduced, resulting in improved reliability,
improved performance under contaminated conditions, and smooth transition into and out of conduction as
the overvoltage increases and then disappears.
The function of the valve arrester is similar to the relief valve on a steam boiler, i.e., when the pressure
becomes too high, the relief valve opens and discharges the excess pressure; then it closes when conditions
are safe again. During normal conditions on the system, a valve arrester is merely an insulator between
the power line and ground. There is usually no flow of current through the arrester. In some types however,
there is a fraction of a milliampere of current through the resistance spacers to maintain a uniform voltage
distribution over the arrester gaps.
The metal oxide arrester is said to be particularly suitable for the protection of gas (SF6) insulated substations
in which surge propagation and over-voltage phenomena are quite different from those of air-insulated
substations. They are available for use on nominal system voltages from 2.5 kV to 765 kV.
The nominal voltage rating of the arrester is the maximum voltage at which it is guaranteed to interrupt follow
current after it has sparked over.
Station arresters are heavy-duty units designed to withstand a maximum crest current of 65,000 amperes.
Distribution arresters, intermediate valve arresters, expulsion arresters, and protector tubes will also withstand
65,000 amperes; secondary arresters will withstand 10,000 amperes.
Table 6 shows other durability characteristics for station and intermediate class arresters. Distribution class
arresters (Table 6a) do not have standardized pressure relief ratings. The pressure relief ratings indicate
the maximum fault current that the arrester will withstand without violent disintegration.
C.7.3 Expulsion Arresters and Protector Tubes

Expulsion arresters (protector tubes) are less commonly used, but may still be found protecting power lines,
and in some cases substations, where more expensive protection is not warranted. Distribution expulsion
arresters are available in a number of voltage ratings from 3 kV through 18 kV. Protector tubes (Fig. 10) are
available for standard voltage ratings from 13.8 kV through 138 kV.
Fig. 10. De-ion protector tube. For outdoor service.

Protector tubes operate on a different principle than the valve type for interruption of the ″follow current.″
The gap is so arranged that when sparkover occurs, the arc passes through a tube that causes gas to be
generated from the lining of the tube, which upon discharge out of the open end, stretches and extinguishes
the arc as the alternating current wave passes through zero.
Because of the gaseous discharge, the protector tube is not suitable for indoor applications or for mounting
in close proximity to other apparatus. Repeated operations also cause erosion of the tube with a gradual
reduction in protection which may result in failure.
C.7.4 dc Arresters
There are several different kinds of arresters available for the protection of dc circuits and equipment
depending upon the voltage and the application. dc capacitor-type arresters are employed for the protection
of dc generators or motors and rotary convertors on electric railway, trolley bus, and mine haulage systems.
These are available in three voltage classes: 0 to 750, 751 to 2000, and 2001 to 3900 as shown in Figures
11, 12, and 13. They are installed either indoors or outdoors and connected from line-to-ground in close shunt
relation to the insulation of the apparatus being protected. Their purpose is to reduce the turn-to-turn stresses
and the major insulation stress from line-to-ground. The inherent characeristics of the capacitor protects the
insulation by sloping off the steep front of the lightning wave and reducing the amplitude of the wave.
Fig. 11. dc capacitor-type arrester, 0 to 750 volts.

Molded insulation cover removed from one terminal. (General Electric)
Fig. 12. Capacitor-type arrester, 751 to 2000 volts. (General Electric)
For the protection of dc rotating machinery up to 750 V, a valve-type arrester as shown in Figure 14 is also
available. This is a multipath arrester consisting of a silicon carbide block enclosed in a cast iron case for
outdoor use. It is made in two voltage classifications: 100 to 400, and 401 to 750 V. Low voltage low energy
systems such as railway signal and fire alarm circuits may be protected with special signal arresters as shown

Fig. 13. Capacitor-type capacitor arrester, 2001 to 3900 volts. (General Electric)
in Figure 15. These consist of a valve element and a multispear gap enclosed in a transparent vinylite housing.
They are intended for indoor use for the protection of dc circuits up to 75 volts, but may also be used on
ac circuits up to 175 volts.
C.8 Arrester Application

The following text concerns the application of only the valve-type arresters with series gaps. The application
of the new station class gapless zinc oxide arrester will be covered later when final standards are available.
In the meantime the manufacturers should be consulted.
All electrical apparatus has a rated insulation level indicating its ability to resist overvoltages. This rating is
called the basic impulse insulation level (BIL) as shown for the different kinds of equipment listed in Tables 8,
9, 10, 11, 12 and 13.
Lightning arresters also have other ratings as follows, which show the degree of protection provided by the
specific arrester: 1) impulse sparkover voltage (FOW), 2) 1.2 × 50 µsec sparkover, 3) switching surge
sparkover, 4) discharge voltage, and 5) durability characteristics. Table 6 shows these values for the different
voltage ratings for station and intermediate class arresters, and Table 6a for valve-type distribution class
arresters.
Table 7 shows the protective characteristics for station valve arresters and the discharge currents from
1500 amps through 40,000 amps. Table 7a shows the protective characteristics for intermediate valve
arresters and discharge voltages for discharge currents ranging from 1500 amps through 20,000 amps.

Fig. 14. Type MP valve arrester for dc circuits. (Westinghouse)
Fig. 15. Type RVS signal arrester for indoor a-c and dc circuits. (Westinghouse)
Protective characteristics for distribution arresters are shown in Tables 18 and 19 in Section C.9, Protection
of Distribution System.
It is the usual practice when applying lightning arresters to provide a protective margin of 20%. That is, the
arrester sparkover and discharge voltage, plus the voltage drop due to the arrester lead and the ground
resistance, should be 20% less than the BIL of the apparatus being protected as expressed by the following
formulas:
Protective Margin =
Apparatus CWW
100 > 20%
Impulse Sparkover Voltage

Protective Margin =
Apparatus BIL
100 > 20%
Arrester Discharge Voltage + IdRG
IdRG = Voltage drop across ground resistance due to discharge current (Delete if arrester ground wire is
connected to equipment frame.)
CWW = 115% BIL for all filled transformers.
CWW = 100% BIL for dry transformers.
When applying surge arresters, there are three basic items that must be carefully determined: the rating,
the class, and the location.
C.8.1 Arrester Rating

The maximum sustained line-to-ground voltage that can exist at the arrester location is normally used to
select an arrester rating. The lower the arrester rating, the better the protection for the apparatus on the system
and the lower the cost. For systems operating at 100 kV and below, switching surge protective levels are
usually not important because the insulation designed to withstand lightning overvoltages will usually
withstand stresses due to switching.
Surge arresters are connected to phase-to-ground. In a 3-phase system, the phase-to-ground voltage is
the system phase-to-phase voltage divided by the √3.

Table 6. Station and Intermediate Arrester Characteristics (ANSI C62.2-1981)
Page 32
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Protective Levels* Durability Characteristics†
Per-Unit Crest Arrester Rating (1) (2) (3) (4)
Range of
Discharge Voltage. Duty Cycle Initiating Transmission Line High Current
Application Nominal Front-of-Wave 1.2 × 50-µs Switching Surge Pressure Relief
Ratings (kV rms) 10-kA, 8 × 20-µs Surge Discharge Withstand
System Voltage Sparkover Sparkover Sparkover (rms symmetrical amperes)
Wave (crest amperes) (miles) (crest amperes)
(kV)
Station Class Class I Class II
3-9 2.2-12.47 2.24-4.24 1.89-3.30 Test 1.57-1.77 10 000 150 65 000 65 000 25 000
12-15 13.2-18 2.12-2.83 1.89-2.42 not 1.57-1.70 10 000 150 65 000 65 000 25 000
21-48 18-46 2.09-2.56 1.80-2.29 required 1.56-1.70 10 000 150 65 000 40 000 25 000
60-120 69-138 1.99-2.24 1.60-1.94 1.60-1.80 1.56-1.69 10 000 150 65 000 40 000 25 000
144-240 161-287 1.83-2.22 1.57-1.70 1.57-1.61 1.56-1.79 10 000 175 65 000 40 000‡ 25 000
258-312 345 2.10-2.17 1.56-1.70 1.57-1.61 1.56-1.58 10 000 200 65 000 25 000 25 000
372 or higher 500 or higher 1.94-2.10 1.65-1.70 1.44-1.58 1.54-1.60 10 000 200 65 000 Not established
Intermediate Class
3-6 2.4-7.2 2.47-2.83 2.24-2.83 Test not 1.77-2.36 5 000 100 65 000 16 100
9-48 7.2-46 2.14-2.55 1.78-2.28 required 1.77-2.07 5 000 100 65 000 16 100
Lightning and Surge Protection

60-120 69-138 1.92-2.26 1.63-1.83 2.15-2.43 1.77-2.02 5 000 100 65 000 16 100
* The per-unit values shown are maximum industry values from tables in Appendix A. For specific values, consult manufacturer’s literature. Protective level (kV) = per-unit level × rating × 2. For example, range
of FOW sparkover for a 258-kV arrester is (2.10 to 2.17) × √2 = 766 to 792 kV.
FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets

† This refers to the ability of the arrester to protect itself against the stresses resulting from:
(1) Power-follow current.
(2) The number of line miles an arrester can discharge, which is a measure of its ability to handle switching surges (see Appendix B). The general relationship (for overhead lines only) is: D = DL (Z/ZL)(EL/S)2,
where D = line miles, Z = line surge impedance, S = switching overvoltage/(system maximum line-to-ground peak voltage). For DL, ZL, see ANSI/IEEE C62.1-1981. The use of this formula is valid only
for values of D, Z, and S within about 25% of the values of DL, ZL, and EL as listed in ANSI/IEEE C62.1-1981. Underground lines may require special attention because of their low surge impedance;
see
Ref [20] and [21].
(3) Severe lightning discharges.
(4) Maximum permissible protective bus faults.
‡ 240-kV rating has pressure relief capability of 25000 for Classes I and II.
Table 6a. Valve-Type Distribution Arrester Characteristics (ANSI C62.2-1981)

Protective Levels Durability Characteristics†
Per-Unit Crest Arrester Rating* (1) (2) (3)
Range of Application
Front-of-Wave without Sparkover with External Discharge with 10 kA. Duty Cycle Initiating Low-Current Long-Duration Withstand High-Current Withstand
Rating (kV) Maximum System
External Gap (kV) Gap (kV) 8 × 20-µs Wave Surge (crest amperes) (crest amperes) (µs) (crest amperes)
Voltage (kV)
3 2.6-4.5 3.30-5.89 5.66-8.01 2.71-3.25 5000 75 2000 65 000
6 4.5-7.8 3.18-4.12 5.30-6.13 2.65-3.06 5000 75 2000 65 000
9-12 7.8-14.3 2.83-3.77 4.30-5.34 2.55-3.22 5000 75 2000 65 000
15-21 18-25.8 2.32-3.54 3.87-4.56 2.49-3.09 5000 75 2000 65 000
25-30 38 2.07-3.54 2.36-2.59 5000 75 2000 65 000
* The per-unit values shown are maximum industry values from tables in Appendix A. For specific values, consult manufacturer’s literature.
(1) Cumulative power-follow current and surge discharge operations (which also determine the ability to reseal against a voltage equal to the arrester rating).
(2) Long-duration lightning.
NOTE: Protective level (kV) = per-unit level × rating × √2. For example, range of FOW sparkover for a 12-kV arrester is (2.83 to 3.77) × 12√2 = 48 to 64 kV.
Page 33
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The minimum arrester voltage rating selected should be at least 1.25 times the maximum line-to-ground
operating voltage.
1
Actually, under normal conditions, the arrester is only exposed to 58%, ( ) of the system voltage.
√3
For ungrounded or noneffectively grounded systems, the arrester voltage rating should be 100% of the system
voltage rating. While the arrester is exposed to only 58% of the voltage under normal conditions, during a
phase-to-ground fault it will be exposed to full phase-to-phase system voltage.
The voltage ratings for the arresters usually selected for grounded and ungrounded distribution systems are
shown in Table 14.
C.8.2 Arrester Class

In selecting the arrester class the voltage ratings must be equal to or greater than the TOV and the following
must be considered: (1) available voltage ratings, (2) pressure relief rating equal to or greater than the system
fault, (3) protective level characteristics, and (4) durability characteristics.
In general the class of arrester is determined by the size of the equipment to be protected, as shown in the
following tabulation, although the tendency is to use the higher class arrester at higher voltages.
Arrester Class Equipment Size

Station 7.5 MVA and above and large or important rotating machines.
Intermediate 1-20 MVA substations.
Distribution 15 kV — Distribution class apparatus, small rotating machines, and dry-type
transformers (special low sparkover types are recommmended).
Distribution class arresters are available in special low sparkover models. They are recommended for rotating
machines and dry-type transformers.
For the same voltage rating, a station class arrester has a lower sparkover and discharge voltage than the
intermediate class. The intermediate class arrester has lower sparkover and discharge voltages than the
distribution class.
For a given discharge voltage, the station class can discharge 100% more current than the intermediate
class, while the latter can discharge 50% more than the distribution class. In those systems where frequent
switching occurs, particularly where capacitors are connected for power factor correction, the transients
produced impose a severe time-current duty on the arrester, and station class arresters are recommended
for the best protection.
C.8.3 Location of Arresters

For the best protection, the surge arresters should be installed at the terminals of the equipment to be
protected. Economically and practically this is not always possible and the arresters are often installed some
distance from the equipment being protected. The further away the arrester is located, the less protection
it will afford. In the limiting case, the arrester is so far from the protected equipment that the voltage at the
terminals, due to reflection of the traveling wave, will approach twice the arrester sparkover. When an arrester
is separated from protected equipment by leads of significant length, oscillations occur which result in higher
than arrester voltage at the equipment. This must be taken into account when applying surge protection.
C.8.4 Shielding
Whether an installation is effectively or noneffectively shielded against direct strokes is of major importance
in providing adequate surge protection.
C.8.4.1 Effective Shielding

Effective shielding requires that all aboveground incoming lines supplying a substation be protected with
an overhead ground wire extending for at least 1⁄2 mile from the substation that is grounded at each pole
through as low a ground resistance that it is practicable to obtain and connected to the ground bus at the
substation. Low ground resistance is particularly important at the poles nearest the substation. The outdoor
substation should also be provided with a sufficient number of masts to provide a protective zone for all
apparatus that requires protection.

Table 7. Protective Characteristics of Station Valve Arresters (ANSI C62.2-1981)

Impulse Sparkover Voltage Switching Surge
Front-of-Wave 1.2 × 50-µs Sparkover Voltage Discharge Voltage for 8 × 20-µs Discharge Current Wave
Voltage Rating of Rate of Rise of kV Crest (Range of kV Crest (Range of kV Crest (Range of kV Crest for 1500 kV Crest for 3000 kV Crest for 5000 kV Crest for 10 kV Crest for 20 kV Crest for 40
Arrester Test Voltage (kV/ Maxima) Maxima) Maxima) A (Range of A (Range of A (Range of 000 A (Range of 000 A (Range of 000 A (Range of
µs) Maxima) Maxima) Maxima) Maxima) Maxima) Maxima)
3 25 10-18 10-14 - 4.7-6 5.3-6.5 6-7 6.7-7.5 7.7-8.3 -
6 50 19-28 16-23 - 9.3-11 10-12 12-13 13.4-14.3 15.3-16.3 -
9 75 28.5-38 24-32 - 13.9-17 16-18 18-19 20-21.5 22.9-24.3 -
12 100 36-48 32-41 - 18.5-22 21.3-24 23.5-25.5 26.7-28.5 30.1-32.1 -
15 125 45-57 40-51 - 23.1-27.5 26.6-30 29.5-32 33.4-36 38.2-40 -
21 175 63-76 54-68 - 32.3-38.5 37.2-42 41-45 46.8-50 53.4-55.5 -
24 200 71-86 62-77 - 36.9-44 42.5-48 47-51 53.4-57 61-63.5 -
30 250 89-103 77-93 - 46.1-55 53.1-60 59-64 66.9-72 76.3-79 -

36 300 107-118 92-108 - 55.3-66 63.7-72 70.5-76 80-85 91.5-94.5 -
39 325 115-125 100-114 - 60-71.5 69-78 76.5-82.5 86.5-92 99.1-102 -
48 400 143-148 122-132 - 73.8-88 84.9-96 94-102 106-114 122-126 -
60 500 170-190 141-165 136-153 95-109 110-120 118-130 132-143 150-158 -
72 600 204-226 169-190 163-178 114-131 130-144 141-155 159-170 180-189 -
90 750 254-275 210-235 203-215 142-163 162-180 176-194 199-213 225-237 -
96 800 270-295 218-245 218-225 151-174 173-192 188-218 212-227 240-253 -
108 900 304-325 245-270 245-250 170-196 194-216 212-245 238-256 270-284 -
120 1000 338-360 272-300 272-275 188-218 216-240 235-272 265-285 300-316 -
144 1200 400-430 326-346 325-326 226-262 260-288 282-311 318-342 360-379 -
168 1400 460-525 380-404 380-381 263-305 303-336 329-362 371-399 420-442 -
180 1500 490-565 400-430 400-410 281-327 324-360 353-388 397-455 450-505 -
192 1600 520-600 427-460 426-435 300-348 346-384 376-414 424-427 480-495 -
240 2000 620-735 535-577 533-545 374-436 432-480 470-518 530-570 605-630 -
258 2000 766-790 575-620 573-585 402-438 465-474 505-515 569-575 650-666 -
276 2000 820-840 615-664 612-630 429-468 496-507 540-570 609-615 690-714 -
294 2000 875-885 653-675 653-675 458-472 528-532 576-595 653-653 735-758 -
312 2000 924-935 690-750 693-710 485-530 562-574 611-620 688-693 780-805 874-961
372 2000 1078-1100 870-890 790-830 562-610 655-680 726-738 809-826 932-955 1136-1145
396 2000 1140-1176 925-950 840-885 599-672 697-726 772-785 861-880 990-1015 1109-1226
420 2000 1200-1250 980-1005 890-940 634-713 739-770 819-830 913-930 1050-1070 1176-1294
444 2000 1265-1320 1035-1055 940-990 670-753 781-814 866-875 965-977 1110-1130 1243-1358
468 2000 1326-1390 1090-1110 992-1045 707-794 823-860 913-930 1018-1040 1170-1200 1310-1441
492 2000 1385-1425 1160-1165 1045-1090 742-830 865-925 958-1000 1070-1115 1232-1290 1500-1515
540 2000 1515-1555 1274-1280 1145-1200 814-890 949-990 1052-1070 1173-1195 1350-1390 1646-1663
576 2000 1616-1665 1359-1380 1225-1285 868-950 1012-1060 1122-1150 1251-1285 1440-1480 1755-1780
612 2000 1700-1765 1440-1480 1300-1370 924-1010 1076-1130 1193-1220 1330-1360 1531-1580 1865-1885
Page 35
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648 2000 1790-1865 1525-1570 1380-1445 977-1070 1138-1190 1261-1290 1407-1440 1619-1670 1974-1996
684 2000 1880-1960 1610-1680 1455-1525 1031-1130 1153-1260 1331-1360 1489-1520 1709-1765 2063-2107
Table 7a. Protective Characteristics of Intermediate Valve Arresters (ANSI C62.2-1981)
Page 36
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Impulse Sparkover Voltage Switching Surge
Front-of-Wave 1.2 × 50-µs Sparkover Discharge Voltage for 8 × 20-µs Discharge Current Wave
Voltage
Voltage Rating Rate of Rise of kV Crest kV Crest kV Crest kV Crest for kV Crest for kV Crest for kV Crest for kV Crest for
of Arrester Test Voltage (Range of (Range of (Range of 1500 A 3000 A 5000 A 10 000 A 20 000 A
(kV/µs) Maxima) Maxima) Maxima) (Range of (Range of (Range of (Range of (Range of
Maxima) Maxima) Maxima) Maxima) Maxima)
3 25 11-12 11-12 - 5.2-7.5 6-8 6.6-9 7.5-10 8.7-12
6 50 21-21 19-19 - 10.4-13.5 11.9-14 13.2-15.5 15-17.5 17.4-20
9 75 31-32.5 27.5-29 - 15.6-21 17.9-22 19.8-24 22.5-26 26.1-28.5
12 100 40-42 35.5-37 - 20.8-27 23.8-29 26.4-32 30-34 34.8-37.5

15 125 50-51 43.5-46.5 - 25.9-34 29.7-36.5 32.9-39.5 37.5-43 43.5-47.5
21 175 67-68 58-64 - 36.3-47.5 41.6-51 46.1-56 52.5-60 60.9-66
24 200 76-78 66-75 - 41.5-54 47.6-58 52.7-64 60-68 69.6-75
30 250 94-97 81-91 - 51.8-68 59.4-73 65.8-79 75-86 87-95
36 300 109-116 95-97 - 62.2-82 71.3-87 79-95 90-102 104-113
39 325 121-126 102-102 - 67.4-91 77.3-97 85.5-106 97.5-114 113-126

48 400 143-154 121-125 - 83-109 95-116 105-127 120-136 139-150
60 500 173-190 147-155 185-206 104-136 119-145 131-159 150-171 174-189

72 600 201-230 171-180 219-245 124-163 143-174 158-191 180-204 209-225
90 750 266-283 223-226 274-304 155-204 178-218 197-239 225-256 261-282
96 800 279-300 236-240 292-323 166-217 190-232 211-254 240-273 278-300
108 900 303-335 258-265 328-362 187-244 214-261 237-286 270-307 313-338
120 1000 325-370 276-295 364-400 207-272 238-290 263-319 300-338 348-380
Table 8. Relationships of Nominal System Voltage to Maximum System Voltage and Basic Lightning
Impulse Insulation Levels (BILs) for Systems 1100 kV and Below (ANSI C57.12-1980)
Nominal Maximum System
System Voltage (from ANSI
Voltage C84.1-1977 and ANSI Basic Lightning Impulse Insulation Levels (BILs)
Application (kV rms) C92.2-1978) (kV rms) in Common Use (kV crest)
Distribution 1.2 30
2.5 45
5.0 60
8.7 75
15.0 95
25.0 150 125
34.5 200 150 125
*46.0 48.3 250 200
69.0 72.5 350 250
Power 1.2 45 30
2.5 60 45
5.0 75 60
8.7 95 75
15.0 110 95
25.0 150
34.5 200
*46.0 48.3 250 200
69.0 72.5 350 250
115.0 121.0 550 450 350
138.0 145.0 650 550 450
*161.0 169.0 750 650 550
230.0 242.0 1050 900 825 750 650
345.0 362.0 1175 1050 900 825
500.0 550.0 1675 1550 1425 1300
765.0 800.0 2050 1925 1800
1100.0 1200.0 2425 2300 2175 2050
* Non-preferred voltage (ANSI C84.1-1977)
Notes:
(1) BIL values in bold type-face are listed as standard in ANSI C57.12.10-1977, C57.12.20-1974, C57.12.21-
1980, C57.12.22-1980, C57.12.23-1978, C57.12.24-1978, C57.12.25-1975, and C57.12.26-1975, and
C57.12.30-1977.
(2) When specified, and when suitable surge protection and effective grounding are provided, lower insulation
levels may be used in transformers. For high-voltage systems it is common to use insulation dependent
on the degree of surge protection obtainable. For example, in 230 kV systems, BILs with corresponding
low-frequency tests of 1050, 900, 825, 750, and 650 kV have been used. Application of reduced BILs
is most common on grounded Y-connected systems. In applying ∆-connected transformers with reduced
BILs the system should be reviewed for effective grounding adequacy.
(3) When reduced BILs are involved, internal and external phase-to-phase low-frequency insulation levels
should not be reduced below the values listed in Table 6a.
(4) Single-phase distribution and power transformers and regulating transformers for voltage ratings between
terminals of 8.7 kV and below are designed for both Y and ∆ connection and are insulated for the test
voltages corresponding to the Y connection, so that a single line of transformers serves for the Y and ∆
applications. The test voltages for such transformers when operated ∆-connected are, therefore, higher
than needed for their voltage rating.
(5) For series windings in transformers such as regulating transformers, the test values to ground shall be
determined by the BIL of the series windings rather than by the rated voltage between terminals.

Table 9. Interrelationships of Dielectric Insulation Levels for Liquid-Filled Transformers Used on

Systems with BILs 2425 kV and Below (ANSI C57.12-1980)
Low Frequency *Impulse Levels †Front-of-Wave Impulse Levels *Switching
Voltage Surge Level
Insulation Level Chopped Wave (line-to-ground)
(kV rms) (kV Crest)
Application BIL kV Full Wave (kV Crest) Minimum Time Minimum Crest Specific Time to
(kV Crest) to Flashover (µs) Voltage (kV) Sparkover (µs)
Distribution 30 10 30 36 1. 0 — — —
45 15 45 54 1. 5 — — —
60 19 60 69 1. 5 — — —
75 26 75 88 1. 6 — — —
95 34 95 110 1. 8 — — —
125 40 125 145 2.25 — — —
150 50 150 175 3. 0 — — —
200 70 200 230 3. 0 — — —
250 95 250 290 3. 0 — — —
350 140 350 400 3. 0 — — —
Power 45 10 45 54 1. 5 — — ‡20
60 15 60 69 1. 5 — — ‡35
75 19 75 88 1. 6 — — ‡38
95 26 95 110 1. 8 165 0. 5 ‡55
110 34 110 130 2. 0 195 0. 5 ‡75
150 50 150 175 3. 0 260 0. 5 ‡100
200 70 200 230 3. 0 345 0. 5 ‡140
250 95 250 290 3. 0 435 0. 5 ‡190
350 140 350 400 3. 0 580 0. 58 ‡280
450 185 450 520 3. 0 710 0. 71 375
550 230 550 630 3. 0 825 0. 825 460
650 275 650 750 3. 0 960 0. 96 540
750 325 750 865 3. 0 1070 1. 07 620
825 360 825 950 3. 0 1150 1. 15 685
900 395 900 1035 3. 0 1240 1. 24 745
975 430 975 1120 3. 0 — — 810
1050 460 1050 1210 3. 0 1400 1. 40 870
1175 520 1175 1350 3. 0 1530 1. 53 975
1300 575 1300 1500 3. 0 — — 1080
1425 630 1425 1640 3. 0 — — 1180
1550 690 1550 1780 3. 0 — — 1290
1675 750 1675 1925 3. 0 — — 1390
1800 800 1800 2070 3. 0 — — 1500
1925 860 1925 2220 3. 0 — — 1600
2050 920 2050 2360 3. 0 — — 1700
2175 980 2175 2500 3. 0 — — 1800
2300 1040 2300 2650 3. 0 — — 1900
2425 1090 2425 2800 3. 0 — — 2010
* Test made only when specified.
† Must be specified prior to transformer design.
‡ When specified, switching surge tests are normally specified only on one winding of 450 kV BIL and higher.
These voltage values shall be used to establish the limiting induced switching surge voltage in low-voltage windings when a high-voltage
winding is tested.

Table 10. Insulation Levels for Dry-Type Transformers (ANSI C57.12.01-1979)

Low Frequency Voltage Levels
(kV rms),
Winding to Winding, and Impulse Levels
Winding-to-Ground (Positive Polarity)
Chopped Wave
Ungrounded Y Full Wave Minimum Time
Nominal Equipment Voltage BIL (kV) Grounded Y† D‡ 1.2 × 50 µs to Flashover
(1) (2) (3) (4) (kV Crest) (µs)
120-1200* 4
1200GrdY/693 10 4 10 1.0
2520 20 10 20 1.0
4360GrdY/2520 10
4160 12
7200 30 30 1.0
8720GrdY/5040 10
8320 45 — 19 45 1.25
12 000* 31
13 800
13 800GrdY/7970 60 10 60 1.5
18 000 34
22 860GrdY/13 200 95 10 95 1.6
23 000 110 37 110 1.8
24 940GrdY/14 400 10
27 600* 40
34 500GrdY/19 920 125 10 125 2.0
34 500 150 — 50 150 2.25
* Nonpreferred voltage (ANSI C84.1-1977).
† Applicable to solidly grounded wye windings (see 5.10.2 and 5.10.3). Such windings shall also be capable of withstanding two times
rated voltage (with neutral grounded) from line terminals to ground and between line terminals.
‡ The BIL associated with a grounded Y line-to-line voltage rating is also applicable to the same delta line-to-line voltage rating, provided
the system is effectively grounded at the location of the surge arrester in accordance with the system criteria described in ANSI C62.2-1969,
Guide for Application of Valve-Type Lightning Arresters for Alternating-Current Systems.
Notes:
(1) The BIL values of Table 4 are based on ANSI C62.2-1969, using low-sparkover surge arresters and a
5 kA discharge current. If there is any possibility that the transformer terminals will be subjected to
transient overvoltages exceeding their BILs, they should be protected with appropriate surge arresters.
(2) Insulation levels for voltages between listed values of Table 4 may be determined as follows:
(a) Coordinate with available surge arresters per ANSI C62.2-1969, or
(b) Use insulation level for the next higher voltage rating.
(3) When specified, other BILs may be furnished.
In addition to providing effective shielding, substation equipment should be protected against voltage surges
by the proper application of surge arresters. In some cases, these arresters may not afford adequate
protection due to the circuit distance between the arresters and the transformer, the method of grounding,
and the system voltage. In such cases, a separate set of arresters are necessary to protect the transformer.
Although each case should be considered separately, for station equipment rated 23 kV and above having
full BIL insulation, separation distances of 75 to 200 ft can usually be tolerated. For equipment rated 15 kV and
below, the best practice is to avoid any separation distance.
In effectively shielded stations, discharge currents rarely exceed 5000 amperes.
C.8.4.2 Noneffectively Shielded Substations

In noneffectively shielded substations, which are usually small and not over 34.5 kV, the arresters should
be installed close to the transformer terminals. A low resistance ground connection is also required along with
short interconnection of the transformer case. Discharge currents of 20,000 amperes are recommended for
use in checking the insulation protection.

Table 11. Rated Voltages and Insulation Levels for AC Switchgear Assemblies
Rated Voltage (rms) Insulation Levels (kV)
Rated Nominal Rated Maximum Power Frequency DC Withstand* Impulse Withstand
Voltage Voltage Withstand (rms)
Metal-Enclosed Low-Voltage Power Circuit Breaker Switchgear
Volts Volts
240 250 2.2 3.1 —
480 500 2.2 3.1 —
600 630 2.2 3.1 —
Metal-Clad Switchgear
kV kV
4.16 4.76 19 27 60
7.2 8.25 36 50 95
13.8 15.0 36 50 95
34.5 38.0 80 † 150
Metal-Enclosed Interrupter Switchgear
kV kV
4.16 4.76 19 27 60
7.2 8.25 26 37 75
13.8 15.0 36 50 95
14.4 15.5 50 70 110
23.0 25.8 60 † 125
34.5 38.0 80 † 150
Station-Type Cubicle Switchgear
kV kV
14.4 15.5 50 † 110
34.5 38.0 80 † 150
69.0 72.5 160 † 350
From IEEE Std 27-1974.
* The column headed ‘‘DC Withstand’’ is given as a reference only for those using direct-current tests and represents values believed to
be appropriate and approximately equivalent to the corresponding power frequency withstand test values specified for each voltage class
of switchgear. The presence of this column in no way implies any requirement for a direct-current withstand test on alternating-current
equipment. When making direct-current tests, the voltage should be raised to the test value in discrete steps and held for a period of 1 min.
† Because of the variable voltage distribution encountered when making direct-current withstand tests, the manufacturer should be contacted
for recommendations before applying direct-current withstand tests to the switchgear. Potential transformers above 34.5 kV should be
disconnected when testing with direct current. Refer to 6.8 of ANSI C57.13-1968, and in particular to 6.8.2 which reads ‘‘Periodic kenotron
tests should not be applied to transformers of higher than 34.5 kV voltage ratings.’’

C.8.4.3 Metal-Clad Switchgear

The insulation levels of switchgear are comparable to those of liquid-filled transformers of 500 kVA and smaller
and the problems of protection are much the same.
Table 12. Voltage Ratings for Metal-Enclosed Bus

Insulation Level (kV)
Rated AC Voltage (kV rms) Power Frequency Withstand (rms)
(Dew 10 DC Withstand Impulse
Nominal Rated Maximum (Dry 1 Minute)
Seconds)* (Dry)† Withstand
0.6 0.63 2.2 — 3.1 —
4.16 4.76 19.0 15 27.0 60
13.8 15.00 36.0 24 (36) 50.0 95
14.4 15.50 50.0 30 (50) 70.0 110
23.0 25.80 60.0 40 (60) 85.0 150
34.5 38.00 80.0 70 (80) ‡ 200
69.0 72.50 160.0 140 (160) ‡ 350
For applications of isolated phase bus to generators, the following voltage ratings apply:§
Power Frequency Withstand (rms)

Rated kV of
(Dry 1 Minute) (Dew 10 Seconds) DC Withstand (Dry) Impulse Withstand
Generator (rms)
14.4 to 24 50 50 70 110
From IEEE Std 27-1974.
* Applied to porcelain insulation only. Values in parentheses apply to ‘‘high creepage’’ designs.
† The column headed ‘‘DC Withstand’’ is given as a reference only for those using direct-current tests and represents equivalent to the
corresponding power frequency withstand test values specified for each voltage class of bus. The presence of this column in no way
implies any requirement for a direct-current withstand test on alternating-current equipment. When making direct-current tests the voltage
should be raised to the test value in discrete steps and held for a period of 1 min.
‡ Because of the variable voltage and distribution encountered when making direct-current withstand tests, the manufacturer should be
contacted for recommendations before applying direct-current withstand tests to these voltage ratings. Potential transformers above
34.5 kV should be disconnected when testing with direct current. Refer to 6.8 of ANSI C57.13-1968, and in particular to 6.8.2 which reads,
″Periodic kenotron tests should not be applied to transformers of higher than 34.5 kV voltage rating.″
§ These ratings are applicable to generators rated 14.4 to 24 k V which are directly connected to transformers without intermediate circuit
breakers and where adequate surge protection is provided. These bus withstand ratings are compatible with or in excess of required
withstand values of the generators.
Where metal-clad switchgear is supplied directly by means of an overhead metallic sheathed cable, arresters
should be installed at the junction point between the transmission lines and the cable. Whether a set of
arresters is also needed at the switchgear depends upon 1) the length and type of cable, 2) junction arrester
protective level voltages, and 3) method of system neutral grounding.
If the cables are nonmetallic-sheathed types, arresters are required at the switchgear because they have
higher surge impedance than the metallic-sheathed cables which can also be interconnected with the arrester
ground and switchgear ground bus. In this case, station class arresters will afford adequate protection,
although distribution arresters may also be used but will afford less protection. The installation of a neutral
or a ground wire in the same duct with each 3-phase nonmetallic-sheathed cable provides practically the same
surge impedance as continuous metallic-sheathed cable, and surge protection can be applied accordingly.
As a precautionary measure, the momentary capability of the sheath of 3-phase cables should be investigated
before grounding both ends, and special consideration may be necessary for single-phase cable with shields
that cannot be grounded at both ends.
C.8.4.4 Dry-Type Transformers

Lightning protection for dry-type transformers must be carefully engineered where the connecting circuits
are exposed. Compared to liquid-filled transformers, they have considerably less resistance to lightning. For
example, a 15 kV dry-type transformer has a BIL of 60 kV, while a 15 kV oil-filled distribution transformer
has a BIL of 95 kV.

Protection of dry-type transformers against switching surges is of little concern. They are used mostly for
applications involving low voltages and involve high ratios of insulation strength to operating voltage.
Consequently, the magnitude of most switching surges is not high enough to cause damage to dry-type
transformers.
Table 13. Electrical Characteristics of Transformer Bushings

(applies only to bushings 34.5 kV and below not listed in ANSI/IEEE Std 24-1977.) (ANSI C57.12-1980)
Outdoor Bushings
Power Transformers† Distribution Transformers†
Impulse Impulse
60 Hz Withstand 60 Hz Withstand Indoor Bushings‡
Full Wave Full Wave
System Minimum 1 min Dry 10 s Wet Dry With- 1 min Dry 10 s Wet Dry With- 60 Hz Impulse
Voltage Creepage (kV) (kV) stand (kV) (kV) (kV) stand (kV) With- Full Wave
(kV)* Distance (1.2 × (1.2 × stand (kV) Dry With-
in. mm 50 µs) 50 µs) 1 min Dry stand (kV)
(kV) (1.2 ×
50 µs)
1.2 — — — — 10 6 30 — —
2.5 — 21 20 60 15 13 45 20 45
5.0 — 27 24 75 21 20 60 24 60
8.7 — — — — 27 24 75 30 75
8.7 7178 35 30 95 — — — — —
15.0 — — — — 35 30 95 50§ 110§
18.0 — — — — 42 36 125 — —
25.0 — — — — — — — 60 150
34.5 — — — — — — — 80 200
* The nominal system voltage values given above are used merely as reference numbers and do not necessarily imply a relation to specific
operating voltages.
† Power transformers indicate transformers rated above 500 kVA and distribution transformers indicate transformers rated 500 kVA and
below.
‡ Indoor bushings are those intended for use on indoor transformers. Indoor bushing test values do not apply to bushings used primarily
for mechanical protection of insulated cable leads. Wet test values are not assigned to indoor bushings.
§ Small indoor transformers may be supplied with bushings for a dry test of 38 kV and impulse test of 95 kV.

Table 14. Commonly Applied Voltage Ratings of Arresters on Distribution Systems (ANSI C57.12-1980)
System Voltage (kilovolts rms) Usually Applied Arrester Ratings (kilovolts rms)
Four-Wire Three-Wire
Maximum Voltage Delta and Spacer-Cable
Nominal Voltage Multigrounded Unigrounded
Range B* Ungrounded Wye Circuits†
Neutral Wye Neutral Wye
2400 2540 3
4160Y/2400 4400Y/2540 3 6 3
4160 4400 6
4800 5080 6
6900 7260 9 or 9/10
8320Y/4800 8800Y/5080 6 9 or 9/10 6
12 000Y/6930 12 700Y/7330 9 or 9/10 9/10 or 10 9/10 or 10
12 470Y/7200 13 200Y/7620 9 or 9/10 12 9/10 or 10
13 200Y/7620 13 970Y/8070 9/10 or 10 12 9/10 or 10
13 800Y/7970 14 520Y/8380 9/10, 10, or 12 12 12
13 800 14 520 15
20 780Y/12 000 22 000Y/12 700 15 18 18
22 860Y/13 200 24 200Y/13 970 18 21 21
23 000 24 340 25
24 940Y/14 400 26 400Y/15 240 18 21 21
34 500Y/19 920 36 510Y/2180 25 or 27 30 30
34 500 36 510 36 ‡ or 37 ‡
* See ANSI C84.1-1977 and ANSI C84.1a-1980.
† The use of spacer cables at most system voltages has had limited application, reducing the experience factor in establishing arrester
ratings usually applied. Where experience is a factor, arrester ratings lower than 1.5 × nominal system line-to-ground voltage have been
used. This is taken into account for the voltage ratings listed.
‡ Nonstandard distribution arrester voltage ratings.
C.8.4.5 Transformers Connected Directly to Overhead Lines

When transformers are directly connected to overhead lines, special low sparkover distribution class arresters
should be installed in direct shunt with the dry-type transformer. The resistance of the ground connection
should not exceed 1 ohm. The arrester ground should also be directly connected to the transformer case.
If the resistance of the ground connection is high, the resulting voltage drop across the ground connection
must be added to the arrester discharge voltage, the sum of which could easily exceed the BIL rating.
C.8.4.6 Transformer Connected by Cable to Overhead Lines

Where a dry-type transformer is supplied through cable, an arrester at the line-cable junction will not always
protect the transformer from a lightning produced surge depending upon the cable length and the transformer
BIL. In such cases, a special low sparkover distribution class arrester installed at the transformer terminals
should be provided.
C.8.4.7 Transformer Connected to Overhead Line through Liquid-filled Transformer

Where a dry-type transformer is supplied through a shielded cable from the secondary side of an oil-filled
transformer, any surge on the overhead line will be transmitted through the transformer and appear on its
secondary. Where the cable is long (over 75 feet), reflected voltages will increase the voltage at the dry-type
transformer terminals to the point where it may exceed 80% of its BIL, and special distribution arresters may
be necessary at the terminals to protect it properly.
C.8.4.8 Rotating Machines

The insulation strength of rotating machines is low compared with oil-insulated equipment because space
is limited and the insulation is dry.
The windings of modern machines have two general types of insulation: turn-to-turn and conductor-to-iron
insulation or ground wall insulation. There are no established ANSI/IEEE impulse standards for the insulation
structure of rotating machines. Since 1960 however, it has been accepted practice when applying surge

protection to use a value of 1.25 times the crest of the one minute ac proof test of twice rated voltage plus
100 [1.25 √2 2ELL + 1000)] for the impulse strength of rotating machine insulation. At that time it was agreed
by the machine manufacturers that the impulse strength of the ground wall insulation was well above this value
before being placed in service.
Recently however, a Working Group of the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers has arrived at
the current consensus on the volt-time impulse withstand strength of machine insulation as shown in
Figure 16a and reasonable agreement is likely. Under consideration is the time T2 to reach maximum applied
surge; whether it should be 10 µsec., 5 µsec, or some shorter time, to accurately reflect the insulation
capability on multi-turn machines. It also appears that a single recommendation will apply to both motors
and generators.
Fig. 16a. Probable impulse withstand, volt-time, for a-c rotating machinery.

The envelope of withstand strength shown in Figure 16a is essentially in accord with long-established
manufacturers’ recommendations. It is a composite based on both the impulse strength of ground wall
insulation and impulse strength of turn insulation.
For adequate protection of rotating machines, the following is essential:
1. Effective shielding.
2. Arresters at the machine terminals.
3. Surge capacitors at the machine terminals.
4. Low resistance ground connections, interconnected with the machine frame and the arrester and capacitor.
The complete basic protective circuit for rotating machines is shown in Figure 16b. The arrester AL limits
the incoming voltage and the inductance L and capacitance C lengthen the time to crest and limit the rate
of rise of the voltage at the machine terminal. The second arrester AM limits the magnitude of the voltage from
the machine terminal to its frame.
Fig. 16b. Fundamental protection scheme.
As illustrated in Figure 16c, there are four different practical methods in use for obtaining the series inductance
and control of the voltage impressed on the LC circuit. Example 1 of this figure shows the use of a choke
coil or reactor as a bumped inductance. Example 2 uses a length of line from 500 feet (152 m) for 650V
machines and 1500 feet (457 m) for all higher voltage machines out to the line arrester AL. Example 3 in
Figure 16c shows a length of cable with a grounded metallic sheath connected between the machine and
the overhead line. The cable must be long to be effective and afford protection with the line arrester AL at the
cable junction. If the cable is not long enough, additional inductance in the form of a choke coil or more line
with another arrester will be required as shown by the dashed lines in Example 3. Example 4 shows a
transformer installed between the machine protection and the line which provides high inductance and a high
degree of protection. With this arrangement all the grounds are readily connected together.
Regarding Example 2, which shows an unshielded time, a stroke hitting the line between the line arrester
and the machine would impair the protection because the full required inductance would not be in series with
the capacitor and the line arrester cannot limit the voltage on the system as effectively as it would for a stroke
hitting ahead of the arrester.
Another disadvantage of this arrangement is that the resistance of the ground connection of the line arrester
should not exceed 2 or 3 ohms. Otherwise the voltage drop due to high currents flowing through the ground
connection when added to the discharge voltage of the arrester could permit voltages which may damage
the turn-to-turn insulation.
If the average number of lightning strokes to a transmission line of 100 times per 100 miles per year is used
in an isokeraunic level (IKL) of 30, the average probability of a stroke on 1500 feet (457.5 m) of line is about
one in 3-1⁄2 years. With the protection illustrated in Example 2, many of the strokes will not be severe enough
to damage the machine.

Fig. 16c. Practical means of obtaining series inductance.
With the above arrangement the maximum permissible pole and arrester ground resistance RG may be higher
as shown in the following tabulation.
Spacing of Pile Grounds 250 ft (76 m) 125 ft (38 m)

Valve Type Line Arrester Ground Resistance 2-5 ohms 4-10 ohms
If the above values of ground resistance cannot be obtained, a buried counterpoise connecting all the grounds
together should be installed.
If the shield wire is not used, another method of improving the protection (illustrated in Example 2) is installing
additional line arresters as shown in Figure 17.
Fig. 17. Additional arresters provided for line used to provide inductance and not shielded.

The maximum permissible line arrester ground resistance with arresters spaced 500 ft (152 m) apart is shown
in the following tabulation:
Two Sets of Arresters Three Sets of Arresters

Valve-Type Line Arrester AL1 and AL2 AL1, AL2 and AL3
5-10 ohms 10-20 ohms
If these values of ground resistance cannot be obtained, a buried counterpoise connecting all grounds
together should be installed.
Where the lightning exposure is severe and grounding conditions are unfavorable and continued operation
of the machine is important, the reliability of protection for Example 2 can be greatly improved by installing a
shield wire grounded at every pole in addition to the line arrester and the machine grounds as shown in
Figure 18.
Fig. 18. Length of line used as inductance with overhead shielded wire.
The length of conductor between the line arrester AL and the machine in Figure 18 should not be less than
500 feet (152.4 m) but it need not be more, and the overhead shield wire should be installed in accordance
with the recommended practice. In general the shielding angle should not exceed 30 degrees. The insulation
between the shield wire and down leads and the line conductors should be able to withstand 250,000 volts
of 1-1⁄2 × 40 microsecond wave shape without flashover.
The basic lightning protective scheme for directly connected machines is shown in Figure 19. This scheme
shows capacitors and arresters at the machine terminal, and in some cases at the neutral of the machine,
and one or more arresters on the line. The phase conductors are also shielded by an overhead ground wire.
The arresters AM and AN limit the magnitude of the surge voltage to a value less than the machine’s
conductor-to-ground insulation strength. The rate of rise of the surge voltage at the machine terminals is also
decreased by the arrester AL, which discharges the majority of the surge current and limits the voltage applied
to the inductance of the transmission line at the capacitor C. Since the value of C and the rating and
characteristics of AL are fixed, it is only necessary to determine the minumum separation D in order to obtain
sufficient inductance.
The protection required for surge-grounded neutral machines and for ungrounded neutral machines up to
and including 6900 volts that are directly connected to exposed overhead lines is shown in Figure 20. Terminal
protection is required on each phase.
For machines rated at 11.5 kV and above metallically connected to exposed overhead lines and not effectively
grounded, the recommended protection is shown in Figure 21. Terminal protection is required on each phase.
Table 15 shows protection levels of station-type arresters of one manufacturer for the protection of rotating
ac machines. These are recommended for large important machines. For smaller machines the distribution
type may be used if the higher cost of the station type is not warranted.

Fig. 19. Basic scheme for providing lightning protection for machines directly connected to overhead lines.
Capacitor C Machine Arrester AM

Machine Rating Rating Kv Rms
Voltage System Neutral Grounded
Class Microfarad Kv Rms Not
Effectively
Effectively
For Grounded and Ungrounded Machines
650 1.0 0.65 0.65 0.65
2400 0.5 2.4 3.0 3.0
4160 0.5 4.16 3.0 4.5
4800 0.5 4.8 4.5 6.0
6900 0.5 6.9 6.0 7.5
For Grounded* Machines (for Ungrounded* 11.5 and 13.8 Kv
Machines, see Figure 20).
11500 0.25 11.5 9.0 12.0
13800 0.25 13.8 12.0 15.0
Fig. 20. Protection for surge-grounded neutral machines and ungrounded neutral machines to 6900 volts.
If the machine is not surge grounded at the neutral, then arresters and surge capacitors should be installed
at the neutral or double surge capacitors at the line terminals. (See Fig. 21, Sketch b)
The information in Table 15 is primarily for motors and generators with multiturn windings. In the past, large
generators with single-turn coils in the stator windings and unit connected to delta-wye step-up transformers
properly protected with arresters and effectively shielded from direct lightning strokes were considered as
adequately protected. Experience has shown that the generator can be damaged by positive and negative
surges arriving simultaneously on two phases, ineffective shielding, failure of the high side protective
equipment, and accidental interconnection between the high-side and low-side transformer windings due to
internal failure. Accordingly, the present practice is to recommend the installation of surge arresters at the
terminals of the machine. Capacitors are not required where the generator has single turn coils.

Terminal Equipment Neutral Equipment

Machine
Capacitor C Arrester Capacitor CN Arrester
Voltage
Rating AM Rating Rating AN Rating
Class
Microfarad Kv Rms Kv Rms Microfarad Kv Rms Kv Rms
If System is Not Effectively Grounded from Arrester Standpoint — Figure (a)
11500 0.25 11.5 12 0.5* 6.9 7.5
13800 0.25 13.8 15 0.25 11.5 9.0
Or as in Figure (b)
11500 2×0.25 11.5 12 ... ... ...
13800 2×0.25 13.8 15 ... ... ...
If System is Effectively Grounded from Arrester Standpoint — Figure (a)
11500 0.25 11.5 9 0.5* 6.9 7.5
13800 0.25 13.8 12 0.25 11.5 9.0
Or as in Figure (b)
11500 2×0.25 11.59 9 ... ... ...
13800 2×0.25 13.8 12 ... ... ...
*0.25 microfarad would be sufficient, but standard 6.9 kv capacitor is 0.5 microfarad.
Fig. 21. Protection for machines rated at 11.5 kV and above, metallically connected to overhead lines,
not effectively grounded.
Table 15. Protection Levels of Station-Type Arresters Designed for Machine Protection
Lightning Arrester Rotating Ac Machine
Rating kv Maximum Maximum Discharge Machine Circuit Neutral Not Effectively Grounded
Rms Impulse Voltage kv Crest‡ Grounding Effectively Grounded
Sparkover Impulse Impulse
kv Crest† Standard Withstand Standard Withstand
1500 5000 Voltage 60 Hertz Strength Voltage 60 Hertz Strength
Amperes Amperes Class Sparkover kv Crest Class Sparkover kv Crest
650 Volts* 3 3 3.5 650 3.3 4 650 3.3 4
3 9.5 8 9.5 2400 8.2 10 2400 8.2 10
3 9.5 8 9.5 4160 13.2 16 — — —
4.5 14.5 12 14 4800 15.0 19 4160 13.2 16
6 19 16 19 6900 20.9 21 4800 15.0 19
7.5 24 20 23 — — — 6900 20.9 21
9 28 24 28 11500 33.9 42 — — —
12 37 32 37 13800 40.5 50 11500 33.9 42
15 46 40 47 — — — 13800 40.5 50
16.5 51 44 51 14400 42.1 53
18 55 48 56 Machine voltages in these ratings 16500 48.0 60
are not standardized. Large
19.5 60 52 61 18000 52.3 65
generators usually have
21 64 56 65 impedance grounded neutral. 20000 57.9 72
24 76 67 78 24000 69.2 86
* Standard 3-phase secondary-type valve arrester.
† Sparkover on test wave rising to sparkover voltage in 10 microseconds.
‡ Crest voltage across arrester during discharge of a 1500-ampere or a 5000-ampere 8 × 20 micro-second current.
C.8.4.9 Insulation Coordination

Insulation coordination is the process of correlating the insulation withstand level with expected overvoltages
and with the protective characteristics of surge protective devices.

The ‘‘three point method’’ of insulation coordination as described in the following text is in accordance with
ANSI-C62.2-1981 and the tutorial course on Surge Protection in Power Systems, Course Text 79EH0144-
6-PWR developed by the IEEE - Surge Protection Committee of the IEE Power Engineering Society. This
method makes use of the ratios of insulation withstand to arrester protective levels for 1) front-of-wave, 2) full
wave, and 3) switching surge ranges. In addition, the effect of the length of the leads (‘‘separation effect’’
[SE]), if significant, separating the arrester from the protected equipment is evaluated.
Significant separation occurs where the crest of the voltage of the protected insulation exceeds the arrester
protective level sufficiently to reduce protective margins or ratios to unacceptable levels and must be taken
into consideration.
In this method the basic assumption is made that the insulation will be protected over the entire range of
lightning and switching impulses that can occur in service, provided the margin is adequate at the three points.
There are five standard protective ratios (PR) and protective margins (PM) which are identified as follows:
1. Where separation is not significant.
a) PR(1)=CWW/FOW PM(1)=[PR(1)-1]100
b) PR(2)=BIL/LPL PM(2)=[PR(2)-1]100
c) PR(3)=BSL/SSP PM(3)=[PR(3)-1]100
2. Where there is significant separation.* (See Note below)
d) PR(1S)=CWW/E1 PM(1S)=[PR(1S)-1]100
e) PR(2S)=BIL/E1 PM(2S)=[PR(2S)-1]100
f) PR(3)=BSL/SSP PM(3S)=[PR(3)-1]100
*Separation effects are significant when they result in a PR that is less than 1.15. Table 16 gives the
maximum separation that may be used without violating the 1.15 minimum limit for PR(1S) as shown in
the following tabulation:
PR Limits For Coordination.
PR(1)≥1.2 PR(1S)≥1.15
PR(2)≥1.2 PR(2S)≥1.15
PR(3)≥1.15 PR(3)≥1.15
Table 16. Maximum Allowable Separation

Number of Lines*
1 2 3 4
Allowable Separation, D†
PR(1)‡ (feet) (meters) (feet) (meters) (feet) (meters) (feet) (meters)
1.2 10 3 14 4. 3 18 5. 5 22 6. 7
1.4 14 4.3 20 6. 1 26 7. 9 32 9. 8
1.6 20 6.1 29 8. 8 39 12 50 15
1.8 30 9.1 46 14 64 20 84 26
1.9 37 11. 3 61 19 88 27 118 40
2.0 49 14. 9 84 26 130 40 187 60
2.1 68 20. 7 132 40 234 71 397 121
* After Rules 2 and 3 have been applied.
† D = arrester lead length L + transformer lead length S (where L and S are measured from their junction with the path of the incoming
surge).
‡ This table is based on the use of CWW = 1.15 BIL. If surge front is reduced by the multiple-line effect (see Rule 5, C3.2) such that sparkover
occurs after 2 µs, the table should not be used.
Note: Table separations are calculated using an incoming surge with a rate of rise of 8.33 crest kV/µs/kV
(rms) of arrester rating.

PM Limits For Coordination.

PM(1)≥20 PM(1S)≥15
PM(2)≥20 PM(2S)≥15
PM(3)≥15 PM(3)≥15
C.8.4.10 Satisfactory Coordination

Insulation coordination is considered to be satisfactory when all the criteria for PR limits and PM limits for
coordination (which are applicable) as shown above are fulfilled.
C.8.4.10.1 Curve Method of Evaluation Insulation Coordination

Insulation coordination may also be evaluated by the ‘‘curve method’’ which compares insulation withstands
with arrester protective levels graphically as described in Part VI of the Examples.
The separation effect (SE) is a function of the rate of rise and magnitude of the incoming surge voltage and
the distance between the arrester and the equipment.
In some multiline, two-transformer bank stations, adequate protection can be provided by one arrester set.
A reduction process is used to describe an equivalent base case which can then be evaluated as follows.
The base case, as illustrated in Figure 22, consists of a single supply line to a junction point C from which
a lead L extends to the arrester and a lead S goes to the transformer.
Fig. 22. Base case for separate calculations.
The multi-line two-transformer stations shown in Figure 23 may be reduced to an equivalent base case by
application of the following rules;
Rule 1. Remove the transformer that is not being considered.
Rule 2.
a) Identify junction c, the common point between transformer lead (S), arrester lead (L), and the line
assumed to have an incoming surge.
b) Identify S as the bus connection between junction C and the transformer.
c) Identify L as the connection between junction C and the surge arrester.
Rule 3. Identify junction t, the common point between the surged line, bus connection to transformer 1, and
bus connection to transformer 2. Note that t and C may be the same point. Also that t does not exist in a
single-transformer station.
A Class A connection has junction t either coincindent with C or on the line side of C.

Fig. 23. Multi-line, two-transformer station.
A Class B connection has a junction C on the line side of t.

Rule 4. Increase the calculated value of separation effect α by 5% where α Class B connection is used.
Rule 5. Remove all lines connected between junction C and the arrester terminal.
Referring to Figure 23a, note that one line is connected to L between C and the arrester. The effect of such
lines is to adversely affect the voltage at the transformer having the longest lead from point C, which results
in increasing the separation effect.
Rule 6. Multiply the rate of rise of the incoming surge by 3/(n + 2) where n is the number of lines including
the surged line which remain after applying Rule 5.
3Rf
The rate of rise Rf =
n + 2,
Where Rf is the rate of rise of the incoming surge in kV/microsecond. (Use the standard FOW sparkover
test rate of rise.) Rf is the equivalent rate of rise of incoming surge in kV/microsecond at protected equipment
depending upon the number of lines.
To determine the electrical surge separation distance, the distance D from the arrester ground to the protected
equipment is defined as follows:
D = S + L (Fig. 22)
Where S = the combined length of bus and jumper connections between junction C and the protected
equipment terminals.
L = The combined length of bus and jumper connections between junction C and the arrester ground.
The physical distance D and the rate of rise of the surge Rf and the velocity V and the protective level of
the arrester Ef is used to determine the electrical surge distance from the protected equipment as follows:
D = D(Rf/Ef/V)
where D = S + L in feet.
Rf = Rate-of-rise of incoming front, kV/µsec.
Ef = Arrester front of wave sparkover in kV.
V = Traveling wave velocity (1000 ft/µsec for conductors in air, 600 ft/µsec in cable).

The separation effect constant α is defined as follows:

where α = Ei/Ef
α = Separation effect constant.
Ei = Voltage at protected equipment.
The separation effect constant α can also be shown to be equal to the equation of the following curve
(Fig. 24.):
Voltage at Transformer
Fig. 24. Curve for determining a =
Voltage at Arrester.
α= D
0.0125 + 476D
If the separation distance D does not exceed the values in Table 16, then separation effects need not be
considered when PR(1) and PR(2) are met.
The rates of rise in switching surges are quite low compared to lightning surges, and separation effects are
correspondingly low. Therefore separation effects can be ignored when checking BSL, SPL coordination.
In applying the 3-point method of insulation coordination as described above, for specific values of front of
wave sparkover (FOW), chopped wave withstand (CWW) and arrester protective levels needed to calculate
the several protective ratios, it is best to procure this information from the arrester manufacturer’s literature
as shown in Table 9. This information is from one specific manufacturer and may vary for other manufacturers.
For proper insulation coordination, the protective ratios (a), (b), (c) or (d), and (e), as applicable must be
satisfied. For example:
CWW
1. Lightning front of wave coordination Point PR(1) calculated from must be equal to or exceed 1.2.
FOW
BIL
2. Lightning full wave coordination Point PR(2) calculated from must be equal to or greater than 1.2
LPL
and

BSL
3. The switching surge coordination Point PR(3) calculated from must be equal to or greater than 1.15.
SSP
In achieving coordination it is possible that the first arrester selected has protective levels that will not
coordinate with the desired insulation withstand levels. When this occurs other alternatives must be
considered such as: 1) an arrester with a lower lightning or switching surge protective level involving a different
class, design or voltage rating; 2) changing the arrester location to reduce the separation distance S, or
arrester lead length L or both; 3) increasing the insulation level of the equipment to be protected; 4) improving
the shielding; 5) installing additional arresters at a different point in the station.
In lieu of the availability of specific information, the following approximate factors can be used to estimate
the withstand voltages of mineral-oil-immersed equipment. For insulation coordination the front-of-wave factor
should be checked with the equipment manufacturer.
Table 17. Factors for Estimating Withstand Voltages of Mineral-Oil-Immersed Equipment

Impulse Duration Withstand Voltage Equipment
Front of wave* 1.3 to 1.5 × BIL Transformers.
(0.5 µs)* Reactors.
Chopped wave 1.29 × BIL Breakers,
(2 µs)* 15.5 kV and above.
Chopped wave* 1.1 to 1.15 × BIL Transformers.
(3 µs)* Reactors.
1.15 × BIL Breakers,
1.15 kV and above.
Switching surge 0.83 × BIL Transforme
(100 × (†) µs) rs. Reactors.
Switching surge 0.63 to 0.69 × BIL Breakers,
(250 × 250 µs) 362-800 kV‡.
* Time to chop.
† Time above 90% of crest ≥ 200 µs. Time to first voltage zero ≥ 1000 µs.
‡ Includes air blast and SF6 breakers.
C.9 Protection of Distribution Systems

Distribution lines are generally not shielded and consequently are particularly susceptible to direct lightning
strokes. Transient overvoltages resulting from lightning are also of greater concern than those due to
switching of distribution systems. Accordingly, insulation coordination in distribution systems is of major
importance, based on lightning surge voltages and current discharge voltages.
The basic principles of arrester selection and application as previously discussed also apply to distribution
arresters, but there are specific differences in the application of valve-type surge arresters for the protection
of distribution lines and equipment which must be considered and are described in the following text.
Protective levels and durability characteristics of distribution arresters that comply with ANSI/IEEE
specifications are shown in Table 18. Tables 19 and 20 show other data on protective characteristics of
available distribution and secondary arresters compiled from domestic manufacturers’ catalogs which can
be used in general insulation coordination studies if specific data on surge arrester is not available. For
accurate insulation coordination specific information from the manufacturer of the particular arrester being
employed should be obtained.

Table 18. Valve-Type Distribution Arrester Characteristics

Protective Levels Per-Unit Crest Arrester Durability Characteristics†
Rating* (1) (2) (3)
Range of Front-of-
Sparkover Discharge Duty Cycle Low-Current High-Current
Application Wave
with with 10 kA. Initiating Long-Duration Withstand
Rating (kV) Maximum without
External 8 × 20-µs Surge (crest Withstand (crest (crest
System External
Gap (kV) Wave amperes) amperes) (µs) amperes)
Voltage (kV) Gap (kV)
3 2.6-4.5 3.30-5.89 5.66-8.01 2.71-3.25 5000 75 2000 65 000
6 4.5-7.8 3.18-4.12 5.30-6.13 2.65-3.06 5000 75 2000 65 000
9-12 7.8-14.3 2.83-3.77 4.30-5.34 2.55-3.22 5000 75 2000 65 000
15-21 18-25.8 2.32-3.54 3.87-4.56 2.49-3.09 5000 75 2000 65 000
25-30 38 2.07-3.54 2.36-2.59 5000 75 2000 65 000
* The per-unit values shown are maximum industry values. For specific values, consult manufacturers’ literature.
(1) Cumulative power-follow current and surge discharge operations (which also determine the ability to reseal against a voltage equal
to the arrester rating).
(2) Long-duration lightning.
NOTE: Protective level (kV) = per-unit level × rating × √2. For example, range of FOW sparkover for a 12-kV
arrester is (2.83 to 3.77) × 12 √2 = 48 to 64 kV.
Table 19. Protective Characteristics of Distribution Valve Arresters

Impulse Sparkover Voltage
Front-of-Wave 1.2 × 50-µs
Without With Without With
External External External External Discharge Voltage for 8 × 20-µs
Voltage
Gap Gap Gap Gap Discharge Current Wave
Rating Rate of
of Rise of kV Crest kV Crest kV Crest kV Crest kV Crest
Arrester Test for for for for for
Voltage kV Crest kV Crest kV Crest kV Crest 1500 A 3000 A 5000 A 10 000 A 20 000 A
(kV/µs) (Range (Range (Range (Range (Range (Range (Range (Range (Range
of of of of of of of of of
Maxima) Maxima) Maxima) Maxima) Maxima) Maxima) Maxima) Maxima) Maxima)
3 25 14-25 24-34 12-22 24-30.5 8-10 8.4-11.5 10-12.4 11.5-13.8 12.5-15.7
6 50 27-35 45-52 23-30 35-47 16-20 17-23 20-24 22.5-26 25-30
9 75 39-48 60-68 34-45 48-65 24-30 25-34 29-36.5 32.5-41 36-46
10 83.3 40-48 62-68 35-49 48-67 25-30 27.5-34 29.5-37 32.5-44 36-52
12 100 49-60 73-82 44-54 59-79 32-40 34-46 29.5-48 43-53 49-61.5
15 125 53-75 84-95 49-63 69-92 40-50 42-55 39-60 54-65.5 60-76
18 150 61-90 99-116 58-75 79-110 48-60 52-66 46-72 65-78 71-91
21 175 69-90 115-125 66-75 — 56-70 59-75 68-80.5 74-90 82-103
27 225 83-98 — 75-98 — 70-80 76-86 82-89 90-96 99-107
30 250 88-95 — 81-88 — 76-89 84-97 91-101 100-110 111-124
Table 20. Protective Characteristics of Secondary Valve Arresters

Impulse Sparkover Voltage Discharge Voltage for 8 × 20-µs
Front-of-wave 1.2 × 50-µs Discharge Current Wave
Voltage Rate of Rise of Test kV Crest kV Crest kV Crest for 1500 A kV Crest for 5000 A
Rating of Voltage (kV/µs) (Range of Maxima) (Range of Maxima) (Range of Maxima) (Range of Maxima)
Arrester
0.175 10 2.3-3.0 2.1-2.5 1.0-1.5 1.4-1.8
0.650 10 2.9-3.8 2.5-3.5 2.2-3.8 2.9-5.0
On 15-kV systems insulation coordination for equipment connected to overhead lines has been more or less
neglected because the protective margin (PM) between the standard equipment basic lightning impulse
insulation level (BIL) and the protective characteristics of modern distribution arresters is usually substantially

more than 20%. However, on distribution systems rated at 25 kV and higher, insulation coordination is quite
important especially where reduced BIL values are used for line protection and for protection of underground
distribution systems.
The following arrester applications require special consideration with respect to duty requirements to which
the arrester is subjected or in regard to protection requirements: 1) protection of shunt capacitor banks,
2) protection of switches, reclosers, etc., 3) protection of voltage regulators, 4) protection of underground
circuits; and 5) exposure to contaminated atmospheres.
C.9.1 Selection of Arrester Rating

Voltage ratings of the arresters that are commonly applied to the different types of distribution systems,
1) delta connected, 2) three-wire wye unigrounded at the source and 3) four-wire multigrounded wye, are
shown in Table 21. The type of construction of these systems include open wire, spacer cable, and
underground.
For delta systems the arrester rating should be equal to or greater than the maximum phase-to-phase voltage.
For three-wire unigrounded wye systems (grounded at the source only), instead of calculating the phase-to-
ground voltages during single line-to-ground faults, it is usually acceptable to employ an arrester rating at
least equal to 80% of the maximum phase-to-phase voltage with no fault on the system. When the
unigrounded system is grounded through an impedance, the 80% rule is usually not applicable and the voltage
on the unfaulted phases must be calculated to determine the arrester rating.
If it is possible on a system where a phase has been interrupted to back feed through part of the circuit through
devices such as transformers or capacitors, the arrester should be at least equal to the phase-to-phase
voltage.
For four-wire multigrounded-wye systems (including spacer-cable circuits) which have been commonly
employed for many years, the arrester ratings used have been established by long experience. The higher
voltage distribution systems being installed on the spacer-cable circuits do not have the benefit of this long
experience. For these systems the following method for establishing the arrester ratings was developed:
Table 21. Commonly Applied Voltage Ratings of Arresters on Distribution Systems

System Voltage (kilovolts rms) Usually Applied Arrester Ratings (kilovolts rms)
Four-Wire Three-Wire
Maximum Voltage Delta and Spacer-Cable
Nominal Voltage Multigrounded Unigrounded
Range B* Ungrounded Wye Circuits†
Neutral Wye Neutral Wye
2400 2540 3
4160Y/2400 4400Y/2540 3 6 3
4160 4400 6
4800 5080 6
6900 7260 9 or 9/10
8320Y/4800 8800Y/5080 6 9 or 9/10 6
12 000Y6930 12 700Y/7330 9 or 9/10 9/10 or 10 9/10 or 10
12 470Y/7200 13 200Y/7620 9 or 9/10 12 9/10 or 10
13 200Y/7620 13 970Y/8070 9/10 or 10 12 9/10 or 10
13 800Y/7970 14 520Y/8380 9/10, 10, or 12 12 12
13 800 14 520 15
20 780Y/12 000 22 000Y/12 700 15 18 18
22 860Y/13 200 24 200Y/13 970 18 21 21
23 000 24 340 25
24 940Y/14 400 26 400Y/15 240 18 21 21
34 500Y/19 920 36 510Y/2180 25 or 27 30 30
34 500 36 510 36‡ or 37‡
* See ANSI C84.1-1977 and ANSI C84.1a-1980.
† The use of spacer cables at most system voltages has had limited application, reducing the experience factor in establishing arrester
ratings usually applied. Where experience is a factor, arrester ratings lower than 1.5 × nominal system line-to-ground voltage [31] have
been used. This is taken into account for the voltage ratings listed.
‡ Nonstandard distribution arrester voltage ratings.

1. For four-wire multi-grounded-wye open wire circuits the nominal phase-to-ground voltage of the system
is multiplied by 1.25.
2. For spacer-cable circuits the nominal phase-to-ground voltage of the system is multiplied by 1.50. For
open-wire systems having operating voltages not listed in Table 21, the 1.25 factor should be used to
determine the arrester rating and the 1.5 factor for spacer-cable circuits.
C.9.2 Insulation Coordination

Insulation coordination for distribution system is based on the following protection margins:
PM(1) = (CWW/FOW – 1)100
PM(2) = (BIL/IR – 1)100
CWW = 1.15 × BIL for oil-filled, air, and inorganic insulation.
CWW = BIL for dry-type (organic) insulation.
In general PM(1) and PM(2) should both be at least 20%, but PM(1) can usually be neglected when distribution
arresters are connected directly across overhead equipment insulation and separation effects (SE) are
minimized. However, when arresters are used for line protection, underground systems protection, or drytype
insulation protection, PM(1) must be considered. A PM(1) of at least 20% should be provided for drytype
insulation. To calculate PM(2), it is recommended practice to select a value of discharge current that will be
exceeded infrequently so that the discharge voltage at this reference level for a specific arrester will result
in a smaller PM(2). There is no surge current level that is generally accepted on which to base insulation
coordination, but currents in the 10kA to 20kA range are frequently used. Table 20 shows the discharge
voltages at currents up to 20kA. The arrester discharge voltage values for higher currents may be obtained
from the manufacturer.
C.9.3 Arrester Lead Wires

When protecting underground systems, it is especially important to keep the lead wires connecting the arrester
as short as possible. PM(2) does not include an allowance for the voltage developed across these wires.
For insulation coordination it is necessary that the arrester discharge voltage characteristic include the arrester
discharge voltage plus the connecting lead wire voltage. When lightning currents are discharged through
the inductance of the lead wires, a voltage is produced that must be added to the arrester discharge voltage.
It is common practice to have the voltage produced in the lead wire of 1.6 kV per foot of lead wire. The length
of the lead wire is measured from the point at which the arrester line connection is made to the line to the
point at which interconnection is made to the protected equipment ground, less the length of the arrester.
C.9.4 Arrester Clearances

Distribution arresters should be installed with at least the clearances to energized conductors and equipment
and to grounds as shown in Table 22. These clearances are also suitable for arresters in metal enclosures.

Table 22. Recommended Minimum Clearances

Recommended Minimum Clearances
Arrester Voltage Rating kV Surge Arrester BIL, kV Inches (Millimeters)†
rms Crest* To Ground(s) Between Phases
3 45 1-3⁄4(45) 2 (51)
6 60 2-3⁄4 (70) 3-1⁄4 (83)
9 75 4 (102) 4-3⁄4 (121)
10 75 4 (102) 4-3⁄4 (121)
12 85 4-3⁄4 (121) 5-1⁄2 (140)
15 95 5-1⁄2 (140) 6-3⁄4 (171)
18 125 8 (203) 9 (229)
21 125 8 (203) 9 (229)
25 (150)* 9-1⁄2 (241) 11 (279)
27 150 9-1⁄2 (241) 11 (279)
30 150 9-1⁄2 (241) 11 (279)
* 1.2 × 50-µs full-wave BIL per Table 4 in ANSI/IEEE C62.1-1981; the value shown for 25-kV rating has not been standardized.
† Clearances measured from metal parts of arrester line terminal and dictated by minimum flashover to maintain BIL in accordance with
ANSI/IEEE C62.1-1981 and to allow for the bias effect of 60-Hz voltage between adjacent phases. Air insulation between arrester and
wall(s) or between arresters is assumed. Minimum clearance required between bottom stud on arrester and enclosure floor need be only
that required to install ground connection and to provide sufficient space for free operation of the disconnector if used.
C.9.5 Protection of Capacitor Banks

Pole-mounted shunt capacitor banks are usually protected by arresters connected line to ground at the bank
or close to it, and the ratings are the same as used elsewhere on the system. On systems where the
capacitors are connected grounded-wye, they can be charged to high voltages by lightning currents and
should be able to handle a high-energy discharge. Where the capacitor banks are undergrounded, only minor
surge discharge duty is required by the operating arresters.
C.9.6 Protection of Switches, Reclosers, etc.

Switches operated at the open position should be protected by arresters on both sides of the switch. Reclosers
should be protected by installing arresters on both the source and load sides. For the type of recloser that
is constructed with a built-in bypass protector across the series coil, a fair degree of protection is obtained with
only one arrester installed from line to ground on the source side. This assumes in normal operation the
recloser is in the closed position, but if it is open for any reason there is a possiblity of lightning damage.
C.9.7 Protection of Series Windings

Voltage Regulators connected to exposed circuits are best protected by installing distribution arresters at
or near the source and load side terminals, and the arrester ground interconnected to the regulator tanks.
Series Current-Limiting Reactors. An arrester connected from terminal to terminal will prevent over-voltages
due to incoming surges unless there is a built-in shunt resistor. An arrester should also be installed on the
line side of the reactor and connected between line and ground. The manufacturer should be consulted in all
cases.
Autotransformers. Where the voltage across the series windings is less than 25% of the voltage across the
common winding, serious overvoltages due to lightning surges are usually controlled by a gap or arrester
supplied by the manufacturer. For other applications adequate protection will be afforded by arresters installed
at the high-voltage and low-voltage terminals and interconnected to the transformer tank.
C.9.8 Protection of Equipment on Underground Systems

The difficulties associated with providing adequate protection for underground systems arise mostly from
being unable, from a physical standpoint, to install the arresters close to terminating points or points where
there is a substantial change in surge impedance. Otherwise, the application of arresters is similar to the
procedures followed for protecting overhead equipment.

When arresters cannot be installed at individual equipment locations in the underground system, they are
located at the junction of the overhead line conductors and the underground cable. Recently, consideration
has been given to installing arresters on underground transformers on systems rated at 15 kV and above
in order to provide larger protective margins for the transformers. The voltages that propagate into the
underground cable after sparkover of the arrester at the riser pole is the sum of the arrester sparkover voltage
plus the inductive voltage drop in the arrester connecting leads. These voltages as they propagate in the
cable may double their value due to reflections at open switches, terminating transformers, and similar points
where there is a change in impedance.
For the determination of protective margins, the following rules should be used to calculate the voltages at
terminating points.
1. Assume no attenuation. This is a conservative assumption for cables that exceed 300 feet (91.5 m) in
length.
2. Assume incident voltages will double at open points and terminating transformers.
3. Use manufacturers’ published values for front-of-wave sparkover and discharge voltage at 10 kA.
4. Calculate inductive voltage drop in arrester connecting leads based on 1.6 kV per foot.
5. Compare double front-of-wave sparkover voltage with chopped wave withstand for liquid-filled
transformers and with BIL for dry-type transformers. Compare the doubled sum of discharge voltage, at
assumed current, and connecting lead voltage with transformer BIL.
Then, using the recommended protective margin of 20%:
Oil: CWW ≥ 1.2 × 2 × FOW
Dry: BIL ≥ 1.2 × 2 × FOW
Both: BIL ≥ 1.2 × 2 × (IR + Vlead wire)
C.9.9 Contaminated Atmospheres

Failures of lightning arresters in contaminated atmospheres are rare but they may occur due to the combined
effect of accumulations of contaminants on the arrester along with foggy conditions or light rain, frost, or
wet snow. Preventive measures are periodic cleaning, and in some cases the application of nonconducting,
non-tracking, water-repellant greases to the insulating surfaces of the arrester.
C.9.10 Example Calculations for Determining Adequacy of Surge Protection

The one-line diagram in Figure 25 shows the main supplies of a typical distribution system including a
10,000-kVA oil-insulated main substation transformer which supplies a 1500-kVA dry-type transformer.
Examples 1 and 2 illustrate the calculations needed as previously described in the text to determine the
adequacy of the surge protection for these two units where the separation effect is not a factor.
Example 3 illustrates an installation where the separation effect must be considered in the calculations to
determine if the surge protection is satisfactory.
Example No. 1 (Ref. ANSI Standard C62.2-1981, Section 3.7)
Determine adequacy of surge protection for main substation transformer (1.) in Figure 25.

Fig. 25. Sample one-line diagram (partial) for examples 1 and 2. (for evaluation of adequacy of transformer surge
protection using methods of ANSI/IEEE standard C62.2-1981).
Assumptions:
1. Transformer BIL is 250 kV (fully insulated), chopped wave withstand insulation level (CWW) is 290 kV.
(See Table 9.)
2. Station class surge arresters are provided with 3 circuit feet of transformer primary bushings. Separation
effect (α factor) is negligible.
3. Surge arresters are of the series-gapped, valve-type of modern manufacture.
4. The surge arrester ground terminal leads are connected directly to the transformer ground connection,
minimizing effects of ground (earth) resistance on surge behavior of the arrester-transformer system.

5. The 46-kV utility system is effectively grounded at the substation.

Ro X0
( X1
≤ 1 and
X1 )
≤ 3 , allowing use of 80% rated surge arresters.
Note: The values used for surge arrester characteristics in these calculations are chosen from a single
manufacturer’s tables. Characteristic values for surge arresters of other manufacturers or series may vary
slightly from those used here.
Calculations:
CWW 290
PR(1) = + = 2.42
FOW 120
Limit from
ANSI C62.2-1981 Values used:
1.2 (min) CWW = 290 kV
FOW = 120 kV
(39 kV Station Class surge
arresters used)
BIL 250
PR(2) = + = 2.40
LPL 104
Limit from
ANSI C62.2-1981
1.2 (min)
LPL = The greater of 1.2 × 50 µs sparkover voltage - 104 kV BIL = 250 kV or lightning discharge voltage
at selected current - 102 kV LPL = 104 kV, (assuming 20 kA discharge current)
Note: Switching surge protective margins PR(3) are not considered here, because experience has shown
that switching surges are not troublesome at this voltage level.
Conclusions:
Since both PR(1) and PR(2) are larger than the limits specified in the referenced standard, surge protection
is adequate.
Example No. 2 (Ref. ANSI Standard C62.2-1981, Section 3.9)
Determine adequacy of surge protection for 1500-kVA dry-type transformer (2) in Figure 25.
Assumptions:
1. Transformer BIL is 60 kV (standard BIL; see ANSI/IEEE Standard C57.12.01-1979 or Table 10).
2. Distribution class surge arresters of the low sparkover type are installed in the transformer enclosure,
as close as is practical to the transformer primary connections.
3. The surge arresters are of the series-gapped, valve type of modern manufacture.
4. The surge arrester ground terminal leads are connected directly to the transformer ground connection,
minimizing effects of ground (earth) resistance on surge behavior of the arrester-transformer system.
5. The 13.8-kV distribution system is not effectively grounded (low-resistance grounded scheme), requiring
the use of fully-rated (15-kV) arresters.
Note: The values used for surge arrester characteristics in the following calculations are chosen from a
single manufacturer’s tables. Characteristic values for surge arresters of other manufacturers or series may
vary slightly from those used here.

Calculations:
Values used
Minimum BIL = 1.2 (FOW) FOW = 56 kV (from
55.2 = 1.2 (46) manufacturer’s literature)
Conclusions:
The specified minimum BIL is 55 kV; the transformer’s as-supplied BIL is 60 kV. Therefore, insulation
coordination is satisfactory.
Note: This example uses the most favorable conditions to prove satisfactory insulation coordination. If the
dry-type transformer was built with a lower BIL value, was connected to an exposed overhead line, or if
different surge arresters were used, insulation coordination may not be achieved.
Example No. 3
I. Evaluation of Surge Protection (See Figs. 26 and 27.)
Fig. 26. Plan view and schematic of substation shown in Figure 27.

Fig. 27. Sectional view of substation shown in Figure 26.

Notes:
1. The characteristic values chosen for transformer transient insulation levels in this example are those which
a transformer built to ANSI/IEEE Standard C57.12.00-1980, IEEE Standard General Requirements For
Liquid-Immersed Distribution, Power, And Regulating Transformers, would possess. Proper evaluation of
a specific case requires that these values be obtained from the transformer manufacturer.
2. The characteristic values chosen for surge arrester performance in this example are taken from the
manufacturer’s literature for a specific model of 60 kV, station class, gapped, valve-element-type surge
arrester. Proper evaluation of a specific case requires that these values be obtained from the surge arrester
manufacturer.
3. The methods presented in this example will provide good results when properly applied. For critical and/or
complex cases, the use of a computer model may provide more accurate results and different conclusions.
4. These methods are not applicable to use of the gapless, metal-oxide surge arresters. For application of
those devices, consult the arrester manufacturer.
A. Information Required
1. System characteristics:
Nominal voltage. The voltage at which the surge protection is to be applied. For this example, 69 kV is used.
Degree of Grounding. Also called the grounding coefficient. This value is dependent on the zero and positive
sequence characteristics (X0, X1, and R0) of the electrical system at the point where the arrester is
connected. For this example, the system is considered effectively grounded. That is, the following conditions
are met:
Xo R0
( X1
≤ 3 and
X1
≤1
)
Available Short Circuit Current. At the point of surge arrester application. This value should be determined
by calculation (may be obtained from the supplying electric utility), and should not exceed the pressure relief
characteristics for the arrester chosen. For this example, it is assumed that the proper arrester class is used.
Temporary Overvoltage History. At the arrester location. This aspect should be discussed with the supplying
electric utility, and may influence arrester voltage rating. For this example, it is assumed that the proper
arrester voltage rating has been chosen.
Physical Arrangement of Equipment. From construction drawings. For this example, see Figure 27.
2. Characteristics of equipment to be protected:
BIL, Front of Wave, Withstand, CWW, BSL.
Obtained from nameplate, manufacturer’s specifications, or construction standards. For this example, the
transformer is assumed to conform to the ANSI/IEEE construction standard, and the following values are
chosen:
BIL — 350 kV
Front of Wave Withstand.
580 kV
CWW — 400 kV
BSL — 280 kV

3. Surge protective device characteristics:

Front-of Wave Sparkover, 1.2 × 50 µs Sparkover, Discharge Voltage, Switching surge protective level.
Obtained from arrester manufacturer’s specifications. For this example, the following values were selected
(see Note 2., above):
FOW Sparkover: 170 kV
1.2 × 50 µs sparkover: 141 kV
Discharge voltages: 122 kV @ 5 kA
137 kV @ 10 kA
147 kV @ 15 kA
156 kV @ 20 kA
Switching Surge Protective Level: 136 kV
B. Selection of Arrester Rating
1. Voltage rating. The arrester chosen must have a voltage rating compatible with the maximum expected
line-to-ground voltage on the protected system. The degree of grounding for a given system will be used to
determine whether an arrester voltage rating of less than system line-to-line votlage may be used. For all
systems operating at less than 242 kV, it is customary to select an arrester voltage rating of 1.25 times the
maximum expected line-to-ground voltage. For this example, the 69 kV system is assumed to be effectively
grounded mum expected line-to-ground voltage. For this example, the 69 kV system is assumed to be
effectively grounded XX0 ≤3, and R
X1
0
≤1 , allowing use of 60-kV arresters. The maximum system line-to-line voltage
1
is 72.5 kV, the maximum line-to-ground voltage under normal operating conditions is 72.5/√3 kV, or 41.9
kV; 1.25 times the maximum line-to-ground voltage is 52.3 kV. The station class surge arrester voltage rating
which is closest to and equals or exceeds 52.3 kV is 60 kV, making this voltage rating correct for this
application. Depending on the degree of grounding for a specific case, higher rated arresters may be required.
2. Arrester Class. Each surge arrester class has a specific short-circuit (called ‘‘pressure relief’’) rating which
must be observed in case of arrester failure. These ratings must be compared with the system’s available
short circuit current to ensure that a failed arrester will not explode violently.
The station class arresters have the highest pressure relief ratings, the intermediate class somewhat lower,
and the distribution class the lowest.
For this example, a station class arrester was chosen which has adequate pressure relief capability.
II. Evaluation of Protection Where Separation Between the Surge Arresters and the Protected Equipment
is Not Considered.
Note: This method may be used where surge arresters are connected in close proximity to the terminals
of the protected equipment. If there is a significant separation between devices, then the methods described
later must be used.
Step A.
Compare equipment chopped wave withstand (CWW) to surge arrester front-of-wave (FOW) characteristics.
The ratio between CWW and FOW should equal or exceed 1.2.
Example of Figure 26
CWW 400 kV
= = 2.4
FOW 170 kV
This meets the criterion established above.

Step B.
Compare equipment BIL to surge arrester lightning protective level (LPL). LPL or let-through-level is defined
as being the higher of the 1.2 × 50 µsec sparkover value or the arrester discharge voltage (IR). To determine
the arrester discharge current for an effectively shielded location (that is, where the incoming lines are
protected by an overhead shield wire for at least 2500 ft from the station, and the station itself is properly
shielded from a direct lightning stroke), the following values may be used.:
Maximum System Voltage, kV Discharge Current, kA

15 *
36.5 *
72.5 5
121 5
145 5
242 10
362 10
550 15
800 20
* Generally, utility distribution systems at this voltage are not effectively shielded. However, if shielding is adequate, the use of 5 kA discharge
currents will produce conservative results. For noneffectively shielded locations, 20 kA should be used for arrester discharge current.
The ratio of BIL to LPL should equal or exceed 1.2.

Example of Figure 26.
BIL 350 kV
= = 2.5
LPL 141 kV

141 kV is chosen as the LPL because the arrester discharge voltage at 5 kA (effectively shielded location)
is 122 kV, and the 1.2 × 50 µsec sparkover value (141 kV) is the higher value.
Step C. (69 kV and higher voltage systems)
Compare the transformer’s basic switching impulse insulation level (BSL) to the arrester’s switching surge
protective level (SSP) characteristic. The ratio of BSL to SSP should equal or exceed 1.15.
Example of Figure 25.
BSL 280 kV
= = 2.1
SSP 136 kV

III. When to Evaluate Separation Effects.
If the surge arresters are not connected in close proximity to the terminals of the protected equipment, if
the connecting leads from the line to the surge arrester top terminal and/or from the surge arrester bottom
terminal to the ground mat are long, if the protective ratios calculated above are marginal, or if a critical piece
of electrical equipment is involved, the following steps should be taken:
1. Estimate the distance, D, in circuit feet (Fig. 27).
2. Multiply dimension D by 1.6 kV/foot and add this figure to the surge arrester’s FOW and LPL characteristics
and re-evaluate the ratios calculated in Steps A and B above. Both ratios should be equal to or greater than
1.2.
3. If either or both ratios are less than 1.2, then the station should be evaluated by the reduction process
described in the following section.
4. If both ratios remain equal to or greater than 1.2, then one can be reasonably certain that separation
effects are not significant.

From the example of Figures 26 and 27.

D = 78 feet
78 feet (1.6 kV/ft) = 125 kV
Arrester FOW = 170 kV

170 kV + 125 kV = 295 kV
Transformer CWW = 400 kV
400
= 1.36
295
Arrester LPL = 141 kV
141 kV + 125 kV = 266 kV
Transformer BIL = 350 kV

350
= 1.32
266
Both ratios exceed 1.2, so separation effects probably are not significant.
If either ratio calculated above was less than 1.2, then the reduction and evaluation process in the next section
would be necessary.
IV. Reduction of Station to the Base Case for Evaluation of Separation Effects.
In order to evaluate a surge protection installation with multiple incoming lines, several steps must be taken
to reduce the station to the simplest form for analysis. Refer to Figures 28 and 29.
Fig. 28. Illustration of Step 1.
Step 1
Remove transformers that are not under consideration.
In this simple, symmetrical station, either transformer may be studied. It is assumed that the results will hold
true for either transformer. In this example, Transformer 1 is being evaluated; Transformer 2 is removed.
The equivalent circuit now looks like Figure 28. (Disconnect switches and circuit breakers are not shown.)
Step 2
Refer to Figure 29. Identify junction ‘‘c’’, the common point between the line having the incoming surge, the
arrester connection, and the transformer connection. Identify the distance, ‘‘S’’, between junction ‘‘c’’ and
the transformer bushings. Identify the distance, ‘‘L’’, between junction ‘‘c’’ and the arrester’s connection to
the ground mat, exclusive of arrester length.
In this example, it is assumed that the 69-kV line from the utility substation ‘‘A’’ is the surged line.

Fig. 29. Illustration of Step 2.
Step 3
Identify junction ‘‘t’’, which is the common point between the surged line, the bus connection to Transformer
1, and the bus connection to Transformer 2. Junctions ‘‘t’’ and ‘‘c’’ may be the same point, or may be different
points. If junction ‘‘t’’ is not on the surged line side or coincident with junction ‘‘c’’, the value of α calculated
below must be increased by 5%.
In this example, junctions ‘‘c’’ and ‘‘t’’ are coincident.
Step 4
Remove any lines connected between the arrester terminal and junction ‘‘c’’. In this example, there are no
lines connected between these points.
Step 5
Multiply Rf (defined below) by 3/(n + 2) where n is equal to the number of lines remaining after Step 4 is
completed.
In this example, two lines (one from substation A and one from substation B) remain connected, so Rf will
be multiplied by 3/(2 + 2), or 0.75.
V. Separation Effect Calculations
A. Reduce station to the base case equivalent per IV above.
B. The following parameters will be used:
S = The distance in circuit feet between junction ‘‘c’’ and the protected equipment terminals. See
Figure 29.
L = The distance in circuit feet between junction ‘‘c’’ and the surge arrester’s connection to the ground
mat, less the length of the arrester body.
D = S+L
Rf = The rate of rise of the incoming surge in kV/µsec. For most calculations, the following may be used:
Arrester ratings 3-240 kV
Arrester voltage rating

Rf = × 100 kV/µsec, with a maximum of 1200 kV/µsec
12
Arrester rating 258-612 kV
2000 kV/µsec
Rf should be multiplied by the value calculated in Step 5 of the reduction process described in IV above.

Ef1 = The arrester’s front-of-wave sparkover characteristic in kV.

Ef2 = The arrester’s LPL in kV.
Ei1 = Transient voltage at the protected insulation for sparkovers in less than 8 µsec.
Ei2 = Transient voltage at the protected insulation for sparkovers in the 8 to 50 µsec range.
α = Separation effect (should be increased by 5% if conditions specified in Step 3 of IV above are met).
v = Velocity of surge wave. For open-wire lines, 1000 ft/µsec is used. For cables, velocity is 1⁄2 to 2⁄3 that
of open-wire lines.
In this example (Fig. 26 and 27), the following values are chosen:
S = 64 ft
L = 14 ft
D = 78 ft
Rf = 60 × 100 = 500 kV/µsec × 0.75 kV/µsec
12
(See IV, Step 5 above.)
Ef1 = 170 kV
Ef2 = 141 kV
Ei = To be calculated below.
α = To be calculated below.
v = 1000 ft/µsec
C. Fomulas for calculations of Ei and α
Example
_ D (Rf/Ef) D = 78 (375/170)
1. D = 1000
v
D = 0.17
_ α= 0.17
2. α = D 0.0125 + (0.476)(0.17)
0.0125 + 0.476(D) α = 1.82
3. Ei1 = (α)Ef1 Ei1 = (1.82)(170)
Ei1 = 309 kV
4. Ei2 = (α)Ef2 Ei2 = (1.82)(141)
Ei2 = 257 kV
D Insulation coordination considering separation effects.

1. Compare CWW to Ei1. The ratio should be equal to or greater than 1.15.
In this example, CWW/Ei1 = 400/309 = 1.29, which is satisfactory.
2. Compare BIL to Ei2. The ratio should be equal to or greater than 1.15.
In this example, BIL/Ei2 = 350/257 = 1.36, which is satisfactory.
3. Compare BSL to SSP. The ratio should be equal to or greater than 1.15.
In this example, BSL/SSP = 280/136 = 2.1, which is satisfactory.
VI. Insulation Coordination by the Curve Method.
Note: This method may be used as an alternative to the method described in II above. It is not suitable to
evaluation of insulation protection where separation effects are a potential problem.
The values plotted on the curves in Figure 30 are taken from the example of Figures 26, 27, and 29.
How to Plot Curve
Transformer Curve. Plot four points for the following withstand voltages as obtained from the manufacturer
or from standards: 1) front-of-wave (if available), 2) chopped-wave, 3) full-wave (BIL) at about 8 µs, and
4) switching surge at about 300 µs. Connect the points with a dotted or dashed line showing disjointed curves
at the chopped-wave point, extending the full-wave voltage as a straight line from about 8 to 50 µs and the
switching surge withstand voltage as a straight line extending from approximately 50 to 200 µs and passing
through the plotted 300 µs point. It is not possible to interpolate exactly between points on the curve. Good

Fig. 30. Insulation coordination by the curve method.
experience has been obtained with the assumptions implicit in the preceding rules: a) The full BIL strength
will apply for front times between 8 and 50 µs. b) Minimum switching surge withstand occurs between 50 and
2000 µs.
Arrester Curve. Approximate sparkover curve as follows:
A. Plot three points for the following published sparkover voltages for the specific arresters to be installed:
1) front-of-wave, 2) 1.2 × 50 sparkover (at 8 µs), and 3) switching surge protective level as a straight line from
about 30 to 2000 µs. Connect the points with a curve of approximately the shape shown. If a manufacturer’s
voltage-time sparkover curve is available, it may be used instead of the approximation.
B. Draw a ladder of lines each extending from 5 µs to 10 µs at levels corresponding to 5 kA, 10 kA, and
20 kA discharge voltage. Add a similar line passing through the 1.2 × 50 µs sparkover.
Two additional points, corresponding to FOW and LPL when separation effects are considered, are shown
in Figure 30 for illustrative purposes. If separation between the arresters and the protected equipment is
significant, the method described elsewhere in this data sheet will provide a satisfactory means of evaluating
separation effects.
How to Use the Curve
The criteria of both 1. and 2. must be met for satisfactory coordination:
1. Locate the point between 0.5 and 50 µs where the separation between withstand and arrester curve(s)
is minimum. (Treat 1.2 × 50 sparkover and selected discharge kA lines as separate curves.) Calculate
PR = Withstand voltage/Arrester voltage
PR must be equal to or greater than 1.20 at this point.
2. Make a similar check between 50 and 2000 µs. PR must be equal to or greater than 1.15.

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FM Global

Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets 5-11

LIGHTNING AND SURGE PROTECTION FOR ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

1.0 SCOPE ................................................................................................................................................... 4

C.9 Protection of Distribution Systems ................................................................................................ 54

©2007 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved.

©2007 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved.

2.0 LOSS PREVENTION RECOMMENDATIONS

2.1.1 Direct Stroke Protection

2.1.2 Installation of Arresters

©2007 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved.

3.0 SUPPORT FOR RECOMMENDATIONS

3.1 Loss History

©2007 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved.

Table 1. Lightning Losses by State and Province, 1973 to 1982

©2007 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved.

APPENDIX A GLOSSARY OF TERMS

©2007 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved.

©2007 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved.

©2007 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved.

APPENDIX B DOCUMENT REVISION HISTORY

APPENDIX C SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

C.2 Lightning Charge Formation

C.3 Characteristics of a Lightning Stroke

©2007 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved.

Table 2. Number of Thunderstorm Days Per Year, Canada

C.3.7 Cold and Hot Lightning

C.3.8 Direct Strokes

©2007 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved.

C.3.9 Induced Surges

©2007 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved.

Fig. 2. Traveling waves caused by lightning stroke to power line.

C.3.10 Bound Charges

C.3.11 Surge Propagation

©2007 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved.

C.4 Protection Against Direct Strokes (Shielding)

C.4.1 Cone of Protection

Table 3. Protection Angles for 99.5% Protection

©2007 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved.

©2007 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved.

Fig. 4. Lightning protection from single mast or wire.

©2007 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved.

Fig. 5. 300-ft rolling sphere principle.

Table 4. Recommended Currents for Determining Discharge Voltages

©2007 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved.

C.5 Switching Surges

C.6 Overvoltage Due to Surges from Other Sources

©2007 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved.

C.6.1 Physical Contact With a Higher Voltage System

C.6.2 Reasonant Effects in Inductive-Capacitive Circuits

C.6.2.1 Parallel Inductive-Capacitance Resonance

C.6.3 Forced Current Zero Interruption

©2007 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved.

C.6.4 Autotransformer Connection — Neutral Ungrounded

C.7 Surge Protection Devices

C.7.1 Protective Gaps

C.7.2 Valve-Type Arresters

©2007 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved.

©2007 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved.

Fig. 8. Distribution arresters, valve type L.V. Rating 3 to 15 kv. (Westinghouse)