Ticona DesignBro AM 0512 TDM-1R2

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Designing With Plastic

The Fundamentals
TDM-1
The Fundamentals
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The Fundamentals
Table of Contents
Introduction
1. Plastics Materials – An Overview 10
1.1 Classification 11
1.1.1 Thermoplastics 12
1.1.2 Thermosets 12
1.1.3 Crystalline, Amorphous, and Liquid 13
Crystalline Polymers 13
1.1.4 Copolymers 14
1.1.5 Alloys 14
1.1.6 Elastomers 14
1.1.7 Additives, Reinforcements, and Fillers 14
2. Physical Properties and Terminology 15
2.1 Density 15
2.2 Specific Gravity 15
2.3 Water Absorption 15
2.4 Mold Shrinkage 15
2.5 Opacity/Transparency 16
2.6 Elasticity 16
2.7 Plasticity 16
2.8 Ductility 16
2.9 Toughness 16
2.10 Brittleness 17
2.11 Notch Sensitivity 17
2.12 Lubricity 17
2.13 Homogeneity 17
2.14 Heterogeneity 17
2.15 Isotropy 17
2.16 Anistropy 17
2.17 Significance of Elasticity, Homogeneity, 18
and Isotropy
3. Mechanical Properties 19
3.1 Basic Definitions 19

3.1.1 Stress 19
3.1.2 Normal Stress 20
3.1.3 Normal Strain 20
3.1.4 Modulus of Elasticity 21
3.1.4.1 Proportional Limit 21
3.1.4.2 Yield Point 21
3.1.4.3 Ultimate Strength 22
3.1.4.4 Elastic Limit 22
3.1.4.5 Secant Modulus 22
3.1.4.6 Yield Strength 22
3.1.5 Poisson’s Ratio 22
2

The Fundamentals
Plastics Materials –
3.1.6 Shear Stress 23 An Overview 1
3.1.7 Shear Modulus 23
3.2 Relating Material Constants 23
3.2.1 Direct Shear 23
3.2.2 True Stress 24 Physical Properties
3.3 Other Measures of Strength and Modulus 24 and Terminology 2
3.3.1 Compression Strength and Modulus 24
3.3.2 Bending Strength and Modulus 25
3.4 Rate Dependence of Mechanical Properties 25
3.5 Time-Related Mechanical Properties 26 Mechanical
3.5.1 Creep 26 Properties 3
3.5.2 Apparent or Creep Modulus 27
3.5.3 Creep Rupture 27
3.5.4 Stress Relaxation 28
3.5.5 Extrapolating Creep and Relaxation Data 28 Thermal
3.5.6 Impact Loading 28 Properties 4
3.5.7 Izod Impact 28
3.5.8 Charpy Impact 29
3.5.9 Tensile Impact 29
3.5.10 Falling Dart Impact Test 30
3.5.11 Fatigue Endurance 30 Electrical Properties 5
4. Thermal Properties 31
Environmental
4.1 Melting Point 31
4.2 Glass Transition Temperature 31
Considerations 6
4.3 Vicat Softening Point 31
4.4 Deflection Temperature Under Load 32
4.5 Coefficient of Linear Thermal Expansion 32
Structural
4.6 Thermal Conductivity 32
Analysis 7
4.7 Aging at Elevated Temperatures 33
4.8 Temperature Index (UL) 33
4.9 Flammability 33
4.10 Effect of Temperature on Mechanical 33
Design Considerations for
Properties Injection-Molded Parts 8
4.10.1 Strength, Modulus, and Elongation 33
4.10.2 Creep 35
4.10.3 Impact 35
4.10.4 Fatigue 35
Assembly 9
5. Electrical Properties 36
5.1 Conductivity in Solids 36

5.2 Volume Resistivity 36 Machining, Finishing
5.3 Surface Resistivity 37 And Decorating 10
5.4 Dielectric Strength 37
5.5 Dielectric Constant (Permittivity) 37
5.6 Dissipation Factor 38
5.7 Arc Resistance 38
5.8 Comparative Tracking Index (CTI) 38
3

The Fundamentals
6. Environmental Considerations 39
6.1 Factors Affecting Environmental Resistance 39

6.1.1 Stress Level 39
6.1.2 Temperature 39
6.1.3 Exposure 39
6.2 Chemical Compatibility 39
6.2.1 Reaction 39
6.2.2 Solvation 39
6.2.3 Plasticization 40
6.2.4 Environmental Stress Cracking 40
6.3 Weathering Resistance 40
7. Structural Analysis 42
7.1 Introduction 42
7.2 Defining the Structure 42
7.2.1 Loads 42
7.2.1.1 Directly Applied Loads 42
7.2.1.2 Strain-Induced Loads 43
7.2.2 Support Conditions 43
7.2.2.1 Free (Unsupported) 43
7.2.2.2 Guided 43
7.2.2.3 Simply Supported 43
7.2.2.4 Held (Pinned) 43
7.2.2.5 Fixed (also Clamped or Built-In) 43
7.2.3 Simplifications and Assumptions 44
7.3 Safety Factors 44
7.3.1 Failure Criteria 44
7.3.2 Beam Bending Stress 47
7.3.3 Shear Stress, Torsion 47
7.3.4 Shear Stress, Direct Shear 48
7.4 Pressure Vessels 49
7.5 Press-Fits 49
7.6 Thread Strength 50
7.7 Pipe Threads 51
7.8 Impact Loads 52
7.9 Thermal Stress 53
8. Design Considerations for 55

Injection-Molded Parts
8.1 Injection Molding Process 55

8.2 Design Strategy 56
8.3 Efficient and Functional Design 56
8.4 Material Selection 57
8.5 Nominal Wall Thickness 58
8.5.1 Normal Ranges of Wall Thickness 58
8.5.2 Structural Requirements of the Nominal Wall 59
8.5.3 Insulation Characteristics of the 59
Nominal Wall
8.5.4 Impact Response of the Nominal Wall 59
4

The Fundamentals
8.5.5 Agency Approvals and the Nominal Wall 59

8.6 Draft 59 Plastics Materials –
8.7 Structural Reinforcement 60 An Overview 1
8.7.1 Ribs 60
8.7.2 Other Geometric Reinforcement 62
8.8 Bosses 62
8.9 Coring 62 Physical Properties
8.10 Fillets and Radii 64 and Terminology 2
8.11 Undercuts 65
9. Assembly 66
Mechanical
9.1 General Types of Assembly Systems 66 Properties 3
9.1.1 Molded-In Assembly Systems 66
9.1.1.1 Snap-Fit Assembly 66
9.1.1.2 Molded-In Threads 69
9.1.1.3 Press-Fits 69 Thermal
9.1.2 Chemical Bonding Systems 70 Properties 4
9.1.2.1 Solvent Welding 70
9.1.2.2 Adhesive Bonding 70
9.1.3 Thermal Welding Methods 71
9.1.3.1 Ultrasonic Welding 71
9.1.3.2 Vibration Welding 73 Electrical Properties 5
9.1.3.3 Spin Welding 74
9.1.3.4 Radio Frequency (RF) Welding 74
9.1.3.5 Electromagnetic or Induction Welding 74
Environmental
9.1.4 Assembly with Fasteners 75
9.1.4.1 Bolted Assembly 75
Considerations 6
9.1.4.2 Threaded Metal Inserts 77
9.1.4.3 Self-Tapping Screws 78
9.1.4.4 Riveted Assembly 78
Structural
9.1.4.5 Sheet Metal Nuts 78
Analysis 7
9.1.4.6 Specialty Plastic Fasteners 79
10. Machining, Finishing and Decorating 80

10.1 Machining 80 Injection-Molded Parts 8
10.1.1 Drilling and Reaming 80
10.1.2 Thread Tapping 81
10.1.3 Sawing, Milling, Turning, Grinding 81
and Routing
10.2 Finishing and Decorating 81 Assembly 9
10.2.1 Painting 82
10.2.2 Vacuum Metallizing and Sputter Plating 82
10.2.3 Electroplating 82
10.2.4 Flame Spraying/Arc Spraying 82 Machining, Finishing
10.2.5 Hot Stamping 82 And Decorating 10
10.2.6 Sublimation Printing 82
10.2.7 Printing 82
10.2.8 Decals and Labels 82
List of Symbols 83
5

The Fundamentals
List of Tables
Table 1.01 Typical crystalline and amorphous 13
polymers
Table 1.02 General relative polymer properties 14
Table 1.03 Common plastic fillers, reinforcing 14
fibers, and other additives
Table 3.01 Typical values of Poisson’s ratio 22
Table 4.01 Typical values for coefficient of linear 32
thermal expansion for thermoplastics
and other common materials
Table 5.01 Typical values of volume resistivity 36
for thermoplastics
Table 5.02 Typical values of dielectric constant and 38
dissipation factor for various
thermoplastics at room temperature
Table 6.01 Chemical resistance of various materials 41
by chemical classes
Table 7.01 Design strength for preliminary 44
part design
Table 8.01 Typical nominal thickness for various 58
classes of thermoplastics
Table 8.02 Dimension difference versus draft 59
angle
Table 8.03 Summary of the effect of rib and cross- 61
section change in example, Figure 8.07
Table 10.01 Approximate drilling speed and feed 81
rate for 1/4–3/8 in. hole in various
thermoplastics
6

The Fundamentals
List of Figures
Plastics Materials –
Fig. 1.01 Example of increasing molecular weight 11 An Overview 1
Fig. 1.02 Plastic classification 11
Fig. 1.03 Thermoplastic molecular chains 12
Fig. 1.04 Thermoset cross-linked molecules 12
Fig. 1.05 Two dimensional representation of 13 Physical Properties
crystalline, amorphous, and liquid and Terminology 2
crystalline structure
Fig. 2.01 Density and specific gravity 15
Fig. 2.02 Mold shrinkage 15
Fig. 2.03 Material exhibiting elasticity / plasticity 16 Mechanical
Fig. 2.04 Toughness can be measured by the area 16 Properties 3
under the stress-strain curve
Fig. 2.05 Anistropy of wood 17
Fig. 2.06 Mold shrinkage of anisotropic plastics 18
Fig. 3.01 Internal forces, stresses in a body 19 Thermal
Fig. 3.02 Simple tension load 20 Properties 4
Fig. 3.03 Typical test setup and specimen 20
Fig. 3.04 Plot of results of tensile test (stress- 21
strain curve)
Fig. 3.05 Typical stress-strain curves 21
Fig. 3.06 Loaded tensile bar showing dimensional 22 Electrical Properties 5
change in length and width
Fig. 3.07 Shear stress 23
Fig. 3.08 Direct shear stress test used in plastics 23
Environmental
industry
Fig. 3.09 True stress 24
Considerations 6
Fig. 3.10 Tensile and compressive moduli 24
Fig. 3.11 Beam in bending 25
Fig. 3.12 A simple bending fixture 25
Structural
Fig. 3.13 Typical presentation of creep data 26
Analysis 7
Fig. 3.14 Creep modulus 27
Fig. 3.15 Creep rupture data – a curve showing 27
one cycle log time projection
Fig. 3.16 Examples of constant strain loads 28
Fig. 3.17 Izod and Charpy impact tests 29 Injection-Molded Parts 8
Fig. 3.18 Tensile impact 29
Fig. 3.19 A typical dart impact apparatus 30
Fig. 3.20 Typical S-N curve is shown along with 30
thermal effects which sometimes occur
when plastics are fatigue tested Assembly 9
Fig. 4.01 Vicat softening point apparatus 31
Fig. 4.02 Test apparatus for deflection temperature 32
under load
Fig. 4.03 Effect of temperature or strain rate 33 Machining, Finishing
on stress-strain curves And Decorating 10
Fig. 4.04 Modulus behavior of crystalline and 34
amorphous resin showing T g and melt
temperatures and the effect of
reinforcement on HDT
Fig. 4.05 Effect of temperature on tensile elongation 34
7

The Fundamentals
Fig. 4.06 Apparent modulus curves at different 34

temperatures showing time-temperature
shifting to estimate expanded time values
at lower temperatures
Fig. 4.07 Creep rupture curves indicating danger of 34
linear projection to longer times at
lower temperatures
Fig. 5.01 Free electrons in a metal lattice 36
Fig. 5.02 One type of text apparatus for volume 37
and surface resistivity
Fig. 5.03 A typical test configuration for dielectric 37
strength
Fig. 5.04 A typical test configuration for arc 38
resistance
Fig. 7.01 Directly applied loads 42
Fig. 7.02 Strain-induced loads 42
Fig. 7.03 Support conditions 43
Fig. 7.04 Section properties for some common 45
cross-sections (na = neutral axis)
Fig. 7.05 Maximum stress and deflection equations 46
for selected beams
Fig. 7.06 Shaft of diameter, d, and length, L, 47
subjected to torque, T, with angular
deformation, θ
Fig. 7.07 Polar moments of inertia for common 48
cross-sections
Fig. 7.08 Direct shear examples 48
Fig. 7.09 Cylindrical pressure vessel, thin wall tube 49
Fig. 7.10 Cylindrical pressure vessel, thick wall tube 49
Fig. 7.11 Press-fit equations for two typical 50
situations
Fig. 7.12 Illustration for torque-force relationships 50
for screw threads
Fig. 7.13 Designing with pipe threads 52
Fig. 7.14 Estimating impact stress and deflection 53
due to dropping a weight on the part
Fig. 7.15 Typical assemblies in which thermal 54
stresses can become a problem
Fig. 7.16 Equations of thermal expansions for 54
various conditions
Fig. 8.01 Schematic of reciprocating screw injection 55
molding machine
Fig. 8.02 Injection-molded one piece housing 56
replaces fabricated sheet metal and many
miscellaneous parts and eliminates most
assembly operations
Fig. 8.03 Minimize material usage for plastic 56
redesign
Fig. 8.04 Some typical spiral flow curves 58
Fig. 8.05 Illustration of draft and associated 59
dimension change with draft angle
8

The Fundamentals
Fig. 8.06 Interaction of wall thickness, load, 60

stress, and deflection for a rectangular
cross-section in bending Plastics Materials –
Fig. 8.07 Example of the effect of ribs on 60 An Overview 1
rectangular cross-section
Fig. 8.08 Rib design for reinforcing thermoplastic 61
parts
Fig. 8.09 Modifications to nominal wall to improve 62 Physical Properties
structural response and Terminology 2
Fig. 8.10 Design of bosses 63
Fig. 8.11 Coring examples 64
Fig. 8.12 Typical stress concentration factor 64
Fig. 8.13 Creating “undercuts” with simple tooling 65 Mechanical
Fig. 9.01 Snap-fit design for cantilever beam with 67 Properties 3
rectangular cross section
Fig. 9.02 Tooling for snap-fit fingers 68
Fig. 9.03 Snap-on / Snap-in fits 68
Fig. 9.04 Molded plastic threads 69 Thermal
Fig. 9.05 Alternative press-fit designs for metal 69 Properties 4
pins in plastic hubs
Fig. 9.06 Typical joint designs for solvent and 70
adhesive bonding
Fig. 9.07 Typical ultrasonic welding equipment 71
Fig. 9.08 A basic shear/interference joint 71 Electrical Properties 5
Fig. 9.09 Basic energy director joint design 71
Fig. 9.10A Energy director 72
Fig. 9.10B Shear joints 72
Environmental
Fig. 9.10C Scarf joints 73
Fig. 9.11 Ultrasonic staking, swaging, and spot 73
Considerations 6
welding
Fig. 9.12 Typical joints for vibration welding 73
Fig. 9.13 Preform in place for electromagnetic 74
Structural
welding
Analysis 7
Fig. 9.14 The electromagnetic welding process 75
Fig. 9.15 Five basic joint designs for induction 75
welding
Fig. 9.16 Bolt assembly, stress problems 76
and solutions Injection-Molded Parts 8
Fig. 9.17 Common threaded metal inserts 77
Fig. 9.18 Ultrasonic inserts designed for installation 77
standard ultrasonic equipment
Fig. 9.19 Typical screws used with plastics 78
Fig. 9.20 A typical boss cap 78 Assembly 9
Fig. 9.21 A typical push-nut assembly 79
Machining, Finishing
And Decorating 10
9

The Fundamentals
Introduction
This design manual was written to serve as a general Discussion of specific testing methods from the
purpose reference source for the experienced plastic numerous governmental, industrial, and standards
product designer as well as the design engineer new to organizations involved with testing is beyond the
plastics. It should also be of interest to nondesigners scope of this manual.
and management personnel who need a general
overview of the concepts and critical issues related to The second part, Chapters 7 through 10, deals with
the world of plastics. Although the manual is not a the actual design of parts. It starts with structural
guide to injection molding, many of the design con- analysis and injection molding considerations and
siderations are based upon molding criteria, so those concludes with assembly, finishing, and decorating
involved in the manufacturing and processing of plas- techniques. This part of the manual will serve as both
tic parts should also find it useful. a general reference and a “how-to” guide for those
new to plastic design.
Most design manuals deal with a specific family of
plastic resins, and present properties, design criteria, For further information on design-related topics, the
assembly, and other information related to these reader is urged to consult the following individual
resins. The product line of Ticona includes crystalline, product brochures: Designing with Celcon @ acetal
amorphous, liquid crystalline, and elastomeric poly- copolymer (CE-10), Designing with Fortron @
mers. Due to this diversity, this manual deals with polyphenylene sulfide (FN-10) and Designing with
issues common to all injection-moldable thermoplastic Vectra@ liquid crystal polymers (VC-10). These
resins. Tables, figures, and other descriptive methods may be obtained by calling the Ticona Product
are used to help illustrate significant design differ- Information Services Department at (800) 833-4882.
ences. Additional design information on Celcon @ acetal
copolymer, Celanese@ nylon 6/6 and Celanex @ ther-
The first part, Chapters 1 through 6, introduces the moplastic polyester is also available.
nature of plastic materials, their properties and testing
methods. Key advantages, as well as limitations, of
certain thermoplastics are discussed. Where appropri-
ate, we compare the properties of various engineering
thermoplastics, often including the properties of met-
als or other structural materials. However, our goal is
to review fundamental concepts rather than list the
various testing methods.
10

The Fundamentals
1. Plastic Materials – Fig 1.01 · Example of Increasing Molecular Weight
An Overview
H H 1
METHANE
C
Plastics are synthetic materials called polymers, GAS
CH4 H
which are long-chain molecules made up of repeating H
units joined together. These units contain various
combinations of oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon,
silicon, chlorine, fluorine, and sulfur. Although plas- PENTANE
LIQUID
tics are soft and moldable and approach a liquid con- C5H12
dition during manufacture, they are solid in their fin-
ished state. As more repeating units are added, the
plastic’s molecular weight increases. Addition of more POLYETHYLENE
repeating units to the chain makes the molecule heav- SOLID
C100H202
ier. For example, Figure 1.01 shows the simple com-
pound, methane (CH4), a gas. As molecular weight
increases, typical materials are pentane
(a liquid), paraffin wax (a solid), and finally polyethyl-
ene (a widely used thermoplastic material). The
mechanical and physical properties of plastics
are directly related to the bonds between molecular
chains, as well as to the chain length and composition. Fig 1.02 · Plastic classification
Plastic properties can also be modified both by alloy-
ing and blending with various substances
and reinforcements.
1.1 Classification
The classification of plastics can be extensive and con-
fusing, as illustrated in Figure 1.02. However, two
major groups can be identified: thermoplastics, which
are the main focus of this manual, and thermosets,
which are discussed only in general terms here.
In addition to the broad categories of thermoplastics
and thermosets, polymers can be classified in terms
of their structure, i.e., crystalline, amorphous, and
liquid crystalline. Other classes of plastics commonly
referred to in the literature are copolymers, alloys,
and elastomers. Finally, additives, reinforcements,
and fillers play a major role in modifying properties.
Each of these is discussed briefly.
11

The Fundamentals
1.1.1 Thermoplastics Fig 1.03 · Thermoplastic molecular chains

Thermoplastics are resins that repeatedly soften when
heated and harden when cooled. Most thermoplastics
are soluble in specific solvents and can burn to some LINEAR POLYMER
degree. Softening temperatures vary with polymer
type and grade. Because of thermoplastics’ heat sensi-
tivity, care must be taken to avoid degrading, decom-
posing, or igniting the material. Nylon, acrylic, acetal,
polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride, polyethylene, and
cellulose acetate are just a few examples of the many
rigid thermoplastic resins currently available. Also
within this group are highly elastic, flexible resins
known as thermoplastic elastomers (TPEs) .
Most thermoplastic molecular chains can be thought

of as independent, intertwined strings resembling
spaghetti (Figure 1.03). When heated, the individual
chains slip, causing plastic flow. When cooled, the
chains of atoms and molecules are once again held
firmly. When subsequently heated, the chains slip
again. There are practical limitations to the number of
heating/cooling cycles to which thermoplastics can be
Fig 1.04 · Thermoset cross-linked molecules
subjected before appearance and mechanical proper-
ties are affected.
1.1.2 Thermosets
Thermosets are plastics that undergo chemical change
during processing to become permanently insoluble
and infusible. Phenolic, amino, epoxy, and unsaturated
polyester resins are typical thermoset plastics. Natural
and synthetic rubbers such as latex, nitrile, millable
polyurethane, silicone, butyl, and neoprene, which
attain their properties through a process known as
vulcanization, are also thermoset polymers.
The structure of thermoset plastics is also chainlike

and, prior to molding, very similar to thermoplastics.
However, cross-linking is the principal difference
between thermoset and thermoplastic systems (Figure
1.04). When thermosets are cured or hardened, cross-
links are formed between adjacent molecules, resulting
in a complex, interconnected network. These cross
bonds prevent the individual chains from slipping,
thus preventing plastic flow when heat is added. If
excessive heat is added to the thermoset resin after the
cross-linking is complete, the polymer is degraded
rather than melted. This behavior is somewhat similar
to an egg when it is cooked; further heating does not
return the egg to its liquid state, it only burns.
12

The Fundamentals
1.1.3 Crystalline, Amorphous, and Liquid Many of the mechanical and physical property differ-
Crystalline Polymers ences between plastics can be attributed to their struc-
In some thermoplastics, the chemical structure allows ture. In general, the ordering of crystalline and liquid
the polymer chains to fold on themselves and pack crystalline thermoplastics makes them stiffer, 1
together in an organized manner (see Figure 1.05). stronger, and less resistant to impact than their amor-
The resulting organized regions show the behavior phous counterparts. Crystalline and liquid crystalline
characteristics of crystals. Plastics that have these materials are also more resistant to creep, heat, and
regions are called crystalline. Plastics without these chemicals. However, crystalline materials require
regions are called amorphous. All of the crystalline higher melt temperatures to process, and they tend to
plastics have amorphous regions between and con- shrink and warp more than amorphous polymers.
necting the crystalline regions. For this reason, crys-
talline plastics are often called semicrystalline
in the literature. Table 1.01 gives some common
examples of crystalline and amorphous thermoplas-
tics. Table 1.01 · Typical crystalline
and amorphous polymers
Liquid crystalline polymers are best thought of
Typical Crystalline Typical Amorphous
as being a separate and unique class of plastics. Thermoplastic Resins Thermoplastic Resins
The molecules are stiff, rodlike structures that are
organized in large parallel arrays or domains in Acetal Polystyrene
both the melt and solid states. These large, ordered Nylon ABS
Polyethylene SAN
domains provide liquid crystalline polymers with Polypropylene Polycarbonate
unique characteristics compared to those of crys- Polyester (PET, PBT) PVC
talline and amorphous polymers.
Fig 1.05 · Two dimensional representation of crystalline, amorphous, and liquid crystalline structure
CRYSTALLINE AMORPHOUS LIQUID CRYSTALLINE
MELT
CRYSTALS
AMORPHOUS
SOLID
13

The Fundamentals
Amorphous polymers soften gradually and continu- The physical and mechanical property profile of plas-
ously as heat is applied, and in the molding process tics can also be modified by adding a wide variety of
they do not flow as easily as molten crystalline poly- fillers, fibers, and other chemical compounds. In gen-
mers. Liquid crystalline polymers have the high melt eral, mechanical properties are most significantly
temperature of crystalline plastics, but soften gradual- increased by adding reinforcing fibers. Particulate
ly and continuously like amorphous polymers. They fillers usually increase modulus, and plasticizers usu-
have the lowest viscosity, warpage, and shrinkage of ally decrease modulus and enhance flexibility. Flame
all thermoplastics. Table 1.02 generalizes the relative retardants, thermal and UV stabilizers, and oxidation
polymer properties. inhibitors are other common additives. Electrical
properties may be affected by many additives, espe-
1.1.4 Copolymers cially those that are conductive.
A copolymer is a polymer made with two or more When the mechanical properties are improved,
different kinds of repeating units. A terpolymer is a the resin is called a reinforced resin. An example is
copolymer with three different kinds of repeating glass-reinforced nylon. When the additive does not
units. When a polymer family includes copolymers, significantly improve the mechanical properties, but
as with acetal resins, the term homopolymer identities does affect the physical nature of the material, the
the polymer with a single type of repeating unit. resin is usually called a filled resin. An example is
Copolymers can have different properties from those mineral-filled polyester. Table 1.03 lists a variety
of the homopolymers making up either repeating unit. of common plastic fillers, reinforcements, and
other additives.
1.1.5 Alloys
Alloying is another way to create tailored variations
in plastics. The exact definition of a plastic alloy is
not clear, however it is generally accepted that alloys Table 1.02 · General relative polymer properties
are combinations of polymers that are mechanically Liquid
blended. They may depend on chemical bonds, but Property Crystalline Amorphous Crystalline
often have special compatibilizers to join different Specific Gravity Higher Lower Higher
constituent polymers together to improve perfor- Tensile Strength Higher Lower Highest
mance (e.g., impact strength and chemical resistance),
Tensile Modulus Higher Lower Highest
to lower cost, or to improve processability.
Ductility, Elongation Lower Higher Lowest
Generally, the properties of plastic alloys fall between Resistance to Creep Higher Lower High
those of the starting polymers. However, some alloys Max. Usage Temp. Higher Lower High
are able to achieve a synergistic combination that is Shrinkage and Warpage Higher Lower Lowest
better than the properties of either component alone.
Flow Higher Lower Highest
Chemical Resistance Higher Lower Highest

1.1.6 Elastomers
Thermoplastic elastomers are generally lower modu-
lus, flexible materials that can be stretched repeatedly
to at least twice their original length at room tempera- Table 1.03 · Common plastic fillers, reinforcing
ture and are able to return to their approximate origi- fibers, and other additives
nal length when stress is released. Thermoset rubber
Fillers Reinforcing Fibers Other Additives
materials have been available for
Glass Spheres Glass Fibers UV Stabilizers
a long time, but currently many families of injection- Carbon Black Carbon Fibers Plasticizers
moldable thermoplastic elastomers (TPE’s) are replac- Metal Powders Aramid Fibers Lubricants
Silica Sand Jute Colorants
ing traditional rubbers. In addition, TPE’s
Wood Flour Nylon Fibers Flame Retardants
are widely used to modify the properties of rigid Ceramic Powders Polyester Fibers Antioxicants
thermoplastics, usually improving the impact Mica Flakes Antistatics
Molybdenum Preservatives
strength.
Disulfide Processing Aids
Fungicides
1.1.7 Additives, Reinforcements, and Fillers Smoke Supressants
Foaming Agents
Viscosity Modifiers
Impact Modifiers
14

The Fundamentals
2. Physical Properties
and Terminology
The following is a discussion of some physical prop- but also when considering substitute materials for a
erties and fundamental concepts that apply to plastics. specific application. In general, amorphous and liquid
Most are familiar to readers who have worked with crystalline thermoplastics
other engineering materials. A few, however, are spe- have lower mold shrinkage than do crystalline ther-
cific to plastics. moplastics. In addition, glass-reinforced or 2
filled materials have lower shrinkage than unfilled
2.1 Density or “neat” resins.
The density of any material is a measure of the mass
per unit volume, usually expressed as pounds per
cubic inch (lbs/in3) or grams per cubic centimeter
(g/cm3) (see Figure 2.01). The density of a particular Fig 2.01 · a. Density and b. specific gravity
plastic resin is necessary to calculate the relationship
between the weight and volume of material in a par-
ticular part.
1
2.2 Specific Gravity
The specific gravity is the ratio of the mass of a given
volume of material compared to the mass of the same 1 1
volume of water, both measured at 23°C. In other a.)
words, specific gravity is the density of a material DENSITY = MASS / VOLUME
divided by the density of water. Since it is a dimen- lbs/in.3 or gm/cc
sionless quality, it is convenient for comparing differ- b.) DENSITY OF MATL. @ 23°C
ent materials. Like density, specific gravity is used Sp. Gr. =
DENSITY OF H20 @ 23°C
extensively in determining part cost, weight, and
quality control.
2.3 Water Absorption

Water absorption is the percentage increase in weight
Fig 2.02 · Mold shrinkage
of a material due to absorption of water. Standard test
specimens are first dried for 24 hours and then
weighed before and after immersion in 23°C water
for various lengths of time. Water absorption is
important since it affects mechanical and electrical
properties, as well as part dimensions. Plastics with
very low water absorption rates tend to have better
dimensional stability.
2.4 Mold Shrinkage

Mold shrinkage is the ratio of the expected reduction
of the plastic part dimension as the part solidifies in
the mold and cools to room temperature to the origi-
nal mold dimensions (Figure 2.02). The mold maker
must know this value to properly size the mold to
allow for shrinkage. For a given material, mold
shrinkage can vary with a number of design and
molding variables, such as wall thickness, flow direc-
tion, and molding conditions. This measure is impor-
tant to the design engineer, not only for new designs,
15

The Fundamentals
2.5 Opacity/Transparency Fig 2.03 · a) Material exhibiting elasticity

Opacity or transparency are important when light b) Material exhibiting plasticity
transmission is a consideration. These properties are
usually measured as haze and luminous transmittance.
Haze is measured as the percentage of transmitted
light through a test specimen that is scattered more
than 2.5° from the incident beam. Luminous trans-
mittance is measured as the ratio of transmitted light
to incident light.
2.6 Elasticity a)
Elasticity is the ability of a material to return to its
original size and shape after being deformed (Figure
2.03). Most plastic materials have limited elasticity.
AFTER
Rubber and thermoplastic elastomers (TPEs) have BEFORE LOAD LOAD
excellent elasticity. Throughout this manual, it is gen- LOADING APPLIED RELEASED
erally assumed that plastics respond elastically unless
otherwise indicated.
2.7 Plasticity
Plasticity is the inverse of elasticity. A material that
tends to stay in the shape or size to which it is
deformed has high plasticity. Plastic materials exhibit b)
plasticity when they are stressed beyond the yield
point. This accounts for the ability of some plastics to
be cold-formed. Of course, when thermoplastics are
heated to their softening point, they have almost per-
fect plasticity.
2.8 Ductility
Ductility is the ability of a material to be stretched,
Fig 2.04 · Toughness can be measured by
pulled, or rolled into shape without destroying the
the area under the stress-strain curve
integrity of the material.
2.9 Toughness
Toughness refers to a material’s ability to absorb
mechanical energy without fracturing. A tough mate-
rial can absorb mechanical energy with either elastic
or plastic deformation. In general, high-impact
unfilled resins have excellent toughness. However,
low- or moderate-impact resins can also display con-
siderable toughness if the material has sufficiently
high ultimate strength. This will become apparent
when the stress-strain curve is discussed in
Chapter 3. Toughness is often measured by the area
under the stress-strain curve of the resin, as shown in
Figure 2.04.
16

The Fundamentals
2.10 Brittleness 2.16 Anisotropy

Brittleness is the lack of toughness. Plastic materials The physical properties of an anisotropic material
that are brittle frequently have lower impact and depend on the direction in which they are measured.
higher stiffness properties. Many glass-reinforced and The varying degrees of anisotropy depend on the
mineral-filled materials display brittleness. amount of symmetry that exists in the material.
A few examples should clarify.
2.11 Notch Sensitivity
Not to be confused with brittleness, notch sensitivity Cast metals and plastics tend to be reasonably
is a measure of the ease with which a crack propagates isotropic. Samples cut in any direction within the 2
through a material from a pre-existing notch, crack, cast body tend to have the same physical properties.
or sharp corner. However, rolled metals tend to develop crystal orien-
tation in the rolling direction. Thus, rolled and sheet
2.12 Lubricity metal products have different mechanical properties
Lubricity refers to the load-bearing characteristics of in the rolling and transverse directions. Likewise,
a material under relative motion. Plastics with good extruded plastic film can have very different proper-
lubricity tend to have low coefficients of friction with ties in the material and transverse directions. Thus,
other materials (or with themselves) and do not have these materials are oriented biaxially and are
a tendency to gall (wear away by friction). anisotropic. Composite materials, in which fiber rein-
forcements are carefully oriented in the directions of
2.13 Homogeneity applied load and surrounded by a plastic matrix, have
The term homogeneous means uniform. As one a high degree of property orientation with direction
moves from point to point in a homogeneous materi- at various points in the structure and
al, the material’s composition remains constant. are anisotropic.
Furthermore, the smallest sample of material cut
from anywhere in a homogeneous body has the Wood is an anisotropic material with distinct proper-
same physical properties as those of the whole body. ties in three directions (Figure 2.05). It is very stiff
An unfilled thermoplastic is a good example of a rea- and strong in the growth direction, and has fair prop-
sonably homogeneous material. erties in one direction perpendicular to the growth
direction. However, the mechanical properties are
2.14 Heterogeneity much lower in the third direction (perpendicular to
Heterogeneous means varying. The material’s compo- the other two directions), as observed by anyone who
sition varies from point to point in a heterogeneous has seen a baseball bat shatter.
body. A glass-reinforced plastic is heterogeneous.
However, for design purposes, many heterogeneous
Fig 2.05 · Anistropy of wood
materials are treated as homogeneous. This is because
a “reasonably” small sample of material cut from any-
where in the body has the
same physical properties as those of the body.
Y
2.15 Isotropy
The physical properties of an isotropic material at a
point are the same, independent of the direction in
which they are measured.
X
RELATIVE STRENGTH
17

The Fundamentals
While the above examples demonstrate primarily Fig 2.06 · Mold shrinkage of anisotropic plastics
mechanical properties, anisotropy is also involved
when a material shrinks in the mold (Figure 2.06).
Anisotropic mold shrinkage is an important consider- GATE
ation when crystalline and glass-fiber-reinforced
materials are being molded. These materials are usual-
ly listed with mold shrinkage values in the “flow BEING
MOLDED
direction” and “cross-flow direction.” Although these
values are mainly of concern to the toolmaker and
molder, the existence and severity of anisotropic MOLD CAVITY
shrinkage must be considered by the design engineer
in choosing a resin for a new part with tight toler-
ances on the drawing. (HIGHLY
EXAGGERATED)
2.17 Significance of Elasticity, Homogeneity, AFTER

EJECTIONS &
and Isotropy COOLING CROSS
FLOW
In typical structural analyses performed while design- SHRINKAGE
ing parts, an engineer generally uses two independent
constants to describe the mechanical response of FLOW DIRECTION
SHRINKAGE
materials, Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio
(defined in Chapter 3). However, only elastic,
isotropic materials that respond linearly to load (i.e.,
load is proportional to deformation) can be analyzed
by using these two constants. Furthermore, designers The designer and engineer must be aware that as
use the same values of these constants everywhere in the degree of anisotropy increases, the number of
the structure. This is only correct if the material is constants or moduli required to describe the material
homogeneous. Thus, in typical structural analyses, increases (to a maximum of 21). Uncertainty of mate-
engineers generally assume that the material is linearly rial properties, as well as questionable applicability of
elastic, homogeneous, and isotropic, which is reason- the simple analysis techniques that are generally used,
able for many analyses and is always a good starting provides justification for extensive end-use testing of
point. However, it can lead to significant errors when plastic parts before certification in a particular appli-
one is designing in plastics, particularly glass-rein- cation. However, please note that as finite element
forced plastics and liquid crystalline polymers, which analysis (FEA) methods become more prevalent in
tend to be highly anisotropic. plastic part design, the ability of FEA methods to
handle anisotropic materials demands a better under-
In this manual, it is generally assumed that plastics standing of the anisotropic nature of plastic materials.
may be treated as linearly elastic, homogeneous, and
isotropic. This affords a simpler presentation of
mechanical properties (Chapter 3), which is consistent
with the data typically provided in the plastics mar-
ketplace. This assumption is also required by the
standard equations of structural analysis, i.e., bending,
torsion, pressure in a pipe, etc. (Chapter 7).
18

The Fundamentals
3. Mechanical Properties
Mechanical properties are crucial since virtually 3.1.1 Stress
all end-use applications involve some degree of Consider a three-dimensional body with a balanced
mechanical loading. Material selection for a variety system of forces acting on it, F1-F5 in Figure 3.01a,
of applications is often based on mechanical proper- such that the body is at rest. A body is subjected to
ties such as tensile strength, modulus, elongation, and external forces develops internal forces to transfer and
impact strength. These values are normally available distribute the external load. Imagine that the body in
in the product data sheets provided by material sup- Fig. 3.01a is cut at an arbitrary cross-section and one
pliers. More often than not, too much emphasis is part is removed. To keep the body at rest, a system
placed on comparing the published values of differ- of forces must be acting on the cut surface to balance
ent types and grades of materials and not enough the external forces. The same system of forces exists
on determining the true meaning of mechanical within the uncut body and is called stress. Stress must
properties and their relation to end-use require- be described with both a magnitude and a direction. 3
ments. Consider an arbitrary point P on the cut surface in
Figure 3.01b, where the stress, S, is as indicated. For
In practical applications, materials are seldom, if ever, analysis, it is more convenient to resolve the stress, S,
subjected to a single, steady deformation without the into two stress components. One acts perpendicular
presence of other adverse factors such as environment to the surface and is called a normal or direct stress,
and temperature. Since published values of mechani- σ. The second stress acts parallel to the surface and is
cal properties are generated from tests conducted in called a shear stress, τ.
laboratories under standard conditions, the danger of
selecting and specifying a material using only this
information is obvious. A thorough understanding of
mechanical properties and tests employed to deter- Fig 3.01 · Internal forces, stresses in a body
mine such properties, as well as
the effect of adverse (or beneficial) conditions on F2
mechanical properties over long periods of time,
is extremely important. F1 F3
3.1 Basic Definitions

The following review of the fundamental concepts
associated with the mechanical properties of materials CUT
should be familiar to anyone who normally deals with

other material systems. Here we will discuss linear
elasticity in more detail, completing our review of the
simplified property assumptions used in this manual - FORCE VECTORS
that plastics, for design purposes, may be treated as F5
linearly elastic, homogeneous, isotropic materials. In F4
the next section, properties of plastics that represent a

(a.) S
P
F1
concession to their anisotropic and nonlinear nature
is introduced. Finally, the last section deals with the
time-dependent properties of plastics.
CUT
(b.)
F4 F5
19

The Fundamentals
3.1.2 Normal Stress Fig 3.02 · Simple tension load

A basic understanding of load, deflection, and stress
starts with a simple tension test, shown in Figure F (APPLIED
3.02. Direct Stress is the ratio of applied load to the LOAD)
original cross-sectional area, expressed in pounds per
square inch (lb/in.2), or psi. In the International
System of units (SI), stress is expressed as Newtons
per square meter, or Pascals (Pa).
Stress = load/area
F L (ORIGINAL
A
or σ = LENGTH)
A (AREA)
If the load is applied as shown, the member is said to

be in tension. If the load is reversed, the member is
in compression.
3.1.3 Normal Strain

If a bar is subjected to a direct load, and thus a stress, (INCREASE IN
L LENGTH DUE
the bar changes in length. If the bar has an original F
TO APPLIED
length L and changes in length by an amount ΔL, the LOAD)
strain produced is defined as:
change in length
strain =
original length
or Fig 3.03 · Typical test setup and specimen
ΔL
ε= L
Strain is a measure of the deformation of the material

and is dimensionless; i.e., it has no units. It is simply a
ratio of two quantities with the same units.
In general, the extensions of materials under load are

very small. With most metals, it is convenient to mea-
sure and express strain in the form of microinches per
inch, or 10-6 inches per inch (10 -6 cm/cm). The symbol
με, called microstrain, expresses this. With plastics,
which generally undergo greater deformation than
metals under the same loading, strain is normally
expressed as 10-5 inches per inch. Another common
way to express strain is as percent strain. The equiva-
lence of the three is as follows:
1000με = 1000 X 10 -6 = 0.001 = 0.1% strain

10000με = 10000 x 10 -6 = 0.01 = 1.0% strain
Figure 3.03 illustrates a typical tensile testing arrange-

ment with a common test specimen. The results
obtained from this testing may be plotted in the form
shown in Figure 3.04. This is a stress-strain curve,
which characterizes the mechanical behavior of a
material in tension.
20

The Fundamentals
Fig 3.04 · Plot of results of tensile test secant modulus (see below) as a better representation
(stress-strain curve) of the material’s behavior. The designer is cautioned
that the product data sheets do not always clarify
whether the supplier is providing Young’s modulus,
an initial modulus, or a secant modulus. Thus, the
designer is reminded of the warning at the beginning
STRESS X
of this chapter on placing too much emphasis on the
F
=
A
published data.
For metals, Young’s modulus is normally expressed in

terms of 10 6 psi, or Mpsi (MPa or GPa). For plastics,
the tensile modulus is often expressed as 10 3 psi or
kpsi (MPa).
X BREAK
3
A number of stress-strain curves are shown in Figure
L
=
L
3.05. The explanation of points A through F on the
STRAIN curves is provided below.
Fig 3.05 · Typical stress-strain curves

3.1.4 Modulus of Elasticity
Most materials, including metals and plastics,
have a deformation that is proportional to the
imposed loads over at least a range of loads.
Since stress is proportional to load and strain is pro-
portional to deformation, this also implies that stress
is proportional to strain. Hooke’s law is the statement
of that proportionality.
stress
= constant
strain
The constant E is called the modulus of elasticity,

Young’s modulus, or in the plastics industry, tensile
modulus. In terms of the bar in Figure 3.02, the ten- 3.1.4.1 Proportional Limit, A
sile modulus is given by With most materials, some point exists on the
stress-strain curve where the slope begins to change
F/A FL and the linearity ends. The proportional limit is the
E= =
ΔL/L AΔL greatest stress at which a material is capable of sus-
taining the applied load without deviating from
The modulus is, therefore, the slope of the initial por- the proportionality of stress to strain. This limit is
tion of the stress-strain curve. It must be noted that expressed in psi (Pa) and is shown as Point A in
an elastic material does not necessarily obey Hooke’s Figure 3.05. Note that some materials maintain this
law. A material may return to its original shape with- proportionality for large measures of stress and strain
out the stress being proportional to the strain. while others show little or no proportionality, as pre-
However, if a material obeys Hooke’s law, it is elastic. viously discussed.
In many plastic materials, the straight region of the
stress-strain curve is so difficult to locate that a 3.1.4.2 Yield Point, B
straight line tangent to the initial portion of the curve Yield point is the first point on the engineering
must be constructed to obtain a “modulus.” A modu- stress-strain curve where an increase in strain occurs
lus obtained in this manner is called the initial modu- without an increase in stress. This is shown as
lus. For some plastic materials, the initial modulus can Point B in Figure 3.05. The slope of the curve is
be misleading due to the material’s nonlinear elastici- zero at this point. Note that some materials may not
ty. For this reason, some suppliers provide the 1% have a yield point.
21

The Fundamentals
3.1.4.3 Ultimate Strength, C (contracting vs. stretching) to the longitudinal strain,

The ultimate strength is the maximum stress a materi- and are given by
al withstands when subjected to an applied load. This −Δb −Δd
is expressed in psi (Pa) and is denoted by Point C in
εlateral = b = d
Figure 3.05.
Provided the material deformation is within the elas-
3.1.4.4 Elastic Limit, D tic range, the ratio of the lateral to longitudinal strains
Many materials may be loaded beyond their propor- is always constant. This ratio is called Poisson’s ratio,
tional limit and still return to zero strain when the and is designated by the greek letter ν.
load is removed. Other materials, particularly some
plastics, have no proportional limit in that no region lateral strain Δd/d
ν= =
exists where the stress is proportional to strain (the longitudinal strain ΔL/L
material obeys Hooke’s law). However, these materi-
als may also sustain significant loads and still return For most engineering materials, the values of ν lie
to zero strain when the load is removed. In either between 0.20 and 0.40; however, a default value of
case, the point on the stress-strain curve, D in Figure 0.35 is usually sufficient. Typically, ν is between zero
3.05, represents the point beyond which the material (no lateral contraction) and 0.5 (constant volume
is permanently deformed if the load is removed. This deformation). Table 3.01 shows typical values of ν
point is called the elastic limit. for various structural materials. Poisson’s ratio is
a necessary constant for the stress and deflection
3.1.4.5 Secant Modulus, E analysis of plastic structures such as plates, shells,
The secant modulus is the ratio of stress to corre- and rotating discs.
sponding strain at any point on the stress-strain
curve. For instance, in Figure 3.05, the secant modu- Table 3.01 · Typical values of Poisson’s ratio
lus at Point E is the slope of the line OE.
Material Range of Poisson’s Ratio
3.1.4.6 Yield Strength, F
Aluminum 0.33
Some materials do not exhibit a yield point. For such Carbon Steel 0.29
materials, it is desirable to establish a yield strength Rubber 0.50
by picking a stress level beyond the elastic limit. Rigid Thermoplastics
Although developed for materials that do not exhibit Neat 0.20 – 0.40
Filled or Reinforced 0.10 – 0.40
a yield point, this value is often used for plastics that Structural Foam 0.30 – 0.40
have a very high strain at the yield point to provide a Rigid Thermosets
more realistic yield strength. This is shown as Point F Neat 0.20 – 0.40
Filled or Reinforced 0.20 – 0.40
on the curves on Figure 3.05. The yield strength is
generally established by constructing a line parallel to
OA at a specified offset strain, Point H. The stress
where the line intersects the stress-strain curve at Fig 3.06 · Loaded tensile bar showing
point F is the yield strength at H offset. For instance, dimensional change in length and width
if Point H were at 2% strain, then Point F would be
termed the “yield strength at a 2% strain offset.” F
3.1.5 Poisson’s Ratio

b = b-b'
Under the action of a tensile load, the bar shown in
b
Figure 3.06 increases in length by an amount ΔL, giv-
ing a longitudinal strain in the bar of b'
L
ΔL d'
ε= L d
The bar also exhibits a reduction in dimensions later- d = d-d'

ally; i.e., its breadth and depth both decrease.
The associated lateral strains are opposite in sign L F
22

The Fundamentals
3.1.6 Shear Stress 3.2 Relating Material Constants

A block of material shown in Figure 3.07a is subject- It was previously noted that only two material con-
ed to a set of equal and opposite shearing forces, Q. If stants are required to characterize a material if one
the material is imagined as an infinite number of assumes the material is linearly elastic, homogeneous,
infinitesimally thin layers, as shown in Figure 3.07b, a and isotropic. However, three material constants have
tendency exists for one layer of the material to slide been introduced: tensile modulus, E, Poisson’s ratio, ν;
over another to produce a shear form of deformation, and shear modulus, G, Therefore, an equation relating
or failure if the force is great enough. these three constants is needed. On the basis of elastici-
ty principles that are beyond the scope of this manual,
The shear stress, τ, is defined as the following equation may be developed:
shear load Q E
τ = = = 2 (1 + ν)
area resisting shear A G
3
The shear stress is always tangential to the area on This holds true for most metals and is generally applied
which it acts. The shearing strain is the angle of to injection-moldable thermoplastics. However, the
deformation, γ, and is measured in radians. designer is reminded of the inherently nonlinear,
anisotropic nature of most plastics, particularly
Fig 3.07 · Shear stress fiber-reinforced and liquid crystalline materials.
3.2.1 Direct Shear

Q
Figure 3.08 shows a typical shear strength setup used
a)
for plastics. Data obtained by this method is often
reported in marketing data sheets as the shear
strength of the material. In strength of materials liter-
ature, this type of test is called direct shear . The read-
Q er is cautioned to use the “shear strength” reported
SHEARING LOAD
AREA by this method only in similar direct shear situations.
This is not a pure shear test. The test cannot be used
Q
to develop shear stress-strain curves or to determine
the shear modulus because a considerable portion of
b) the load is transferred by bending and/or compress-
ing rather than by pure shear. In addition, the results
Q
can depend on the susceptibility of the material to the
sharpness of the load faces. When plastics are ana-
lyzed in a pure shear situation or when the maximum
(RADIANS)
shear stress is calculated in a complex stress environ-
ment, the use of a shear strength equal to half the ten-
SHEAR STRAIN
sile strength, or the above reported shear strength, is
recommended, whichever is less.
3.1.7 Shear Modulus

For materials that behave according to Hooke’s law, Fig 3.08 · Direct shear stress test used
the shear strain is proportional to the shear stress pro- in plastics industry
ducing it. Thus,
shear stress τ
= = constant = G
shear strain γ
The constant G is called the shear modulus or modu-

lus of rigidity, and is directly comparable to
the modulus of elasticity used in direct stress applica-
tions.
23

The Fundamentals
3.2.2 True Stress Fig 3.09 · True stress

Though infrequently used, the terms “true stress and
strain” are worth noting. In Figure 3.09, the normal
stress is calculated on the basis of an increasing load
F, acting over a constant area, A. This form of the
direct stress, discussed previously, is often called
“engineering stress.” With most materials, however, a
“necking down” occurs in a critical area where failure
will eventually result. If the smaller cross-section, AI,
were used in place of A, then the calculated stress
would be referred to as “true stress.” In addition, the
direct strain discussed previously, i.e., total change in
length over original length, is often called “engineer-
ing strain.” The true strain would be the instanta-
neous deformation over the instantaneous length.
Therefore, the shape of a true stress-strain curve
would not be the same as a simple stress-strain curve.
Almost universally, however, modulus values and
stress-strain curves are based on engineering stress
and strain.
3.3 Other Measures of Strength and Modulus 3.3.1 Compression Strength and Modulus
For many engineering materials that are treated as lin- Because of the relative simplicity of testing in tension,
early elastic, homogeneous, and isotropic, the tensile the elastic modulus of a material is usually measured
and compression properties are considered identical. and reported as a tension value. A material can also
This eliminates the need to measure properties in be loaded in compression. However for design, the
compression. Further, if tension and compression stress-strain curve for compression loading is
properties are identical, there is no need to measure often required.
the properties in bending (under standard beam bend-
ing theory). However, in concession to the nonlinear, With most elastic materials at low stress levels, the
anisotropic nature of most plastics, these properties, tensile and compressive stress-strain curves are nearly
particularly flexural properties, are often reported on equivalent, as depicted by the curve in Figure 3.10.
product data sheets. However, at higher stress levels, the compressive
strain is less than the tensile strain. Unlike tensile
loading, which usually results in a clear failure, stress-
Fig 3.10 · Tensile and compressive moduli ing in compression produces a slow, indefinite yield-
ing, which seldom leads to a failure. Therefore, the
compressive strength is customarily expressed as the
COMPRESSIVE TENSILE
stress in psi (Pa) required to deform a standard plastic
specimen to a certain strain.
TENSILE
=
Compression modulus is not always reported, since
ET
defining a stress at a strain is equivalent to reporting a
secant modulus. However, if a compression modulus
STRESS
is reported, it is generally an initial modulus.

COMPRESSIVE
EC =
STRAIN
24

The Fundamentals
3.3.2 Bending Strength and Modulus Fig 3.11 · Beam in bending

If a piece of plastic or metal, most conveniently a rec-
tangular cross-section, is bent between one’s fingers, M
it is readily apparent that one surface of the material
stretches in tension while the opposite surface com- COMPRESSIVE
STRESS
presses (Figure 3.11). It follows that there is a line or
region of zero stress between the two surfaces, called
the neutral axis. In simple beam bending theory, the
following assumptions are made: NEUTRA
L AXIS
1 . The beam is initially straight, unstressed,

and symmetric. TENSILE
STRESS
2. The material of the beam is linearly elastic,
homogeneous, and isotropic. 3
3. The proportional limit is not exceeded.
4. Young’s modulus for the material is the same
in tension and compression. Fig 3.12 · A simple bending fixture
5. All deflections are small, so that planar cross-
sections remain planar before and after bending.
Bending properties can be measured as shown in

Figure 3.12. Using classical beam formulas and sec-
tion properties (see Chapter 7), the following rela-
tionships can be derived:
3FL
Bending Stress σ =
2bh2
FL3
Bending or Flexural Modulus E =
4bh3Y
where Y is the deflection at the load point.
With these relationships, the flexural strength and

flexural modulus (of elasticity) can be determined
in a testing laboratory. Again, the reported flexural
modulus is usually the initial modulus from the load
deflection curve. Since most plastic parts must be ana-
lyzed in bending, flexural values should lead to more
accurate results than if the corresponding tensile val-
ues are used. 3.4 Rate Dependence of Mechanical Properties
The tensile and flexural data reported in product data
sheets are measured at a particular displacement rate.
Unfortunately, this rate is rarely consistent with the
end-use loading environment. The same plastic mater-
ial, under differing rate and/or environmental condi-
tions, can produce different stress-strain curves. The
designer must be aware of the loading rate in a partic-
ular application and request the appropriate data.
Often the data are not available. Therefore, the
importance of end-use testing must be kept in mind.
25

The Fundamentals
3.5 Time-Related Mechanical Properties 3.5.1 Creep

In the previous discussion, the given mechanical When a part or structure is subjected to a given load,
properties involved a gradually applied, short-term there is a corresponding predictable deformation. If
load. In this section the effects of time-related load- the deformation continues to increase without any
ing, both long term and very short term, are consid- increase in load or stress, the material is said to be
ered. With high-performance thermoplastic materials, experiencing cold flow or creep. Thus, creep can be
creep, impact, fatigue, and related issues are important defined as increasing strain over time in the presence
considerations. Unfortunately, laboratory test data are of a constant stress. The rate of creep for any given
not always directly applicable in estimating the struc- material depends on applied stress, temperature,
tural response of actual parts. and time.
The laboratory method of applying the time-depen-
dent load is rarely consistent with the end-use envi- In parts that are to be subjected to loads for extended
ronment. Furthermore, in the actual end use, other periods of time and where the maximum deflection is
factors are usually involved which are not covered by critical, the creep behavior of a material is very
the laboratory test conditions. important. Test samples may be loaded in tension,
compression, or flexure in a constant-temperature
This section reviews time-related loading phenomena environment. With the load constant, the deflection
with regard to meaning, testing methods, and the use or strain is noted at regular intervals of hours, days,
of data in the design and analysis of plastic parts. weeks, and/or months. Generally, results are obtained
at four or more stress levels. Stress-strain-time data
are usually presented as creep curves of strain vs. log
Fig 3.13 · Typical presentation of creep data time. Sets of such creep curves, illustrated in Figure
3.13, can be produced by smoothing and interpolating
CREEP CURVES, STRAIN on a computer. These same data may be presented in
VS. other ways to facilitate the selection of information
LOG TIME
for particular requirements. Sections may be taken
Increasing through the creep curves at constant times, yielding
Stress isochronous stress-strain curves; or at constant
strain, giving isometric stress vs. log time curves.
These derivations are shown schematically in
Strain
Figure 3.13.
In general, crystalline materials have lower creep rates

than amorphous resins. Glass reinforcement generally
improves the creep resistance of a plastic material.
Log time
ISOMETRIC STRESS ISOCHRONOUS STRESS

VS LOG TIME VS STRAIN
Increasing
Strain
Stress
Stress
Increasing Time
Log time Strain
26

The Fundamentals
3.5.2 Apparent or Creep Modulus Fig 3.14 · Creep modulus

If the deflection of a part subject to continuous load-
ing is calculated by using the modulus of elasticity, E,
the result is likely to be inaccurate since the effects of
creep have not been considered. However, if the stress
level and temperature are known and the creep curves
are available at the temperature, an apparent or creep
modulus, Eapp, can be calculated by using the creep INCREASING
STRESS OR STRAIN
curves as follows:
CREEP MODULUS
σ
E =
app εc
where 3
σ is the calculated stress level

εc is the strain from the creep curve at the
expected time and temperature. LOG TIME
This value, Eapp, can then be used instead of E to pre-

dict the maximum deflection, using the methods dis-
cussed in Chapter 7.
Fig 3.15 · Creep rupture data – a curve showing
Curves of creep modulus or log creep modulus one cycle log time projection
vs. log time at either constant stress or strain are often
derived from the creep data and plotted as in Figure
3.14. Data may also be provided as tables at constant
stress and temperature at various times. Many materi-
al suppliers provide creep data in the form of creep
modulus rather than by the various curves
of Figure 3.13.
3.5.3 Creep Rupture

Failure may occur in creep when a part exceeds
allowable deformation or ruptures. In creep rupture
failures, the fracture may be brittle or ductile with
some degree of necking. Creep rupture data are
obtained in the same manner as the creep data except
that higher stresses are used and time is measured to
failure. The strains are sometimes recorded, but are
not necessary for creep rupture. The results are gener-
ally plotted as log stress vs. log time to failure (Figure
3.15).
27

The Fundamentals
3.5.4 Stress Relaxation Fig 3.16 · Examples of constant strain loads

In many cases when plastic parts are assembled, they
are placed into a permanently deflected condition. PRESS FIT
Examples are press-fits, bolted assemblies, and some LIGHT INTERFERENCE
plastic springs (see Figure 3.16). In time, with the
strain constant, the stress level decreases due to the
same internal molecular movement that produces the
creep phenomenon. This gradual decay in stress at
constant strain is known as stress relaxation. This
becomes important in applications such as bolt pre-
load and springs, where there is a concern for the
retention of load. The relaxation can be measured by
BOLTED ASSEMBLY
applying a fixed strain to a sample and measuring the LIGHT ASSEMBLED STRESS
load with time. The resulting data can then be pre-
sented as a series of curves very similar to the isomet-
ric stress curves in Figure 3.13. In addition; a relax-
ation modulus similar to the creep modulus, can be
derived from the relaxation data. Generally, relaxation
data are not as available as creep data. However , the
decrease in load due to stress relaxation can be
approximated by using the creep modulus, Eapp, cal-
culated from the creep curves, as in
Figure 3.14. strain limit of 20% of the yield or ultimate strength
mentioned in the above paragraph is suggested .
Plastic parts often fail due to excessive fixed strains
imposed on them for extended periods of time. 3.5.6 Impact Loading
An example would be the splitting of a plastic tube Whenever a part is loaded rapidly, the part is subject-
press fit over a steel shaft. Unfortunately, there is no ed to impact loading. Any moving body has kinetic
“relaxation rupture” corollary to creep rupture. For energy. When the motion is stopped due to a colli-
purposes of initial design concept development, a sion, energy must be dissipated. The ability of
strain limit of 20% of the strain at the yield point or a plastic part to absorb energy is determined by its
yield strength is suggested for high-elongation plas- shape, size, thickness, and the type of material.
tics. Likewise, 20% of the elongation at break is sug- Unfortunately, the impact testing methods presently
gested for low-elongation, brittle materials that available do not provide the designer with informa-
do not have a yield point. However, this is only a tion that can be used analytically. However, the tests
guideline for initial design. Prototype parts should be are useful for comparing the relative notch sensitivity
thoroughly tested at end-use conditions to confirm of materials or the relative impact resistance. This can
the design. In addition, data that suggest a higher or be very useful in choosing a series of materials to be
lower limit may be available on the specific material evaluated in an application or in rank ordering mate-
of interest. rials within a series.
3.5.5 Extrapolating Creep and Relaxation Data 3.5.7 Izod Impact

It is sometimes necessary to predict material behavior Probably one of the most widely used tests for impact
for times greater than those for which creep and strength is the notched Izod impact test. In this test a
relaxation data are available. This must be undertaken pendulum arm swung from certain height is made to
with caution. However, there is generally a less pro- impact a notched, cantilevered beam (see Figure 3.17).
nounced curvature when creep and relaxation data are After fracturing the test specimen, the pendulum con-
plotted log property vs. log time. This facilitates tinues to travel in the same direction, but with
extrapolation and is commonly practiced, particularly less energy due to the impact with the specimen.
with creep modulus and creep rupture data. Even so, This loss of energy, measured in foot-pounds per inch
extrapolation should not exceed one logarithmic unit (ft-lb/in., or J/m) of beam thickness, is known as the
of time, as illustrated in Figure 3.15. In addition, the Izod impact strength.
28

The Fundamentals
This test can also be run with an unnotched specimen Fig 3.17 · Izod and Charpy impact tests
or with the notch reversed, in which case it is report-
ed as unnotched or a reversed notch lzod impact
strength, respectively.
3.5.8 Charpy Impact

Charpy impact is less common in the United States, POINT
but is widely used in Europe. The test is essentially OF IMPACT
identical to the lzod test except that the test specimen
is a simply supported beam that is impacted midway
between the supports. Like the lzod test, the speci-
men can be notched or unnotched, and the results are
reported in foot-pounds/ inch (ft-lb/in., IZOD
or J/m) of beam thickness. 3
IMPACT
IZOD
IMPACT
POINT
OF IMPACT
CHARPY
CHARPY
CHARPY
Fig 3.18 · Tensile impact

3.5.9 Tensile Impact
This test uses a swinging pendulum similar to that
used in the lzod impact test, except the sample speci-
men is a tensile bar that is mounted (as shown in
Figure 3.18) to measure energy required to fracture it
due to tensile impact loading.
29

The Fundamentals
3.5.10 Falling Dart Impact Test Fig 3.19 · A typical dart impact apparatus
In this test, a weight is dropped onto a flat disk of the
material being tested. The leading edge of the dart
where it impacts the specimen has a specific diameter .
Figure 3.19 is one example of a falling dart apparatus.
This test is valuable for ranking materials since it
tends to better represent the impact on actual parts in W
certain applications. DART
1" DIA
3.5.11 Fatigue Endurance
Generally, a material is subjected to fatigue when it is
stressed repeatedly or in some defined cyclic manner.
Examples are a snap-action plastic latch that is con-
stantly opened and closed, a reciprocating mechanical
part on a machine, a gear tooth, a bearing, any struc-
tural component subjected to vibration, and any part
that is to be subjected to repeated impacts. Such
cyclic loading can cause mechanical deterioration and
progressive fracture of the material, leading to ulti-
mate failure. Fig 3.20 · Typical S-N curve is shown along
with thermal effects which sometimes occur
Typical fatigue tests are conducted on a machine when plastics are fatigue tested
which subjects a cantilever beam to reverse flexural
loading cycles at different maximum stress levels. The
number of cycles to failure is recorded for each stress
level. The data are generally presented in a plot of log
stress vs. log cycles, called an S-N curve. The cycle
rate loading profile and environmental temperature
should be reported with the curve. Figure 3.20 illus-
trates a typical S-N curve.
With thermoplastic materials there is the added com-

plication of a heat buildup that can sometimes con-
tribute to the actual failure. Figure 3.20 also illustrates
the possible thermal failure that can occur in a fatigue
test. Thermal failure is attributed to heat buildup
resulting from the frequency of the cyclic stress.
Significant differences in the S-N curve can also be
produced by testing at different frequencies, different
mean stresses, different waveforms, and different test
methods, i.e., tension rather than bending.
Although fatigue test data give some indication of the

relative ability of plastic materials to survive fatigue,
the designer must be aware of the above variables.
The tests are run on specially prepared samples in a
test environment, which never resembles the actual
loading and environment of the actual parts.
Therefore, it is essential that tests be run on actual
injection-molded parts under end-use operating con-
ditions to determine the true fatigue endurance of any
part on which significant cyclic loading occurs.
30

The Fundamentals
4. Thermal Properties
To select materials that will maintain acceptable Fig 4.01 · Vicat softening point apparatus
mechanical properties and dimensional stability in
end-use applications, the design engineer must be
aware of the normal and extreme operating environ-
ment to which the final product is to be subjected. DIAL GAUGE
Following are some of the basic thermal properties
that characterize thermoplastic materials.
4.1 Melting Point

WEIGHT
Thermoplastic materials become more fluid when
temperatures increase. While crystalline materials
have sharp, clearly defined melting points,
amorphous and liquid crystalline thermoplastics soft- LOAD
TRANSFER
en and become more fluid over a wider range ROD
of temperatures. There are many methods for deter- 4
mining melting points of plastics. However, this LIQUID LEVEL
property is of greater significance to molding and
assembly operations than to product design.
4.2 Glass Transition Temperature

At the glass transition temperature, Tg, a material
INDENTING TIP
undergoes a significant change in properties.
Generally, below the glass transition temperature, TEST PIECE
the material has a stiff, glassy, brittle response to
loads, while above the Tg, it has a more ductile, rub-
bery response.
4.3 Vicat Softening Point

This is the temperature at which a small, circular ,
heated, lightly loaded probe penetrates a specific dis-
tance into a thermoplastic test specimen. Figure 4.01
shows a typical test apparatus. This test is useful for
crystalline materials, but is of somewhat limited value
for amorphous thermoplastics, which tend to creep
during the test. This test indicates the ability of a
thermoplastic to withstand a short-term contact with
a heated surface.
31

The Fundamentals
4.4 Deflection Temperature under Load Fig 4.02 · Test apparatus for deflection temperature
The deflection temperature under load is the tempera- under load
ture at which a 1/2 in. deep test bar , loaded to a speci-
fied bending stress, deflects by 0.010 in. Figure 4.02
shows a schematic of a typical apparatus. This t est is
generally run at 66 psi and/or 264 psi. Sometimes LOAD
called the “heat distortion temperature” (HDT), this THERMOMETER
value is useful to the design engineer as a relative
measure of the ability of various materials to perform GAUGE
at elevated temperatures while supporting loads. Since
a stress and deflection for a certain depth test bar is
specified, this test may be viewed as establishing the
temperature at which the flexural modulus decreases
to particular values, i.e., 35,200 psi at 66 psi stress and
140,800 psi at 264 psi.
Table 4.01 · Typical values for coefficient of linear

thermal expansion for thermoplastics and
other common materials
Material in./in./F10-5 cm/cm/°C10-5
4.5 Coefficient of Linear Thermal Expansion
Liquid Crystal (GR) 0.3 0.6
Like metals, thermoplastic materials expand when
Glass 0.4 0.7
Steel 0.6 1.1 heated and contract when cooled. Generally, for a
Concrete 0.8 1.4 given change in temperature, plastic materials change
Copper 0.9 1.6
dimensionally much more than metals. The coeffi-
Bronze 1.0 1.8
Brass 1.0 1.8 cient of linear thermal expansion, CLTE, is the ratio
Aluminum 1.2 2.2 of the change of a linear dimension to the original
Polycarbonate (GR) 1.2 2.2
dimension of the material for a unit change of tem-
Nylon (GR) 1.3 2.3
TP Polyester (GR) 1.4 2.5 perature. It is generally given in units of in./in./°F or
Magnesium 1.4 2.5 cm/cm/°C. Table 4.01 presents typical values for
Zinc 1.7 3.1 many common materials. This is a very important
ABS (GR) 1.7 3.1
Polypropylene (GR) 1.8 3.2 consideration if dissimilar materials are to be assem-
Epoxy (GR) 2.0 3.6 bled. It should be noted that many thermoplastics,
Polyphenylene Sulfide 2.0 3.6 especially those with glass reinforcement or liquid
Acetal (GR) 2.2 4.0
Epoxy 3.0 5.4
crystalline resins, may have different coefficients for
Polycarbonate 3.6 6.5 the mold flow, cross-flow, and thickness directions.
Acrylic 3.8 6.8 Since the CLTE of plastics can vary with temperature
ABS 4.0 7.2
Nylon 4.5 8.1
over a broad temperature range, the extent of the
Acetal 4.8 8.5 variability must be known. This is especially impor-
Polypropylene 4.8 8.6 tant if the temperature range includes a transition,
TP Polyester 6.9 12.4
Polyethylene 7.2 13.0
such as Tg.
NOTES: Plastic materials are unfilled unless specified otherwise.

4.6 Thermal Conductivity
(GR) indicates typical glass-fiber-reinforced grade; Thermal conductivity is the rate at which a material
TP indicates thermoplastic. conducts heat energy along its length or through its
These are only typical, average values and do not account for thickness. This is an important factor, since plastics
various grade differences, molding conditions, wall thickness,
are often used as an effective heat insulator in heat-
flow direction, etc.
Request information for the specific resin of interest.
generating applications and in structures in which
heat dissipation is important.
32

The Fundamentals
4.7 Aging at Elevated Temperatures 4.10 Effect of Temperature on Mechanical Properties

Typically, aging at elevated temperatures involves An important behavior characteristic of materials,
storing a large number of samples at a particular tem- which the designer must understand when working in
perature for an extended time. Samples are then plastics, is the inverse relationship between strain rate
removed from storage at various time intervals and and temperature. Very high strain rates and very low
tested at standard conditions for whatever physical, temperatures produce similar material responses.
mechanical, thermal, or electrical property is of inter- Conversely, very low strain rate effects, i.e., creep
est. The data are generally presented as a plot effects, can be seen much more quickly by testing at
of property vs. aging time for the various aging tem- elevated temperatures. The designer might make use
peratures. Thus, the results from aging at elevated of the concept by testing at temperatures around and
temperatures may be used as a measure of the thermal above the highest values expected in end use. The data
stability of the resins, and must be considered in can be used to estimate long-term performance of a
design situations. part at times much longer than can be reasonably
used for testing. A number of theoretical and empiri-
4.8 Relative Thermal Index (UL) cal models are used to describe this behavior of mate-
Underwriters Laboratories tests and recognizes plas- rials. They have been used successfully, provided they
tic materials used in electrical applications for certain are not applied near or across the transition tempera-
continuous operating temperatures. These ratings are tures or near the melting point. However, these mod-
listed separately for electrical properties, mechanical els are well beyond the scope of this manual. 4
properties including impact, and mechanical proper-
ties without impact. The Relative Thermal Index is 4.10.1 Strength, Modulus, and Elongation
important if the final product must receive UL recog- The strength, modulus, and elongation behavior are
nition. similar for tensile, compressive, flexural, and shear
properties. In general, strength and modulus decrease
4.9 Flammability and elongation increase with increasing temperature.
For many plastic applications, the consequences of Figure 4.03 illustrates a series of stress-strain curves
exposure to an actual flame must be considered. that might be produced by testing a plastic material
This is important not only in electrical applications, at one strain rate and several temperatures. The same
but also in any application where the plastic consti- set of curves might also be generated by testing at
tutes a significant percentage of the exposed area of a constant temperature and various strain rates,
defined enclosed space. An example of this as indicated.
is the plastic panels used in the interior of an aircraft
cabin. Typical tests measure combustibility, smoke
generation, and ignition temperatures. Some of the
following tests are common:
1. UL 94 Flammability Class (V-0, V-1, V-2,5V, HB) Fig 4.03 · Effect of temperature or strain rate
In this test, specimens are subjected to a specified on stress-strain curves
flame exposure, and the relative ability to maintain
combustion after the flame is removed becomes the INCREASE STRAIN RATE
basis for classification. In general, the more favorable CONSTANT TEMPERATURE
ratings are given to materials that extinguish them-

INCREASE TEMPERATURE
STRESS
selves rapidly and do not drip flaming particles. Each CONSTANT STRAIN RATE
rating is based on a specific material thickness.
2. Oxygen index
This test measures the percentage of oxygen
necessary to sustain combustion of the plastic materi- STRAIN
al. Obviously, the higher the value (more oxygen
needed), the lower the combustibility. Since air con-
tains about 21 % oxygen, any material with a rating
below 21 will probably support combustion
in a normal, open air environment.
33

The Fundamentals
Figure 4.04 illustrates modulus behavior as tempera- Fig 4.06 · Apparent modulus curves at different
ture increases. In general, a gradual drop in modulus temperatures showing time-temperature shifting to esti-
occurs as the temperature increases to the glass transi- mate expended time values at lower temperatures
tion temperature. Above the glass transition tempera-
ture, amorphous materials experience a rapid loss of
modulus. However, crystalline materials maintain a
significant, usable modulus at temperatures approach-
ing the crystalline melting point. Glass fiber rein-
forcement can significantly improve the modulus of
crystalline materials above the glass transition temper-
ature. Amorphous materials, even when reinforced
with glass, still display a rapid drop in modulus above
the glass transition temperature. Strength vs. tempera-
ture curves are similar to modulus curves. In general,
the elongation of materials increases with increasing
temperature, as indicated in Figure 4.05.
Fig 4.04 · Modulus behavior of crystalline and Fig 4.07 · Creep rupture curves indicating
amorphous resin showing Tg and melt temperatures danger of linear projection to longer times at
and the effect of reinforcement on HDT lower temperatures
AMORPHOUS
UNFILLED REINFORCED
CRYSTALLINE
MODULUS
UNFILLED REINFORCED
HDT
X = Tg
O=MELT
TEMPERATURE
Fig 4.05 · Effect of temperature on tensile elongation
34

The Fundamentals
4.10.2 Creep 4.10.3 Impact

Creep, isochronous stress, and isometric stress Testing impact properties at various temperatures
curves are produced from measurements at a fixed produces a plot of impact property vs. temperature,
temperature. Complete sets of the curves are some- which looks very much like the elongation vs. tem-
times available at temperatures other than ambient. It perature curve in Figure 4.05. As temperatures drop
is common to find creep rupture or apparent modulus significantly below ambient temperature, most plastic
curves plotted vs. log time with temperature as a materials lose much of their room-temperature impact
parameter. Figure 4.06 illustrates time-temperature strength. A few materials are on the lower, almost
shifting of the apparent modulus curves projecting to horizontal portion of the curve at room temperature
times beyond a normal testing range. These curves and show only a gradual decrease in impact property
suggest that it would be reasonable to estimate mod- with decreases in temperature. An interesting excep-
uli at somewhat longer times than the available data at tion is provided by the long-fiber-reinforced plastics,
the lower temperatures. However, a set of creep rup- which have relatively high Izod impact values at room
ture curves at various temperatures (such as those in temperature and essentially the same values at -40°F
Figure 4.07) would suggest that projecting the lowest (40°C).
temperature curves to longer times as a straight line
could produce a dangerously high prediction of rup- 4.10.4 Fatigue
ture strength. Occasionally, one finds S-N curves for plastic materi-
als at various temperatures showing a decrease in the 4
strength values with increasing temperature.
However, as discussed in Chapter 3, laboratory
fatigue data rarely model the end-use fatigue environ-
ment adequately and should be used only
as guides for the selection of materials for end-use
testing.
35

The Fundamentals
5. Electrical Properties
Plastic materials have found widespread use in a mul- can affect the results. Materials with values above 10 8
titude of electrical and electronic applications ohm-cm are considered to be insulators, while those
throughout virtually all industries. The combination between 108 and 101 ohm-cm are considered to be
of mechanical and electrical properties provides an partial conductors. Table 5.01 shows the volume resis-
ideal choice for everything from tiny electronic com- tivity values for various plastics.
ponents to very large electrical equipment enclosures.
The most notable electrical property of plastic materi-
als is that they are good insulators, but as seen in this
chapter, plastics have many other important electrical Fig 5.01 · Free electrons in a metal lattice
properties that must be considered in the design of
plastic parts. FREE ELECTRONS
5.1 Conductivity in Solids

Solid materials vary in electrical conductivity, depend-
ing on the availability and mobility of movable charge
carriers within the material. Metals are excellent con-
ductors largely due to the structure of a metal atom,
which has a loosely held, outermost electron. Metal
atoms are in close proximity in a regular lattice. This
allows the outer electron to easily break free and
move within the lattice (Figure 5.01). The presence of
these “free” electrons accounts for the ability of a
metal to conduct large currents even with low volt-
ages.
Table 5.01 · Typical values of volume
In materials such as glass, porcelain, and plastics, the resistivity for thermoplastics
outer electrons are tightly bound to the atoms or
molecules and no free electrons are present. These Material Volume Resistivity,
materials cannot readily conduct electrical current; ohm-cm
thus, they are insulators. Other materials, such as sili-
Acetal 1014 – 1016
con and germanium, have conductivities between Acrylic 1014 – 1018
those of conductors and insulators, and are classified ABS 1016
as semiconductors. These materials, in the pure state Nylon 1012 – 1016
Polycarbonate 1015 – 1017
and at low temperatures, are actually insulators.
TP Polyester 1014 – 1017
However, they can be made to conduct current by Polypropylene 1014 – 1017
adding impurities or by raising the temperature. Polysulfone 1015 – 1017
Modified PPO/PPE 1015 – 1017
Polyphenylene Sulfide 1016
5.2 Volume Resistivity
Polyarylate 1016 – 1017
A standard measure of conductivity is the electrical Liquid Crystal Polymer 1015
resistance of a material when a direct current potential
is applied to it. Figure 5.02 shows one of many test
configurations used to measure the resistance across
a volume of material. This test, known as volume
resistivity, is the resistance measured in ohms times
the area of the smaller electrode divided by the thick-
ness of the specimen. Thus, the volume resistivity is
generally given in ohm-cm. Testing conditions such as
temperature, relative humidity,
test voltage, and conditioning of the sample
36

The Fundamentals
5.3 Surface Resistivity Fig 5.02 · One type of text apparatus for volume
This test measures the ability of current to flow over and surface resistivity
the surface of a material. Unlike the volume resistivity
test, the test electrodes are both placed on the same
GAP
side of the test specimen, as illustrated in Figure 5.02.
While volume resistivity is a property of the material,
surface resistivity is essentially a measure of the sus-
SPECIMEN
ceptibility of the material to surface contamination,
particularly moisture. Data from this test are best
GAP
used when materials are being evaluated and selected ELECTRODES
for testing in applications in which surface leakage
may be a problem. The data are subject to large errors
and should be used with large safety factors in design THICKNESS
analysis.
VOLUME RESISTIVITY
5.4 Dielectric Strength
When an insulator is subjected to increasingly high
voltage, it eventually breaks down and allows a cur-
rent to pass. The voltage reached just before it breaks
down divided by the sample thickness is known as
SURFACE RESISTIVITY
the dielectric strength of the material, measured in
volts/mil. It is generally measured by putting elec-
trodes on either side of a test specimen and increasing
the voltage at a controlled rate (see Figure 5.03). 5
Factors that affect the test results are temperature,
sample thickness, conditioning of sample, rate of
increase in voltage, and duration of test. Any contam-
ination of, or internal voids in, the sample may cause
premature failure in this test. Fig 5.03 · A typical test configuration for
dielectric strength
5.5 Dielectric Constant (Permittivity)
When an electrical field is imposed across an insula-
tor, the molecules become polarized. If the potential
is reversed, the polarization of the molecules also
reverses. The ease with which a material can be polar-
ized is measured by a material constant called permit-
tivity. The ratio of a material’s permittivity to the
(negligible) permittivity in a vacuum is called relative
dielectric constant or more commonly, dielectric con-
stant. This is a dimensionless constant that becomes
an important factor when plastics are used as dielec-
tric materials in high frequency applications. The
value of this constant can vary with changes in tem-
perature, moisture level, frequency, and part thick-
ness. Table 5.02 gives the dielectric constants for vari-
ous insulating materials.
37

The Fundamentals
5.6 Dissipation Factor 5.7 Arc Resistance

The dissipation factor can be measured along with the If an electrical arc is imposed on the surface of an
dielectric constant in the same apparatus. If the polar- insulating material, the material can develop a con-
izing reversals mentioned above occur rapidly, ductive path (Figure 5.04). The arc resistance test
as with an alternating current, energy is dissipated as measures the time in seconds for this to occur . This
heat due to the rapid change in polarization. The dis- test was developed for thermosets, since a conductive
sipation factor is a measure of that heat dissipation. It path can be formed from the decomposition products
can also be viewed as the ratio of the energy dissipat- produced by this kind of localized heating. While arc
ed (lost) as heat compared to that transmitted, and is resistance times are often available for thermoplastics,
usually measured at 1 MHz (10 6 cycles/sec); the mechanisms can be very different and should be
see Table 5.02. A low dissipation factor becomes understood. The specimen for this test is dry and free
important when plastics are used as insulators in of contaminants. A material with a high value in this
high-frequency applications such as radar and test would be advantageous in electrical applications
microwave equipment. where the possibility of arcing exists. Examples are
switches, circuit breakers, automotive ignition com-
ponents, and high-voltage apparatus.
Table 5.02 · Typical values for dielectric Fig 5.04 · A typical test configuration for
constant and dissipation factor for various arc resistance
thermoplastics at room temperature
Material Dielectric Dissipation
Description Constant Factor
Acetal 3.7 - 3.9 0.001 - 0.007

Acrylic 2.1 - 3.9 0.001 - 0.060
ABS 2.9 - 3.4 0.006 - 0.021
Nylon 6/6 3.1 - 8.3 0.006 - 0.190
Polycarbonate 2.9 - 3.8 0.0006 - 0.026
TP Polyester 3.0 - 4.5 0.0012 - 0.022 ELECTRODES
Polypropylene 2.3 - 2.9 0.003 - 0.014
Polysulfone 2.7 - 3.8 0.0008 - 0.009
Modified PPE (PPO) 2.4 - 3.1 0.0002 - 0.005
Polyphenylene Sulfide 2.9 - 4.5 0.001 - 0.002
Polyarylate 2.6 - 3.1 0.001 - 0.022 SAMPLE
Liquid Crystal Polymer 3.7 - 10 0.010 - 0.060
5.8 Comparative Tracking Index (CTI)

This is an Underwriters Laboratories test run similar
to the arc resistance test except that an electrolyte
(solution of ammonium chloride) is put on the sur-
face. The CTI for a material is the numerical value of
the voltage required to cause a conductive path to
form between the electrodes. This test is useful since
it measures the arc resistance on a contaminated sur-
face, which is often the case with actual electrical and
electronic equipment.
38

The Fundamentals
6. Environmental Data on the response of thermoplastics to stress and

temperature are usually available for established,
Considerations commercially available materials. Generally available
environmental data include resistance to various
When specifying a particular material for use in an chemical substances and weathering information, par-
application, the design engineer must carefully con- ticularly ultraviolet (UV) stability. For purposes
sider the end-use environment. While rust and corro- of this discussion water is treated as simply another
sion can plague metals, cracking, crazing, discol- chemical. However, for many polymers, resistance to
oration, loss of properties, melting, or dissolution can water receives separate, special treatment independent
affect thermoplastics in the presence of chemical sub- from general chemical compatibility.
stances, energy sources, or radiation. An important
aspect of the environmental assessment that is some- 6.2 Chemical Compatibility
times overlooked is the processing, assembly, finish- Part of the wide acceptance of thermoplastics is due
ing, and cleaning operations to which the product to their relative compatibility with the ambient envi-
may be subjected even before it reaches its ultimate ronment, particularly moisture, as compared to met-
use. als. This is in spite of the fact that many plastics are
hygroscopic, thereby absorbing water. This results in
6.1 Factors Affecting Environmental Resistance dimensional and property changes. However, the
mechanism of chemical attack in plastics is complicat-
6.1.1 Stress Level ed, making compatibility assessments difficult. The
Stress level is a very significant factor affecting the same chemical may react differently with plastics in
performance of a part. In general, as the stress level the same family or even with different compounds of
increases, resistance to a particular environment the same base resin. Conversely, a given resin com-
decreases. In addition to the obvious applied loads, pound may behave very differently in chemicals that
stresses can result from injection molding, forming, are considered similar. In addition, a variety of mech-
and assembly operations. anisms exists by which a chemical might attack a plas-
tic.
6.1.2 Temperature
In general, as temperature increases, the detrimental 6.2.1 Reaction
6
effect (if any) of a substance on a particular resin is The chemical can attack the polymer chain directly
greater. Temperature often determines whether a par- producing a progressive lowering of the molecular
ticular plastic will survive a specific environment. weight of the polymer. Changes in the short-term
mechanical properties are evidence of reaction.
6.1.3 Exposure
The compatibility of a plastic material with a particu- 6.2.2 Solvation
lar environment is frequently determined by the actu- Most thermoplastics are soluble in some chemical.
al amount of exposure that exists. Among the factors However, high molecular weight plastics usually dis-
to be considered are the following: solve very slowly. Therefore, the solvation process
usually appears similar to a chemical reaction.
1. Actual time of exposure to adverse environment Generally, weight and dimensional changes and
2. Concentration of adverse substance swelling are present along with a loss of properties.
3. State of substance (solid, liquid, or gas)
4. Radiation level and intensity
5. Protective barriers (coatings or paints), integral
“black” color
39

The Fundamentals
6.2.3 Plasticization about the chemical compatibility of a plastic, but are

If a chemical is miscible with a polymer, absorption of little value for establishing the performance prop-
and plasticization may result. Evidence of plasticiza- erties of a plastic for design purposes. The only test
tion of the plastic includes reduction of strength, stiff- that provides this information is the creep rupture test
ness, and creep resistance and increased impact resis- conducted at appropriate temperatures in the chemi-
tance. The plastic tends to swell, and warpage may cal environment. This testing is difficult and expen-
occur due to relaxation of molded-in stresses. sive to conduct and is infrequently done.
6.2.4 Environmental Stress Cracking The design engineer should be prepared to pursue
An unstressed plastic may appear to be unaffected by creep rupture testing in the actual end-use environ-
exposure to a chemical. However, the same chemical ment on test bars or, preferably, prototype parts to
may cause catastrophic failure when the plastic is determine the suitability of a plastic in that environ-
stressed. This mechanism is called environmental ment. Thus, it is advantageous for the designer to
stress cracking. select several different plastics or components of the
same plastic for evaluation in the end-use environ-
Chemical compatibility data are generally obtained in ment.
a manner similar to “aging at elevated temperatures,”
discussed in Chapter 4. That is, standard test bars are 6.3 Weathering Resistance
placed in the chemical and stored at the desired tem- Many applications for plastics require that the materi-
perature for some time interval. The test bars are then al withstand exposure to “sunlight,” i.e., UV, when
removed from the exposure environment, cleaned, used in naturally lighted areas or outdoors. All plastic
and tested for whatever properties are of interest, typ- materials are affected by ultraviolet light exposure and
ically tensile strength, flexural modulus, dimensional suffer some degree of degradation. The degradation is
change, weight, and discoloration. Table 6.01 shows usually noticed by fading, chalking, and embrittle-
the chemical resistance of commonly used thermo- ment of the plastic material. Often, UV-resistant vari-
plastic materials. These are only general guidelines. ants of popular grades of plastic materials are avail-
The design engineer must consult marketing data able from suppliers.
sheets, test results, and the material supplier for accu-
rate information concerning a particular grade of UV test data are usually obtained through actual out-
resin. Even when the information indicates the mater- door exposure or in special test cabinets. Outdoor
ial is highly compatible, end-use testing must be per- exposure tests may be as simple as attaching test sam-
formed. ples to a surface at a suitable angle for the latitude
where the test is being conducted or as complicated
While this method is easy, it can be misleading since as having mirrors and sun tracking equipment to
the response of stressed samples to the chemical envi- accelerate the effective exposure. Test cabinets are
ronment can be very different; i.e., it cannot generally available to accelerate testing. Generally, they employ
detect agents causing environmental stress cracking. high-intensity xenon or carbon-arc lamps to generate
Some test procedures expose a test sample to a chemi- high levels of UV exposure in a relatively short time.
cal in the presence of either a fixed stress
or fixed strain distribution along the length of the
sample. The samples may then be examined for the
stress or strain location at which damage begins.
However, these tests are more difficult and expensive
to run. Therefore, such data for a resin in a particular
chemical are often unavailable.
Finally, the above tests may provide information
40

The Fundamentals
Table 6.01 · Chemical resistance of various materials by chemical classes
Modified Polyphenylene Ether

Thermoplastic Polyester (PBT)
Thermoplastic Polyester (PET)
Liquid Crystal Polymer*

Polyphenylene Sulfide
Acetal Homopolymer
Polyester Elastomer
316 Stainless Steel

Acetal Copolymer
Polypropylene
Polycarbonate
Carbon Steel
Polysulfone*
Polyarylate
Nylon 6/6
Aluminum
ABS
Examples
Acids and Bases
Acids, Weak A B C A A A A A A A B A A A A A C Dilute Mineral Acids

Acids, Strong C C C B – C B A – C C – A A B C C Concentrated Mineral Acids
Bases, Weak A C A B B A B A – C A A A A A B C Dilute Sodium Hydroxide
Bases, Strong A C B – – B C A – C A – A A B B C Concentrated Sodium Hydroxide
Acids, Organic, Weak A B C A A A A A A A B A A A A C C Acetic Acid, Vinegar
Acids, Organic, Strong C C C B – C B A – C C A A A B C C Trichloroacetic Acid
Automotive
Automotive Fuel A A A A A A A A C C A C C A A A A
Automotive, Lubricants A A A A A A A A C C A A A A A B A
Automotive, Hydraulic A A A A A – A A C C C A A A – – –
Solvents
Aliphatic Hydrocarbons A A A A A A A A A A A B C A A A A Heptane, Hexane
Aliphatic Hydrocarbons, Halogenated A B B B B A A A C C C – – – B B B Ethylene Chloride, Chloroform
Alcohols A A B A A A A A A A A A A A A A B Ethanol, Cyclohexanol
6
Aldehydes A A A A B B A A – C B – A – A B A Acetaldehyde, Formaldehyde
Amines A C – – – – C B – C C – A – A B B Aniline, Triethanolamine
Aromatic Hydrocarbons A B A A B B A A C C C C C C A A A Tolulene, Xylene, Naphtha
Aromatic Hydrocarbons, Halogenated B B – – – C – A C C C – – – A A A Chlorobenzene
Aromatic, Hydroxy A C C C – C A A – C C – A – B C A Phenol
Esters A B A B B B A A C C C – C – B B B Ethyl Acetate, Dioctyl Phthalate
Ethers A – A A – – – A – A B – C – A A A Butyl Ether, Diethyl Ether
Ketones A B A B B B A A C C C – B C A A A Methyl Ethyl Ketone, Acetone
Miscellaneous
Detergents A – A – B – – A A A – B A – A A B Laundry and Dishwashing
Detergents, Soaps
Inorganic Salts B B B – A – – A – A – – A A B B B Zinc Chloride, Cupric Sulfate
Oxidizing Agents, Strong A C C – C – B B – C – – A – C C C 30% Hydrogen Peroxide,
Bromine (Wet)
Oxidizing Agents, Weak C C C A – A A A – A – A A A B C A Sodium Hypochlorite Solution
Water, Ambient A A B A A A A A A A A A A – A C B
Water, Hot B C B C C B A A – C – A C – A C B
Water, Steam A C C C C C B A – C – – C – A C –
This information is presented for instructional purposes and is not intended for design. The data were extracted from numerous sources, making consistent
rating assignments difficult. Further, the response of any given material to specific chemicals in any one class can vary significantly. Indeed, during the
preparation of the table, the effect of various chemicals in the same category on one plastic ranged from essentially no effect to total dissolution.
Therefore, an “A” rating for a particular plastic exposed to a particular class of chemicals should not be interpreted as applying to all chemicals in that
class. The rating simply means that for the chemicals in that class found in the literature reviewed, the rating was generally an “A”. There may be other
chemicals in the same class for which the rating would be a “C.” Finally, the typical chemicals listed do not necessarily correspond to the ones on which
the individual ratings are based.
A – Minimal Effect B – Some Effect C – Generally Not Recommended
Room temperature except hot water, steam, and “*”
Generally, extended exposure (more than a week) data was used *200°F 41

The Fundamentals
7. Structural Analysis Fig 7.01 · Directly applied loads
7.1 Introduction LIFTING LOAD

In the design or analysis of any mechanical compo-
nent, a systematic approach is desirable. Frequently PRESSURE
IN A PIPE
the product is one in which no significant loads or
deflection limitations occur. In such cases, the “gut
feel” of the design engineer is usually all that is
required. This is especially true with small, load-free
plastic parts in which processing requirements dictate
a minimum wall thickness that is more than adequate
for the part function. Still, even in these cases, engi-
neers new to plastic design often neglect the effects of
stresses caused by assembly, handling, shipping, pro- PORTABLE TELEVISION HANDLE
cessing, temperature changes, and other environmen-
tal changes.
In this section, simple analysis techniques are present-

ed that assist the design engineer in developing new
parts to handle anticipated loading while keeping Fig 7.02 · Strain-induced loads
stress and deflections within acceptable limits. These
techniques are also useful in product improvement,
cost reduction, and failure analysis of existing parts.
Thus, this chapter is devoted to applying simplified
classical stress and deflection equations to plastic
parts. As the complexity of the part increases or when
very accurate results are required, more exact classical
methods or computerized finite element analysis may
be required. However, such methods are beyond the
scope of this manual.
7.2 Defining the Structure
7.2.1 Loads
The first step in analyzing any part is to determine
the loads to which the part is to be subjected. These
loads generally fall into the following categories:
7.2.1.1 Directly Applied Loads

These loads, usually easy to understand, are
defined loads applied to specific part areas, either
concentrated at a point, line, or boundary or distrib-
uted over an area. The magnitude and direction of
such loads are known or are easily determined from
service conditions. In larger plastic parts, the weight
of the part itself is a significant load. Figure 7.01 pre-
sents examples of directly applied loads.
42

The Fundamentals
7.2.1.2 Strain-Induced Loads Fig 7.03 · Support conditions

Frequently, a part becomes loaded when it is subject-
ed to a defined deflection. The actual load results
from the structural reaction of the part to the applied
strain. Unlike directly applied loads, strain-induced FREE
loads depend on the modulus of elasticity of the
material and, in the case of thermoplastic materials,
generally decrease in magnitude over time. Many
assembly stresses and thermal stresses are a result of
strain-induced loads. Figure 7.02 shows two common
examples.
GUIDED
7.2.2 Support Conditions

When a load is applied to a part, for the part to
remain in equilibrium there must be equal forces act-
ing in the opposite direction. These balancing forces
are the reactions at the supports. For purposes of
structural analysis, several support conditions must be
defined (Figure 7.03):
SIMPLY
7.2.2.1 Free (Unsupported) SUPPORTED
This is the support condition in which the edge

of a body is totally free to translate or rotate in
any direction.
7.2.2.2 Guided
This condition is similar to a free end except that the HELD
edge is prevented from rotating.
7.2.2.3 Simply Supported

In this support condition, transverse displacement
in one direction is restricted, as illustrated in
Figure 7.03.
FIXED
7
7.2.2.4 Held (Pinned)
This is similar to a simply supported condition except
that only rotations are allowed.
7.2.2.5 Fixed (also Clamped or Built-in)

This is a support condition at the end of a beam or
plate which prevents transverse displacements and
rotations. The condition can be viewed as an end sup-
port firmly embedded into a fixed solid wall. In prac-
tice, especially with plastic parts, this condition rarely
exists in its pure form since the mounting points of
the parts usually have some give.
Free, simply supported, and fixed are the most fre-

quently encountered support conditions.
43

The Fundamentals
7.2.3 Simplifications and Assumptions bly temperatures. The effects of variations in resin
For the purposes of the discussion and examples in lots and molding conditions must also
this chapter, the following simplifications and be considered.
assumptions are made:
Many failures in testing on preproduction parts
1 . The part under load can be broken down into one can often be corrected with selective use of increased
or more simple structures, beams, plates, pressure wall thickness, ribs, gussets, or elimination of stress con-
vessels, etc. for analysis. centrations. A material change to another grade
2. The material being analyzed may be considered of the same resin or to a different plastic with a suitable
to be linearly elastic, homogeneous, and isotropic. mechanical property profile may also solve the problem.
While not necessarily true for plastic materials,
this assumption is fundamental to the equations Engineers unfamiliar with plastic product design
that follow. often ask for a design strength for use during the ini-
3. The equations assume that the load is a single tial design phase. A review of product data and dis-
concentrated or distributed static load, gradually cussions with experienced engineers suggest that the
applied for a short period and then removed. ranges in Table 7.01 are generally appropriate. These
However, creep, relaxation, or fatigue loads may ranges, applied to the strength on standard product
be analyzed by using the same equations, data sheets, are suitable for use with the equations
provided the appropriate modulus and/or rupture presented here only in the preliminary design phase,
(strength) conditions are applied. where general product dimensions are being evaluat-
4. The part being analyzed has no residual or ed. Any product designed by using these guidelines
molded-in stresses. must be thoroughly tested to ensure satisfactory per-
5. The equations apply to regions that are remote formance.
both from the point of application of the load
and from any shoulder, hole, or other sudden
Table 7.01 · Design strength* for
change in dimension of the structure.
preliminary part design
6. The equations may be used at shoulders, holes,
or other sudden dimensional changes as long as Failure Failure
appropriate stress concentration factors are used Noncritical Critical
(see Chapter 8 of this manual or almost any Intermittent

machine design text or mechanical engineering (nonfatigue) 25 – 50% 10 – 25%
handbook for stress concentration factors). Loading
Continuous 10 – 25% 5 – 10%

7.3 Safety Factors Loading
No firm rules are available for setting safety factors for
* Suggested percentage of strength values published in product data
plastic parts. However, the most important considera- sheets, based on type of stress and maximum temperature. These are
tion is, of course, the consequence of failure. For exam- intended for preliminary design analysis only, and are not to be used in
ple, a little extra deflection in an outside wall or a crack place of thorough product testing.
in one of six internal screw bosses may be of little con-

cern, but the failure of a pressure vessel or water valve 7.3.1 Failure Criteria
may have serious safety or product liability implica- Experienced designers not familiar with plastics often
tions. Before any product is put into the market, actual ask, “What failure criterion should be used?” This
parts should be tested at the most extreme operating question implies the rationalization of complex stress
conditions. For example, a maximum working load states, which are beyond the scope and intent of this
should be applied at the maximum temperature and in manual. For the simple stress states considered here,
the presence of any chemicals that might be expected in the design strength given in Table 7.01 is adequate for
the end use. Further, the loads, temperatures, and chem- preliminary design analysis. However, for designers
icals to which a product is exposed prior to reaching its who choose to perform the more complex analyses,
end use must not be overlooked, e.g., paint oven tem- the maximum shear (a.k.a. Coulomb, a.k.a. Tresca)
peratures. theory of failure is suggested. It is further suggested
that the shear strength be taken as the published shear
Impact loading should be applied at the lowest strength or, one-half the tensile strength, whichever is
expected temperature, including shipping and assem- lower. Even better, one-half the strength at the elastic
limit, if available, is preferred.
44

The Fundamentals
Fig 7.04 · Section properties for some common cross-sections (na = neutral axis)
RECTANGULAR I-BEAM
A = bd A = bd - h(b - t)
d d
c= c=
2 t
d na 2
d na h
bd3 bd3 - h3(b - t)
c I= I=
12 c
s 12
bd2 bd3 - h3(b - t)
b Z= Z=
6 b
6d
H-BEAM
d2
CIRCULAR A=
4 A = bd - h(b - t)
s h b
d c=
c=
2 2
na d d4 na 2sb3 + ht3
I= b t I=
64 c 12
c
d3 2sb3 + ht3
Z= Z=
32 d 6b
C-BEAM
TUBE (do2 - d l 2) b
A= A = bd - h(b - t)
4
d
d c=
c= o 2
2 t
h d bd3 - h3(b - t)
na dl do na I=
I=
(do4 - d l 4 ) 12 7
c 64 c bd3 - h3(b - t)
(do4 - d l 4 ) s Z=
Z= 6d
32do
T-BEAM OR RIB U-BEAM A = bd - h(b - t)

A = bs + ht
s 2b2s + ht2
b s c=b-
h 2A
d2t + s2(b - t)
c=d-
2 (bs + ht) c 2b3s + ht3
I= - A(b - c)2
na I na b 3
d Z=
h c t I
c Z=
I c
Zl = d
t (d - c) I
Zl =
(b - c)
tc3 + b(d - c)3 - (b - t)(d - c - s)3
I=
3
45

The Fundamentals
Fig 7.05 · Maximum stress and deflection equations for selected beams
SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM CANTILEVERED BEAM (ONE END FIXED)

CONCENTRATED LOAD AT CENTER CONCENTRATED LOAD AT FREE END
F
F
L
2
L L
Y Y
FL
FL (at support) =
(at load) = Z
4Z
FL3
FL3 (at load) Y=
(at load) Y = 3EI
48EI
SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM CANTILEVERED BEAM (ONE END FIXED)

UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD
F (total load)
F (total load)
L
Y
L
Y
FL
(at center) =
8Z FL
(at support) =
2Z
5FL3
(at center) Y=
384EI FL3
(at free end) Y =
8EI
BOTH ENDS FIXED BOTH ENDS FIXED

CONCENTRATED LOAD AT CENTER UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD
F
L
2 F (total load)
L L
Y Y
FL
(at supports) = FL
8Z (at supports) =
12Z
FL3
(at load) Y= FL3
192EI (at center) Y=
384EI
46

The Fundamentals
7.3.2 Beam Bending Stresses 7.3.3 Shear Stress, Torsion

As indicated in Chapter 3, in simple beam bending A shaft subjected to a torque (see Figure 7.06) is gen-
theory, the following additional assumptions erally considered to have failed when the strength of
are made: the material in shear is exceeded. For a torsional load,
the recommended shear is the published value or one-
1 . The beam is initially straight, unstressed, half the tensile strength, whichever is less. The maxi-
and symmetric. mum shear stress on a shaft in torsion is given by
2. The proportional limit is not exceeded.
3. Young’s modulus for the material is the same in Tc
τ =
tension and compression. J
4. All deflections are small, so that plane cross-
sections remain planar before and after bending. where
The maximum stress occurs at the surface of the beam T= applied torque, inch-pounds
farthest from the neutral surface and is given by c = distance from the center of the shaft to the
location on the outer surface of the shaft where
Mc M maximum stress occurs, inches (see Figure 7.07)
σ = =
I Z J = polar moment of inertia, inches 4 (see Figure 7.07)
where The angular rotation of the shaft due to the torque is

given by
M = bending moment, inch pounds
c = distance from neutral axis to outer surface where TL
θ =
maximum stress occurs, inches (see Figure 7.04) GJ
I = moment of inertia, inches 4 (see Figure 7.04)
Z = l/c, section modulus, inches3 (see Figure 7.04); where
this is a geometric property not to be confused
with the modulus of the material, a material L= length of the shaft, inches
property. G= shear modulus, psi
I, c, Z, and the cross-sectional area, A, for some com- E

=
mon cross-sections are given in Figure 7.04. The max- 2 (1 + ν)
imum stress and deflection equations for some com-
7
mon beam loading and support geometries are given E= Young’s modulus (tensile modulus), psi
in Figure 7.05. Note that for the T- and U-sections in ν= Poisson’s ratio (if unknown, use 0.35)
Figure 7.04, the distance from the neutral surface to
the outermost surface is not the same for the top and
the bottom of the beam. Occasionally, it may be
desirable to determine the maximum stress on the Fig 7.06 · Shaft of diameter, d, and length, L,
“other” surface, particularly if it is in tension. For this subjected to torque, T, with angular deformation, θ
reason, ZI is provided for these two sections.
d
T
47

The Fundamentals
Fig 7.07 · Polar moments of inertia for Fig 7.08 · Direct shear examples
common cross-sections
SPRING CLIP ASSEMBLY
POLAR MOMENT LOCATION OF MAX
OF INERTIA, SHEAR STRESS,
CROSS-SECTION J C
d4 d
32 2 SPRING CLIP
d
di (do4 – di4) do
32 2
do
PARTS
TO BE
b3h b ASSEMBLED
h 32 2
bh(b2 + h2) b SPRING CLIP

h IN PLACE
12 2
b F
h4 h
h F
6 2
h d SHEAR
LOAD
ASSEMBLY BY
STAKING
7.3.4 Shear Stress, Direct Shear
Many situations occur in which direct shear is applied
to a plastic part. Figure 7.08 illustrates assembly by
staking and by a spring clip in which a load may be
applied in direct shear. Other examples include spot
welds (Figure 9.11) and pinned structures such as
hinges and conveyor links. For direct shear (as in
Figure 7.08), the shear stress is simply the applied
load divided by the shear area:
AFTER STAKING
F
τ =
A
F
Direct shear situations, such as those illustrated, are F

SHEAR
the only appropriate times to use the shear strength LOAD
d
data reported on marketing data sheets. However,
since the load is not only transferred by shear , but
also contains a considerable bending and/or com- SHEAR AREA
pressing component, all of which depend greatly on
πd 2
geometry, the actual strength can vary greatly. A=
4
Therefore, it is suggested that safety factors be
increased significantly in direct shear situations.
48

The Fundamentals
7.4 Pressure Vessels Fig 7.09 · Cylindrical pressure vessel, thin wall tube
The most common plastics pressure vessel application
is a tube with internal pressure. In the selection of the UNIFORM INTERNAL PRESSURE, P
wall thickness for the tube, the thin-wall tube hoop

stress equation is convenient (see Figure 7.09). It is
very useful in determining an approximate wall thick-
ness, even when the condition t < d/10 is not met.
After the thin-wall equations have been applied, the
thick-wall equation in Figure 7.10 can be used to veri-
fy the design.
d
HOOP STRESS
7.5 Press-Fits
Although the use of press-fit assemblies can be dan- =
Pd t
2t
gerous with thermoplastic parts, their low cost,
assembly, speed, and convenience often result in their
This equation is reasonably accurate for t < d/10. As the wall
use. A common use is with a plastic hub or boss thickness increases, the error becomes quite large.
accepting either a plastic or metal shaft or pin. The
press-fit operation tends to expand the hub, creating a
tensile or hoop stress. If the interference is too great,
a very high strain and stress develops. The plastic
part either: Fig 7.10 · Cylindrical pressure vessel, thick wall tube
1 . fails immediately by developing a crack parallel to

the axis of the hub relieving the stress, a typical hoop
stress failure, or
2. survives assembly but fails prematurely when the

part is in use for a variety of reasons related to the
high induced stress levels, or
3. undergoes stress relaxation sufficient to reduce the

stress to a lower level that can be maintained.
7
Hoop stress equations for two typical press-fit situa-
tions are shown in Figure 7.11. The allowable design
stress depends on the particular plastic resin, tempera-
ture, and other environmental considerations.
A simpler, although less accurate, method of evaluat-

ing these press-fits is to assume that the shaft will not
deform when pressed into the hub. This is reasonably creep rupture in the material. It must be noted that a
accurate when a metal shaft is used in a plastic hub. weld line is usually present in the hub, which can sig-
The hoop strain developed in the hub is then given by nificantly affect the creep rupture strength of most
plastic materials. An additional frequent complication
i with press-fits is that a round hub or boss is often dif-
ε =
di ficult to mold. There is a tendency for the hub to be
slightly elliptical in cross-section, increasing the
The hoop stress can then be obtained by multiplying stresses on the part. In view of the preceding, all
by the appropriate modulus. For high strains, the press-fits must be given end-use testing under actual
secant modulus gives the initial stress. However, for operating conditions to assure product reliability.
longer term stresses, the apparent or creep modulus Design alternatives to a standard press-fit are given
should be used. The main point is that the maximum in Chapter 9.
strain or stress must be below the value that produces
49

The Fundamentals
Fig 7.11 · Press-fit equations for two typical situations 7.6 Thread Strength
When threads are either molded or tapped into a plas-
tic part, the assembly torque must be controlled to
prevent excessive shear stress, which results in
stripped threads, and to limit hoop stress, which can
ds result in tensile failures. Although the mechanics of
stress analysis for screw threads are readily available,
dl the equations are complicated and few wish to take
them on. For this reason, the following simple,
do approximate equations are provided (see Figure 7.12).
The relationship between the torque on a screw and

the generated axial force is approximately
4
T= μdF
GEOMETRY FACTOR 3
ds 2
1+ (d ) o
where
Γ=
ds 2
1– (d ) μ = dynamic coefficient of friction between the
o
sliding surfaces.
Ep = MODULUS OF ELASTICITY OF PLASTIC HUB OR BOSS
νp = POISSON'S RATIO OF PLASTIC The shear area of the threads, A, is approximately
σa = ALLOWABLE DESIGN STRESS FOR PLASTIC one-half the thread engagement cylinder or
i = ds – di = DIAMETRAL INTERFERENCE
ia = ALLOWABLE INTERFERENCE
1
A= πdL
2
CASE A
SHAFT AND HUB ARE BOTH THE SAME OR ESSENTIALLY
Therefore, the thread-stripping shear stress is
SIMILAR MATERIALS. HOOP STRESS GIVEN i IS
i Γ
σ= E F 2F
ds p Γ + 1 τ= =
A πdL
OR, THE ALLOWABLE INTERFERENCE IS
σa Γ+1
ia = ds
Ep Γ Fig 7.12 · Illustration for torque-force
relationships for screw threads
CASE B
SHAFT IS METAL, HUB IS PLASTIC
HOOP STRESS GIVEN i IS
i Γ T TIGHTENING TORQUE
σ= Ep
ds Γ + νp
OR, THE ALLOWABLE INTERFERENCE IS F AXIAL FORCE CREATED BY

σa Γ + νp TORQUE
ia = ds
Ep
Γ
F EFFECTIVE
THREAD
L ENGAGEMENT
LENGTH
d NOMINAL THREAD OD
dp PITCH DIA. OF THREAD
50

The Fundamentals
For standard 60° unified threads, the radial compo- Finally, the following observations should be clearly
nent of force is approximately 60% of F. This force is understood concerning screw threads:
spread over the thread engagement cylinder, produc-
ing an internal pressure in the boss. Therefore, the 1. The torque values are based on the coefficient of
internal pressure in the boss is approximately friction of the mating parts and can vary significantly.
The use of any compatible lubricant that reduces fric-
0.6F tion also increases the shear and hoop stresses if the
P=
πdL torque remains the same. Therefore, the allowable
torque must be reduced when lubricants are present.
This pressure can then be used in the simple
thin-wall, hoop stress equation: 2. High assembly torque for the purpose of prevent-
ing vibrational loosening is frequently ineffective
P(d + 2t) since creep of the plastic material reduces the effective
σ=
2t assembly torque even if the fastener does not rotate.
Vibration-proof screws, lock washers, lock nuts, and
to obtain the hoop stress produced in the boss. thread-locking adhesives, all specifically designed for
thermoplastics, are usually a better alternative when
A major problem with the thread torque-force equa- loosening is considered a problem.
tions is that the coefficient of friction varies signifi-
cantly with material and surface finish. In addition, 3. Self-tapping screws require additional torque to
most published data for coefficient of friction are gen- cut or form the thread. This torque must usually be
erated from high speeds and low load conditions added to the allowable safe assembly torque only for
rather than the low speed and high loads involved in the first assembly. The appropriate hole design for
thread engagement. Thus, these approximate equa- self-tapping screws depends greatly on the material
tions are probably adequate. Furthermore, for initial and screw design. Consult the screw manufacturer
design purposes, it is probably worthwhile to pick a and Ticona for design recommendations.
median value for the coefficient of friction. A value of
0.15 is suggested. When this value is used, the previ- 7.7 Pipe Threads
ous equations can be further simplified as follows: Pipe threads are commonly used in plastic plumbing
and pneumatic devices. Properly designed plastic pipe
The torque-force relationship is threads usually require only hand-tight assembly to
effect a good seal, especially if a compatible sealant
5T tape or compound is used. Assembling a tapered male
T = 0.2dF or F = 7
d pipe thread into a mating female thread in a plastic
part is analogous to driving a cone into a round hole.
The thread-stripping shear stress equation is Many split bosses are a result of improper field instal-
lation. Figure 7.13 shows some alternatives.
2F 10T Sometimes the use of straight threads and an O-ring
τ= =
πdL πd2L
or
( 10T
d )
seal can avoid the need for pipe threads. When pipe
threads must be used, torque control is critical. The
πdL
The pressure generated on the inside of the boss is following general recommendations should be fol-
lowed whenever possible:
0.2F T
P = = 2
dL dL 1 . When metal is mated with plastic using pipe
threads, make the plastic-threaded member the male
The hoop stress generated in the boss is thread so that the plastic is in compression.
0.2F T 2. When torque can be controlled during assembly of

σ = =
Lt dLt female plastic pipe threads, specify fluoroplastic tape
and hand-tighten only.
if it is assumed that d + 2t ≈ 2d.
51

The Fundamentals
3. When torque cannot be controlled, such as during Fig 7.13 · Designing with pipe threads
field assembly, consider the use of an external or
molded-in hoop ring.
POOR DESIGN
4. Never design flats into plastic parts with threads
for assembly purposes. This only encourages over-
tightening. If necessary, add “wings” or a textured d
surface for improved grip.

METAL
L
PIPE
An approximate formula for the hoop stress pro-
duced in a plastic boss with internal pipe threads as
illustrated in 7.13 is
3T PLASTIC
σ= t
tdL BOSS
As with the screw thread equations in the previous

section, this equation assumes certain geometric rela-
tionships and a coefficient of friction of 0.15.
Obviously, the torque must be reduced if compatible
BETTER DESIGNS
thread lubricants are used during assembly. As with
all threaded assemblies, long-term testing under the
extremes of operating pressure, temperature, and
METAL FITTING
installation procedure is essential to ensure reliability.
7.8 Impact Loads PLASTIC

MALE
One of the assumptions made at the beginning of this
PIPE
chapter is that the load is gradually applied. In reality , THREAD
loads are often applied abruptly. This has the effect of
significantly increasing the stress and strain. However, PRESSED-ON
due to the elasticity of most thermoplastic materials, OR MOLDED-IN METAL
HOOP RING
recovery is usually complete and the assumption is
valid. Therefore, the steady-state stress and deflection
of the plastic part is, for all practical purposes, identi-
cal to that of the part loaded gradually.
However, when impact loading becomes severe,

impact failure can result. Figure 7.14 presents a
method for estimating an “impact stress” and
“impact deflection” for the case of a falling weight.
(It is interesting to note that when the drop height
is zero, the stress and deflection double.)
Many high-impact materials can survive very large strain characteristics are very different under rapid
deflections or strains during impact without the per- loading conditions as compared to the slow, steady
manent deformations or failure one would expect loading conditions used in normal testing of plastic
from the stress-strain curve of the material measured resin specimens. This partially accounts for the ability
at standard loading rates. Therefore, the calculated of many plastic parts to successfully dissipate large
impact stress of successful parts often appears unrea- amounts of mechanical energy when subjected to
sonably high. For many of these materials, the stress- impact.
52

The Fundamentals
Fig 7.14 · Estimating impact stress and deflection 7.9 Thermal Stresses
due to dropping a weight on the part When materials with different coefficients of thermal
expansion are bolted, riveted, bonded, crimped,
pressed, welded, or fastened by any method that pre-
vents relative movement between the parts, there is a
W potential for thermal stress. The typical case where
problems develop (see Figure 7.15) involves the join-
ing of nonreinforced thermoplastic parts with materi-
ys als such as metals, glass, or ceramics, which generally
have much lower coefficients of thermal expansion.
W
Figure 7.16 illustrates the equations for thermal
H expansion that apply in various situations. The basic
relationship for the thermal expansion of a part is
ΔL = αLΔT
DROP HEIGHT
where
Calculate static stress and
deflection from placing
ΔL = change in length
weight on part.
α = coefficient of linear thermal expansion
(see Table 4.01)
Static Stress L = linear dimension under consideration
(including hole diameters)
a
ΔT = temperature change
Static Deflection
ys If the part is confined so that it cannot expand or
Impact Stress contract, the strain induced by the temperature
change is
( )
2H ΔL
s= s 1+ 1+
ys εT = = αΔT
L
7
( )
2H
yi = ys 1+ 1+
ys The stress can then be calculated by multiplying the
strain by the tensile modulus of the material at the
given temperature. However, a typical situation
NOTES:
occurs where a plastic part is mounted to a metal part.
— This is only an estimate; actual testing is essential. While both expand due to a change in temperature,
— Calculated impact stress will often exceed ultimate the plastic usually applies insignificant load to the
stress listed in data sheets for high-imact materials. metal, while a considerable stress is generated in the
plastic. In this case, the approximate thermal stress,
σT, in the plastic is
σT = (αm - αp) EpΔT
where
αm = coefficient of thermal expansion of

the metal
αp = coefficient of thermal expansion of
the plastic
Ep = tensile modulus of the plastic at the
temperature in question
53

The Fundamentals
Note that as the temperature increases, most plastics Fig 7.16 · Equations of thermal expansions for
expand more than metals while their modulus drops. various conditions
This produces a compressive load in the plastic part,
which often results in buckling. Conversely, as the
FREE EXPANSION
temperature drops, the plastic part shrinks more than
the metal part and develops an increased tensile mod-
ulus. This can result in tensile rupture of the plastic L
CHANGE IN ANY
part. L = LENGTH OF BEAM
LINEAR DIMENSION
ΔL = αLΔT
In many assemblies, clearances around fasteners, fail- Δd = αdΔT
ure or yield of adhesives, warpage, or creep tend to

relieve the thermal stress. Good design practice allows
for these temperature changes, especially with large d Δd
parts, which can experience wide temperature swings.

Automotive interior and body panels are typical
examples of such parts. This is often done by allow-
ing for relative motion, as illustrated in Figure 7.16. d = DIAMETER OF HOLE
The relative motion, ΔLrel, between two attachment

points of joined plastic and metal parts RESTRICTED EXPANSION
in which motion is allowed is as follows:
L
ΔLrel = (αp - αm) LΔT
STRESS
?STRAIN
σT = EεT ?
εT = ΔL = αΔT
L
Fig 7.15 · Typical assemblies in which thermal
ASSEMBLY WITH METAL
stress can be a problem
PLASTIC
STRESS IN PLASTIC
σT = (αp – αm)EpΔT
RELATIVE MOTION
SHOULDER SCREW
PLASTIC
CAST IRON WASHER
PARTS ARE TIGHTLY BOLTED OR BONDED TO METAL
GLASS WINDOW RELATIVE MOTION BETWEEN

BONDED TO METAL PARTS AT SHOULDER SCREW
PLASTIC ADHESIVE
ΔLrel = (αp – αm) LΔT
PLASTIC
FRAME
PLASTIC
ASSEMBLY
STEEL
BOLT
54

The Fundamentals
8. Design Considerations back until a sufficient quantity of molten plastic accu-

mulates in front of the screw to fill the cavity in the
for Injection Molded Parts mold. The screw is then pushed forward under high
pressure to force the molten plastic through the
The most prevalent method for producing thermo- machine nozzle into the closed mold. Once in the
plastic parts in large quantities is injection molding. mold, the plastic flows through a distribution system
This is a highly economical, efficient, and precise called runners and then through gates into the part
manufacturing method, which can be highly automat- cavities. As soon as the plastic cools and solidifies in
ed and produces almost no waste. It does, however , the mold cavity, the mold is opened and the part is
require expensive machinery and tooling. removed.
In addition, certain established geometric and
other design considerations must be followed to con- The mold is usually heated or cooled to provide the
sistently produce quality molded parts. These design proper temperature for plastic solidification. The
considerations, or rules for injection-molded parts, mold also has some type of mechanical assist, called
are the subject of this chapter. ejection, to help extract the part from the mold. While
the part is cooling in the mold, the next shot is being
8.1 Injection Molding Process plasticized within the barrel. The mold then closes
A brief explanation of the injection molding process and the process is repeated. Although this is a very
is useful at this point to help understand the impor- elementary explanation of the injection molding
tance of proper design (see Figure 8.01). The molder process, it should be observed that the cooling time in
receives plastic resin in the form of small chopped the mold is usually the controlling factor in the total
pellets (usually 1/8 in. long). These are fed into the molding cycle time and, thus, a key factor in deter-
hopper of an injection molding machine, where they mining the production rate of the machine. An overly
fall into an augur-type screw channel, which feeds the thick wall section, even in just a small portion of the
pellets forward inside the heated barrel. As the mass part, can significantly lengthen the cooling time and
of plastic moves toward the front of the barrel, it is hurt the overall economics of the part.
plasticized or melted. The screw is allowed to travel
Fig 8.01 · Schematic of reciprocating screw injection molding machine
HOPPER
MOLD CLAMP SCREW

SYSTEM MOTOR
HEATER BANDS INJECTION
PISTON
MOLD
BACK FLOW SCREW TRAVEL
CHECK VALVE LIMIT SWITCHES
MOTORS, PUMPS, VALVES, OIL TANK,

HEAT EXCHANGERS, ETC.
CONTROLS
55

The Fundamentals
8.2 Design Strategy Fig 8.02 · Injection-molded one piece housing

In the design of any injection-molded part, the replaces fabricated sheet metal and many
designer should strive for the following goals: miscellaneous parts and eliminates most
assembly operations
1. Maximize Functionality
Since injection molds are costly, the engineer should SHEET METAL
design as much function as possible into each part.
This means that a single part may take the place of
many individual separate parts, eliminating assembly
operations, reducing weight, and frequently improv-
ing the overall structural integrity. Figure 8.02 illus-
trates this point by comparing a sheet metal electron-
ics enclosure with a well-designed injection molded
plastic replacement.
2. Optimize Material Selection

On the basis of the desired functionality of the part,
the operating environment, cost constraints, and any
special requirements, several candidate materials
should be selected for the proposed part.
3. Minimize Material Use

The minimum volume of plastic that satisfies the
structural, functional, appearance, and molding
requirements of the application is usually the best INJECTION MOLDED
choice. This contrasts sharply with machining opera- THERMOPLASTIC
tions, where one starts with a solid block of material

and machines away until only the material necessary
to make the part function remains. Figure 8.03 illus-
trates this contrast between a machined valve body
and a properly designed injection molded, equally
functional part. Fig 8.03 · Minimize material usage for plastic redesign
The remainder of this chapter presents guidelines for

implementing these goals.
8.3 Efficient and Functional Design

Injection molding should be considered when a
new part is being redesigned or an existing part is
redesigned. The key advantage is injection molding’s
ability to accurately and repeatedly produce multi-
functional or complex molded plastic parts in a single,
highly automated operation. Keeping this in mind
during the initial planning stage, one should consider
the following questions:
56

The Fundamentals
1 . If the product consists of more than one part, can 3. Agency Approvals
they be combined into a single molded part, eliminat- Refer to the material product data sheets to
ing extra materials, molds, molding operations, and ensure that the resin being considered meets the
assembly procedures? requirements of the end product. These approvals
could include Underwriters Laboratories (UL),
2. Can hardware items or other components be elim- Canadian Standards Association (CSA), US Food
inated from the proposed part by integrating them and Drug Administration (FDA), National Sanitation
with the molded part? Foundation (NSF), United States Department of
Agriculture (USDA), a variety of Military
If the answer to either of the above questions is yes, Specifications, industry-specific requirements, and
more work is probably needed in planning the most many others. Many of these approvals for any specific
efficient and cost-effective product. Of course, in resin grade can depend on such factors as minimum
some cases, trying to design multiple features into a wall thickness, color additives, fillers, and the operat-
single part or putting too much complexity into a part ing temperature.
causes the tooling to be prohibitively expensive or the
part too difficult to mold. This is especially true when 4. Assembly
the mold must open in many directions to eject the Check to ensure that the proposed material lends
molded part. The product engineer must weigh itself to the expected assembly operations. For exam-
the increased cost for a more complex tool against ple, certain classes of materials are difficult to solvent
the cost savings per unit over the expected bond, while others may not work well with ultrasonic
production volume. methods. (Consult Chapter 9 of this manual.)
8.4 Material Selection 5. Finish

The wide variety of injection moldable thermoplastic Determine whether plastic resin can be easily molded
materials often makes selection of a plastic resin very into the proposed product with the desired final
difficult. The chosen material is often one used before appearance. If not, can the part be easily and econom-
or one that a molder, toolmaker, or material supplier ically finished? (Consult Chapter 10 of
recommends. Unfortunately, the person making the this manual.)
selection may not fully understand the requirements
of the application or the properties of the plastic. 6. Cost
Therefore, the material selected is not always optimal. To determine the economics of using a particular
The designer should carefully consider the following resin, consider the cost per pound in the applicable
items, not necessarily in order of importance. color and purchase volume. In addition, look at the
specific gravity and typical molding cycle times of the
1. Temperature particular resin grade, since these affect the final
Determine the capability of the plastic material to molded part cost. The cost per unit volume of a par-
withstand the normal, as well as extreme, operating ticular plastic resin (or any material) is as follows:
temperature of the product. Be sure to check shipping 8
temperatures, sources of internal heat, and any assem- Cost/in.3 =
bly or finishing operations. Keep in mind that 0.0361 x Specific Gravity x Resin Cost/Pound
mechanical and electrical properties usually depend
on temperature. (Consult Chapter 4 of this manual.) The material cost of a part is obtained by multiplying
the cost/cubic inch by the part volume. Finally, a very
2. Environment rough part cost estimate is obtained by doubling the
Every substance, solid, liquid, or gas, that can come in material cost of the part.
contact with the plastic part over its expected life
span must be considered for chemical compatibility. 7. Availability
If the compatibility information is not obvious from Check to see that the chosen resin will be readily
the product literature, the engineer should consult available in sufficient quantities when needed
the material supplier and request or conduct for production.
specific testing if necessary. (Consult Chapter 6
of this manual.)
57

The Fundamentals
8.5 Nominal Wall Thickness Table 8.01 · Typical Nominal Thickness for
Of all the issues in plastic design, selecting the proper Various Classes of Thermoplastics
nominal wall thickness is probably the most impor-
tant and all-encompassing topic. Just about every Thermoplastic Resin Family Typical Thickness
subject addressed in this manual somehow relates to, Ranges (inches)
affects, or is influenced by the wall thickness.
ABS, Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene 0.045 - 0.140
Choosing proper wall sections sometimes determines Acetal 0.030 - 0.120
the ultimate success or demise of a product. While an Acrylic 0.025 - 0.150
inadequate wall section can lead to poor performance Liquid Crystal Polymer 0.008 - 0.120
Long-Fiber Reinforced Plastics 0.075 - 1.000
or structural failure, a section that is too heavy, even Modified Polyphenylene Ether 0.045 - 0.140
in just certain regions, can make the product unattrac- Nylon 0.010 - 0.115
tive, overweight, or too expensive. Although some Polyarylate 0.045 - 0.150
problems can be corrected after the mold is built, Polycarbonate 0.040 - 0.150
Polyester 0.025 - 0.125
such solutions are often expensive. Polyester Elastomer 0.025 - 0.125
Polyethylene 0.030 - 0.200
The following discussion on determining wall section Polyphenylene Sulfide 0.020 - 0.180
thickness should help the design or production engi- Polypropylene 0.025 - 0.150
Polystyrene 0.035 - 0.150
neer eliminate potential problems on paper (or com- Polysulfone 0.050 - 0.150
puter screen) rather than in tool steel. In many parts, Polyurethane 0.080 - 0.750
only some of the guidelines can be followed due to PVC, Polyvinyl Chloride 0.040 - 0.150
geometric, structural, or functional requirements, but SAN, Styrene-Acrylonitrile 0.035 - 0.150
at least the potential existence of a particular problem

is known in advance and remedial action can be
planned. For example, if a surface defect is discovered
to be likely to appear in a visible area during molding, Fig 8.04 · Some typical spiral flow curves
a texture, logo, or label can be planned for that
region. 1. Nylon 6/6
2. Thermoplastic polyester, PBT
8.5.1 Normal Ranges of Wall Thickness Liquid crystal — glass reinforced
Just as metals have normal working ranges of wall Polyphenylene sulfide — glass reinforced
thicknesses based on their processing methods (ie., 3. Acetal copolymer
casting, bending, forging, and extruding), so do injec- 4. PBT — glass reinforced
tion-molded plastics. The vast majority of injection-
molded plastic parts probably range from 1/32 in.
1 2 3
(0.80 mm) to 3/16 in. (4.8 mm), with the thickness
within that range generally related to the total size of
the part. That does not mean that parts cannot be
molded to be thinner or thicker, or that a big part 4
FLOW LENGTH
cannot be thin or a tiny part thick. However , these

norms can act as a starting point for the design. T able
8.01 shows some general guidelines for various classes
of thermoplastics.
The design engineer should also refer to data related

to the ability of a plastic resin to flow into the mold
cavity. This information, usually shown in the form
of spiral flow curves, gives a relative measure of INJECTION PRESSURE
how far one can expect the plastic resin to flow from
the gate. Figure 8.04 shows some typical spiral
flow curves.
58

The Fundamentals
8.5.2 Structural Requirements of the Nominal Wall 8.6 Draft

If a part is subjected to any significant loading, the On most molded parts, some part features must be
load-bearing areas should be analyzed for stress and cut into the surface of the mold perpendicular to the
deflection. If the stress or deflection is too high, the parting line. To properly release an injection-molded
following alternatives should be considered: part from the tool, plastic parts are almost always
designed with a taper in the direction of mold move-
1 . Use ribs or contours to increase the section mod- ment. This is commonly referred to as draft in the
ulus. This is often the most economical solution and line of draw. This allows the molded part to break
is discussed in detail in the structural reinforcement free by creating a clearance as soon as the mold starts
section. to open. Since plastic materials shrink as they cool,
they grip cores (male parts) of the mold very tightly .
2. Use a higher strength, higher modulus material. Without sufficient draft, normal ejection from the
mold can be difficult. Although exceptions occur, a
3. Increase the wall section if it is not already draft of 1/2° per side is considered a minimum, with
too thick. 1.5-3° per side being frequently recommended.
8.5.3 Insulation Characteristics of the Nominal Wall

Plastic materials are good insulators for electrical and Table 8.02 · Dimensional Difference versus Draft
heat energy. They can also serve as barriers and filters Angle Dimensional Change in Inches* for
for sound and light. In general, insulating ability is Various Draft Angles and Draw Depths
directly related to the thickness of the plastic. In the
case of sound transmission, change in thickness may Draft Angle (degrees)
be needed to change the resonant frequency of a plas-
1/8 1/4 1/2 1 2 3 4 5
tic housing (Consult Chapter 5 of this manual
for electrical properties.) 1 0.002 0.004 0.009 0.017 0.035 0.052 0.070 0.087
Draw Depth (inches)
2 0.004 0.009 0.017 0.035 0.070 0.105 0.140 0.175

8.5.4 Impact Response of the Nominal Wall 3 0.007 0.013 0.026 0.053 0.105 0.157 0.210 0.263
4 0.009 0.018 0.035 0.070 0.140 0.210 0.280 0.350
The impact resistance of a particular part is directly 5 0.011 0.022 0.044 0.087 0.175 0.262 0.350 0.437
related to its ability to absorb mechanical energy 6 0.013 0.026 0.052 0.105 0.209 0.314 0.420 0.525
without fracture or plastic deformation. This, in turn, 7 0.015 0.031 0.061 0.123 0.244 0.367 0.490 0.612
depends on the properties of the plastic resin and the 8 0.018 0.035 0.070 0.140 0.279 0.419 0.559 0.700
9 0.020 0.040 0.078 0.158 0.314 0.472 0.629 0.787
geometry of the part. Increasing wall thickness gener- 10 0.022 0.044 0.087 0.175 0.379 0.524 0.669 0.875
ally improves the impact resistance of molded parts.
However, increased wall thickness could hurt impact
resistance by making the part overly stiff, unable to
deflect and distribute the impact. Both of these meth- Fig 8.05 · Illustration of draft and associated
ods of absorbing impact energy should dimension change with draft angle
be examined when the nominal wall thickness is 8
being selected.
PARALLEL
DRAFT
8.5.5 Agency Approvals and the Nominal Wall DRAFT ANGLE
When materials are recognized for flammability,
heat resistance, electrical properties, or other charac-
teristics by agencies, these ratings are usually based DEPTH OF DRAW
on a certain wall thickness. When agency approvals
are important, the design engineer may be locked into
a thicker wall section than would be necessary for
DIMENSION
mechanical purposes. DIFFERENCE
59

The Fundamentals
The required amount of draft depends on the surface Fig 8.06 · Interaction of wall thickness, load,
finish on the mold. A highly polished mold requires stress, and deflection for a rectangular
less draft than an unpolished mold, and any surface cross-section in bending
texture increases the draft required by at least 1° per
side for every 0.001 in. depth of texture. When deep
DEFLECTION AT CONSTANT LOAD

% OF ORIGINAL STRESS AND
draws are required with only minimal draft, the prod- 100
uct engineer should consult with a toolmaker and 80
molder to see if the part can be properly ejected. 60
Sometimes special mold surface treatments or regular STRESS
40
application of mold release spray is necessary during DEFLEC
TION
20
production.
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Figure 8.05 and Table 8.02 provide a quick reference % INCREASE IN WALL SECTION
for determining the amount of dimensional change
required due to the draft angle. A general rule of
CONSTANT STRESS AND DEFLECTION

thumb used by designers and toolmakers is:
% INCREASE IN LOAD CAPACITY AT

800
1° of draft yields 0.017 inches of taper per inch length. 700
N
600 TIO
FLEC
500 DE
One of the difficulties encountered when draft is
400 SS
applied to a part is the creation of very heavy walls. 300
STRE
Sometimes these conditions can be remedied by the 200
use of parallel draft as shown in Figure 8.05. W ith 100
0 20 40 60 80 100
parallel draft, the wall sections can be kept uniform. % INCREASE IN WALL THICKNESS
8.7 Structural Reinforcement

To increase the load-carrying ability or stiffness of a
plastic structure, an increase is required either in the
properties of the plastic material or in the section Fig 8.07 · Example of the effect of ribs on
properties of the structure. Improving the material, rectangular cross-section
by changing grade or by going to a glass-reinforced
version of the same material, is sometimes adequate,
but is often not practical or economical. Increasing
the section properties, i.e., the moment of inertia and
the section modulus, is usually necessary. As previ-
ously discussed, thickening wall sections is often a
practical means of increasing section properties, but
economic limitations can exist in terms of material use
and molding cycles. The relative effect on load-carry-
ing capacity (maximum allowable stress) and stiffness
(maximum allowable deflection) for material changes
and wall section changes are shown in stant wall section of 0.080 in., the maximum stress is
Figure 8.06. calculated to be 6250 psi, and the maximum deflec-
tion, if the flexural modulus is 300,000 psi, is calculat-
8.7.1 Ribs ed at 0.694 in. It is determined that both the stress
If sufficient space is available, the use of ribs is a prac- and deflection are far too high and, thus, unacceptable
tical and economical means of increasing the structur- for the plastic resin chosen. To reinforce the structure,
al integrity of injection-molded plastic parts without a 0.040 in. wide by 0.400 in. high rib with 1/2° draft
creating thick walls. The efficiency of a ribbed struc- per side is added to the underside of the part. By use
ture can be seen in the following example. Consider of the new section properties, the calculated stress
the loaded beam shown in Figure 8.07 to be a simpli- drops to 2273 psi and the deflection drops to 0.026
fication of a section of an actual plastic housing sub- in., which is now deemed acceptable for both the
jected to a concentrated load of 5 lbs. Based on a con- resin and the application. To achieve the same reduc-
tion in deflection by thickening walls alone, the wall
60

The Fundamentals
thickness would be an uneconomical 0.239 in. thick. Table 8.03 · Summary of the Effect of Rib and
Besides being impractical to injection mold, the added Cross-Section change in example, Figure 8.07
thickness would triple the weight of the part. By con-
trast, the rib only adds 25% to the total section Cross-Section Max. Max.
weight. Table 8.03 shows a summary of the results of Geometry Area Stress Deflection
(square inches) (psi) (inches)
this example.
Although the use of ribs gives the design engineer 0.0600 6250 0.694
great latitude in efficiently tailoring the structural
response of a plastic part, the use of ribs can result in
warping and appearance problems. In general, experi-
enced design engineers do not use ribs if there is doubt
as to whether they are structurally necessary. Adding
0.0746 2273 0.026
ribs after the tool is built is usually simple and relatively
inexpensive since it involves removing steel.
Certain basic guidelines should be followed. The

most general is to make the rib thickness at its base
equal to one-half the adjacent wall thickness. W ith
ribs opposite appearance areas, the width should be 0.1793 699 0.026
kept as thin as possible. In areas where structure is
more important than appearance, or when dealing
with very low shrinkage materials, ribs are often 75%,
or even 100%, of the outside wall thickness. As seen
in Figure 8.08, a goal in rib design is to prevent for-
mation of a heavy mass of material that can result in a
sink, void, distortion, long cycle time, or any combi-
nation of these problems.
All ribs should have a minimum of 1/2° of draft per

side and should have a minimum radius of 0.005 in,
at the base. Generally, the draft and thickness require-
ments limit the height of the rib. Therefore, multiple,
evenly spaced ribs are preferred to single, large ribs.
Wherever possible, ribs should be smoothly connect- Fig 8.08 · Rib design for reinforcing
ed to other structural features such as bosses, side thermoplastic parts
walls, and component mounting pads. Ribs need not
be constant in height or width and are often matched BETTER 8
to the stress distribution in the part. 2t, MINIMUM
POOR
VOID
USE MULTIPLE RIBS
1/2° MIN. DRAFT

SINK RIB TOO THICK
L r
CORE THICK RIB
FROM BACK
RIB THICKNESS: tr = 1/2 t TYPICAL FOR APPEARANCE PARTS

tr
RIB HEIGHT: L = 1 1/2 t TO 5t
t
RADIUS: r = 0.005 INCHES, MINIMUM
61

The Fundamentals
8.7.2 Other Geometric Reinforcement necessary to create a pocket or opening in the part, or
Besides ribs, there are other acceptable methods of simply to reduce an overly heavy wall section (see
improving section properties. Many of these can Figure 8.11). For simplicity and economy in injection
often be worked into functional or appearance fea- molds, cores should be parallel to the line of draw of
tures of the part. Some typical examples are the mold. Cores placed in any other direction usually
shown in Figure 8.09. create the need for some type of
side action (either a cam or hydraulic cylinder) or
8.8 Bosses manually loaded and unloaded loose cores.
Bosses and other projections from the nominal wall
are commonly found in injection-molded plastic Blind holes in molded plastic parts are created by a
parts. These often serve as mounting or fastening core supported by only one side of the mold. The
points. Figure 8.10 shows some typical boss designs length of the core and depth of the hole are limited by
along with common problems. As with rib design, the ability of the core to withstand the bending forces
avoiding overly thick wall sections is important for produced by the flowing plastic without excessive
minimizing the chance of appearance or molding deflection. For this reason, the depth of a blind hole
problems. When bosses are designed to accommodate should not exceed three times its diameter or mini-
self-tapping screws, the inside diameter and wall mum cross-sectional dimension. For small blind holes
thickness must be controlled to avoid excessive with a minimum dimension below 1/2 in., the L/d
buildup of hoop stresses in the boss. Ribs are fre- ratio should be kept to 2. With through holes, the
quently used in conjunction with bosses when lateral cores can be longer since they are supported by the
forces are expected. Special care must be used with opposite side of the mold cavity. Sometimes the cores
tapered pipe threads, since they can create a wedging can be split between the two sides and interlocked
action on the boss. If there is a choice, the male rather when the mold is closed, allowing long through holes
than the female pipe thread should be the one molded to be created. With through holes, the overall length
into the plastic. of a given size core generally can be twice as long as
that of a blind hole. Sometimes even longer cores are
8.9 Coring necessary. The tool can be designed to balance the
The term coring in injection molding refers to the hydraulic pressure on the core pin, thus limiting
addition of steel to the mold for the purpose of elimi- the deflection.
nating plastic material in that area. Usually, coring is
Fig 8.09 · Modifications to nominal wall to improve structural response
HAT SECTION CROWNING

CORRUGATION
METAL
REINFORCEMENT BI-DIRECTIONAL
DOMING
CORRUGATION
62

The Fundamentals
Fig 8.10 · Design of bosses
1/2 t
t t
POOR BETTER BETTER
1/2° MIN 1/2° MIN 1/2° MIN
CORE FROM
HEAVY BELOW –
SECTION (PARALLEL
0.005 MIN
VOID DRAFT)
SINK 1/2° MIN
1/2 t
POOR BETTER BETTER
1/2 t LOAD
8
USE GUSSETS RATHER THAN
VERY THICK BOSSES WHEN
CONNECTING BOSSES TO RESISTANCE TO LOADING IS REQUIRED
OUTSIDE WALLS WITH RIBS
63

The Fundamentals
Fig 8.11 · Coring examples

POOR DESIGN SUGGESTED ALTERNATIVES
SINK MARKS
VOID
WARPAGE t t 1/2 t
t t
t
CORES FROM
BOTH SIDES
IF POSSIBLE
1/2 t
POOR RECTANGULAR MATCH OUTSIDE CONFIGURATION

PART WITH ROUND HOLES TO INSIDE CORES
8.10 Fillets and Radii

In the design of injection-molded parts, sharp cor-
Fig 8.12 · Typical stress concentration factor
ners should always be avoided. Although sharp
corner designs are common with sheet metal and
machined parts, good design practice in any materi-
al dictates the use of generous radii to reduce stress
concentrations. Metal parts often tolerate sharp LOAD
3.0 r
corners. Either the stresses at the corners are very
STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTOR, K
low compared to the strength of the material or

localized yielding redistributes the load. Neither of t
these phenomena is reliable in injection-molded 2.5
parts. Sharp corners, particularly inside corners,

cause poor flow patterns, reduced mechanical prop-
erties, and increased tool wear, as well as severe 2.0
molded-in stresses as the material shrinks onto the
r = 1/2 t
corner. GOOD DESIGN STANDARD
1.5
Besides molding problems, sharp corners are often
the cause of premature failure in plastic parts due
to the stress concentration. To avoid these prob- 1.0
0.5 1.0 1.5
lems, inside corner radii should be equal to half of
the nominal wall thickness. A 0.020 in. radius is r
RATIO,
considered a minimum for parts subjected to stress, t
and a 0.005 in. minimum for stress-free regions of a TO FIND STRESS DUE TO SMALL RADIUS,
part. Inside radii less than 0.005 in. are not recom- MULTIPLY CALCULATED BENDING STRESS BY K
mended for most materials. Outside corners should
have a radius equal to the inside corner plus the
wall thickness. Figure 8.12 dramatically shows how
the radius/thickness ratio affects stress concentra-
tion factors.
64

The Fundamentals
With an inside radius equal to half of the nominal 8.11 Undercuts

wall, a stress concentration of 1.5 is a reasonable Ideally, plastic parts are designed so that the mold can
assumption. For radii down to about 10% of the open easily, and eject the molded part without any
nominal wall, a stress concentration of 3.0 is a good part of the tool needing to open in any direction
first approximation. Standard tables of stress concen- other than parallel to the movement of the machine
tration factors should always be consulted platen. Some complex parts require other mechanical
for critical applications. movement known as side actions, side coring, cams,
pullers, collapsing cores, loose cores, etc., but certain
design techniques can achieve the desired geometry
with simple tooling. Figure 8.13 shows some exam-
ples of these techniques.
Fig 8.13 · Creating “undercuts” with simple tooling
CORE & CAVITY KISS-OFF

CREATING OPENING IN SIDE WALL
CAVITY USUALLY REQUIRES

5° DRAFT MINIMUM
CORE
DIRECTION OF MOLD TRAVEL

INJECTION-MOLDED
PLASTIC PART
SIDE WALL OPENING UNDERCUT
HINGED DOOR WITH MOLDED-IN

“THRU-HOLE” UNDERCUT
CORE & CAVITY

CAVITY
CORE EXTENDS KISS-OFF ALTERNATE CORING
THROUGH OPENING
FROM BOTH SIDES
IN PART LOCKING TAB
CREATED THRU
CORE HOLE FOR HINGE PIN
8
LOCKING TAB UNDERCUT
65

The Fundamentals
9. Assembly and radio frequency welding.

All of these methods depend on the interface or bond
One of the goals in plastic product design is to elimi- line between the two parts melting sufficiently to cre-
nate as much assembly as possible by combining ate a weld between the two parts. These thermal
components and building as much function as possi- methods are also used for staking, swaging, and with
ble into the design. However, most applications for other methods using heat deformation to assemble
plastics do require some assembly, and many meth- components. A limitation of these methods is that the
ods, which can be broken down into the following materials being welded must be compatible and have
general categories, are available to similar melting temperatures.
the designer:
4. Assembly with Fasteners
9.1 General Types of Assembly Systems Most of the mechanical fasteners used with metals
can be successfully used with plastics. In addition, a
1. Molded-in Assembly Systems multitude of fasteners are specifically designed for use
Molded-in assembly systems are generally economical with particular types of thermoplastics. Necessary
methods of assembly, since no additional fastener, equipment ranges from simple hand tools to sophisti-
adhesive, solvent, or special equipment is required. cated automatic machinery. Typical methods include
Examples are snap-fit, press-fit, pop-on, and molded- bolted assemblies, self-tapping screws, rivets, thread-
in threads. Key advantages of these methods are that ed inserts, spring clips, and any other mechanical
assembly is fast and inexpensive, and does not require devices that join parts together. The key advantages
additional parts or substances. They also effectively of these mechanical fasteners is that they are readily
minimize the chances of improper assembly, since the available, easy to use, do not require complex tooling
proper fits can be fine tuned into the tooling. The key or special preparation, and most allow for simple
disadvantage is that the tooling can be complex and nondestructive disassembly. Disadvantages are that
expensive, and some of the methods may not be suit- extra parts must be stocked, and care must be taken
able for parts that need to be disassembled. to prevent the assembled parts from becoming over-
stressed. Furthermore, creep can result in loss of pre-
2. Chemical Bonding Systems load if poorly designed.
Chemical bonding systems require no additional fas-
teners, but they do require chemical substances, fix- Many plastic assemblies employ a combination of
tures, and usually safety equipment. These methods methods. The most notable example is ultrasonic
use solvents and adhesives to create a joining of simi- injection used to install a threaded insert that engages
lar and dissimilar materials, and are well suited to a machine screw. Other examples are the use of elas-
applications where a liquid or gas seal is required and tomeric adhesives to create an air-tight seal in a bolted
where the use of fasteners would create a problem. assembly and solvents used to facilitate or strengthen
Furthermore, these joining methods generally do not a snap-fit or interference fit assembly.
create assembly stresses. Disadvantages of such sys- This section examines the various methods used with
tems are that adhesives or solvents could be toxic and thermoplastics and presents specific guidelines for
dangerous, and must be properly matched to the par- their use.
ticular grades of plastic or other materials being
joined. In addition, preparation and cure times could 9.1.1 Molded In Assembly Systems
be time consuming, depending on the system used.
9.1.1.1 Snap-Fit Assembly
3. Thermal Welding Methods For high-volume production, molded-in snap-fit
Thermal welding methods generally require no chem- designs provide economical and rapid assembly. In
icals or joining materials, but do require specialized many products, such as inexpensive housewares or
equipment. With the right equipment, assembly is hand-held appliances, snapfits are designed for only
fast, economical and generally considered safer than one assembly without any nondestructive means for
chemical methods. The most commonly used method disassembly. Where servicing is anticipated, provision
is ultrasonic welding. Others include thermal welding is made to release the assembly with a tool. Other
methods such as hot plate, spin, vibration, induction, snap-fit designs, such as those used in battery com-
66

The Fundamentals
partment covers for calculators and radios, Fig 9.01 · Snap-fit design for cantilever beam
are designed for easy release and reassembly over with rectangular cross section
hundreds or even thousands of cycles.
In all snap-fit designs, some portion of the molded

part must flex like a spring, usually past a designed-in 2.3
interference, and quickly return, or nearly return, to PROPORTIONED CONSTANT, K,
2.2 FOR TAPERED BEAM
its original position to create an assembly between
two or more parts. The key to successful snap-fit 2.1
design is having sufficient holding power without 2.0

exceeding the elastic or fatigue limits of the material.
1.9
Figure 9.01 shows a typical snap-fit design. Using the 1.8

beam equations, we can calculate the maximum stress
1.7
during assembly. If we stay below the yield point of K
the material, the flexing finger returns to its original 1.6
position. However, for certain designs there is not 1.5
enough holding power due to low forces or small
deflections. With many plastic materials, the calculat- 1.4
ed bending stress can far exceed the yield point stress 1.3
if the assembly occurs rapidly. In other words, the
1.2
flexing finger just momentarily passes through its
maximum deflection or strain, and the material does 1.1
not respond as if the yield stress has been greatly 1.0
exceeded. Thus, a common way to evaluate snap-fits 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
is by calculating strain rather
than stress. Compare this value with the allowable h L/ h o
dynamic strain limit (if available) for the particular
material. In designing the finger, it is extremely
important to avoid any sharp corners or structural
discontinuities, which can increase stress. A tapered
finger provides a uniform stress distribution and is
advisable where possible.
STRAIGHT BEAM TAPERED BEAM
L
L
Y (MAX DEFLECTION) hL
Y (MAX DEFLECTION) ho
ho
DYNAMIC STRAIN
DYNAMIC STRAIN
3Yho
3Yho =
= 2 L 2K
2L2
67

The Fundamentals
Since the snap-fit generally requires an undercut, Another type of snap-fit assembly system, which can
a mold with side action is frequently required, as sometimes be molded into the part, is known as snap-
shown in Figure 9.02A. Figure 9.02B shows an alter- on or snap-in. It is used most often on round parts.
native that works well when an opening at the base of Often larger portions of the part or even the entire
the flexing finger is acceptable. In certain cases, the part flexes, but the deflections are usually very small.
snap-finger can simply be popped off Figure 9.03 shows a typical example of a snap-on
the mold. assembly.
Fig 9.02 · Tooling for snap-fit fingers Fig 9.03 · Snap-on / Snap-in fits
SNAP-ON FIT
CAVITY
SIDE CORE
PROLONGED SNAP-IN
CORE
SIDE CORE MOVES DOWN TO MOLD UNDERCUT, AND IS

ACTIVATED UP TO ALLOW MOLD TO OPEN PRONGS
A) MOLDING SNAP-FIT FLEXING FINGER WITH MOLD USING

SIDE CORE
FULL PERIMETER SNAP-IN
DIM A
CORE
DIM B
CAVITY
BALL OR CYLINDER SNAP-IN
PROJECTION FROM CAVITY, THROUGH PART, AND MATING

R
WITH CORE FORMS UNDERCUT WITHOUT NEED FOR SIDE
CORE. IT DOES, HOWEVER, LEAVE SMALL "WINDOW" OR
OPENING IN MOLDED PART.
B) MOLDING SNAP-FIT FLEXING FINGER WITHOUT

SIDE CORE
68

The Fundamentals
9.1.1.2 Molded-in Threads Fig 9.05 · Alternative press-fit designs for

In this type of assembly, mating male and female metal pins in plastic hub
threads are molded into the parts to be assembled
(Figure 9.04). Molded internal threads usually require
some type of unscrewing or collapsing mechanism,
which complicates the tooling. Many external threads METAL PIN
can be molded by splitting them across the parting
line, as shown. The most common applications for STRAIGHT (INTERFERENCE)
molded threads are in containers and caps, molded PRESS-FIT CAN PRODUCE
HIGH STRAINS
plastic hardware, and liquid handling applications.
Molding very fine threads, greater than 28 pitch, is STRAIN =
INTERFERENCE
usually not practical. PIN DIAMETER
ALTERNATE PRESS-FIT
DESIGNS FOR LOWER STRESS
Fig 9.04 · Molded plastic threads
INTERNAL THREAD
ADD METAL “HOOP”

RING PREVENTING
EXPANSION OF
PLASTIC BOSS
THREADED CORE PIN IN TOOL MUST

UNSCREW AS MOLD OPENS
EXTERNAL THREAD
USE BARBS OR SPLINES ON

MOLD CAVITY THE METAL PIN TO CREATE
INTERFERENCE FIT AND
RETENTION
SPLIT CAVITY AT
PARTING LINE
MOLD CAVITY
CREATE
INTERFERENCE
PRESS-FIT BY ADDING
9.1.1.3 Press-Fits “CRUSH RIBS” TO THE
In a press-fit assembly, parts or components of a INSIDE DIAMETER OF 9
material are assembled to a plastic part, using interfer- THE BOSS
ence fits to maintain the assembly. The main advan-

tage of this system is that the tooling is kept relatively
simple, however the method can create very high
stresses in the plastic part. The consequences ers fracture or craze if the strain is too high. Except
of this stress depend on many factors, such as temper- for very light press-fits, this type of assembly can be
ature during and after assembly, modulus of the mat- very risky due to the hoop stress in the boss, which
ing material, type of stress, use environment, and might already be weakened by a knit-line. Figure 9.05
probably most important, the type of material being presents alternative methods of designing press-fits
used. Some materials creep or stress relax, while oth- that have a lower risk of failure.
69

The Fundamentals
9.1.2 Chemical Bonding Systems The key disadvantages of adhesive bonding are that it
is generally slow, requires longer clamp times, often
9.1.2.1 Solvent Welding requires more fixtures, and sometimes special ovens
This is a fast and economical method for joining like or curing conditions are necessary. Furthermore, sur-
or similar types of plastics. The principle involved is face preparation can be critical since any contamina-
to apply a substance, usually a liquid solvent, to dis- tion such as grease, oil, mold release, or even finger-
solve the surfaces of the joint areas sufficiently to prints can spoil a bond. With many hard to bond
allow the parts to be joined in a true weld after the materials, the surfaces must be mechanically rough-
solvent evaporates. The key advantages of this ened or chemically etched to allow the adhesive to
method are that it is inexpensive and requires little gain a firm grip.
or no part preparation or special equipment.
Figure 9.06 shows typical joint designs used for both
Of course, the use of solvent bonding is limited to solvent and adhesive bonding.
materials that are compatible and dissolve in the same
solvent or combination of solvents. The chemical
resistance of many plastic resins, particularly crys- Fig 9.06 · Typical joint designs for solvent
talline resins, limits the applicability of this method. and adhesive bonding
The key limitation of solvent welding, in applications

where it is otherwise suitable, is the requirement for
precautions in handling the solvents. Strict regulations
must be observed regarding worker protection, venti-
lation, and solvent recovery.
SIMPLE LAP
9.1.2.2 Adhesive Bonding
This method differs from solvent welding in that a
third substance, which has suitable adhesion to both
parts being joined, is introduced at the interface of
both parts. This third substance, called an adhesive,
JOGGLE LAP
is capable of joining plastics together with other plas-
tics, metals, rubber, ceramics, glass, wood, or any
other bondable surface.
Adhesives frequently recommended for use with DOUBLE SCARF LAP
thermoplastics are epoxies, acrylics, polyurethanes,

phenolics, rubbers, polyesters, vinyl, and many oth-
ers, depending on the plastic being used. Because of
their rapid adhesion to many materials, cyanoacry- TONGUE-AND-GROOVE
lates have become very popular in plastic assemblies.
Specific adhesive recommendations can be obtained
from both the plastic and adhesive suppliers.
However, the designer must test the performance of LANDED SCARF TONGUE-AND-GROOVE
the joint in the actual end-use environment.
Many adhesive systems also use solvents that partially

dissolve the plastic surface, thus improving adhesion.
BUTT SCARF LAP JOINT
It is important to check for compatibility since some
adhesives can strongly attack certain plastics and lead
to part deterioration and failure.
70

The Fundamentals
9.1.3 Thermal Welding Methods Fig 9.07 · Typical ultrasonic welding equipment
9.1.3.1 Ultrasonic Welding

Ultrasonic welding is an economical method for join-
ing small- to medium-sized plastics parts to parts of
the same or similar plastic material. This technique is
very rapid and can be fully automated. Welding
occurs when high-frequency (20-40 kHz) vibrational
energy is directed to the interface between the two
parts. This creates localized molecular excitation,
causing the plastic to melt. Pressure is maintained
between the two parts after vibrations stop, and the
melted resin immediately solidifies. The entire weld-
ing process normally takes place in less than
2 seconds and has high strength, sometimes approach-
ing the strength of the base material itself, provided
the joint design is correct and equipment is properly
set. Figure 9.07 illustrates typical ultrasonic welding
equipment.
The principle involved in ultrasonic joint design is to

concentrate the energy in an initial small contact area,
creating rapid melting and melt flow, which progresses
along the joint as the parts are pressed together. The Fig 9.08 · A basic shear/interference joint
bottom of the plastic part is held rigidly in a specially
made nest. The top part is properly aligned with the
bottom, usually by the joint design, but has freedom to
couple acoustically when contacted by the horn, which
transmits the ultrasonic energy.
Figure 9.08 illustrates a basic shear/interference joint INTERFERENCE

both before and after welding. Melting starts at the 0.005-0.012 in.
small initial contact area, and melt flow continues
along the vertical wall as the parts telescope together ,
creating a continuous, leakproof joint whose strength BEFORE
often exceeds that of the parts being joined. This joint
design is preferred with liquid crystal polymers and
with crystalline materials such as nylon, acetal, and
thermoplastic polyester and for any material where
high strength and a hermetic seal are required. AFTER
Fig 9.09 · Basic energy director joint design

9
0.010-0.025 in.
45°
The simple butt/energy director design that works
very well with amorphous materials is shown in
Figure 9.09 (also see Fig. 9. 10A). Before joining,
a V-shaped projection, known as an energy director,
concentrates the ultrasonic energy in a small area,
which quickly melts and creates a melt flow as the
Before Weld After Weld
parts are pressed together.
71

The Fundamentals
Figure 9.10 shows some typical joint designs com- Fig 9.10A · Energy director
monly used with injection-molded thermoplastic
parts. Exact dimensions vary with the material used,
equipment available, and part requirements. Both
plastic resin suppliers and ultrasonic equipment man-
ufacturers offer literature and design assistance with
equipment, fixtures, horns, part configuration, joint
design settings, cycle times, and worker protection.
They should be consulted during the part design
process.
Fig 9.10B · Shear joints
0.005-0.012 in.
FLASH TRAP
DOUBLE SHEAR JOINT

0.005-0.012 in.
0.005-0.012 in.
TONGUE AND
GROOVE SHEAR
JOINT
0.005-0.012 in.
0.001-0.004 in.
72

The Fundamentals
With hygroscopic materials, it is best to weld the Fig 9.10C · Scarf joints
parts as soon as possible after molding, since the
absorption of moisture can lead to weaker bonds. In
some cases, the parts may require drying just prior to
welding. Although ultrasonics provide a nearly ideal
welding method, following are some drawbacks. FLASH TRAP
30° - 60°
1 . Design and quality control of the parts along with
maintenance and settings of equipment are critical in
ensuring consistent high-strength welds.
2. Ultrasonic equipment is expensive and can become

uneconomical with large parts due to the power
required.
3. Parts to be joined must be made from the same or

very similar material, and there are some limitations Fig 9.11 · Ultrasonic staking, swaging,
with filled and reinforced grades. and spot welding
STAKING
It should be noted that the operating frequencies of
ultrasonic welding, 20-40 kHz, are above human FORMING DIE
hearing. However, sometimes a shrill sound is pro- ATTACHMENT
duced when a section of the part vibrates at a lower PLASTIC
frequency. This can result in a need for acoustic PART
enclosures or ear protection in the immediate area.
There is seldom any sound when welding is per- SWAGING
formed at 40 kHz.
FORMING DIE
Finally, ultrasonic equipment can also be used for ATTACHMENT
staking, swaging, and spot welding, as illustrated in PLASTIC
Figure 9.11. PART
9.1.3.2 Vibration Welding SPOT WELDING

In vibration welding, two parts are rubbed together,
producing frictional heat, which results in a melt at SPOT WELD HORN TIP
the interface of the two parts. The movement is in the
form of high-amplitude, low-frequency, reciprocating WELDED AREA
motion. When vibration stops, the melt cools and the
parts become permanently welded in the proper
alignment. Typical frequencies are 120 and 240 Hz,
and amplitudes range between 0.10 and 0.20 in. of lin-
Fig 9.12 · Typical joints for vibration welding
ear displacement. Vibration welding equipment
can also produce angular displacement when the 9
geometry or assembly of the product prevents
linear displacement.
Vibration welding, like ultrasonic welding, produces

high-strength joints and is much better suited to
large parts and irregular joint interfaces. Moisture
in hygroscopic materials such as nylon usually has
no adverse effect on the weld, as is the case with
ultrasonics. Figure 9.12 illustrates typical joints used
with vibration welding.
73

The Fundamentals
9.1.3.3 Spin Welding A proper joint design is essential to the ultimate suc-
Spin welding is a rapid and economical method for cess of the weld. Figure 9.15 illustrates five basic joint
joining parts with circular joint interfaces. As with designs. Since the preform material located at the
vibration welding, frictional heat is generated, creat- joint interface becomes molten when activated, it
ing a melt and subsequent weld. While one part is flows under pressure into voids and irregular surfaces
held fixed, the rotating part contacts it with a speci- to produce a reliable weld. Ideally, the molten flow
fied pressure, generating frictional heating. After the should be contained and subjected to an internal pres-
melting occurs, rotation is halted, but pressure is sure against the abutting weld surface.
maintained to create a weld when the interface solidi-
fies. The entire process usually takes less than While the addition of the magnetic preform adds
3 seconds and can be easily automated. Compared to some cost to the piece price, this increase is often off-
ultrasonic and vibration welding, the equipment is set by lower reject rates and gains in weld reliability .
very simple, sometimes just a properly equipped drill Induction welding can produce structural, hermetic
press for low production runs. welds in most thermoplastic materials
and can generally be automated for large volume pro-
9.1.3.4 Radio Frequency (RF) Welding duction applications with greater latitude in joint size,
This joining method, often called heat sealing, is widely configuration, tolerance requirements, and the ability
used with flexible thermoplastic films and sheets such to bond some dissimilar materials.
as vinyl (plasticized PVC) and polyurethane. However,
it can be used with injection-molded parts, most often However, a significant disadvantage of the method is
in joining them to flexible films. With this process, that no metal components should be present near the
welding occurs due to the heat created by the applica- weld line during welding. Therefore, for example, if
tion of a strong radio frequency field to the selected electromagnetic welding is used to seal the housing of
joint region. The field is usually applied by a specially a mechanism, either all internal components must be
formed metal die in the shape of the desired joint, nonmetallic or all metallic components must be in a
which also applies the clamping pressure needed to position so as not to be subjected to the RF field.
complete the weld. However, some plastics are trans-
parent to radio frequency energy and cannot be welded
by this method. Fig 9.13 · Preform in place for
electromagnetic welding
9.1.3.5 Electromagnetic or Induction Welding
Electromagnetic or induction welding uses the princi-
ple of inductive heating to generate fusion tempera-
tures in thermoplastic materials. A radio frequency
(RF) magnetic field is used to excite fine, magnetically
sensitive particles, either metallic or ceramic, to weld-
ing temperatures. The particles can be incorporated
into a gasket, preform, filament, ribbon, adhesives,
coextruded film, or the molded part.
The most common electromagnetic welding involves

an additional part added to the joint interface, as illus-
trated in Figure 9.13. The additional part is a “pre-
WELD MATERIAL
form” containing the magnetically active particles. It
is designed to provide a specific volume of material to
the joint during fusion. The preform is placed at the
joint interface and exposed to an electromagnetic
field. Electromagnetically induced heat is conducted
from the particles through the preform and to the
part joint as the parts are pressed together. As shown
in Figure 9.14, once fusion temperatures are achieved,
the preform material, under pressure, flows through
the joint interface and becomes an integral part of the
weld.
74

The Fundamentals
Fig 9.14 · The electromagnetic welding process Fig 9.15 · Five basic joint designs for induction welding
JOINT BEFORE AFTER
FLAT
TO
FLAT
FLAT
INDUCTION W TO
GROOVE
COIL
TONGUE
AND
GROOVE
BEFORE WELDING
SHEAR
W STEP
DURING WELDING
9.1.4 Assembly with Fasteners
9.1.4.1 Bolted Assembly

Standard fasteners, screws, bolts, nuts, lock nuts, lock
washers, and other specially designed products are
used frequently with injection-molded plastic parts.
Since these threaded fasteners are usually made from
W
steel, brass, or other high-strength metal, the plastic
parts being assembled can likely be overstressed well
before these fasteners break or strip. Therefore, good
design practice dictates that certain precautions be 9
taken to prevent excessive stresses when bolted
assemblies are used.
AFTER WELDING
The most obvious method for preventing a high-

stress assembly is to control carefully the tightening
of all fasteners with properly adjusted torque-limiting
drivers. This approach can work well when opera-
tions are confined to a factory assembly line, but field
or customer assembly presents a difficult control
75

The Fundamentals
problem. Even when torque can be controlled, some- Figure 9.16 presents common examples of high
times a poorly designed bolted assembly has an assembly stress problems that often occur with bolt-
impractically low assembly torque. In this case design ed assembly, along with some practical solutions.
modifications are called for.
Fig 9.16 · Bolt assembly, stress problems and solutions
POOR DESIGNS PREFERRED DESIGNS
PLANNED GAP BETWEEN ADDED

BOSSES PREVENTS EXCESSIVE
POTENTIAL HIGH BENDING BENDING OF HOUSING AS BOSSES
STRESS BOLT IS TIGHTENED TOUCH AND GO INTO COMPRESSION
TRUSS OR ROUND HEAD

SCREW
FLAT-HEAD SCREW
PLASTIC PART
METAL SUB-FRAME
POTENTIAL HIGH STRESS DUE ALTERNATIVE RECESSED HEAD

TO WEDGING ACTION OF AVOIDS POTENTIALLY DANGEROUS
SCREW HEAD WEDGING ACTION
STANDARD SCREW SHOULDER SCREW
PLASTIC PART
METAL
CASTING
WHERE TORQUE CANNOT BE CONTROLLED, AS IS THE CASE WITH

FIELD ASSEMBLY, SHOULDER SCREWS WILL LIMIT COMPRESSION ON
PLASTIC PART; OTHER SOLUTIONS ARE:
FLANGE-HEAD SCREWS LARGE WASHERS SHOULDER WASHERS
76

The Fundamentals
Fig 9.17 · Common threaded metal inserts 9.1.4.2 Threaded Metal Inserts
More common than bolted assemblies, threaded metal
PUSH-IN TYPE INSERTS
inserts provide metallic machine threads permanently
ADVANTAGES — SPEED AND LOW EQUIPMENT COST installed in the plastic part. These inserts come in a
DISADVANTAGES — HIGH INDUCED STRESS AND ONLY wide variety of types and sizes and permit various
FAIR HOLDING POWER installation methods. Inserts are typically installed in
molded bosses whose internal diameter is specifically
designed for the particular insert to be used. Some
inserts are simply forced into the boss, while others
are installed by methods that create stronger and
lower stress installations. Figure 9.17 illustrates some
of these inserts and the relative advantages and disad-
vantages of each. They all provide a permanent metal-
lic machine thread, eliminating the need for a nut,
allowing assembly with access to only one side
of the product. In addition to female threads, inserts
PUSH-IN TYPE INSERTS can provide threaded male studs, locating pins, and
ADVANTAGES — NO INSTALLATION EQUIPMENT
bushings. Follow insert supplier and resin manufac-
DISADVANTAGES — LOWER PERFORMANCE AND MODERATELY
HIGH INDUCED STRESS
turer recommendations for suitability,
boss dimensions, and installation procedures.
A very popular and preferred type of insert for just

about any thermoplastic material is the ultrasonically
installed type shown in Figure 9.18. This type of
insert is installed with the same equipment used for
ultrasonic welding. The resulting installation is strong
and relatively free of stress compared to many other
styles of inserts because the plastic melts around the
insert as it is installed. Installation is fast, economical,
and often performed by the operator at the molding
PUSH-IN TYPE INSERTS machine.
ADVANTAGES — INSTALLED WITH MINIMAL EQUIPMENT
DISADVANTAGES — SLOW AND THEY CAN CREATE

HIGH STRESS
Fig 9.18 · Ultrasonic inserts designed for
installation with standard ultrasonic equipment
9
ULTRASONIC
TYPE STUD TYPE
INSERTS ULTRASONIC
INSERT
ADVANTAGES — EXCELLENT PERFORMANCE

VERY FAST (OFTEN DONE AT MOLDING
MACHINE)
VERY LITTLE INDUCED STRESS
DISADVANTAGES— REQUIRES EXPENSIVE EQUIPMENT

SOMETIMES NOISY
77

The Fundamentals
9.1.4.3 Self-Tapping Screws Fig 9.19 · Typical screws used with plastics
Screws that create their own threads are widely used
with all thermoplastic parts. They are economical and
require no extra operations or special unscrewing
cores since the thread is cut or formed by the screw
during normal assembly operations. A cutting screw
actually removes material, like a thread-cutting tap,
THREAD-CUTTING SCREWS
and works with most materials. The forming screw, as
the name implies, actually displaces material and must
be used with caution, since very high hoop stresses
can be developed in attempting to form threads in
high-modulus, low-creep materials. Some screw
designs create the threads through a combination of
cutting and forming. Figure 9.19 illustrates some
of the many varieties of screws used with thermoplas- THREAD-FORMING SCREWS
tics. Two recent designs that are very popular due to
their excellent holding power and lower levels of
induced stress are screws that are not round but have
multiple lobes and screws with alternating thread
heights. These are also illustrated
in Figure 9.19. With all selftapping screws, certain HIGH THREAD
guidelines should be followed:
MULTIPLE LOW THREAD
LOBES
1. The diameter of the molded hole in the plastic ALTERNATE THREAD HEIGHT
part must be properly sized for the screw design and
grade of plastic material. An undersized hole can
lead to excessive hoop stresses in the boss and eventu-
al fracturing.
Fig 9.20 · A typical boss cap
2. The depth of the molded hole should be sufficient
to prevent bottoming of the leading edge of the screw .
A planned clearance is usually recommended, espe-
cially for thread-cutting screws.
3. The wall section of the boss must be sufficient to

resist the stresses created by the screw. As a general
rule, the outside diameter of the boss should be at
least twice the major diameter of the screw.
4. Avoid the use of thread-forming screws on

glass-reinforced and other very high modulus ther- assembly or against a properly sized metal washer if
moplastics. both parts being joined are plastic.
5. To avoid stripping or high-stress assemblies, 9.1.4.5 Sheet Metal Nuts

torque controlled drivers should be used on A wide variety of stamped sheet metal fasteners are
assembly lines. available to provide light-duty threads or push-on
type of assembly for thermoplastic parts. Boss caps,
9.1.4.4 Riveted Assembly as illustrated in Figure 9.20, are cup-shaped parts that
For fast, permanent assemblies, metal rivets are fre- can simply be pushed onto a plastic boss. In addition
quently used. Hollow aluminum rivets are often cho- to providing a partial metal thread, usually for a
sen. The major considerations in using rivets are 1) to self-tapping or sheet metal screw, they also tend to
use rivets with large heads to distribute the load, and reinforce the boss against expansion forces exerted
2) to form the rivet against the metal part of the by the screw.
78

The Fundamentals
Figure 9.21 illustrates a typical push-nut, which is

usually used in permanent light-duty assemblies. Push
nuts are similar to metal shaft retainers and are simply
pushed on a plain, molded plastic stud or boss. They
are easy to install, inexpensive, vibration-proof, and
work with most plastics.
9.1.4.6 Specialty Plastic Fasteners

There are many varieties of molded plastic fasteners,
which are satisfactory for many light-duty plastic
assemblies. They are especially useful for attaching
external appearance items such as trim, escutcheons,
and faceplates where metal fasteners would be unsat-
isfactory. In addition to plastic screws and rivets, a
wide variety of push-in plastic fasteners is also avail-
able.
Fig 9.21 · A typical push-nut assembly
STUD
PUSH-NUT FASTENER
SHEET-METAL
PUSH-NUT
FASTENER
TOP VIEW
SIDE VIEW PART
79

The Fundamentals
10. Machining, Finishing, easier and faster than others due to their physical and
mechanical properties. Generally, a high melting
and Decorating point, inherent lubricity, and good hardness and
rigidity are factors that improve machinability.
Ideally, injection-molded thermoplastic parts are fin- 10.1.1 Drilling and Reaming
ished as molded. For example, almost any type of tex- In addition to building prototype parts, drilling
ture or surface finish can be molded into the part, as and reaming are often required to enlarge, deepen, or
can almost any geometric shape, hole, or projection. remove the draft from a molded hole. In some cases,
In some situations it is not possible, practical, or eco- secondary drilling is a more economical solution than
nomical to have every feature or finish molded into side cores in a mold. Although specific requirements
the part. Typical examples where machining may be vary with material, the following guidelines apply to
required are certain undercuts, complicated side cor- almost all thermoplastic resins:
ing, or places where parting line irregularity is unac-
ceptable. Another common machining/finishing oper- 1 . Standard drill presses, as well as other drilling
ation with plastics is the removal of the remnant of equipment used for metals and wood, are appropriate
the sprue or gate if it is for drilling and reaming thermoplastics. Speeds and
in an appearance area or critical tolerance region of feeds must be controlled to avoid heat buildup.
the part.
2. Wood and metal drill bits can usually be used, but
Many plastic parts are decorated to make them multi- best results are obtained with commercially available
colored, to add distinctive logos, or to allow them to bits designed for plastics. These special drills usually
imitate wood, metal, and other materials. Some plastic have one or two highly polished or chrome-plated
parts are painted since their as-molded appearance is flutes, narrow lands, and large helix angles to quickly
not satisfactory, as may be the case with reinforced, expel chips and minimize frictional heating. For holes
filled, or foamed thermoplastics. Painting or coating is in thin sections, circle cutters, which are drills that
also used for part protection. This section discusses only cut the circumference and eject a round thin
some of the secondary operations frequently used plug of material, are often preferred for production.
with thermoplastic materials. Since plastics vary wide-
ly in their ability to be machined and to accept finish- 3. Table 10.01 gives the approximate drilling speed
es, this discussion is general in nature, with details left for thermoplastics. In practice, the drill speed and
to other literature dealing with specific resins. feed rate can be increased for maximum production
provided that there is no melting, burning, discol-
10.1 Machining oration, or poor surface finish For deep drilling, fre-
All thermoplastic materials can be shaped and fin- quent withdrawal of the drill may be necessary
ished with common equipment used for machining for chip ejection.
metals. In addition, many tools specifically used for
woodworking, such as routers, shapers, and sanders, 4. Drill bits and reamers must be kept sharp and
are well suited for thermoplastic materials. Since cool for good results. For high-volume production,
many materials are available in the form of sheets, carbide tools are sometimes preferred, especially with
blocks, slabs, rods, tubes, and other cast and extruded glass-reinforced materials. The first choice for cooling
shapes, initial prototypes are frequently made entirely is clean, compressed air, since no part contamination
by machining. occurs and chip removal is improved. If a liquid
coolant lubricant is required for deep drilling, water
The main problems encountered when machining or some aqueous solution can be used. Metal-cutting
thermoplastic materials are due to the heat built up by fluids and oils should be avoided since they may
friction. As the resin and cutting tools begin to heat degrade or attack the plastic and create a cleaning
up, the plastic can distort or melt. This can produce a problem.
poor surface finish, tearing, localized melting, welding
together of stacked parts, and jamming of cutters. It is 5. Plastic parts must be firmly held, fixed, or clamped
important to prevent the part and cutting tool from during drilling and reaming operations to prevent
heating up to the point where significant softening or dangerous grabbing and spinning of the work.
melting occurs. Some plastic materials machine much
80

The Fundamentals
Table 10.01 · Approximate drilling speed and feed 10.1.3 Sawing, Milling, Turning, Grinding,
rate for 1/4 – 3/8 in. hole in various thermoplastics and Routing
These cutting operations are usually used only for
Drill Speed Feeding Speed machined prototypes or very low-volume production
Material (RPM) (Low, Med., Comments of simple shapes. High-speed routing is sometimes
High) used for slotting or gate removal on injection-molded
Polyethylene 1000 – 2000 H Easy to
parts. Standard end mills (two-flute), circular cutters,
machine tool bits, wood saw blades, router bits, files, rasps,
and sandpaper can usually be used. As with drilling,
Polyvinyl 1000 – 2000 M Tends to tools must be kept sharp and cool, and feeds and
Chloride become
gummy speeds may be increased until overheating, gumming,
or poor finish becomes a problem. All machining
Acrylic 500 – 1500 M–H Easy to operations should provide for dust control, adequate
drill with
ventilation, safety guards, and eye protection. Inquire
lubricant
about machining information for each specific resin.
Polystyrene 500 – 1500 H Must have
coolant for 10.2 Finishing and Decorating
good hole
Since most injection-molded plastic parts are attrac-
ABS 500 – 1000 M–H tive as well as inherently resistant to corrosion and
Polytetra- rust, special paints, coatings, and other surface treat-
fluoroethylene 1000 L–M Easily drilled ments are used mainly to enhance eye appeal. Many
reinforced and filled resin parts, as well as structural
Nylon 6/6 1000 H Easy to drill
foam molded parts, emerge from the mold with an
Polycarbonate 500 – 1500 M–H Easy to drill, uneven appearance, and paint may be necessary in
some critical appearance applications. Common decorative
gumming
finishes applied to plastic parts are spray painting,
Acetal 1000 – 2000 H Easy to drill vacuum metallizing, hot stamping, silk screening,
metal plating, printing, and the application of self-
Polypropylene 1000 – 2000 H Easy to drill adhesive labels, decals, and border stripping. In some
Polyester 1000 – 1500 H Easy to drill
cases the finish gives the part added protection from
(PET, PBT) heat, ultraviolet radiation, chemicals, scratching, or
abrasion.
10.1.2 Thread Tapping Some conductive coatings are applied to the inside
Many plastic parts use self-tapping screws, threaded of the part for dissipation of static electricity and/or
metal inserts, molded-in threads, or other fastener electromagnetic shielding. Such coatings are common
systems. When a machine thread must be added after in computer and other electronic equipment housings.
molding, standard metal-cutting taps and dies may be With all coatings and finishes, a clean surface is essen-
used, provided the same precautions regarding heat, tial for a good bond. Care must be used to avoid con-
chip removal, tool maintenance, and lubrication dis- tamination. Common sources of contamination
cussed for drilling are observed. For production include oils, mold releases, the environment, and han-
of high volumes or with filled resins, carbide taps dling. In addition to cleaning with solvents and deter-
are recommended. Drilled or molded holes should gents, some plastics require primers, etching, sanding,
generally be larger than those specified for steel, or flame treatment to enhance adhesion. Following is
and threads finer than 28 threads per inch should a brief description of several widely
be avoided. used processes.
10
81

The Fundamentals
10.2.1 Painting tricity dissipation.

Most plastics can be painted, though some are
much more difficult than others. Materials such as 10.2.5 Hot Stamping
polyethylene, polypropylene, and acetal, which have This is a one-step economical process for selectively
waxy surfaces, or other crystalline resins that are transferring a high-quality image to a plastic part. A
very resistant to solvents, can be difficult to paint heated die transfers the pattern from selected transfer
and require special primers or pretreatments for satis- tape to a flat plastic surface. Lettering of decorative
factory adhesion. Many amorphous plastics designs can be transferred in pigmented, woodgrain,
easily accept a wide variety of coatings. or metallic finishes.
Although rolling and dipping are sometimes used, 10.2.6 Sublimation Printing
power spray painting is the usual method of paint Sublimation (diffusion) printing is a textile process
application. Among the coatings used for plastics are in which color patterns in dry dye crystals are trans-
polyurethane-, epoxy-, acrylic-, alkyd-, and vinyl- ferred from a release film to the fabric under high
based paints. Since many paints are oven cured, mate- heat and pressure. The process has been adapted to
rials must have sufficient heat resistance to survive plastics. The equipment is very similar to that used
this treatment without distortion. for hot stamping. Under heat and pressure, the dye
crystals sublime (go directly to the vapor phase from
10.2.2 Vacuum Metallizing and Sputter Plating the solid phase without melting) and the vapor pene-
In these processes, a special base coat is applied to the trates the plastic part. As a result, the decoration is
surface of the plastic part to be metallized. The part very durable and resistant to wear. It is also cost com-
is then placed in a vacuum chamber in which a metal- petitive against other processes such as two-stage
lic vapor is created and deposited on the part. injection molding or silk screening. The process is
A protective clear top coat is then applied over the generally limited to polyester and polyester-based
thin metal layer for abrasion and environmental resis- alloys due to the availability of dye technology from
tance. The simplest vacuum metallizing processes use the textile industry. However, new dyes are under
resistance heating to melt and vaporize the metal. development and the process is being applied to
These processes are generally limited to pure metals, more plastics.
typically aluminum, but also silver, copper, and gold.
A newer vacuum metallizing process uses an electron 10.2.7 Printing
beam to vaporize the metal. The sputter plating Lettering and decoration can be applied to most
process uses a plasma to produce the metallic vapor . materials by using various printing methods. Offset
Both the electron beam and plasma heating methods printing, silk screening, and pad printing are among
can be used satisfactorily with alloys such as brass, the methods adapted to plastics.
and are economical metallizing processes that can
produce attractive high-gloss finish. However, the 10.2.8 Decals and Labels
adhesion is generally low. These are usually self-adhesive, precut, printed pat-
terns on a substrate that simply adhere to the surface
10.2.3 Electroplating of a part. Decals generally use a transparent plastic
Many chromed automotive exterior parts are electro- film, while labels normally use an opaque plastic,
plated injection-molded plastic parts. After special metallic, multilayer sandwich base. When sufficiently
pretreatments, specific grades of plastics can be put thick, labels are useful for hiding occasionally
through electroplating processes similar to those used unavoidable appearance problems, such as gate and
in plating metals. Electroplated plastic parts are very sprue removal areas, sink marks, blush, splay, and
durable and provide lightweight replacements for die knit lines.
castings and sheet metal in demanding applications
such as automotive grilles and wheel covers.
10.2.4 Flame Spraying/Arc Spraying

In these processes, specialized equipment actually
deposits a fine spray of molten metal on the plastic
surface. The relatively thick, rough surface is general-
ly used in unseen internal surfaces for electromagnetic
and radio frequency shielding, as well as static elec-
82

The Fundamentals
List of Symbols εT – thermal strain

θ – angle of twist in torsion
A – area μ – coefficient of friction
E – modulus of elasticity ν – Poisson’s ratio
Eapp – apparent or creep modulus σ – normal or direct stress
Ec – modulus of elasticity in compression σa – allowable stress
Em – modulus of elasticity in metal σi – impact stress
Ep – modulus of elasticity in plastic σs – static stress
Et – modulus of elasticity in tension σT – thermal stress
F – force or load τ – shear stress
G – shear modulus
H – drop height
I – area moment of inertia
J – polar moment of inertia
K – stress concentration factor or NOTICE TO USERS: This design manual was written
to serve as a general purpose reference source for the expe-
proportionality constant
rienced plastic product designer as well as the design engi-
L – length
neer new to plastics. It should also be of interest to nonde-
M – bending moment signers and management personnel who need a general
P – pressure overview of the concepts and critical issues related to the
Q – shear force world of plastics. Although the manual is not a guide to
R – square of the ratio of inside to injection molding, many of the design considerations are
outside diameter based upon molding criteria, so those involved in the manu-
T – torque, temperature facturing and processing of plastic parts should also find it
Tg – glass transition temperature useful.
Y – deflection
W – weight Most design manuals deal with a specific family of plastic
Z – section modulus, a geometric property resins, and present properties, design criteria, assembly, and
other information related to these resins. The product line
ZI – section modulus, unsymmetrical beam
of Ticona includes crystalline, amorphous, liquid crys-
b – dimension
talline, and elasto-meric polymers. Due to this diversity,
c – distance from axis or neutral surface this manual deals with issues common to all injection-mold-
to maximum stress able thermoplastic resins. Tables, figures, and other descrip-
d – diameter or dimension tive methods are used to help illustrate significant design
di – inside diameter differences.
do – outside diameter
ds – shaft diameter The first part, Chapters 1 through 6, introduces the
h – dimension nature of plastic materials, their properties and testing
ho – height of tapered cantilever beam at methods. Key advantages, as well as limitations, of
fixed end certain thermoplastics are discussed. Where appropriate,
hL – height of tapered cantilever beam at we compare the properties of various engineering thermo-
plastics, often including the properties of metals or other
free end
structural materials. However, our goal is to review funda-
i – diametrical interference
mental concepts rather than list the various
ia – allowable interference testing methods.
na – neutral axis
r – fillet radius Discussion of specific testing methods from the numerous
s – dimension governmental, industrial, and standards organizations
t – nominal wall thickness, section thickness involved with testing is beyond the scope of this manual.
tr – rib thickness The second part, Chapters 7 through 10, deals with the
yi – impact deflection actual design of parts. It starts with structural analysis and
ys – static deflection injection molding considerations and concludes with assem-
Γ – geometry factor for press-fits bly, finishing, and decorating techniques. This part of the
ΔL – change in length manual will serve as both a general reference and a “how-
ΔLrel – relative change in length to” guide for those new to plastic design.
Δb – change in width
Δd – change in depth For further information on design-related topics, the
ΔT – change in temperature reader is urged to consult the following individual product
brochures: Designing with Celcon ® Acetal Copolymer
α – coefficient of linear thermal expansion
(CE-10), Designing with Fortron ® Polyphenylene Sulfide
αm – coefficient of linear thermal expansion
(FN-10), Vectra® Liquid Crystal Polymers Global Brochure
of metal (VC-7) and Designing with Celanex, Vandar®, Impet®,
αp – coefficient of linear thermal expansion & Riteflex® Thermoplastic Polyesters (PE-10). These may
of plastic be obtained by calling the Ticona Product Information
γ – shear strain Services Department at (800) 833-4882. Additional design
ε – normal strain information on Celcon® Acetal Copolymer and Celanese ®
εc – creep strain Nylon 6/6.
83
World-Class Engineering Polymers Contact Information
■ Celanex® thermoplastic polyester (PBT) Americas
Ticona Engineering Polymers
■ Hostaform® and Celcon® acetal copolymer (POM) Product Information Service
8040 Dixie Highway
■ Celstran,® Compel® and Factor® long fiber
Florence, KY 41042
reinforced thermoplastic (LFRT) USA
■ Celstran® continuous fiber reinforced
Tel.: +1-800-833-4882
Tel.: +1-859-372-3244
thermoplastic (CFR-TP)
Customer Service
The Fundamentals
■ Fortron® polyphenylene sulfide (PPS) Tel.: +1-800-526-4960
Tel.: +1-859-372-3214
■ GUR® ultra-high molecular
Fax: +1-859-372-3125
weight polyethylene (UHMW-PE)
email: [email protected]
■ Impet® thermoplastic polyester (PET)
Europe
■ Riteflex® thermoplastic polyester elastomer (TPC-ET) Ticona GmbH
■ Thermx® polycyclohexylene-dimethylene Information Service

Am Unisyspark 1
terephthalate (PCT) 65843 Sulzbach, Germany
■ Vandar® thermoplastic polyester alloy (PBT) Tel.: +49 (0)180-584 2662 (Germany)*
+49 (0)69-305 16299 (Europe)**
■ Vectra® and Zenite® liquid crystal polymer (LCP) Fax: +49 (0)180-202 1202
See example below for rate information:
* 0.14 €/min + local landline rates
**0.06 €/call + local landline rates
NOTICE TO USERS: To the best of our knowledge, the information
contained in this publication is accurate; however, we do not assume any email: [email protected]
liability whatsoever for the accuracy and completeness of such information.
Any values shown are based on testing of laboratory test specimens and Ticona on the web: www.ticona.com
represent data that fall within the standard range of properties for natural
material. Colorants or other additives may cause significant variations
in data values. Any determination of the suitability of this material for Asia
any use contemplated by the users and the manner of such use is the sole Celanese (China) Holding Co., Ltd.
responsibility of the users, who must assure themselves that the material
subsequently processed meets the needs of their particular product or
4560 Jinke Road
use, and part design for any use contemplated by the user is the sole Shanghai 201210
responsibility of the user. The user must verify that the material, as P.R. China
subsequently processed, meets the requirements of the particular product
or use. It is the sole responsibility of the users to investigate whether any Customer Service
existing patents are infringed by the use of the materials mentioned in this Tel.: +86-21-3861 9266
publication.
Fax: +86-21-3861 9599
Please consult the nearest Ticona Sales Office, or call the numbers listed
above for additional technical information. Call Customer Services for
email: [email protected]
the appropriate Materials Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) before attempting www.ticona.cn
to process our products. Ticona engineering polymers are not intended
for use in medical or dental implants.
Except as otherwise noted, all of the trademarks referenced herein are

owned by Ticona or its affiliates. Fortron is a registered trademark of
Fortron Industries LLC.
© 2012 Ticona TDM-1R2 5 /12 US EN

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Designing With Plastic

Designing With Plastic

1. Plastics Materials – An Overview 10

2. Physical Properties and Terminology 15

3.1 Basic Definitions 19

Designing With Plastic

5.1 Conductivity in Solids 36

Designing With Plastic

6.1 Factors Affecting Environmental Resistance 39

8. Design Considerations for 55

8.1 Injection Molding Process 55

Designing With Plastic

8.5.5 Agency Approvals and the Nominal Wall 59

10. Machining, Finishing and Decorating 80

Designing With Plastic

Designing With Plastic

Designing With Plastic

Fig. 4.06 Apparent modulus curves at different 34

Designing With Plastic

Fig. 8.06 Interaction of wall thickness, load, 60

Designing With Plastic

Designing With Plastic

1. Plastic Materials – Fig 1.01 · Example of Increasing Molecular Weight

Designing With Plastic

1.1.1 Thermoplastics Fig 1.03 · Thermoplastic molecular chains

Most thermoplastic molecular chains can be thought

The structure of thermoset plastics is also chainlike

Designing With Plastic

CRYSTALLINE AMORPHOUS LIQUID CRYSTALLINE

Designing With Plastic

Chemical Resistance Higher Lower Highest

Designing With Plastic

2.3 Water Absorption

2.4 Mold Shrinkage

Designing With Plastic

2.5 Opacity/Transparency Fig 2.03 · a) Material exhibiting elasticity

Designing With Plastic

2.10 Brittleness 2.16 Anisotropy

Designing With Plastic

2.17 Significance of Elasticity, Homogeneity, AFTER

Designing With Plastic

3.1 Basic Definitions

should be familiar to anyone who normally deals with

the next section, properties of plastics that represent a

Designing With Plastic

3.1.2 Normal Stress Fig 3.02 · Simple tension load

If the load is applied as shown, the member is said to

3.1.3 Normal Strain

Strain is a measure of the deformation of the material

In general, the extensions of materials under load are

1000με = 1000 X 10 -6 = 0.001 = 0.1% strain

Figure 3.03 illustrates a typical tensile testing arrange-

Designing With Plastic

For metals, Young’s modulus is normally expressed in

Fig 3.05 · Typical stress-strain curves

The constant E is called the modulus of elasticity,