CourseNotes HeatExchangers2008

HEAT EXCHANGERS
Prepared by
Bob Heaslip
KESCO
For Queens University

CHEE 470 – Fall 2008
CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION TO HEAT EXCHANGERS.......................................................................................................... 1
2 HEAT EXCHANGERS TYPES............................................................................................................................... 2

2.1 DOUBLE PIPE HEAT EXCHANGERS .......................................................................................................... 3
2.2 HAIRPIN HEAT EXCHANGERS ................................................................................................................... 4
2.3 PLATE & FRAME HEAT EXCHANGERS ...................................................................................................... 5
2.4 SPIRAL PLATE HEAT EXCHANGERS ......................................................................................................... 7
2.5 SPIRAL TUBE & HELIFLOW HEAT EXCHANGERS ..................................................................................... 8
2.6 AIR COOLED HEAT EXCHANGERS............................................................................................................ 9
3 TEMA TYPE SHELL & TUBE HEAT EXCHANGERS........................................................................................... 11

3.1 SHELL & TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER COMPONENTS................................................................................ 12
3.2 TUBES....................................................................................................................................................... 13
3.3 TUBE LAYOUT .......................................................................................................................................... 15
3.3 TUBESHEETS ........................................................................................................................................... 18
3.4 TEMA DESIGNATIONS.............................................................................................................................. 19
3.5 SHELL ....................................................................................................................................................... 21
3.6 BAFFLES................................................................................................................................................... 23
3.7 SHELL SIDE NOZZLES AND IMPINGEMENT PROTECTION ..................................................................... 25
3.8 TUBE SIDE CHANNELS ............................................................................................................................ 26
4 SHELL & TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER ARRANGEMENTS ................................................................................... 27

4.1 FLOATING HEAD HEAT EXCHANGERS.................................................................................................... 27
4.2 FIXED TUBESHEET HEAT EXCHANGERS................................................................................................ 27
4.3 U-TUBE HEAT EXCHANGERS .................................................................................................................. 28
4.4 HEAT EXCHANGER ORIENTATIONS........................................................................................................ 28
5 SELECTION OF HEAT EXCHANGER TYPE & ORIENTATION ........................................................................... 30

5.1 SELECTION CHART.................................................................................................................................. 30
5.2 HEAT EXCHANGER TYPE ........................................................................................................................ 31
5.3 FLUID PLACEMENT .................................................................................................................................. 31
5.4 SELECTION OF REBOILER TYPE & ORIENTATION ................................................................................. 31
5.4 SELECTION OF CONDENSER TYPE & ORIENTATION............................................................................. 35
6 SHELL & TUBE HEAT EXCHANGERS – THERMAL DESIGN............................................................................. 36

6.1 FILM THEORY OF HEAT TRANSFER........................................................................................................ 36
6.2 AN OVERVIEW OF HEAT EXCHANGER CALCULATION PROCEDURES.................................................. 39
6.3 BASIC DATA REQUIRED FOR HEAT EXCHANGER CALCULATIONS....................................................... 42
6.4 DETERMINATION OF DUTY, Q ................................................................................................................. 43
6.5 TYPICAL OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS............................................................................ 45
6.6 TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE, ∆T ........................................................................................................... 46
6.7 METAL RESISTENCE IN TUBES, rw .......................................................................................................... 50
6.9 FOULING RESISTENCES.......................................................................................................................... 51
7. ESTIMATION OF FILM COEFFICIENTS ............................................................................................................. 53

7.1 SENSIBLE HEAT TRANSFER TUBESIDE FILM COEFFICIENTS, hi ........................................................... 53
7.2 SENSIBLE HEAT TRANSFER SHELLSIDE FILM COEFFICIENTS, hi ......................................................... 57
7.3 CONDENSING FILM COEFFICIENTS ........................................................................................................ 60
7.4 VAPORIZERS AND REBOILERS ............................................................................................................... 64
8. PRESSURE DROP ............................................................................................................................................. 68

8.1 SHELL SIDE PRESSURE DROP............................................................................................................... 68
8.2 TUBE SIDE PRESSURE DROP ................................................................................................................. 69
9 THERMAL DESIGN – OTHER TYPES OF EXCHANGERS.................................................................................. 71

9.1 THERMAL DESIGN – PLATE & FRAME EXCHANGERS ............................................................................ 71
9.2 THERMAL DESIGN – SPIRAL PLATE EXCHANGERS ............................................................................... 71
9.3 THERMAL DESIGN – DOUBLE PIPE & HAIR-PIN HEAT EXCHANGERS ................................................... 71
9.4 THERMAL DESIGN – AIR COOLED HEAT EXCHANGERS........................................................................ 72
10 REFERENCES.................................................................................................................................................... 74
CHEE 470 Fall 2008
HEAT EXCHANGERS
1 INTRODUCTION TO HEAT EXCHANGERS
Heat exchangers are used in many different services in a typical chemical plant. The following lists
some of the services along with the common terms used to describe the heat exchangers services.
Chiller An exchanger which uses a refrigerant to cool a fluid to a temperature below

that which is achievable with water.
Condenser Condenses a vapour or mixture of vapours either alone or in the presence of

non-condensable gases.
Cooler Cools liquids or gases normally using water.
Exchanger Cools one fluid while heating the other fluid.
Heater Imparts sensible heat to a liquid or gas by condensing steam or a heat

transfer fluid.
Reboiler Reboilers generate vapour to drive fractional distillation separation. The

heating can be achieved via condensing a heat transfer fluid or sensible heat
from a fluid.
Thermosyphon Natural circulation of a boiling liquid is maintained by providing

Reboiler sufficient head to provide circulation
Forced A pump is used to circulate fluid through the reboiler

Circulation
Reboiler
Superheater Heats a vapour to a temperature above it's boiling point
Vaporizer A heat exchanger which vaporizes part or all of a liquid stream.
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The preliminary Process Flow Diagram project indicates that many heat exchangers are required.
The question is: what exchanger size, type and orientation is best for each service?
The following sections describe the various types of exchangers and give guidelines for selection
and design.
2 HEAT EXCHANGERS TYPES
There are several different styles of heat exchanger equipment in common use. These include:
• Double pipe heat exchangers

• Hairpin heat exchangers (multitube double pipe heat exchangers)
• Shell and tube heat exchangers
• Plate fin exchangers
• Plate & frame heat exchangers
• Spiral tube heat exchangers
• Spiral plate heat exchangers
• Air-cooled heat exchangers
Other types of heat transfer equipment not discussed here are:
• Tank jackets and coils

• Cooling Towers
• Fired heaters & Boilers
By far the most common is the shell and tube design. However, other styles are often suitable or
even preferable in specific applications.
The following describes each of these styles and indicates when they are suitable or not
recommended.
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2.1 DOUBLE PIPE HEAT EXCHANGERS
Double pipe heat exchangers are the simplest of all types. They are fabricated from two pieces of
pipe – one inside the other. One fluid flows through the inner pipe while the second fluid flows
through the annulus between the pipes.
Flow inside double pipe heat exchangers can be co-current or countercurrent.
Countercurrent Flow Co-current Flow
Advantages
• Inexpensive
• True countercurrent or co-current flow
• Easily designed for high pressure service
Disadvantages
• Difficult to clean on shell side.

• Only suitable for small sizes. They are generally not economical if UA > 50,000 Btu/hr-oF.
• Thermal expansion can be an issue.
Typical Applications
1. Single phase heating and cooling when the required heat transfer area is small.
2. Can be used for heating using condensing steam if fabricated with elbows to allow expansion.
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2.2 HAIRPIN HEAT EXCHANGERS
The hairpin heat exchanger design is similar to that of double pipe heat exchangers with multiple
tubes inside one shell. The design provides the flexibility of a U-tube design with an extended shell
length that improves the exchanger’s ability to achieve close temperature approaches.
Advantages
• Good countercurrent or co-current flow – good temperature approach.

• Can be designed with removable shell to allow cleaning & inspection.
• Use of finned tubes results in compact design for shellside fluids with low heat transfer
coefficients.
• Easily designed for high pressure service.
• Able to handle large temperature difference between the shell and tube sides without using
expansion joints.
• All connections are at one end of the exchanger.
Disadvantages
• Designs are proprietary – limited number of manufacturers.

• Relatively expensive.
• Limited size – Not economical if UA > 150,000 Btu/hr-oF.
Single phase heating and cooling when the required heat transfer area is relatively small. Often
found in high pressure services and where there is a large temperature difference between the shell
and tubeside fluids.
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2.3 PLATE & FRAME HEAT EXCHANGERS
A plate and frame heat exchanger is a compact heat exchanger where thin corrugated plates are
stacked in contact with each other, and the two fluids flow separately along adjacent channels in the
corrugation. The closure of the stacked plates may be by clamped gaskets, brazed (usually copper
brazed stainless steel), or welded (stainless steel, copper, titanium), the most common type being
the first, for ease of inspection and cleaning.
Advantages
• Very compact design

• High heat transfer coefficients (2 – 4 times shell & tube designs)
• Expandable by adding plates
• Ease of maintenance
• Plates manufactured in many alloys
• All connections are at one end of the exchanger
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• Good temperature approaches

• Fluid residence time is very short
• No dead spots
• Leakage (if it should occur) is generally to the outside – not between the fluids
• Low fouling due to high turbulence
Disadvantages
• Designs are proprietary – limited number of manufacturers

• Gaskets limit operating pressures and temperatures & require good maintenance
• Typical maximum design pressures are 150-250 psig.
• Gasket compatible with fluids are not always available
• Poor ability to handle solids – due to close internal clearances
• High pressure drop
• Not suitable for hazardous materials
• Not suitable in vacuum service.
Low pressure and temperature single phase heating and cooling when fluids are not hazardous, a
high pressure drop can be tolerated and alloys are required for the fluids being handled.
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2.4 SPIRAL PLATE HEAT EXCHANGERS
Spiral plate heat exchangers are fabricated from two metal plates that are wound around each other.
One process fluid stream enters the exchanger at the centre and flows outwards while the second
fluid enters on the outside and flows inward. This creates almost a true countercurrent flow. See
attached information from Alfa Laval for more information.
Advantages
• Single flow paths reduce fouling rates associated with fluids containing solids.
• Ability to handle two highly fouling fluids
• No dead spots for solids to collect inside exchanger
• Countercurrent flow
• Manufactured in many alloys
• Very low pressure drop
Disadvantages

• Generally more expensive than shell & tube designs
1. Liquid/liquid heating, cooling or heat recovery, where one or both of the fluids may cause fouling.
2. Vapour/liquid condensing, particularly at very low pressure and/or high-volume flow.
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2.5 SPIRAL TUBE & HELIFLOW HEAT EXCHANGERS
Spiral tube type heat exchangers are fabricated from coiled tubing. In some cases the tubing is
installed inside a fabricated bundle to provide a compact stand alone heat exchanger.
These exchangers are used primarily for small services such as pump seal fluid and sample coolers.
See attached article "Graham Spiral Flow Heat Exchangers.pdf" for a more detailed description.
Advantages
• Compact very inexpensive exchanger for small applications

• Can handle high pressures
Disadvantages
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2.6 AIR COOLED HEAT EXCHANGERS
Air cooled heat exchangers use ambient air for cooling and condensing. They are typically used in
locations where there is a shortage of cooling water.
Air-cooled heat exchangers are usually used when the heat exchanger outlet temperature is at least
20 oF above the maximum expected ambient air temperature. They can be designed for closer
approach temperatures, but often become expensive compared to a combination of a cooling tower
and a water-cooled exchanger.
Air cooled heat exchangers use electrically driven fans to move air across a bank of tubes. There
are two basic arrangements:
• Induced draft Fans draw air through the tube banks.

• Forced draft Fans blow air through the tube banks.
Air cooled exchangers are expensive compared to water cooled exchangers due to their large size,
low heat transfer coefficients on the air size, and structural and electrical requirements. In addition
air cooler exchangers require large plot areas and must be designed to handle diurnal and seasonal
changes in air temperature.
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The very low heat transfer coefficient associated with air on the outside of the tubes is partially
overcome through extensive use of finned tubes to increase the outside surface area.
Cutaway view of
Finned Tubes
Changes in ambient air temperatures are often handled by using variable speed or pitch fans to
adjust the air flow. In cold climates, it may be necessary to design in the ability to recirculate air to
prevent freezing in the process.
Smaller units (similar to radiators) are available and commonly used for small duty applications.
Advantages
• Do not use water for cooling
Disadvantages
• Requires large plot area

• Expensive
• Fins can plug in "dirty" environments
• Fans can be noisy
Cooling and condensing where cooling water is unavailable or is uneconomical to use.
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3 TEMA TYPE SHELL & TUBE HEAT EXCHANGERS

Shell and tube heat exchangers are known as the work-horse of the chemical process industry and
represent the most widely used vehicle for transfer of heat in industrial applications. In essence, a
shell and tube exchanger is a pressure vessel with many tubes inside of it. One process fluids flows
through the tubes of the exchanger while the other fluid flows outside of the tubes within the shell.
The tube side and shell side fluids are separated by a tube sheet.
Shell and tube exchangers can be configured for liquid-liquid, gas-liquid, condensing, or vaporizing
heat transfer.
Shell and tube heat exchangers have the ability to transfer large amounts of heat in relatively low
cost, serviceable designs. They can provide large amounts of effective heat transfer surface while
minimizing the requirements of floor space, liquid volume and weight. Shell and tube heat
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exchangers are available in a wide range of sizes and configurations. They have been used in
industry for over 150 years, so the thermal technologies and manufacturing methods are well
defined. Tube surfaces from standard to exotic metals with plain or enhanced surface
characteristics are widely available. They often provide the least costly mechanical design for the
flows, liquids and temperatures associated with a particular process.
Shell and tube heat exchangers have the following advantages:
• Relatively inexpensive
• Easy to clean
• Available in many sizes
• Compact design
• Available in many different materials
• Can be designed for high pressures without excessive cost
• Design principles well known
• Many different manufacturers
3.1 SHELL & TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER COMPONENTS
The components of a shell and tube heat exchanger are illustrated below.
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The principle components are:
• shell
• shell cover
• tubes
• channel
• channel cover
• tubesheet
• baffles, and
• nozzles
Other components include tie-rods and spacers, pass partition plates (channel partitions),
impingement plates, longitudinal baffles, sealing strips, and supports.
3.2 TUBES
The tubes are the basic component of a shell and tube heat exchanger, providing the heat transfer
surface between the fluid flowing through the inside of the tubes and the other fluid flowing across
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the outside of the tubes. Tubes are available in a variety of diameters, wall thicknesses, lengths and
materials of construction. Common materials of construction include carbon steel, copper and
stainless steel. Many other alloys of nickel, titanium or aluminium are available for specific
requirements.
The tubes may be either bare or have extended or enhanced surfaces – usually on the outside.
Extended surfaces such as finned tubes can increase the heat transfer area on the outside of the
tubes by two to four times that of a bare tube and this area ratio helps to offset a lower outside heat
transfer coefficient.
Finned Tubes
Tube sizes refer to the outside diameter. Standard exchanger tube diameters are 3/4 inch (19.05
mm) or 1 inch (25.4 mm). Larger (1-1/4, 1-1/2 or 2 inch) are sometimes used where a low pressure
drop is required; e.g. vacuum condensers. 1/2 or 5/8 inch tubes are sometimes used with off-the-
shell vendor’s standard design units for clean services. It is difficult to clean tubes smaller than ¾
inch and therefore these tubes are not normally used in process service.
Tube wall thicknesses are normally given in terms of Birmingham Wire Gauge (BWG) as follows:
BW Gauge Thickness, in Thickness, mm
12 0.109 2.77
14 0.083 2.11
16 0.065 1.65
18 0.049 1.24
Carbon steel tubes will normally be 12 or 14 gauge which includes an allowance for corrosion. Alloy
tubes will normally be 18 gauge. 16 gauge tubes may be used if the process fluid contains solids
that may cause erosion, if required for high pressure or if the tubes are to be regularly cleaned
mechanically.
A listing of common heat exchanger tube dimensions is included on the next page.
Tubes may be seamless or welded. Typically there is no difference in performance between

seamless and welded tubes and the decision on type of tube is made based on availability and cost.
Tubes lengths are normally specified in 2 foot increments up to 24 feet long.
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Heat Exchanger Tube Dimensional Data

Courtesy of Kern
3.3 TUBE LAYOUT
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Tubes are installed in the heat exchanger in a specific pattern, the most common being triangular
although a square pattern is sometimes used. In addition, the tubes are spaced at equal intervals –
the distance from tube centre to tube centre is called the tube pitch. TEMA requires that the ratio of
tube pitch to the outside diameter be 1.25 or greater. In practice, the minimum pitch is usually used
to keep the shell diameter as small as possible. However, larger pitches are sometimes used to
reduce shell side pressure drop or to facilitate cleaning of the outer tube surfaces.
Triangular layouts are either 30o or 60o as shown below. Square layouts are either 90o or 45o.
Triangular layouts give a higher heat transfer coefficient and pressure drop than square layouts,
particularly for sensible heating and cooling of single-phase fluids and for condensing. The
difference is not great for vaporization and as a result square layouts are often used for shell side
vaporizers – particularly when the process is such that the shell side of the exchanger requires
frequent cleaning.
Tube Layouts
Tube sheet layout charts providing tube counts for various shell diameters are provided on the
following pages. Note that these charts assume that the shell is completely filled. This may not
always be the case, especially if impingement protection as described later is required.
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Tube Layouts for Square Pitch

Courtesy of Kern
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Tube Layouts for Triangular Pitch

Courtesy of Kern
3.3 TUBESHEETS
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Tubesheets are the plates that support the ends of the tubes. The tube to tubesheet joint must be
mechanically strong enough to resist the forces that would tend to separate the tube from the
tubesheet during operation and it must be leak tight. Typically tubes are “rolled” or mechanically
expanded into grooves that have been cut inside the tube holes. Often, tubes are also “seal welded”
at the face of the tubesheet to prevent leakage. Sometimes, a deeper penetration “strength weld” is
specified to provide additional mechanical integrity.
The tubesheet is normally a single round plate drilled in the appropriate pattern to accept the tubes,
tie-rods, spacers and gaskets.
Freshly Machined Tubesheet Face Showing

Tubesheet Grooved & Rolled Tubes
The tube sheet, in addition to its mechanical requirements must (like the tubes) be capable of
withstanding corrosive attack by both fluids in the heat exchanger. Sometimes, to save costs, tube
sheets are fabricated with carbon steel and then faced with a more expensive material.
3.4 TEMA DESIGNATIONS
Because of the number of variations in mechanical designs for the front and rear heads and shells,
TEMA (Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association, www.tema.org) has designated a system of
notations that correspond to each major type of front heat, shell style and rear head. The TEMA
standard notation system is shown on the next page.
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3.5 SHELL
The shell is simply the container for the shell side fluid. The shell is normally a cylinder fabricated
from a pipe (for smaller diameter shells) or by rolling a plate (for larger diameter shells).
Shell
The shell side of a shell and tube exchanger contains the most metal and therefore, for reasons of
economy, the fluid that requires the most expensive metallurgy is placed on the tube side whenever
possible.
Shells are specified by their inside diameter. However, standard pipe sizes are used for shells
where practical. For example a standard 23 inch shell may be a section of 24-inch pipe with a wall
thickness of 3/8-inch (schedule 20) with an actual inside diameter of 23.25 inches.
Since a large part of the cost of fabricating an exchanger is related to rolling the shell, it is desirable
to keep the shell diameter as small as possible. Long “skinny” exchangers are usually less
expensive than short “fat” exchangers of the same area. However, the layout or placement of the
exchanger amongst other process equipment must be considered in this decision. For example if
the exchanger has a removable bundle, the space that must be reserved for the exchanger is over
twice the length.
Expansion Joint
The single pass TEMA “E” shell is by far the most common type used. A shell expansion joint may
be required for fixed tubesheet exchangers (TEMA type BEM or AEL exchangers). The decision as
to whether an expansion joint is required is part of the mechanical design of the exchanger.
However, the process engineer must take into consideration that the type of exchanger selected
may result in the need for an expansion joint which will increase the cost of the exchanger.
TEMA "E" Shell
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The TEMA “F” shell in theory offers the possibility of approaching countercurrent flow in a two-pass
exchanger. However, in practice, there may be substantial thermal leakage across the longitudinal
baffle in an F shell exchanger and it is seldom that the extra costs associated with an F shell can be
justified by superior performance.
TEMA "F" Shell
There are a number of shell styles that are used for special cases. The “J” shell is sometimes used
for shell side condensation where a low pressure drop is required.
TEMA "J" Shell
The “X” shell, or cross flow exchanger, gives even lower pressure drops and is often used for
vacuum condensation.
TEMA "X" Shell
The “K” shell is used for kettle reboilers; the oversized shell allows space for disengagement of
vapour from liquid.
TEMA "K" Shell
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3.6 BAFFLES
Baffles serve two functions.
The first function is to support the tubes in the proper position during assembly and operation of the
heat exchanger. This support is necessary to prevent flow induced vibration in the tubes which can
quickly lead to tube failure.
The second function is to guide the shell side flow back and forth across the tubes (as illustrated
below), increasing the velocity and therefore the heat transfer coefficient.
The most common baffle shape is single segmental. The percent of the inside diameter that is
removed is referred to as the baffle cut and must be less than 50% to ensure that adjacent baffles
overlap at least one full tube row (otherwise the centre tubes would be unsupported along their full
length). When a liquid is flowing on the shell-side of a heat exchanger, baffle cuts of 20 to 25% of
the diameter are common. Baffle cuts of 40-45% are common for condensation of steam and other
pure component vapours as well as for sensible heat transfer in low pressure gases where low
pressure drops are required.
Baffles
U-Tube Heat Exchanger Bundle
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For many high velocity gas flows, use of a single segmental baffle configuration results in high shell-
side pressure drops. One way to reduce the pressure drop is to use double segmental baffles. Note
that use of double segmental baffles will reduce velocities in the shell-side of the exchanger which
will in turn reduce the heat transfer coefficient.
Single Segmental Baffles Double Segmental Baffles
Baffle orientation refers to the positioning of the baffle relative to the shell inlet nozzle. “Horizontal
segmental” means that the baffle edges are perpendicular to the nozzle centre line. This is the
normal arrangement.
“Vertical segmental” baffles (baffle edges parallel to the inlet nozzle centreline) are used for
horizontal shell side condensers, where the condensate will collect in the bottom of the shell. Note
that with this arrangement, notches are normally cut in the baffles at the lowest points to facilitate
liquid drainage from the exchanger.
Horizontal Segmental Vertical Segmental
The baffle spacing is the distance between adjacent baffles. In general, the baffle spacing is chosen
to make the free flow areas through the “window” (the area between the baffle edge and the shell)
and the area across the tube bank roughly equal. This normally gives a baffle spacing equal to 40-
60% of the shell diameter. Closer spacings give a higher pressure drop and promote bypassing,
while wider spacings allow “dead zones” and recirculation downstream of the baffles. Baffle
spacings at the ends of the bundle are determined by the nozzle sizes.
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3.7 SHELL SIDE NOZZLES AND IMPINGEMENT PROTECTION
From a thermal designer’s point of view the main requirement of the nozzles is that they be large
enough to avoid significant pressure drop. When rating an exchanger, one should always look at
the nozzle pressure drops as a percentage of the total. Where the total pressure drop is significant,
the nozzles should contribute at most 15-20% of the total. Nozzle sizing is particularly important in
vacuum services.
The fluid entering the heat exchanger on the shell side can cause the tubes to vibrate. The
vibrations can cause tube failure due to fatigue and/or wear where the tubes strike each other or
contact the baffles. For this reason an impingement plate or other means of protection is almost
always required under the shell side inlet nozzle when the shell side fluid is a gas or a condensing
vapour. Impingement protection is also required for liquids unless the velocity is low enough so that
ρV2 < 3500 lb/ft-sec2 (ρ is density in lbs/ft3, V is the velocity in ft/sec). For small heat exchangers it is
often worthwhile to increase the nozzle diameter to avoid the need for impingement protection.
Impingement protection often takes the form of a plate located below the inlet nozzle. An alternative
is for three or more rows of solid rods the same diameter as the tubes to be installed under the inlet
nozzle. This is preferable to an impingement plate in larger exchangers as it permits the shell side
fluid to assume its normal velocity distribution without the disruption of flow around the plate. In
addition the pressure drop in the inlet region is lower and the possibility of localized high velocities
impacting the tubes around the edge of the plate is eliminated.
Another design feature used to prevent damage due to flow induced vibration is the "no tubes in the
window" design. With this arrangement every tube is supported by every baffle and there are no
tubes installed in the baffle cut area.
It is important to note that provision for an impingement plate requires removal of tubes under the
nozzle which will result in a larger diameter shell being required for the same heat transfer area.
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3.8 TUBE SIDE CHANNELS
The tube-side channels (commonly referred to as the heads) control the flow of the tube-side fluid
into and out of the tubes. Since the tube side fluid is generally the most corrosive, these
components are often constructed of or lined with alloys.
Bonnets are the least costly heads (TEMA type BEM) and are normally used on small exchangers.
Bonnets have the disadvantage of making it necessary to disconnect piping and completely remove
the head to allow access to the tube sheet for cleaning or maintenance. Channels with bolted and
gasketed covers (TEMA type AEL) permit access to the tubes by simply removing the channel
covers; thereby eliminating the need to disturb the piping. This is an advantage for larger
exchangers with heavy piping.
Pass Divider
Bonnet Type Head Channel with Gasketed Cover
Pass dividers are installed in the tube-side channels to allow multiple tube-side passes. The pass
dividers are arranged to direct the tube flows in such a way as to create equal velocities (i.e. an
equal number of tubes) in each pass. The pass dividers are fabricated from the same materials as
the channels.
Illustrated below are TEMA head designs which allow thermal expansion of the bundle within the
shell. Use of these head types may avoid using an expansion joint on the shell. Note that the
TEMA T arrangement is basically a U-tube bundle with an internal head.
TEMA W TEMA T TEMA S

Externally Sealed Pull Through Floating Head
Floating Tubesheet Floating Head with Backing Device
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4 SHELL & TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER ARRANGEMENTS

There are three basic types of shell and tube exchangers; floating head, fixed tubesheet and U-tube.
4.1 FLOATING HEAD HEAT EXCHANGERS
The floating head unit has a tube bundle that can be removed for cleaning and replacing
while the shell remains in place.
4.2 FIXED TUBESHEET HEAT EXCHANGERS
The fixed tubesheet exchangers do not have removable bundles as both tube sheets are
welded to the shell. Note that the shellside of the exchanger is not accessible for mechanical
cleaning.
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The fixed tubesheet design cost about 20% less than a floating head design and has less
operating problems. However, the fixed tubesheet design is difficult to clean on the shell-
side and may require (expensive) expansion joints be installed in the shell if there is a large
temperature difference between the shell and tubes.
4.3 U-TUBE HEAT EXCHANGERS
U-Tube
The U-tube bundle can be configured both in a fixed tubesheet (TEMA N) or as a removable
bundle (TEMA C) as illustrated above. The use of a U-tube bundle eliminates one of the
tubesheets making this arrangement about 10% less expensive than the fixed tubesheet
design.
4.4 HEAT EXCHANGER ORIENTATIONS
Shell and tube heat exchangers can be installed horizontally, vertically and occasionally on
an incline. The orientation depends on the following:
a) All things being equal it is desirable to orient shell and tube heat exchangers horizontally.
This allows easy access for removal of the heads and tube bundles for inspection and
cleaning.
b) With sensible heat transfer (i.e. no phase change) the orientation has no affect on the
heat transfer and the heat exchanger can be installed in any orientation.
c) Condensing heat transfer coefficients are affected by the flow patterns of the condensed
liquid on the tube walls. This is in turn affected by the orientation of the tubes. In general
the best heat transfer coefficients for condensing pure components are achieved by
condensing on the outside of the tubes with the condenser in a horizontal position. In
cases where subcooling of the condensed liquids is desired or when condensing vapour
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from steams containing inerts the best performance is normally achieved by condensing
inside the tubes with downward flow and the exchanger in the vertical position.
d) Heat transfer inside vaporizers and reboilers is normally limited by maximum heat fluxes.
The orientation of the exchanger has little affect on the heat transfer.
e) Thermosyphon reboilers can be designed to be installed either horizontally or vertically.
f) Kettle type reboilers are always horizontal.
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5 SELECTION OF HEAT EXCHANGER TYPE & ORIENTATION
5.1 SELECTION CHART
The following chart gives guidelines as to the type and configuration of heat exchanger that is
suitable for a particular application.
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5.2 HEAT EXCHANGER TYPE
• Shell and tube exchangers can be designed for almost any service. All other exchanger types are
compared to shell and tube.
• Hairpin type exchangers are a good choice when one fluid is at a very high pressure.
• Hairpin exchangers are a good choice when there is a large difference in temperature between the
two fluids.
• Plate and frame exchangers are a good choice for liquid-liquid exchangers when the operating
pressure is low and a low pressure drop across the exchanger is not required.
• Plate and frame exchangers should not be used for hazardous or flammable fluids.
• Plate and frame exchangers should not be used in vacuum service.
• Spiral Plate exchangers are a good choice for two dirty fluids.
• Spiral Plate exchangers are a good choice for vacuum service.
5.3 FLUID PLACEMENT
• Whenever possible place corrosive fluids on the tubeside to reduce the exchanger cost.
• Place the highest pressure fluid on the tubeside to reduce exchanger cost.
• Place dirty fluids on the tubeside as it is much easier to clean the tubeside than the shellside.
• Place viscous fluids on the shellside. Pressure drops are easier to minimize on the shellside.
5.4 SELECTION OF REBOILER TYPE & ORIENTATION
The various types of reboiler configurations are illustrated on the following pages.
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Stab-In Reboilers are the least expensive

type. They are limited in size by the physical
space available inside the column and are not
suitable for viscosities above 1 cP.
Kettle Reboilers used when a high turndown

or a high quality vapour is required. They are
also used when large heat transfer surfaces
are needed. Kettle reboilers are expensive
due to the shell design but are able to handle
large differences in temperature between the
fluids due to their U-tube design.
Vertical Recirculating Thermosyphon

Reboilers are applicable when process rates
are fairly constant, the viscosity of the fluid is
low and the column height can be increased to
accommodate the head requirements. Their
operation requires a fixed static head. Vertical
Thermosyphon reboilers are generally the least
costly heat exchanger type (excluding stab ins)
due to their high heat transfer rates and low
fouling tendencies.
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Horizontal Recirculating Thermosyphon

Reboilers are applicable when process rates
are fairly constant, the viscosity of the fluid is
low and the column height cannot be increased
to accommodate the head requirements. Their
operation requires a fixed static head.
Once Through Reboilers are used when the

feed to the exchanger cannot be recirculated.
The orientation can be horizontal or vertical.
This design provides a low residence time on
hot surfaces which is important in some
applications. However, this design has a very
narrow range of flows in which operation is
stable and careful consideration is required to
produce a successful design.
Forced Circulation Reboilers use a pump to

move the fluid through the exchanger and are
applicable when handling viscous liquids or a
particulate laden liquid or when it is desirable
to heat the liquid and then carry out the
vaporization downstream of the exchanger.
Any arrangement of shell side or tubeside
boiling, vertical or horizontal may be used.
Suppressed vaporization operation requires a
throttling valve in the reboiler outlet line.
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Fired Heater Reboilers are used when the

required temperatures are higher than what
can be achieved with other utilities.
The main considerations in the selection of a reboiler type are the viscosity of the fluid, the turndown
required and the physical layout.
The selection chart is provided below provides guidance in the selection of a reboiler type.
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Determination of Kettle Reboiler Shell Diameters
In kettle type reboilers the shell diameter is chosen to allow vapour-liquid separation to take place in
the vapour space above tube bundle. The vapour space can be determined using vapour-liquid
separation calculations. Ludwig provides the following guidelines:
Heat Flux Ratio Shell diameter

Btu/ft2-hr over Bundle Diameter
20,000 1.9 – 2.5

15,000 1.8 – 2.1
12,000 1.5 – 1.7
8,000 1.3 – 1.5
5.4 SELECTION OF CONDENSER TYPE & ORIENTATION
The main consideration in the selection of condenser types and orientations is the type of fluid being
condensed.
• For condensation of pure components use a horizontal exchanger and place the process
on the outside of the tubes.
• If there are significant quantities of noncondensibles present; condense inside the tubes
with a vertical orientation and downward flow.
• Spiral Plate exchangers are often used as condensers especially in vacuum service.
They can be mounted directly on top of a column.
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6 SHELL & TUBE HEAT EXCHANGERS – THERMAL DESIGN

6.1 FILM THEORY OF HEAT TRANSFER
The film theory assumes that the resistance to heat, mass or momentum transfer at a surface is
confined to a thin film adjacent to the surface.
Consider the diagram above which illustrates heat transfer across a tube wall.
There are five layers through which the heat must flow:
1. The inside boundary layer

2. The inside fouling layer
3. The tube wall
4. The outside fouling layer
5. The outside boundary layer
The quantity of heat flow is the same through each layer.
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Therefore (assuming that the outside area is equal to the inside area):
q = Q/A = hi(TH-T1) = hfi(T1-T2) = hw(T2-T3) = hfo(T3-T4) = ho(T4-TC)

Where : q = heat flux, Btu/hr/ft2 or W/m
Q = Total Heat Transfer, Btu/hr or W
A = Heat Transfer Area, ft2 or m2
h = Heat Transfer Coefficient, Btu/hr-ft2-oF or W/m-oK
T = Temperature, oF or oK
The thermal resistance to heat flow, r is the reciprocal of the heat transfer coefficient.
i.e. r = 1/h
Where: r = thermal resistance, hr-ft2-oF/Btu or m-oK/W
Therefore the above equation can be modified as follows:
q = Q/A = hi(TH-T1) = (T1-T2)/rfi = (T2-T3)/ rw = (T3-T4)/rfo = ho(T4-TC)

In terms of temperature differences one can write:
TH-T1 = q/hi
T1-T2 = q rfi
T2-T3 = q rw
T3-T4 = q rfo
T4-TC = q/ho
Substituting one gets,
TH-TC = ∆T = q(1/hi + rfi + rw + rfo + 1/ho)

Since q = Q/A, the above equation can be rearranged to give the following:
Q= A (TH-TC)
(1/hi + rfi + rw + rfo + 1/ho)
The term 1/(1/hi + rfi + rw + rfo + 1/ho) is referred to as the overall Heat Transfer Coefficient, U.
Where: U = Overall heat transfer coefficient, Btu/hr-ft2-oF or W/m-oK
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Previously it had been assumed that the outside area is equal to the inside area. However, this is
not the case when tubes are being used. Modifying the above equation to take into account
differences in areas gives:
U= 1
1/ho + Ao/Aihi + rw + rfo + Aorfi/Ai
Therefore, as developed above the two main heat transfer equations are as follows:
Q = U A ∆T
And
U= 1
1/ho + Ao/Aihi + rw + rfo + Aorfi/Ai
Normally it is desired to calculate the heat transfer area required using:
A= Q
U ∆T
The following sections discuss how each of the terms in the above equations is determined.
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6.2 AN OVERVIEW OF HEAT EXCHANGER CALCULATION PROCEDURES
The calculations carried out to design heat exchangers are far from exact. In fact Perry’s refers to
the design of heat exchangers as being an art as much as a science.
These days almost all heat exchanger designs are carried out using software specifically written for
the purpose. The most accepted software used for heat exchanger design is that produced by Heat
Transfer Research Inc. (HTRI). Although this, and other company's software are invaluable in
carrying out the actual calculations they are limited in their ability to give guidance to the designer as
to what is the best exchanger type, fluid placement and orientation for the particular design being
considered.
Therefore, the designer must have a good understanding of where to start and how to adjust the
various parameters to achieve the optimum design.
Even when using design software the heat exchanger design procedure (often called rating) is
iterative. The procedure is illustrated on the following flowchart. Basically the procedure is to choose
a design and then test the selected design against the requirements. If the design meets the
requirements in all respects the design is complete. If the design does not meet some or all of the
requirements then the design is adjusted and the procedure repeated.
To achieve a proper design in a reasonable amount of time the designer should proceed as follows:
1. Obtain good basic data. If the duties, process flows and fluid physical properties used in the
design are incorrect or constantly changing (due to the basic process design being
incomplete) then the design will be wrong. Check the data before starting the design to
ensure that it makes sense and is up to date.
2. Specify realistic allowable pressure drops. Often a low specified pressure drop will dictate
that the exchanger heat transfer area is much larger than would be the case if more pressure
drop were allowed. Take the time to determine what the maximum allowable pressure drop
can be.
3. Take time before you start the design to take into account all the requirements for the heat
exchanger. Are the steady state conditions from the process simulation the proper basis for
the design or are there startup, shutdown or upset conditions that need to be considered?
4. Review the service versus the various heat exchanger types and determine which exchanger
type is must suitable for the application. Not all types may be eliminated but at least the field
will be narrowed.
5. Review the service versus recommended heat exchanger fluid placement (shell or tube) and
exchanger orientation (horizontal or vertical) and select the arrangement that is must suitable
for the application. Not all arrangements may be eliminated but at least the field will be
narrowed.
6. Use a Heat Exchanger data sheet as illustrated on the next page as a guide as to what
information is required as well as to document the information in an organized fashion.
7. Carry out the rating calculations either by hand or by using design software. In both cases
take the time to understand the limitations of the methods being used. If the calculations are
being carried out by hand understand the limitations of the correlations being used and make
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sure they are applicable to your design. If you are using software, make sure that the
software is recognized as being accurate by those for whom you are preparing the design.
8. Stay organized. It is very easy, especially when using design software, to head off in all
directions instead of taking a stepwise approach towards determining the optimum design.
Understanding and paying attention to the affect of the various variables which can be used
to optimize the design (as described later) will save a lot of time.
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6.3 BASIC DATA REQUIRED FOR HEAT EXCHANGER CALCULATIONS
The first step in preparing a heat exchanger design is assembly of the required data.
The minimum requirements for basic data are as follows:
Process Fluid Design Flow Rates
This is normally the maximum flow rate for the process fluid at full flowsheet rates. However, there
may be temporary higher rates during startup or shutdown or during periods of process upset that
the exchanger must perform properly with.
Process Fluid Heat Duties
For heating or cooling a single phase fluid this may be expressed in terms of the temperature
change. For vaporizing or condensing, one must know the quality (weight fraction vapour) and the
heat duty versus the equilibrium temperature.
Process Inlet Conditions
The inlet temperature, pressure and allowable pressure drop for the process fluids.
As will be seen later, the allowable pressure drop can have a major influence on the design of a heat
exchanger. The designer should pay close attention to assigning an allowable pressure drop and
ensure that it is realistic.
Fouling Nature of Process Fluids
This includes sufficient information so that the designer can make a decision as to how much fouling
allowance to provide for in the exchanger design.
Physical Properties of the Process Fluids
Physical properties including at a minimum density, viscosity, specific heat and thermal conductivity
are required at the inlet and outlet temperatures.
In cases where there are changes of state then dew points and latent heats are also required.
Materials of Construction
What materials of construction are suitable for construction of the heat exchanger.
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6.4 DETERMINATION OF DUTY, Q
Often, the duty of each of the heat exchange steps will be determined using simulation software. In
cases where a computer simulation has not been prepared, the duty can be calculated using the
following procedures:
For sensible heat transfer, the heat duty is calculated by:
Q = W ∫ Cp ∆T
Where: Cp = Heat Capacity, Btu/lb-oF
W = mass flow, lb/hr
T = Temperature, oF
Q = Duty, Btu/hr
The integration is taken over the range from the inlet temperature (Ti) to the outlet temperature (To).
Usually the specific heat function is nearly linear with temperature and the above equation becomes:
Q = W Cpavg ∆T
Where the average specific heat is evaluated at the mean of the inlet and outlet temperatures.
For Condensing or boiling, the heat duty is given by
Q = W (HVo + HLo – Hi)

Where: HVo = Enthalpy of vapour leaving the heat exchanger, Btu/lb
HLo = Enthalpy of liquid leaving the heat exchanger, Btu/lb
Hi = Enthalpy of the entering stream, Btu/lb
In the case of an exchanger using a service fluid (water, steam, refrigerant, ect.) the heat transferred
by the process fluid must, of course, equal the heat transferred to the service fluid.
In the case of vaporizer the condensing temperature of the heating fluid is normally specified and
then the mass flow of the condensing vapour is calculated.
In the case of a condenser, either the flow rate of the coolant is specified and the outlet temperature
of the coolant is calculated or vice versa.
Selection of Cooling Water Outlet Temperatures
For heat exchanger sizing purposes, the cooling water inlet temperature is usually taken as the
maximum summer temperature.
However, the cooling water outlet temperature can be varied. Theoretically there is an optimum
cooling water flow rate (and corresponding cooling water outlet temperature) for each exchanger
design. Clearly, there is a maximum temperature which the exiting cooling water cannot exceed.
For example, returning water to a cooling water at to high a temperature can cause excessive
vaporization of the water which will cause deposition of minerals in the cooling tower packing.
Similarly, cooling water returned to lakes or rivers must be at temperatures that are not harmful to
the environment. Also, tube wall temperatures above 50 oC in contact with many cooling water
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streams will result in deposition of calcium deposits on the heat exchangers surfaces. Any
temperature under these maximums are theoretically allowable.
From the standpoint of only finding the lowest cost design for the heat exchanger, the water exit
temperature which will almost always result in the lowest heat transfer area (and therefore cost) is
the lowest water exit temperature possible - as this will provide the highest temperature difference.
However, this design will require the highest water pumping rate which will increase the cost of
pumps and piping carrying the water to and from the exchanger.
In the big picture, on a strictly economic basis, the best water exit temperature is normally as close
as possible to the maximum allowed.
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6.5 TYPICAL OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS
Typical overall heat transfer coefficients are given below. These "typical" heat transfer coefficients
can be used to estimate the performance of a heat exchanger.
Typical heat transfer coefficients are normally published as a range of an "all-in" numbers which
includes the inside and outside heat transfer coefficients, the fouling factors and the tube wall
resistances.
It must be noted that the typical heat transfer coefficients correspond to the performance of properly
designed heat exchangers in known services.
Typical heat transfer coefficients can be used to estimate the heat transfer area for the purpose of
preparing a cost estimate for a conceptual design. However, it must be recognized that the results
will be ballpark estimates only – especially if the process fluids do not exactly correspond to those
that form the basis for the typical number.
As described later, the performance of heat exchangers very much depends on the flow regime at
the tube walls. Use of the typical heat transfer coefficients without later confirming that the heat
transfer coefficient is valid can lead to an improperly designed heat exchanger.
In other words a typical heat transfer coefficient should be used as a starting point only.
TYPICAL OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS
Service Uo, W/m2-oK
Water – Water 1000 - 2000

Water – Steam
Water – Oil 500 - 850

Steam – Oil
Water – Organic Liquid 500 - 1000

Steam – Organic Liquid
Water – Gas 25 - 150

Steam – Gas
Water – Condensing Organic 500 - 1000

Water – Condensing Organic
With inerts 150 - 500
Steam – Boiling Organic 750 - 1500
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6.6 TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE, ∆T
In most instances the temperature difference between the hot stream and the cold stream will vary in
different portions of the heat exchanger. As a result, an effective average value must be used in the
rate equation. The appropriate average depends on the configuration of the exchanger. For simple
countercurrent and co-current exchangers the Log Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD) applies.
GTTD - LTTD
The LMTD is calculated using: LMTD =
ln(GTTD/LTTD)
Where: The GTTD is the Greatest Terminal Temperature Difference and the LTTD is the Least
Terminal Temperature Difference where terminal refers to the first or last point of heat
exchange in the heat exchanger.
As illustrated in the diagram below, the configuration of most shell and tube heat exchangers does
not allow true countercurrent or co-current flow to be achieved.
IN THIS REGION FLUID JUST ENTERING THE

SHELLSIDE IS EXCHANGING HEAT WITH FLUID
JUST ENTERING THE TUBESIDE. THEREFORE
FLOW IS CO-CURRENT.
IN THIS REGION FLUID ENTERING THE

SHELLSIDE OF THE EXCHANGER IS
EXCHANGING HEAT WITH FLUID
EXITING THE TUBESIDE. THEREFORE
MOSTLY COUNTERFLOW FLOW IS
BEING ACHIEVED.
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For exchanger configurations with flow passes arranged to be partially countercurrent and partially
co-current a correction factor is applied to the LMTD.
CMTD = (F)(LMTD)
Values of the LMTD correction factor, F depend on the exchanger configuration and the stream
temperatures. Correction charts have been published for all exchanger configurations. A copy is
included on the next page.
In general if the value for F is found to be less than 0.8, it is a signal that the selected exchanger
configuration is not suitable, and an arrangement that allows a closer approach to countercurrent
flow should be sought.
Heat Exchange With Non-linear Temperature Profiles
The above Corrected Log Mean Temperature Difference (CMTD) is based only on the inlet and
outlet temperatures and assumes a linear relation between the duty and stream temperature
change. In some cases this is not the case. Examples are multi-component condensing or boiling
and cases where the streams undergo large temperature changes which significantly alter the
physical properties.
It is the Engineer's responsibility to be aware that non-linear relationships may occur in heat transfer
equipment. If simulation software is being used the presence of this situation can easily be checked
by printing a T versus Q table or plot for the heat transfer equipment. It should be noted that
standard exchanger data sheets only specify the conditions at the inlet and outlet of an exchanger
and therefore the heat exchanger designer may not be aware of the non-linear situation. This can
lead to an improperly sized heat exchanger.
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LMTD Correction Factors

Courtesy of Perry's
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Non-linear situations can be handled in two ways:
1. Divide the heat exchanger into zones. Carry out calculations to determine the heat transfer
area required for each zone of the exchanger and then add the areas together to give the
total area, or
2. By by dividing the heat exchanger into zones, each which is treated individually with respect
to the linear Q versus T assumption. The overall exchanger performance is then estimated
using weighted average performance of the zones in the overall rate equations. The
following equations may be taken as the rate equations for overall exchanger and for the nth
zone of the exchanger.
QTotal = UwtdATotal(WTD)
Qn – UnAn(LMTD)n
Then the weighted temperature difference can be defined as:
Σ[Un An(LMTD)n] Q Total

WTD = =
Σ[UnAn] Σ[Qn/(LMTD)n]
And the weighted overall heat transfer coefficient becomes:
QTotal Σ[Qn/(LMTD)n]
Uwtd = =
ATotal(WTD) A Total
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6.7 METAL RESISTENCE IN TUBES, rw
The metal resistance, rw is calculated using:
Do Do
rw = ln
24kw Di
Where: D = diameter in feet
Typical values for metal thermal conductivities are given in the table below.
In reality, other than in exceptional circumstances, the metal used for heat transfer will have little
affect on the total heat transfer area required.
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6.9 FOULING RESISTENCES
Fouling resistances depend on:
• The amount and type of dissolved and/or suspended solids in the stream which may deposit
on the tube wall.
• The susceptibility to thermal decomposition which will form a thermal barrier on the tube
walls.
• The velocity of the fluid.
• The temperature of the fluid
The fouling resistance specified for a particular design is usually selected based on previous
experience with similar streams. An excellent discussion on fouling (including typical fouling
resistances) can be found at:
www.wlv.com/products/databook/ch1_6.pdf
Fouling on Heat Exchanger Tubes
A Few Notes About Fouling
The allowance for fouling will increase the heat transfer area of a typical heat exchanger by up to
30%. If the area attributable to fouling is more than 30% of the total area then the designer should
take a close look at the assumptions used.
Fouling is usually assigned a value before the exchanger is designed. This is technically not correct.
The applicable fouling factor depends on the velocity and temperature of the fluids in the exchanger
both which are unknown before the design is started. This is especially applicable to heat
exchangers using cooling water. The designer should revisit his/her assumptions used to estimate
the initial fouling factor vis-à-vis the velocities and temperatures determined during the design to
ensure that the initial assumptions were valid.
Fouling is included in the design to account for degradation of performance over time. When the
exchanger is first placed in service it is clean and there is no fouling. A clean exchanger will have a
larger heat transfer capacity than a fouled exchanger. In some cases this fact can lead to safety
issues. For example a clean exchanger in vaporizing service can generate much more vapour than
the fouled exchanger. If the pressure relief system (i.e. safety relief valves) are only designed to
handle the duty of the fouled exchanger then the system can be overpressured.
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Heat Exchanger Cleaning
Heat exchangers in fouling service require periodic cleaning.
They may be cleaned mechanically or chemically. Mechanical cleaning may be with high pressure
water or through mechanical scouring. These methods require that the exchanger be taken out of
service for cleaning.
Scraped tube heat exchangers are sometimes used in high fouling applications. These exchangers
use externally driven scrapers to continuously clean the inside of the tubes while the exchanger is in
operation.
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7. ESTIMATION OF FILM COEFFICIENTS

Film Coefficients can be divided into three types:
• Sensible Film Coefficients (No Phase Change)

• Condensing Film Coefficients
• Boiling (or Vaporizing) Film Coefficients
In addition the film can be either on the inside or the outside of the tubes. Therefore there are six
situations to be considered.
1. Sensible Heat Transfer – Flow on Outside of Tubes

2. Sensible Heat Transfer – Flow on Inside of Tubes
3. Condensing on Outside of Tubes
4. Condensing on Inside of Tubes
5. Vaporizing on the Outside of Tubes
6. Vaporizing on the Inside of Tubes
Of course these 6 film coefficients can be combined with each other in all possible combinations.
The following sections provide the information required to manually film coefficients using the
methods described in Kern.
7.1 SENSIBLE HEAT TRANSFER TUBESIDE FILM COEFFICIENTS, hi
Tubeside film coefficients are determined using the Sieder and Tate relation between the heat
transfer coefficient, mass velocity and fluid physical properties of a single phase fluid flowing inside
tubes.
The relationships are given graphically on the next page. Cooling water is commonly used inside
tubes. Correlations using physical properties of water are given on the following page.
The viscosity correction factor, (µ/µw)0.14 is only significant for very viscous fluids and is normally
assumed to be 1.
The physical properties are evaluated at the average of the inlet and outlet temperatures. That is
the heat transfer coefficient is a function of the physical properties of the fluid which in turn are a
function of the temperature. Since the temperature changes as the fluid moves through the
exchangers the heat transfer coefficient also changes. By using average temperatures an average
heat transfer coefficient is calculated.
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Sieder and Tate Relationship

Tubeside Film Coefficients – Single Phase
Courtesy of Kern
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Tubeside Film Coefficients – Water

Courtesy of Kern
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It is important to note that the film coefficient is strongly influenced by turbulence at the tube wall.
Therefore it is desirable to achieve velocities in the tubes high enough to achieve turbulent flow.
The velocities in the tubes will normally be limited by the allowable pressure drop that forms the
basis for the design of the heat exchanger. In addition to pressure drop the velocity in the tubes may
be limited to erosional velocities as follows:
Water Vmax(water)
Carbon Steel Tubes 10 ft/sec

Stainless Steel Tubes 15 ft/sec
Aluminum Tubes 6 ft/sec
Copper Tubes 6 ft/sec
Liquids Other Than Water Vmax = Vmax(water) (ρwater/ρliquid)1/2 ft/sec

Gases and Dry Vapours
Vmax = 1800 / (Pa MW)1/2 ft/sec
Pa = Absolute Pressure, psia
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7.2 SENSIBLE HEAT TRANSFER SHELLSIDE FILM COEFFICIENTS, hi
Methods for the computation of shellside film coefficients in general use today are the proprietary
methods developed by Heat Transfer Research Inc. (HTRI) and Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow
Services (HTFS). These methods have been experimentally tested against data from commercial
scale exchangers for most exchanger geometries. However, they are available only to members and
subscribers to the above organizations.
Methods available in the open literature have not been given the same degree of experimental
validation but have been used successfully over many years.
In general the heat transfer coefficients calculated using open literature methods will be lower than
those calculated using HTRI and HTFS methods. The result is that heat exchangers designed by
hand are generally more conservative than those designed using HTRI and HTFS software
methods.
A graphical solution based on the methods described by Kern is given below.
Shellside Film Coefficients for

Sensible Heat Transfer
Courtesy of Kern
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Shellside Sensible Heat Transfer With Finned Tubes
Often Finned tubes are used to increase the heat transfer on the shell side of heat exchangers when
the film coefficient on the outside of the tubes is very low, for example when the fluid flowing on the
outside of the tubes is a gas. The graph below (from Ludwig) can be used as a guideline for
determining when the use of finned tubes should be considered.
Low-finned tubes (16 & 19 fins per inch) are adaptable to conventional heat exchanger designs – i.e.
they can be used to directly replace plain tubes without altering the design. Higher finned tubes
require that the tube spacings be altered and require specialized design procedures.
A table giving physical data for low finned tubes follows.
The design procedure is exactly the same as for plain tubes – except the outside area of the tube is
increased.
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Low-Finned Tube Data
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7.3 CONDENSING FILM COEFFICIENTS
The primary function of a condenser is to remove latent heat, although it is sometimes necessary to
remove sensible heat as well. Examples include:
• distillation columns
• reactors
• steam heaters, reboilers
• power plants
• refrigeration systems
Condensers are typically shell and tube exchangers with multiple tube passes. The heat is removed
by contacting vapor with a cold surface (the tube wall). The liquid then flows off the tube under the
influence of gravity, collects, and flows out of the exchanger. In some cases, vapor flow rates may
be high enough to sweep the liquid off the tubes. This is called vapor shear and is a concern when
liquid is condensing inside a tube.
Condensing vapor may be a single component or a mixture, with or without the presence of
noncondensibles. Usually, mixed vapors are condensed inside tubes, while single components are
condensed on the outside of tubes.
Under similar conditions, horizontal tubes tend to have larger condensing heat transfer coefficients
than vertical tubes (5x for film type condensation). Vertical tubes are preferred when substantial
subcooling of the condensate is required.
In calculations, it is common to assume that the vapor-liquid interface is at thermodynamic

equilibrium at the vapor temperature. Liquid adjacent to the cold surface is assumed to be at the
surface temperature. It is also common to treat condensers as constant pressure systems, since the
total friction losses through an exchanger are usually small.
Condensation Mechanisms
There are two main mechanisms of condensation:
1. If the condensate "wets" the surface, a film forms as the drops coalesce. The condensate
forms a continuous layer that flows over the tube (gravity flow) in film type condensation. The
primary heat transfer resistance is in the film.
2. If the condensate does not wet the surface, drops form at nucleation sites (pits, dust, etc.)
and remain separated until carried away by gravity or vapor flow. Only then do they
coalesce, prior to falling off the tube. This is dropwise condensation. Most of the tube surface
remains uncovered by liquid, so there is little heat transfer resistance and very high transfer
rates.
In both cases, nucleation is typically the rate limiting step, rather than heat transfer. Most industrial
applications are based on film mechanisms, since it is tricky and expensive to build non-wetting
surfaces.
After condensation, the liquid flows down the tube surface under the influence of gravity (unless
vapor rates are high enough to produce vapor shear). The flow may be laminar or turbulent,
depending on the fluid, rate of condensation, tube size, etc. The film tends to thicken as it flows to
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the bottom of the tube, and the weight of the fluid may cause ripples to form. These will cause
deviations from pure laminar flow.
Superheated Vapors
Before a vapor can condense, any sensible heat must be removed. For steam, sensible heat is
usually much less than latent and hence is sometimes considered negligible, but this is not true for
all vapors.
Practically, one can assume the entire heat load (sensible and latent) is transferred across the
condensing film resistance, but if superheat (or subcooling) is substantial, the calculation should be
separated into parts -- a desuperheater (gas cooler) and condenser -- and the areas determined
separately.
Noncondensibles
The presence of even small amounts of noncondensible gases drastically reduces heat transfer. It
has been suggested that only 1-2% air in steam can reduce heat transfer by 75%.
Every condenser requires a venting system for removal of noncondensibles even if just during
startup. If noncondensibles are not removed, they will collect in the condenser, "blanketing" the
tubes and preventing heat transfer.
Multicomponent Condensation
The above correlations are based on condensing pure components. When a pure component
condenses, the temperature at the interface between the vapour and liquid is determined by the
local pressure. I.e. the local pressure is the fluid’s vapour pressure at the condensing temperature.
Generally the pressure drop through a condenser is very small and as a result the condensing
temperature of a single component mixture is assumed to be the same throughout the condenser.
When a vapour mixture condenses this relationship is no longer valid. Now the condensing
temperature is a function of the vapour and liquid concentrations as well as the pressure. As the
least volatile components of the mixture preferentially condense, the condensing temperature will
continuously decrease. The relationship between the heat duty, the mass vapour fraction and the
equilibrium condensing temperature is known as the “condensing curve”. Generation of the
condensing curve by hand is a very time consuming affair and use of the condensing curve data to
design a heat exchanger in a stepwise fashion is even more onerous. Thus, design of condensers
for multicomponent mixtures is an task best done using software specifically designed to handle this
situation. The HTRI CST-2 program is one such program.
Condensing Immiscible Condensate Mixtures
Another aspect to the condensation of vapour mixtures is the possibility of forming immiscible
condensate mixtures such as water and hydrocarbons. When this occurs the condensate layer may
be a hydrocarbon layer with water droplets suspended in it or a water layer with hydrocarbon
droplets suspended in it. Since the condensing coefficient depends on the properties of the
condensate layer, the designer must decide which material is continuous and which is dispersed.
This is very difficult to do, and in fact the regime may change in different parts of the exchanger. As
a result the recommended procedure is to use the physical properties of the material with the worst
heat transfer characteristics (the hydrocarbon in this case) for the calculations.
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Condensing Coefficients
Graphical solutions to determine condensing coefficients developed by Kern and Akers are
presented below.
Film Coefficients for

Condensation Inside Horizontal Tubes
And Condensation Outside Tubes
Courtesy of Kern
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Tubeside Film Coefficients for

Condensation inside Vertical Tubes
Courtesy of Akers & Deans
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7.4 VAPORIZERS AND REBOILERS
Boiling Film Coefficients
Heat transfer in vaporizing operations is limited by maximum heat flux. The maximum flux occurs at
a critical temperature difference. Beyond this critical temperature difference both the coefficient and
flux decrease due to the formation of a layer of gas on the tubes. It is the phenomenon of vapour
blanketing that poses the principle difficulty in designing vaporizing exchangers.
The flux is defined as Q/A.
The maximum allowable heat flux for forced circulation vaporizers and reboilers vaporizing organics
is 20,000 Btu/hr-ft2.
The maximum allowable heat flux for natural circulation vaporizers and reboilers vaporizing organics
is 12,000 Btu/hr-ft2.
The maximum allowable heat flux for vaporization of water or aqueous solutions of low concentration
(forced or natural circulation) is 30,000 Btu/hr-ft2.
The maximum allowable vaporizing film coefficient for forced or natural circulation vaporization of
organics is 300 Btu/hr-ft2-oF.
The maximum allowable vaporizing film coefficient for forced or natural circulation vaporization of
water and aqueous solutions of low concentration is 1000 Btu/hr-ft2-oF.
The method for estimating the film coefficients is as follows:
a) Estimate the film coefficient using the previously described methods for sensible heat
transfer.
b) If the film coefficient estimated in a) above is higher than the maximum allowable given
above use the maximum allowable.
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c) If the film coefficient calculated in a) above is lower than the maximum allowable use the
lower value.
The figure below can be used to determine the maximum heat flux from the sensible heat transfer
film coefficient.
Maximum Heat Flux versus ∆T

Courtesy of Kern
Design of Thermosyphon Reboilers
The sketch below illustrates the principle for operation of a thermosyphon reboiler. The same
principles apply both for horizontal and vertical thermosyphon reboilers.
The basic principle is that the constant vaporization of a portion of the liquid in the reboiler produces
a two phase mixture with an average density lower than the liquid being fed to the reboiler. The
heavier column of liquid on the reboiler inlet side then pushes the lighter material out of the reboiler
causing circulation.
The design requires careful consideration of the hydraulics of the system. Pressure losses in the
piping systems to and from the reboiler as well as the pressure loss through heat exchanger must be
low enough to allow the circulation to take place.
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The procedure for a vertical reboiler is a trial and error procedure as follows:
1. Estimate the surface area required using the guidelines above.
2. Assume a tube length, usually 8 to 16 feet. Calculate the number of tubes required.
3. Assume a recirculation ratio - typically 4:1. The recirculation ratio is ratio of vapour to liquid.
Therefore a recirculation ratio of 4:1 means that 20% of the liquid entering the reboiler will be
vaporized.
4. Calculate the specific volumes of the liquid and vapour, vliq and vvap both in ft3/lb. The
specific volume of the liquid is the same as the liquid feed to the reboiler, vi
5. Calculate the liquid flowrate = recirculation ratio x the vapour generation rate.
6. Calculate the total volume out of the reboiler = liquid flowrate x vliq + vapour generation rate x
vvap.
7. Calculate the specific volume of the mixture, vo = Total volume out of reboiler divided by the
total mass flow out of the reboiler.
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8. Calculate the static head of the two phase mixture in the reboiler.
Static Head = 2.3 x H x log (vo/vi) psi

144(vo – vi)
Where H = height from bottom of heat exchanger tubesheet to centre of reboiler return
nozzle on the tower.
9. Calculate the pressure drop through the exchanger using the procedure outlined in the next
session.
10. The total resistance is the static head + the exchanger pressure drop + piping pressure drop.
Assume that the exchanger piping loop will be designed to keep the pressure drop in this
piping below 0.25 psi (or do detailed pressure drop calculations).
11. Calculate the driving force, i.e. the head of the liquid on the inlet.
Driving Force = z ρl / 144 psi
Where z is the head as shown on the previous diagram.
12. If the driving force calculated in 11 is exactly equal to the resistances calculated in 10, then
the recirculation rate will be as assumed. If they are not equal, adjust the exchanger design
and repeat the calculation.
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8. PRESSURE DROP
8.1 SHELL SIDE PRESSURE DROP
The pressure drop through the shell of an exchanger is proportional to the the number of times the
fluid crosses the bundle between baffles. It is also proportional to the distance across the bundle
each time it is crossed.
The isothermal equation for pressure drop for the shellside flow of a fluid being heated or cooled and
including the entrance and exit losses is:
∆Ps = f Gs 2 Ds (N+1) lbs/in2

5.22 x 1010 De s φs
Where: ∆Ps = Pressure drop across the shell, lbs/ft2
f = Friction factor, ft2/in2
Gs = Shell mass velocity, lb/hr-ft2
Ds = Shell inside diameter, ft
N = Number of baffles
De = Equivalent diameter, ft
s = Specific gravity
φs = The viscosity ratio (µ/µw)0.14
Shellside Friction Factors

Courtesy of Kern
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8.2 TUBE SIDE PRESSURE DROP
The tubeside pressure drop is the sum of the pressure drop through the tubes plus the pressure
drop through the channels:
∆Pt = f Gt2 L n + 4n V2 lbs/in2

5.22 x 1010 De s φt s 2g'
Where: ∆Pt = Pressure drop across the tubeside, lbs/ft2
f = Friction factor, ft2/in2
Gt = Tube mass velocity, lb/hr-ft2
L = Tube length, ft
n = Number of tube passes
De = Equivalent diameter, ft
s = Specific gravity = density, lbs/ft3 / 62.4
φs = The viscosity ratio (µ/µw)0.14
g' = Acceleration due to gravity = 32.2 ft/sec2
Tubeside Friction Factors

Courtesy of Kern
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Tubeside Return Pressure Loss

Courtesy of Kern
Pressure Drop with Change of State
Reasonably good results are obtained by using the total weight flow and the average specific gravity
between the inlet and outlet. This is applicable for change of state situations as well.
This method can be further simplified, for cases of total condensers, by using taking one-half the
conventional pressure drop computed based on the inlet conditions. These methods apply to both
shell and tubeside calculations.
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9 THERMAL DESIGN – OTHER TYPES OF EXCHANGERS
9.1 THERMAL DESIGN – PLATE & FRAME EXCHANGERS
Plate and Frame exchangers are usually sized by the vendors using proprietary methods and
correlations for heat transfer and pressure drop specifically developed for their plate channels.
Computer programs for rating shell and tube heat exchangers are available from HTRI and HTFS
which use generic correlations for heat transfer and pressure drop. Of course these programs are
less accurate than the vendor’s programs since they do not refer to the specific plate designs.
It should be noted that Plate and Frame heat exchangers are less prone to fouling than shell and
tube types in the same service. In addition they have much higher heat transfer coefficients. Thus,
when preparing specifications for a plate and frame exchanger the designer should be careful about
specifying the fouling resistance. For example, the clean U for a water-water service shell and tube
heat exchanger may be 400 Btu/hr-ft2-oF. If one specified a fouling resistance of 0.002 for both
sides of this exchanger the area would be increased by 80% relative to a clean exchanger.
However, if the U for the same service plate and frame exchanger were 1000 Btu/hr-ft2-oF then
specifying the same fouling factors would increase the area by 200%.
9.2 THERMAL DESIGN – SPIRAL PLATE EXCHANGERS
Spiral Plate heat exchangers are sized by the vendors. However, the heat transfer coefficients are
similar in magnitude to those obtained for shell and tube equipment.
9.3 THERMAL DESIGN – DOUBLE PIPE & HAIR-PIN HEAT EXCHANGERS
Double pipe and Hair Pin heat exchangers are sized using the same calculation procedures used for
shell and tube heat exchangers.
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9.4 THERMAL DESIGN – AIR COOLED HEAT EXCHANGERS
Air cooler heat exchangers are normally designed by the vendors. However their size can be
estimated using the following procedure:
1. Select a value for the overall heat transfer coefficient form the table below:
APPROXIMATE OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS

FOR AIR COOLED HEAT EXCHANGERS
BASED ON BARE TUBE SURFACE
(W/m2-oK)
Condensers
Steam – 100% 790-850

Steam – 10% Noncondensibles 570-620
Pure Organic Solvents 425-450
Ammonia 570-620
Mixed Light Hydrocarbons 370-425
Medium Hydrocarbons 250-280
Liquid Coolers
Water 680-790
Ammonia 570-680
Alcohols and most industrial solvents 400-425
Diesel Oil 250-310
Light Hydrocarbons 425-450
Vapour Coolers 2 bar 35 bar
Air 45-55 250-280

Steam 55-85 310-340
Light Hydrocarbons 85-110 400-425
Hydrogen 110-170 540-570
Source: Brown, R., Chem. Eng., 85:108-111 (March 27, 1978)
2. Choose a bare tube size and material to satisfy the process conditions. Normal bas tube
sizes are 19.05 mm or 25.4 mm outside diameter for liquid cooling or condensing under
pressure or 38.1 mm to 50.8 mm for condensing under vacuum.
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HEAT EXCHANGERS
3. Pick a design value for the inlet air temperature. This is usually the 95% dry bulb
temperature (i.e. the maximum daily temperature does not exceed this value 95% of the
time). Choose an outlet air temperature typically 55 oC.
4. Calculate the mean temperature difference. Be sure to use the proper F correction factor for
crossflow with the number of tube passes you think might be employed.
5. Calculate Ao the bare tube heat transfer surface required.
6. Calculate the air flow rate from the heat balance equation. Calculate the volumetric air flow
rate, m3/sec at the inlet conditions.
7. Using a face velocity of 3 m/sec for air, compute the face area of the bundle.
8. Pick the number of tube rows and tube length and pitch to satisfy both the bundle face area
and the required heat transfer area.
9. Choose the number of tube passes to obtain a process side velocity in a reasonable range
(1.0 to 2.0 m/sec for liquid cooling).
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HEAT EXCHANGERS
10 REFERENCES
Kern, D.Q., Process Heat Transfer, 1st Ed., McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc, New York, N.Y. (1950)
Ludwig, E.L., Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants, Volume 3, 2nd Ed.,
Gulf Publishing Company, Houston, TX (1984)
Perry, J.H. & D.W Green, Ed., Chemical Engineers Handbook, 7th Ed., McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc
(1997).
Engineering Data Book, Gas Processors Suppliers Association, (1981)
Engineering Data Book, Wolverine Tube Div. of Calumet and Hecla, Inc., Detroit, Mich.
Evans, F.L., Equipment Design Handbook for Refineries and Chemical Plants, 2nd Ed., Gulf
Publishing Company, Houston, TX (1974)
74

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HEAT EXCHANGERS

For Queens University

1 INTRODUCTION TO HEAT EXCHANGERS.......................................................................................................... 1

2 HEAT EXCHANGERS TYPES............................................................................................................................... 2

3 TEMA TYPE SHELL & TUBE HEAT EXCHANGERS........................................................................................... 11

4 SHELL & TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER ARRANGEMENTS ................................................................................... 27

5 SELECTION OF HEAT EXCHANGER TYPE & ORIENTATION ........................................................................... 30

6 SHELL & TUBE HEAT EXCHANGERS – THERMAL DESIGN............................................................................. 36

7. ESTIMATION OF FILM COEFFICIENTS ............................................................................................................. 53

8. PRESSURE DROP ............................................................................................................................................. 68

9 THERMAL DESIGN – OTHER TYPES OF EXCHANGERS.................................................................................. 71

1 INTRODUCTION TO HEAT EXCHANGERS

Chiller An exchanger which uses a refrigerant to cool a fluid to a temperature below

Condenser Condenses a vapour or mixture of vapours either alone or in the presence of

Cooler Cools liquids or gases normally using water.

Exchanger Cools one fluid while heating the other fluid.

Heater Imparts sensible heat to a liquid or gas by condensing steam or a heat

Reboiler Reboilers generate vapour to drive fractional distillation separation. The

Thermosyphon Natural circulation of a boiling liquid is maintained by providing

Forced A pump is used to circulate fluid through the reboiler

Superheater Heats a vapour to a temperature above it's boiling point

Vaporizer A heat exchanger which vaporizes part or all of a liquid stream.

2 HEAT EXCHANGERS TYPES

• Double pipe heat exchangers

Other types of heat transfer equipment not discussed here are:

• Tank jackets and coils

2.1 DOUBLE PIPE HEAT EXCHANGERS

Flow inside double pipe heat exchangers can be co-current or countercurrent.

Countercurrent Flow Co-current Flow

• Difficult to clean on shell side.

2.2 HAIRPIN HEAT EXCHANGERS

• Good countercurrent or co-current flow – good temperature approach.

• Designs are proprietary – limited number of manufacturers.

2.3 PLATE & FRAME HEAT EXCHANGERS

• Very compact design

• Good temperature approaches

• Designs are proprietary – limited number of manufacturers

2.4 SPIRAL PLATE HEAT EXCHANGERS

• Designs are proprietary – limited number of manufacturers

2.5 SPIRAL TUBE & HELIFLOW HEAT EXCHANGERS

• Compact very inexpensive exchanger for small applications

• Designs are proprietary – limited number of manufacturers

2.6 AIR COOLED HEAT EXCHANGERS

• Induced draft Fans draw air through the tube banks.

• Do not use water for cooling

• Requires large plot area

Cooling and condensing where cooling water is unavailable or is uneconomical to use.

3 TEMA TYPE SHELL & TUBE HEAT EXCHANGERS

Shell and tube heat exchangers have the following advantages:

3.1 SHELL & TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER COMPONENTS

The principle components are:

BW Gauge Thickness, in Thickness, mm

Tubes may be seamless or welded. Typically there is no difference in performance between

Tubes lengths are normally specified in 2 foot increments up to 24 feet long.

Heat Exchanger Tube Dimensional Data

3.3 TUBE LAYOUT

Tube Layouts for Square Pitch

Tube Layouts for Triangular Pitch