Compressor Manual

SECTION TOC
FLUOR DANIEL COMPRESSOR AND DRIVER

PAGE 1
PROCESS MANUAL TABLE OF CONTENTS
DATE 06-94
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL
1.1.1 Use of the Design Manual
1.1.2 Organization of the Design Manual
1.1.3 Glossary of Terms and Abbreviations
1.2 TYPES OF COMPRESSORS
1.3 BASIC THEORY

1.3.1 Equation of State
1.3.2 Compression Cycles
1.3.3 Polytropic Cycles
1.3.4 Work of Compression
1.3.5 Adiabatic Head and Power
1.3.6 Multistaging
1.3.7 Specific Speed
1.3.8 Mechanical Efficiency
2.0 DYNAMIC COMPRESSORS
2.1 PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION

2.1.1 Centrifugal Compressors
2.1.2 Axial Compressors
2.1.3 Centrifugal Fans
2.2 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
2.3 EFFECT OF SPEED
2.4 OPERATING RANGE

2.4.1 Surge Limit
2.4.2 Stonewalling
2.5 EFFECT OF MOISTURE
2.6 EFFECT OF COOLING
2.7 EFFECT OF BLADE ANGLE

2.7.1 Centrifugal Compressor Vane Angle
2.7.2 Centrifugal Compressor Inlet Guide Vanes
2.7.3 Axial Compressor Stator Blade Angle
2.8 MULTISTAGING
2.9 STARTING/UNLOADING
105\OS\101\206\PROCESS\PUMPS\02-00/WP51-051794
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3.0 POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSORS
3.1 RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS

3.1.1 General
3.1.2 Principle of Operation
3.1.3 Effect of Clearance
3.1.4 Performance Characteristics
3.1.5 Multistaging and Intercooling
3.1.6 Unloading for Starting
3.1.7 Capacity Control
3.2 ROTARY COMPRESSORS
3.2.1 Rotary Compressor Types
3.2.2 Slip or Leakage
3.2.4 Discharge Temperature
3.2.5 Multistaging
3.2.6 Starting Unloading
3.3 DIAPHRAGM COMPRESSORS
3.3.1 General
3.3.2 Principles of Operation
4.0 COMPRESSOR AUXILIARIES
4.1 LUBRICATION SYSTEMS
4.2 SEAL AND SEALING SYSTEMS

4.2.1 Shaft Seals
4.2.2 Seal Materials
4.2.3 Sealant System
4.3 VIBRATION SYSTEMS
4.4 PULSATION DAMPENERS
4.5 CYLINDER COOLING
4.6 FILTERS/PIPING/SEPARATION
5.0 COMPRESSOR SELECTION
5.1 GENERAL
5.1.1 Objectives
5.1.2 System Sketch
5.1.3 Requirements
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DATE 06-94
5.2 PROCESS GAS COMPRESSORS

5.2.1 Compressor Capacity
5.2.2 Capacity Variation
5.2.3 Efficiency
5.2.4 Discharge Temperatures
5.2.5 Suction and Discharge Pressure.
5.2.6 Gas Characteristics
5.2.7 Reliability
5.2.8 Weight and Foundations
5.2.9 First Cost
5.3 AIR COMPRESSORS
5.3.2 Oil Free Air
5.3.3 Compressor Arrangements
5.3.4 Load Factor
5.4 REFRIGERATION APPLICATION
5.4.1 General terms
5.4.2 Types of Refrigeration Systems
5.4.3 Refrigeration System Components
5.4.4 Compressor Type Selection
5.4.5 System Design
5.5 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
6.0 DESIGN PROCEDURES
6.1 SPECIFICATION AND STANDARDS
6.2 SYSTEM DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

6.2.1 Operation of Compressors in Series
6.2.2 Operation of Compressors in Parallel
6.2.3 Receivers and Separators
6.2.4 Filters and Silencers
6.3 COMPRESSOR SIZING
6.3.1 Sizing Calculation Method
6.3.2 Sizing by Graphic Method
6.3.3 Sizing by PC Program
7.0 CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION
7.1 COMPRESSOR CAPACITY CONTROL

7.1.1 General
7.1.2 Automatic Start and Stop
7.1.3 Variable Speed Control
7.1.4 Constant Speed Control
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DATE 06-94
7.2 ANTI-SURGE CONTROL

7.2.1 Blow-off Anti-surge Control
7.2.2 Minimum Flow Anti-surge Control
7.2.3 Minimum Flow with Automatic Speed Control
7.2.4 Flow-Speed System
7.2.5 Guide Vane/Stator Vane Positioning
7.2.6 Flow-Differential Pressure Control
8.0 COMPRESSOR SPECIFICATION
8.1 SPECIFICATION DATA SHEETS
8.2 PROVIDING PROCESS DATA

8.2.1 Preparing System Sketch
8.2.2 Establishing Cases for Operation
8.2.3 Identifying Process Requirements
8.2.4 Completing Compressor Data Sheets
8.2.5 Attached Specification Data Sheet Forms
9.0 DRIVERS THEORY
9.1 TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

9.1.1 Electric Motors
9.1.2 Steam Turbines
9.1.3 Gas Turbines
9.1.4 Diesel and Gas Engines
9.2 ELECTRIC MOTORS
9.3 STEAM TURBINE

9.3.1 Ideal Steam Turbine Cycle
9.3.2 Real Steam Turbine Cycle
9.4 GAS TURBINE
9.4.1 Ideal Gas Turbine Cycle
9.4.2 Real Gas Turbine Cycle
9.5 GAS AND DIESEL ENGINES
9.5.1 Gas Engine Heat Cycle
9.5.2 Diesel Engine Heat Cycle
9.5.3 Gas and Diesel Engine Cycle Efficiency
9.6 TURBO-EXPANDERS AND POWER RECOVERY TURBINES
9.7 SHAFT VIBRATION AND CRITICAL SPEED
10.0 DRIVER DESCRIPTION
10.1 ELECTRIC MOTORS

10.1.1 A.C. Induction Motors
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DATE 06-94
10.1.2 A.C. Synchronous Motors

10.1.3 Multispeed Motors
10.1.4 A.C. Electric Motor Gear Drives
10.1.5 Variable Speed A.C. Electric Motors
10.1.6 A.C. Electric Motor Start-up Current
10.1.7 Electric Motor Capabilities
10.1.8 A.C. Electric Motor Aging/Derating
10.2 STEAM TURBINES
10.2.1 Impulse Blading
10.2.2 Reaction Blading
10.2.3 Single and Multistage Turbine
10.2.4 Condensing and Noncondensing Steam Turbines
10.2.5 Steam Turbine Regeneration and Reheating
10.2.6 Effect of Inlet Conditions
10.2.7 Steam Turbine Capabilities
10.2.8 Steam Consumption
10.2.9 Aging and Derating Steam Turbines
10.2.10 Loss of Exit Pressure
10.3 GAS TURBINES
10.3.1 Principle of Operations
10.3.2 Simple Gas Turbine System
10.3.3 Complex Gas Turbine Systems
10.3.4 Combined Gas Turbine Systems
10.3.5 Gas Turbine Capabilities
10.3.6 Fuels
10.3.7 Gas Turbine Aging/Derating
10.3.8 Industrial and Aeroderivative Gas Turbines
10.4.2 Supercharging and Turbocharging
10.4.3 Internal Combustion Engine Starting
10.4.4 Diesel and Gas Engine Capabilities
10.4.5 Fuel Types
10.4.6 Maintenance/Reliability
10.4.7 Diesel and Gas Engines in Flammable Atmospheres
10.5.1 Turbo-expanders
10.5.2 Power Recovery Turbines
10.6 POWER TRANSMISSION EQUIPMENT
10.6.1 Rigid Coupling
10.6.2 Flexible Couplings
10.6.3 Variable Speed Couplings
10.6.4 Vee Belt Drives
10.6.5 Gear Units
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DATE 06-94
11.0 DRIVERS SELECTION
11.1 PROCESS CONSIDERATIONS

11.1.1 Availability and Duty
11.1.2 Flexibility and Reliability
11.2 REFINERY/CHEMICAL PLANT DESIGN
11.3 OFFSHORE PRODUCTION FACILITIES
12.0 DRIVER DESIGN PROCEDURES
12.1 CODES AND STANDARDS

12.2.1 General
12.2.2 Motor Rating
12.2.3 Starting Requirements
12.2.4 Other Design Considerations
12.3 STEAM TURBINES
12.3.1 Turbine Classification and Application
12.3.2 Operational and Design Considerations
12.3.3 Steam Turbine Sizing
12.4 GAS TURBINES
12.4.1 Performance Considerations
12.5.1 Fuel Consumption
12.5.2 Fuel Economy
12.7 DRIVER POWER RATING
12.7.1 The driver power rating is defined as follows:
12.7.2 The driver can be sized as follows:
12.7.3 Service factor for drivers:
13.1 ELECTRIC MOTOR CONTROL

13.1.1 A.C. Electric Motor Start-up
13.1.2 A.C. Electric Motor Braking
13.1.3 Motor Protection
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DATE 06-94
13.2 STEAM TURBINE CONTROL

13.2.1 Mechanical Speed Governing System
13.2.2 Mechanical-Hydraulic Speed Control
13.2.3 Electro-hydraulic Speed Control
13.2.4 Emergency Governors
13.2.5 Vibration Control
13.3 GAS TURBINE CONTROL
13.3.1 Control System Inputs
13.3.2 Start-up and Shutdown
13.3.3 Steady Running
13.4 DIESEL AND GAS ENGINES
13.4.1 Speed Control
13.4.2 Speed-Load Control
13.4.3 Control Systems
14.0 DRIVER SPECIFICATION
15.0 TROUBLESHOOTING
15.2 STEAM TURBINES
15.3 GAS TURBINE TROUBLESHOOTING

15.3.1 Fuel Nozzles
15.3.2 Crossover Tubes
15.3.3 Combustor Liners
15.3.4 Secondary Nozzles
15.4 DIESEL/GAS ENGINES
15.4.1 Vibration Monitoring
15.4.2 Wear Monitoring
15.5 TURBO-EXPANDER AND POWER RECOVERY UNITS
16.0 CODES/STANDARDS AND SYMBOLS

16.1.1 Dynamic Compressors
16.1.2 Positive Displacement Compressors
16.1.3 Drivers
16.1.4 Compressor Auxiliaries
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DATE 06-94
16.1.5 Fluor Daniel Standards and Specifications

16.2 SYMBOLS
17.0 REFERENCES
17.1 REFERENCES
17.2 OTHER ARTICLES
18.0 APPENDIX
18.1 SAMPLES OF COMPLETED DATA SHEET FORMS
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PAGE 1
PROCESS MANUAL INTRODUCTION
DATE 06-94
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL
1.1.1 Use of the Design Manual
This manual is intended to be a comprehensive reference document for the

selection and rating of compression equipment used extensively in the
process industry. It is written so that it can be an aid in the selection of a
compressor or blower and an associated driver for any application.
This section of the manual provides a brief introduction to the subject and the
organization of the manual followed by a glossary of terms, expressions, and
abbreviations to make this manual easier to understand.
In the broad sense, compressors and blowers are mechanical devices used to
increase the pressure of a gas or vapor for:
 providing the required operating pressure in various processes encountered,
such as in reactors, gas scrubbers, flue gas systems, separation units, and refrigeration units
 transferring it through pipeline systems
 fluidizing solid particles for their transport
 providing motive power for pneumatic instruments, and maintenance or

process equipment
 ventilating buildings
Almost every job at Fluor Daniel has employed compression equipment in

plant designs in one or more of the above applications. In general they can
be classified as either roto-dynamic, positive displacement, or ejector type
machines. Only roto-dynamic, and positive displacement type compressors
are discussed in this manual.
1.1.2 Organization of the Design Manual
Section 1 gives an overview of some of the technical features of dynamic

and positive displacement compressors, along with the general theory of
compressor operation, and discussions on ideal and real compression
processes.
Section 2 covers the principles of operation of both centrifugal and axial

compressors and the effect of inlet conditions on their performance.
Operating characteristics including capacity and speed limitations, and other
factors relevant to their selection are discussed. Fans are also discussed here.
Section 3 follows a similar format to section 2 in the discussion of positive
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DATE 06-94
displacement type units. Positive displacement machines take successive

volumes of gas confined within a closed space and reduces each volume to
increase the discharge pressure. This class of machines can generally
be
subdivided into either reciprocating or rotary units. Diaphragm compressors,
which find increasing applications in compression of toxic and flammable
gases, are also discussed in this section.
Section 4 provides basic information on compressor auxiliary systems such
as lube and seal oil, vibration systems, pulsation dampers, filters, piping and
separators.
Section 5 contains the compressor type selection guidelines. The primary

selection considerations are compressor capacity and discharge pressure or
compression ratio. The selection process will also depend on many
secondary variables like gas composition, utilities available, capital and
operating cost and operation reliability. The materials of construction
selection for various compressor applications is also covered in this section.
Section 6 covers design procedures and compressor sizing methods. Prior to

starting compressor calculations and specifications the process heat and
material balance should be defined, a system sketch or process flow diagram
should be developed, and then a pressure and temperature profile should be
made based on a preliminary plot plan. The responsibility of the process
engineer in the selection and rating process is to:
 Identify the preferred type of machine and driver for the particular
application.
 Provide a basic control concept for the equipment.
 Specify key operating parameters (capacity, gas composition, gas

propertiesa, supporting auxiliary or utility conditions, site data, operating pressures and temperatures).
 Indicate off-design operating modes (start-up, regeneration, end-of-run,

upsets).
 Identify corrosion and erosion components.
 Estimate the compressor brakepower, and number of compression stages

for the approximate utility requirements or driver selection.
Section 7 covers the means of controlling the compressor capacity and

protection of dynamic compressors from surge.
Section 8 contains compressor and auxiliary equipment data sheet

a
Gas properties may be obtained from computer runs, Operation Practice 000 225 9505 or other sources that
are indicated by the lead engineer to maintain job uniformity.
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DATE 06-94
descriptions and form numbers, and procedures for providing process data.
Section 9 provides the theory of the operation of each driver and discusses
ideal and real operating cycles. Electric motor theory is not covered in this
manual.
Section 10, covers the various types of drivers. Drivers are described
including their principle of operation, operating range and any factors
relevant to driver selection.
Section 11 discusses typical driver applications and an aid to selection is

provided.
Section 12 describes driver design procedures for various type of drivers.
Section 13 covers the methods of controlling and protecting the driver and
the instrumentation involved.
Section 14 contains driver specification data sheets descriptions and form

numbers.
Section 15 includes a description of the problems that can occur with drivers,
the cause and possible means of preventing or alleviating them.
Section 16 contains symbols, codes and reference materials.
Section 17 is the Appendix and contains completed samples of compressor

specification data sheets.
1.1.3 Glossary of Terms and Abbreviations
a) Compression Cycle Terms
isentropic A compression process which is reversible and

compression during which there is no change in entropy.
isothermal A compression process during which the

compression compression gas undergoes no change in
temperature.
adiabatic A compression process during which there is no

compression heat energy transfer to or from the compressed gas.
irreversible A real compression process during which losses,

compression such as, leakage, friction etc. occur.
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DATE 06-94
reversible An ideal and unattainable compression process

compression during which there are no losses.
polytropic A compression process in which changes in the gas

compression characteristics are taken into consideration.
Mollier diagram Usually an enthalpy-entropy diagram illustrating

the properties of a gas. It may also be a
temperature-entropy diagram.
compressibility That property of a gas or gas mixture that causes it

to differ in volume from that of a perfect gas when
each is under the same pressure and temperature.
compressibility The ratio of the actual volume of the gas to the

factor volume determined according to the perfect gas
law.
Mach number The ratio of the actual gas velocity to the velocity
of sound in the medium under consideration.
S.T.P. Standard temperature and pressure 60 oF and

14.696 psig) used by the natural gas and petroleum
industries.
b) General Compressor Terms
overall pressure Ratio of final discharge pressure to inlet pressure.

ratio
Intercooling Cooling of gas between compression stages to

reduce discharge temperature, reduce volume to
be compressed in succeeding stage and to save
power.
perfect intercooling Occurs when the gas is cooled to first stage inlet
cooling temperature following each stage of
compression.
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DATE 06-94
c) Positive Displacement Compressor Terms
clearance In a reciprocating compressor, it is that volume

contained in one end of the cylinder which is not
swept by the piston.
design compression In a rotary compressor, this refers to the

ratio compression ratio that has been attained when the
discharge port is uncovered.
displacement The net volume swept by the moving parts of the

unit in a unit of time.
slip The internal leakage within a compressor and

represents gas at least partially compressed but
not delivered.
volumetric Referred to reciprocating compressors is the ratio

efficiency in percent of the actual delivered capacity,
measured at inlet conditions, to the piston
displacement.
Single-acting Referred to reciprocating compressors when
compression takes place on only one side of the
piston.
double-acting Referred to reciprocating compressors where gas

is drawn in the cylinder on one side of the piston
whilst gas is compressed on the other side.
d) Dynamic Compressor Terms
Surge The phenomenon of flow reversal that occurs

within dynamic compressors when the capacity
being handled is reduced to a point where
insufficient pressure is being generated to
maintain flow. This is also known as pumping.
casing That in which is mounted the impeller or rotor

and which contains the gas being compressed.
diffuser The stationary passage way following an impeller

in which velocity energy imparted to the gas by
the impeller is converted to static pressure.
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DATE 06-94
guide vanes Non-rotating elements that may be fixed or

adjustable and provide a desired flow direction to
the impeller inlet.
impeller That part of the rotating element that imparts

momentum to the gas. It may be open, semi-
closed or closed.
rotor Composed of the shaft and impeller (centrifugal

types) or the shaft/drum and blading (axial types).
compressor rated The highest speed required to meet any specified

point operating conditions and the rated capacity
required to meet all operating points. It is usually
determined by the manufacturer.
normal operating The point at which normal operation is expected

point and optimum efficiency desired.
stable range The flow range between the maximum capacity

and the surge limit.
surge limit The maximum capacity at a given head at which

unstable flow occurs.
1.2 TYPES OF COMPRESSORS
The classification tree illustrated on the following page shows compressors are
divided into three (3) main categories depending on their principle of operation.
These categories are:
Dynamic compressors which operate by applying inertial forces to the gas with
revolving bladed impellers. The gas enters the eye of the impeller and is accelerated
in a peripheral direction. Then it flows through some type of diffuser, and exits to the
process if a single stage unit is used; otherwise the gas returns to the eye of the next
impeller, and the process is repeated. The impeller is the only means of adding
energy to the gas or vapor. Conversion of kinetic energy into pressure is with the
stationary parts, such as the diffusers, guide vanes, and return channels. There is no
mechanical means of preventing backflow with this type of machine as the flow
passages are open throughout. To prevent backflow and running the machine
backwards non-return (check) valves are placed in the discharge piping.
This group includes centrifugal and axial flow compressors, and fan and blowers.
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Positive displacement compressors which operate by trapping a volume of gas at a

particular pressure and temperature, in the cylinder by the action of a valve and
piston with a reciprocating unit, and by rotating pockets of a rotary compressor.
Successive trapped gas volumes are reduced and then released at a higher pressure
and temperature. Backflow is prevented in both cases as the gas is confined within
the cylinder pockets.
This group is subdivided into reciprocating and rotary compressors, and each of these
has numerous special construction features to handle various applications.
Ejectors increase the pressure of a gas or vapor stream at the expense of another
fluid. In their simplest form, they consist of an actuating nozzle, a suction chamber
and a diffuser. The actuating or motive fluid, at a high pressure is expanded at high
velocity through the nozzle. This action entrains the low pressure gas in the suction
chamber. As the mixed gas exits the diffuser, it is compressed to the discharge
conditions by rapid deceleration. They have limited use in gas compression since
there must be a high pressure stream which can be throttled, and mixed with a lower
pressure gas stream. Then, the resultant blended intermediate pressure vapor must be
in the correct proportions for downstream use. Examples of ejectors in compression
applications are steam jet thermo-compressors, and steam jet air compressors.
However, ejectors are most widely used in vacuum processes. The design and
selection of ejectors is not discussed in this manual.
Details on the operation of the two main classes of compressors (dynamic and
positive displacement) will be discusses in subsequent sections of this manual.
However, as an introduction it is important to summarize some the technical features
of each machine, their operating characteristics, and range of operation. In the
preliminary selection process the pressure volume map of Figure 1-2 illustrates
operating ranges for the various types of compressors. Some the critical technical
features are displayed in Table 1-1.
Reciprocating units have found the widest range of application in industry. They are
generally cheaper than centrifugal machines when their power requirements are less
than 500 hp, and the compression ratios are greater than or equal to 3.0. Rotary
compressors are typically chosen for operations in the 1,000 to 5,000 ACFM (suction
conditions) range. These machines have the characteristic of meeting a wide variety
of pressure ratios at near constant flow. When only a small differential pressure is
required (for example between 0.5 to 50 psi) then the lobe root blower is the
preferred machine.
Characteristics of dynamic compressors are opposite those of displacement type

units. They handle varying flows at near constant pressure ratios, although some
centrifugal and axial machines can exhibit intermediate characteristics (see Fig 1-3).
Centrifugal compressors handle capacities at the low end of 1,000 to 2,000 ACFM up
to a high of 150,000 ACFM. At the high end capacity in the range of 80,000 to
150,000 ACFM axial flow compressors are generally more economical.
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Centrifugal fans gain prominence to move gases and vapors when only a differential
pressure of 0.25 to 16 inches of water is required.
With the overlap in applicable operating range for the different compressor types, the
selection process is not always straight forward. Where this occurs, the following
types are listed in order of preference:
 Axial or centrifugal compressors. With these machines spare units are normally
not required.
 Reciprocating compressors are acceptable at the low volume high head part of
the map overlap. Three (3) 60 % capacity units should be specified when their
size is greater than or equal to 500 hp, while two (2) 110 % units should be
indicated at lower capacities.
 Screw compressors are preferred for the higher volume with moderate head part
of the map overlap with positive displacement type machines.
Final compressor selection shall be made after consultation with the client,
mechanical group, or vendors.
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Figure 1-1
CLASSIFICATION TREE FOR COMPRESSORS
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Figure 1-2
PRESSURE VOLUME MAP FOR VARIOUS COMPRESSOR TYPES
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DATE 06-94
Figure 1-3
COMPARISON OF OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS BETWEEN

POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT AND DYNAMIC COMPRESSORS
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DATE 06-94
Table 1-1
SUMMARY OF TECHNICAL FEATURES OF COMMON TYPES

OF COMPRESSORS
COMPRESSOR TYPE ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
AXIAL High efficiency Low compression ratio

Very high flow Susceptible to corrosion, and erosion
effects of dirty gases
Heavy duty, and low maintenance Generally suitable for a small range of
design gases
Anti-surge protection required
CENTRIFUGAL High range of design capacities Low efficiency at lower flows
Heavy duty, and low maintenance Sensitive to changes in process gas
design molecular weight
Good compression ratios Susceptible to rotor dynamic problems
Good capacity regulation at Anti-surge protection required
constant speed
EJECTOR TYPE
EJECTOR No moving parts Poor efficiency
No maintenance Narrow field of application in gas

compression
Easy capacity control Difficult to obtain required blended
gas composition
POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT TYPE
Capacity control available through Heavy foundations required for
RECIPROCATING valve unloaders, and clearance unbalanced forces and moments
pockets down to zero flow
Wide range of compression ratios Causes line pressure pulsations which
at near constant capacity must be attenuated
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COMPRESSOR TYPE ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

High efficiency Maintenance intensive
RECIPROCATING
Insensitive to changes in gas Low speed drivers required for large
composition machines
Cross-head type is capable of
heavy duty service
Simple construction Capacity control limited to suction
LOBE
throttling
Suitable for electric motor direct Limited compression ratio range (0.5
drive to 15 psi), so not used in most
processes
Wide range of application. Dry screw is subject to catastrophic
Greatest use is in the failure if screws touch
SCREW
refrigeration, and cryogenic
industries
Oil flooded screws have good Dry screw leakage losses between
efficiency, and high single stage rotors give poor efficiency
compression ratios
Ability to handle dirty wet gases Dry screws are very noisy, requiring
without hydraulic locking. noise hoods, and line silencers
Liquid slug can be handled
without damage.
Insensitive to changes in gas Dry screw rotor and bearing design is
composition critical to reliability
10 - 100 % load range with slide Four shaft seals required
valve
Oil injected (lubricated) units Oil flooded units require oil separation
have lower noise levels than non- equipment
lubricated, operate at lower
speeds, and remove heat of
compression
SLIDING-VANE Very simple, reliable machine Oil separation equipment required
Rotational speed facilitates direct
drive by all common industrial Vanes have a tendency to jam in rotor
drives slots, and wear rapidly
Internal oil cooling permits high
single stage compression ratios
Can maintain a very high vacuum Sealing liquid separation equipment
LIQUID-RING
required
Internal cooling permits high
single stage compression ratios
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DATE 06-94
1.3 BASIC THEORY
1.3.1 Equation of State
The operation of compressor systems is linked directly with the theory of gas
behavior and equations of state and an understanding of these is necessary
for compression plant design.
The behavior of an ideal gas is expressed by:
pV = nRO T (1.3.1)
where:
p = absolute pressure, psia
V = volume, ft3
n' = number of moles
T = absolute temperature, oR
RO = Universal Gas Constant, ftlb/lbmole oR
All gases deviate from the ideal gas laws and it is necessary to take these
deviations into account in compressor calculations. Computing PVT
properties of a real gas can be accomplished by the use of equations or state
or by the introduction of compressibility factors in the ideal gas equation.
The compressibility of a gas or vapor is determined experimentally and used
to derive the compressibility factor, Z. The compressibility factor has its
basis in the law of corresponding states. (The law of corresponding states
imply that at the critical condition (P c, Tc) all substances behave the same.) A
simple equation to account for the real gas behavior is illustrated below:
pV = nZRO T (1.3.2)
It should be noted that the value of this factor varies with pressure and
temperature.
Temperature-entropy charts are available for most common process gases

and they are useful in an adiabatic or isentropic process to determine the
temperature change, rather than applying the ideal gas laws or any of the
equations of state. They provide the necessary correction factors for most
compression problems involving the gases concerned.
1.3.2 Compression Cycles
The two basic compression cycles applicable to both positive displacement

and dynamic compressors are isothermal and adiabatic compression. In
practice, neither of these processes are commercially attainable though they
are useful as a basis for calculation and comparison. They are presented by
curves AB and AC respectively, Figure 1-4.
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DATE 06-94
Figure 1-4
PRESSURE-VOLUME DIAGRAM FOR ISOTHERMAL

AND ADIABATIC CYCLES
Figure 1-5
TEMPERATURE-ENTROPY DIAGRAM FOR REAL

(1-2) AND IDEAL (1-2’) COMPRESSION
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DATE 06-94
a) Isothermal Compression
Isothermal compression occurs at constant temperature which requires

that heat of compression be removed continuously throughout the
process. Isothermal compression theoretically follows the formula:
pV = Constant (1.3.3)
Adiabatic Compression
Adiabatic compression is obtained when there is no heat transfer to or

from the gas during the compression process. It ideally follows the
equation:
pVk = Constant (1.3.4)
where:
Cp MCp
K  (1.3.5)
Cv MCp  1.986
where:
k = the adiabatic exponent defined by

Cp = specific heat capacity at constant pressure, Btu/lb oF
Cv = specific heat capacity at constant volume, Btu/lb oF
M = molecular weight, lb/lbmole
Reversible adiabatic (isentropic) processes cannot be achieved in practice

because heat of compression maybe lost from the gas or heat may be
gained from the compressor and therefore compression is accompanied
by an increase in entropy. This is illustrated by Figure 1-5 where
isentropic compression is represented by curve 1-2' and irreversible
compression by 1-2. Since positive displacement type compressors
generally operate along a path close to the adiabatic, calculations for this
compression type are generally based on the adiabatic curve.
1.3.3 Polytropic Cycles
Polytropic cycles instead of isentropic are followed primarily by dynamic

compressors and expressed by:
pVn = Constant (1.3.6)
The adiabatic compression equation is similar to the one above, however

thermodynamically, the polytropic process is irreversible. The polytropic
SECTION 1.0
PAGE 17
DATE 06-94
exponent, n, is determined experimentally for the compressor being used and

therefore, the relationship far more accurately predicts the gas behavior with
temperature and pressure.
The effect of the exponent on the compression process is illustrated by

Figure 1-6 where for cooled positive displacement type compressors its value
usually lies between unity and that of the adiabatic exponent, k, while for
dynamic type compressors n is usually greater than k. Because the
polytropic exponent is not constant during the compression process an
average or effective value is used.
The polytropic exponent, n, is defined by the equation below and is

determined experimentally by measuring the compressor inlet and outlet
conditions of pressure and temperature:
 n 1 
T2  
  p 2 

n 
(1.3.7)
T1 p
 1 
T2
  n 1  (1.3.8)
T1 r n 
where:
T1 = inlet temperature, oR
T2 = outlet temperature, oR
p1 = inlet pressure, psia
p2 = outlet pressure, psia
r = pressure ratio
It is also related to the adiabatic exponent by the following equation:
n 1 k 1
 (1.3.9)
n kp
where:
ηP = the polytropic efficiency
The relationship between k and (n - 1)/n at different values of polytropic

efficiency is shown by Figure 1-7.
1.3.4 Work of Compression
Work is required to compress a gas and this work is represented by the area
under the process curve on a pressure-volume graph. Referring to Figure 1-
SECTION 1.0
PAGE 18
DATE 06-94
4, it can be seen that the work for isothermal compression represented by

area ABDE is considerably less than that of adiabatic compression, ACDE,
and clearly the isothermal cycle thus provides the greatest compression
economy. Specific work of compression, H, can also be defined in terms of
enthalpy by:
 H = H2- H1 (1.3.10)
where:
H1 = enthalpy of inlet, Btu/lb

H2 = enthalpy of outlet, Btu/lb
The compressor adiabatic efficiency, ad is the ratio of the theoretical to the
actual work and does not include mechanical friction losses. It is expressed
as follows:
Hisen H' 2 H1

ad   (1.3.11)
H H2  H1
where:
H' 2 = is the enthalpy at compressor outlet

 Hisen = is the compressor work for a reversible and isentropic
cycle
SECTION 1.0
PAGE 19
DATE 06-94
Figure 1-6
PRESSURE-VOLUME DIAGRAM SHOWING VARIOUS

GAS COMPRESSION PROCESSES
Figure 1-7
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN (n-1)/n AND k FOR

DIFFERENT VALUES POLYTROPIC EFFICIENCY
SECTION 1.0
PAGE 20
DATE 06-94
1.3.5 Adiabatic Head and Power
The adiabatic head, had, developed by a compressor at a given speed and

capacity remains constant regardless of the gas type or its molecular weight.
It is expressed as follows:
k  ( k 1) / k

 p 2  
had = ZavRT1 k  1 
 
  1 (1.3.12)
p
 1 
 

where:
Zav = is the average compressibility factor

R = is the specific gas constant and defined by the following equation:
R = Ro/M = 1545 / Molecular weight
(1.3.13)

 p 
( k 1) / k


The bracketed expression:  2   1 (1.3.14)
p
 1
  

is known as the theoretical temperature rise coefficient or the X-factor.
Equation thus becomes:
k
had = ZavRT1 X (1.3.15)
k 1
The actual head developed is defined as follows:
h ad
h act  (1.3.16)
ad
The power required to compress the gas adiabatically, P ad, is dependent on

the gas type and particularly its density. It is calculated using the following
expression:
whad
Pad  (1.3.17)
550
where:
w = mass flow rate of gas (lb/s)

Pad = power requirements (hp)
SECTION 1.0
PAGE 21
DATE 06-94
It should be noted that the pressure rise in a gas generated in a compressor

also depends on the properties of the gas and it varies approximately with its
density.
The discharge temperature of the gas from the compressor is found by first
calculating the theoretical discharge temperature from the temperature ratio
equation.
k 1
T' 2 p  k
  2 
T1  p1 
(1.3.18)
For low and medium pressure applications the theoretical temperature T
is used to find the actual discharge temperature:
T2  T1 
 T2  T1 
(1.3.19)
 ad
Alternatively, compressor vendor charts may be used to provide an

estimation of the discharge temperature for a given suction temperature and
compression ratio.
All the adiabatic equations previously discussed are summarized in Table 1-

2. The polytropic equations are similar to adiabatic equations and are in
Table 1-3.
1.3.6 Multistaging
All compressor elements regardless of type, have certain limiting operating

conditions such as those listed below.
 discharge temperature
 differential pressure
 compression ratio (dynamic units)
 effects of clearance (reciprocating units)
 power losses
When such a limitation becomes involved, it is necessary to multistage the

compression process so that the gas undergoes compression in a number of
steps. Theoretically, minimum operating power is achieved by making equal
the compression ratio of successive stages in a multistage unit. Therefore,
the compression ratio, rs, per stage can be determined approximately even
with intercooling between stages or cylinders by the expression:
SECTION 1.0
PAGE 22
DATE 06-94
Table 1-2
ADIABATIC EQUATIONS
Hisen H2  H1
Efficiency,  ad   (1.3.20)
H H2  H1
Ro 1545
Specific gas constant, R  (1.3.21)
M M

 p 
( k 1) / k


X Factor, X =  2   1 (1.3.22)
p
 1
  

k
Head, ft, had  ZavRT1 X (1.3.23)
k 1
had
Actual Head, ft, hact  (1.3.24)
ad
wh ad
Power, hp, Pad 
550
(1.3.25)
k 1
Temperature Ratio, T2  p 2  k

(1.3.27)
 
T1  p1 
 T2  T1 
Actual Discharge Temperature, T2  T1  (1.3.28)
 ad
SECTION 1.0
PAGE 23
DATE 06-94
Table 1-3
POLYTROPIC EQUATIONS
n 1

Temperature Ratio, T2   p 2 
n
(1.3.29)
T1  p1 
Polytropic exponent and adiabatic exponent relationship,
n 1 k 1
 (1.3.30)
n k p
  n 1 / n 
 p  
X Factor, X =  2   1 (1.3.31)
p
 1
  

n
Head, ft, hp  ZavRT 1
n 1
X (1.3.32)
hp
Actual Head, ft, hactual  (1.3.33)
p
whactual
Power, hp, Pactual  (1.3.34)
550
Brake Power, hp, Pbrake = Pactual + losses (1.3.35)
SECTION 1.0
PAGE 24
DATE 06-94
rs = r1/s = s
r (1.3.36)
In practice the compression power varies very little with significant

variations in the actual compression ratios for individual stages and in most
multistage compressors the compression ratios are seldom equal, due partly
to interstage losses.
1.3.7 Specific Speed
The design and performance of centrifugal, mixed flow and axial

compressors is fundamentally affected by the variables of rotative speed, N,
capacity, Q, and polytropic head, hp. Several methods of correlating these
variables are currently used by compressor designers. One is called specific
speed, Ns, which is expressed as follows:
NQ 1 / 2
Ns  (1.3.37)
hp 3 / 4
where:
N = rotative speed, rpm

Q = inlet capacity, ft3/s
hp = polytropic head, ft
Specific speed is dimensionless and is an indication of the design point with

respect to optimum efficiencies for a given impeller configuration. Curves of
the specific speed versus efficiency are available for particular compressors
from vendors.
1.3.8 Mechanical Efficiency
The overall compressor power requirement is affected also by the mechanical

efficiency. The mechanical losses are characteristic of the specific type of
equipment involved and the establishment of these values are the
responsibility of the Mechanical Engineering group.
SECTION 2.0
PAGE 1
PROCESS MANUAL DYNAMIC COMPRESSORS
DATE 06-94
2.0 DYNAMIC COMPRESSORS
2.1 PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
2.1.1 Centrifugal Compressors
Centrifugal compressors, Figure 2-1, comprise essentially a casing which is

used to contain the gas being compressed and one or more high speed
rotating impellers attached to a rotor. The impeller comprises radial vanes
fitted to a hub which may be open, semi-closed or shrouded, Figure 2-2,
depending on the compressor design. The rotor is bearing mounted and
sealed to prevent gas pressure leakage from the casing which includes an
axial inlet and a circumferential discharge fitted with diffusers.
Figure 2-3 shows the variation of gas pressure, temperature and velocity as
the gas is passed through a single stage compressor. The gas enters the unit
axially through the suction and is accelerated radially by the impeller and
then decelerated as it passes through radial diffusers into the discharge where
further deceleration is produced by the action of discharge diffusers.
Maximum gas velocity is thus reached at the impeller vane tips before
passage of the gas through the radial diffusers. Compression and resultant
temperature increase principally occur at the impeller and radial diffusers
where maximum acceleration and deceleration are produced respectively.
2.1.2 Axial Compressors
The axial compressor Figure 2-4 consists of a rotating drum or rotor mounted
in a casing. Attached to the rotor is a series of blades which move between
rows of fixed blades held by the casing. The gas enters at the low pressure
end and moves with almost constant velocity through the main part of the
machine. As it progresses through the compressor it undergoes a virtually
constant rate of compression and corresponding temperature increase as can
be seen from Figure 2-5 where gas conditions in a typical seven stage unit
are represented.
2.1.3 Centrifugal Fans
In centrifugal fans, the air is introduced in an axial direction into the centre of
a revolving wheel or rotor with peripheral blades. Air is drawn through the
blades and forced out in centrifugal flow into a scroll or volute housing
where a portion of the kinetic energy is converted to pressure or static head.
The centrifugal fan is illustrated by Figure 2-6. There are basically four
impeller designs that may be used. They are illustrated by Figure 2-7 with
their performance curves and discussed as follows.
SECTION 2.0
PAGE 2
DATE 06-94
Figure 2-1
SINGLE STAGE CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR
Figure 2-2
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR IMPELLER
SECTION 2.0
PAGE 3
DATE 06-94
Figure 2-3
VARIATION IN GAS CONDITIONS WITHIN A TYPICAL HIGH

HEAD SINGLE STAGE CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR
SECTION 2.0
PAGE 4
DATE 06-94
Figure 2-4
TYPICAL AXIAL COMPRESSOR
Figure 2-5
VARIATION IN GAS CONDITIONS WITHIN A TYPICAL

SEVEN STAGE AXIAL COMPRESSOR
SECTION 2.0
PAGE 5
DATE 06-94
Figure 2-6
CENTRIFUGAL FAN COMPONENTS
SECTION 2.0
PAGE 6
DATE 06-94
Figure 2-7
FAN IMPELLER SHAPE AND TYPICAL PERFORMANCE CURVES
SECTION 2.0
PAGE 7
DATE 06-94
2.2 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
When running at a given speed and handling a specific gas a dynamic compressor
will produce a polytropic head that varies with inlet capacity in accordance with a
characteristic curve, Figure 2-8(a) and 2-8(b). Because the polytropic head is largely
independent of the gas property the compressor will produce similar curves for other
gases. Any variation between the curves is due to the relative Mach number and any
volume reduction through the impeller.
Variations in speed, operating conditions and gas characteristics may alter the
pressure, temperature and velocity through the compressor and also the polytropic
head produced by it. Table 2-1 gives qualitatively the effects on these items for
changes in inlet temperature and pressure, molecular weight and the adiabatic
exponent of the gas.
Inlet Inlet Gas Adiabatic

Item Increased Pressure Temperature Molecular Exponent
P1 T1 Weight k
Item Affected:
Gas Density Increases Decreases Increases Constant
Outlet/Inlet Pressure Difference, Increases Decreases Increases Decreases
P2 - P1
Outlet Pressure, P2 Increases Decreases Increases Decreases
Overall Pressure Ratio, r Constant Decreases Increases Decreases
Outlet Temperature, T2 Constant Decreases Increases Increases
Polytropic Head, hp Constant Constant Constant Constant
Gas Velocity Constant Constant Constant Constant
Compressor Power Increases Decreases Increases Constant
It can be seen that it is the average density through the machine that has been
changed and it is this that causes the variation in the compressor characteristics and
performance. It makes no difference to the machine what causes the density to alter.
The density of the gas determines the pressure rise and compression ratio possible for
a given compressor design, the greater the density, the greater the possible pressure
increase.
To illustrate this, consider the compression of 14,700 ACFM of gas from atmospheric
pressure to 6 psig. If the gas is air it will be a simple single stage centrifugal but with
hydrogen it would require a multistage centrifugal, probably in two casings [17].
SECTION 2.0
PAGE 8
DATE 06-94
Figure 2-8
CHARACTERISTIC CURVES OF TYPICAL DYNAMIC COMPRESSORS

(a) CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR
(b) AXIAL COMPRESSOR
SECTION 2.0
PAGE 9
DATE 06-94
It should be noted that although the characteristic head-capacity curve of the axial
compressor is quite different from that of the centrifugal type, the effects of speed,
gas properties and operating conditions are similar. The steepness of the curves gives
the axial compressor a more limited operating range.
2.3 EFFECT OF SPEED
The fan laws apply to centrifugal compressors and give approximately the effect of
speed on compressor performance. For multistage units they should be applied to
each stage individually although results are sufficiently accurate when used overall
for speed variations of less than 15 %. Since compressor efficiency does not vary
significantly with small speed variations, the brake power also varies with the cube of
the speed.
Q2/Q1 = N2/N1 (for capacity) (2.3.1)
h2/h1 = (N2/N1)2 (for polytropic head) (2.3.2)
P2/P1 = (N2/N1)3 (for theoretical power) (2.3.3)
Figure 2-9(a) illustrates graphically the effect of speed variation on the compressor
characteristic curves of polytropic head and power.
From these curves it will be seen that the centrifugal compressor is largely a constant
pressure machine and that power consumption is almost directly proportional to the
volume delivered.
The relationship between head and speed is much the same for axial compressors and
is illustrated by Figure 2-9(b).
Speed change is extensively used for capacity control of dynamic units but more
particularly for centrifugal units because of their flatter head-flow characteristic
curves.
2.4 OPERATING RANGE
2.4.1 Surge Limit
The stability line, shown on Figure 2-9 is the lower flow limit for a given
head of the dynamic compressor operating range and represents the
conditions under which pumping or surge may occur. This is, for any speed,
the capacity under which compressor operation becomes unstable and it is
determined by the compressor design and the properties of the gas being
compressed.
The primary cause of surge lies in the shape of the characteristic curve and
particularly in that area where pressure falls off rapidly at low capacity after
SECTION 2.0
PAGE 10
DATE 06-94
reaching a peak of pressure. When the capacity is reduced below this peak
the pressure in the discharge line exceeds that produced by the machine and
flow tends to momentarily reverse. Reversal causes a drop in discharge
pressure which initiates normal flow. High speed pulsations are produced by
this phenomenon which leads to noisy operation, vibration and machine
distress. In practice, the surge limit should be defined by test for each
machine installed and its operation kept sufficiently above it.
2.4.2 Stonewalling
The upper limit of the operating range for dynamic compressors is defined by
the occurrence of stonewalling. Although infrequent in compressor
installations, it occurs when the velocity of flow approaches the sonic
velocity in the gas being compressed. The phenomenon is represented in
Figure 2-10 by the almost vertical dip of the pressure curve. Stonewalling
may be avoided by using a different impeller design or a greater number of
stages at a lower rotational speed.
2.5 EFFECT OF MOISTURE
Many gases, including air, contain moisture which must be taken into consideration
in compressor design. This is because moisture affects almost all properties of the
gas and an increase in moisture leads to a reduced discharge pressure and
compression ratio.
2.6 EFFECT OF COOLING
Gas cooling during compression reduces power by lowering the average gas
temperature within the unit, increasing the average density and decreasing the
polytropic head required for a given discharge pressure. Intercooling may be
introduced for power saving or to reduce the discharge temperature to satisfy process
limitations. It may also be cost effective to use it to reduce the number of compressor
stages or the operating speed. Cooling is achieved by use of direct liquid injection
into the gas, water cooled interstage diaphragms or by passage of the gas through an
external heat exchanger between successive stages.
2.7 EFFECT OF BLADE ANGLE
2.7.1 Centrifugal Compressor Vane Angle
The compressor characteristic curve is determined to a considerable degree

by the shape of the impeller vanes. In most cases the vanes are either radial
or backward curved, forward curved vanes being used only on some types of
fans. The effect of the vane exit angle is shown by Figure 2-11, where it can
be seen that a reduced angle gives a wider stable operating range, a greater
efficiency but a lower pressure rise.
SECTION 2.0
PAGE 11
DATE 06-94
Figure 2-9
PERFORMANCE OF DYNAMIC COMPRESSORS AT VARIOUS SPEEDS

(a) CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR
(b) AXIAL COMPRESSOR
SECTION 2.0
PAGE 12
DATE 06-94
2.7.2 Centrifugal Compressor Inlet Guide Vanes
When larger units are involved, moveable guide vanes are installed ahead of
the first impeller. These not only throttle but give pre-rotation to the gas
entering the impeller. This has the effect of altering the characteristic of the
first impeller and lowering the surge limit as indicated by Figure 2-12.
Power savings are also achieved. The effect of guide vanes on compressor
performance depends on the number of stages, decreasing as stages increase.
2.7.3 Axial Compressor Stator Blade Angle
The stator blades are attached to the casing and in some compressor types
may be adjusted manually or automatically. Adjustable stator blading has an
appreciable effect on the stable operating range as can be seen from Figure 2-
13 and is frequently used for range extension. It is also used to permit the
compressor to operate in the narrow peak efficiency range under varying
inlet conditions or changes in gas composition.
2.8 MULTISTAGING
In natural gas applications, centrifugal compressors typically operate with pressure

ratios of 1.2-1.5 per stage depending on gas molecular weight and axial compressors
at lower ratios of less than 1.2 so unless the unit is to serve as a fan or blower,
multistaging to increase discharge pressure is necessary. Centrifugal compressors
may have up to eight or sometimes ten stages in a single casing particularly when
used in systems handling low molecular weight gases. For high pressure
compressors, the maximum number of stages should be eight due to rotor stability
constraints.
Axial compressors commonly employ ten stages or more sometimes incorporating a

small number of centrifugal stages into the unit to assist in developing pressure. At
the same time, the very large volume flows involved do not facilitate the intercooled
staging which is frequently applied to centrifugal types and hence further increasing
the number of axial stages required for a given overall pressure ratio.
Because compressor performance moves further from the design point with
successive staging it is necessary to ensure that the last stages are selected to give a
sufficiently wide overall range of operation; shortness of the last stage characteristic
leads to a very short overall performance characteristic. As an axial compressor
generally has a high number of stages and a relatively steep performance curve this
factor is of much greater significance than in centrifugal compressor.
SECTION 2.0
PAGE 13
DATE 06-94
Figure 2-10
DYNAMIC COMPRESSOR CHARACTERISTIC CURVES SHOWING

STONEWALLING AND EFFECT OF REDESIGN TO AVOID IT
SECTION 2.0
PAGE 14
DATE 06-94
Figure 2-11
EFFECT OF VANE ANGLE ON CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR PERFORMANCE
SECTION 2.0
PAGE 15
DATE 06-94
2.9 STARTING/UNLOADING
Recycling and unloading of dynamic compressors is required for start-up to stay

away from the surge limits. These requirements are primarily related to the torque-
producing capabilities of the driver.
Steam turbines have excellent starting torque characteristics and offer no problems.
For electric motor and combustion gas turbine drives, some type of unloading may be
required. On small units, this can frequently be done with a butterfly valve in the
suction line. On many of the more complicated process units, it can be done by
utilizing adjustable inlet guide vanes, throttling valves, or, in some cases, by reducing
pressure levels in the process. In all cases, this subject should be discussed with the
compressor manufacturer.
SECTION 2.0
PAGE 16
DATE 06-94
Figure 2-12
EFFECT OF INLET GUIDE VANES ON CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR

PERFORMANCE AT CONSTANT SPEED
Figure 2-13
EFFECT OF STATOR BLADE ADJUSTMENT ON AXIAL

COMPRESSOR PERFORMANCE
SECTION 3.0
PAGE 1
PROCESS MANUAL POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSORS
DATE 06-94
3.0 POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSORS
3.1 RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS
3.1.1 General
The design of reciprocating compressors is ideally suited to low volume,

high head applications or to handling low density gases such as hydrogen
where a high number of stages would be required with a centrifugal machine.
They are fixed capacity machines with delivery being varied by altering the
speed of the prime mover. The capacity is approximately proportional to
speed with little change in head losses with speed.
Reciprocating compressor speeds may range from 125 to 515 rpm with
piston speeds between 11.5 and 14.8 ft/sec. Nominal gas velocity is usually
in the range of 72 to 131 ft/sec and discharge pressures of 87,000 - 100,000
psig may be reached. Compression ratio per stage is generally limited to four
by maximum allowable discharge temperatures although ratios of up to eight
may be reached with low capacity machines.
In the reciprocating compressor, compression is achieved by drawing gas

into a cylinder and compressing it by the movement of a piston in the
cylinder. During the intake stroke, gas is drawn into the cylinder at suction
pressure with the suction valve open and the discharge valve closed. The gas
is then compressed with both suction and discharge valves closed until the
discharge pressure is reached. The gas is then discharged from the cylinder
at constant pressure. At the end of the delivery stroke the discharge valve
closes with the cylinder clearance still filled with gas at discharge pressure.
With both valves closed, the gas expands until suction pressure is reached
and gas at suction pressure is again drawn into the cylinder.
The pressure, volume diagram for this process is shown by Figure 3-1.
A reciprocating compressor may be equipped with single or double acting
pistons. The latter performs suction and compression strokes simultaneously,
the gas being drawn into the cylinder on one side of the piston and
compressed on the other side.
3.1.3 Effect of Clearance
The cylinder cannot be completely cleared on the compression stroke, that

volume remaining is called the clearance and will typically vary between
four and sixteen percent of cylinder capacity. There are cases where
clearance is added to the cylinder and these may be to either reduce the
capacity at fixed pressure conditions or to prevent driver overload under
variable operating pressure conditions.
SECTION 3.0
PAGE 2
DATE 06-94
Figure 3-1
PRESSURE VOLUME CYCLE FOR RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR
SECTION 3.0
PAGE 3
DATE 06-94
Clearance volume is usually expressed as a percent of piston displacement

and referred to as percent clearance, or cylinder clearance, c.
clearance volume, cu.in

c X100
piston displacement, cu.in
(3.1.1)
Figure 3-2(a) illustrates the effect of clearance on the pressure-volume

diagram for three cylinder lengths of 107 %, 114 % and 121 % of stroke
length. It can be seen that the volumetric efficiency is significantly reduced
when the clearance increased from 7 % to 21 %. In addition an allowance of
typically four to five percent is made for efficiency losses due to internal gas
pre-heating and leakage.
It should be noted that for a particular machine the volume flow rate of
compressed gas increases with volumetric efficiency. Improvement in
volumetric efficiency is achieved by reducing the effect of the re-expanding
clearance gas by using a smaller clearance. The volumetric efficiency is
usually higher for compressor with lower compression ratios and for gases
with higher adiabatic exponent. The effects of r and k on volumetric
efficiency are shown by Figures 3-2(b) and 3-2(c).
Volumetric efficiency, V.E., is calculated as follows:
 1

 r k
V.E.  100  c    1  L
 f  

 

(3.1.2a)
 1 
 pd Zs  k
 100  c    1  L
 
 ps Zd  

 
 (3.1.2b)
where:
c = clearance (%)
r = compression ratio (pd/ps)
k = adiabatic exponent
L = internal losses (%)
f = ratio of compressibility factors (Zd/Zs)
With certain types of compressor applications, pressure conditions may vary

considerably and it is necessary to provide for, or limit, the changes in power
requirements. Generally, there are two cases:
SECTION 3.0
PAGE 4
DATE 06-94
 Where exit pressure is constant but inlet pressure varies such as with
some types of booster compressor applications.
 Where inlet pressure is constant but exit pressure varies such as with
pipeline and gas storage applications.
The compressor must first be sized to meet certain specified conditions and
then analyzed for power variations due to changing pressures. It will be
found in both of the above cases, Figure 3-3, that over a sufficiently wide
change in pressures there exists a peak of maximum compressor power. It
should be noted that the clearance in Figure 3-3(b) is high and that the
resulting power curve is flatter and lower than that of Figure 3-3(a). The
effect of clearance on power is illustrated by Figure 3-4.
3.1.5 Multistaging and Intercooling
For reciprocating compressors, multistaging is used to:
 Save power
 Limit gas discharge temperature
 Limit pressure differential
 Attain high discharge pressures
Multistage units are generally supplied by compressor manufacturers

complete with their characteristic performance curves although separate units
connected in series are also used.
The curves of Figures 3-5 and 3-6 show the theoretical effect of two and
three staging on the discharge temperature per stage and the power required
for compressors handling air at atmospheric pressure using equal ratios for
all stages and interstage cooling. In practice, when reciprocating compressor
staging exceeds four, the power savings with subsequent stage addition are
insignificant because of greater gas frictional losses through valves, piping
and heat exchangers.
Most reciprocating compressors are equipped with a cylinder cooling system.

Low capacity machines are usually air cooled using external fins formed on
the compressor casing to remove heat while larger water cooled units use
cooling jackets (usually cast into the casing). Cylinder cooling is necessary
to remove friction heat generated by the piston rings which corresponds to
about eight percent of the compressor absorbed power. A further five percent
compressor power is removed as heat from the running gear by water cooling
of the lube oil in an external heat exchanger.
SECTION 3.0
PAGE 5
DATE 06-94
Figure 3-2
EFFECT OF VARIABLES ON VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY, V.E.,

OF A RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR
SECTION 3.0
PAGE 6
DATE 06-94
SECTION 3.0
PAGE 7
DATE 06-94
Figure 3-4
EFFECT OF CLEARANCE ON COMPRESSOR POWER
SECTION 3.0
PAGE 8
DATE 06-94
Most multistage units also employ interstage cooling. The power saving due
to intercooling of a two stage unit is illustrated by Figure 3-7 where cooling
is provided after the first stage and before the second stage along curve AB.
The power saving is represented by the difference in area under the uncooled
and cooled system curves and is that enclosed by points ABCD shown
shaded in the figure.
Interstage coolers require the coolest possible water while cylinder jackets
prefer warmer water. The multistage compressor cooling system, thus passes
water first through the interstage cooler and then around the cylinders. With
properly cooled units it may be assumed that heat not removed in the
jackets will be removed in the subsequent intercooler and that the
compressor discharge temperature is dependent upon the effects of
compression in the last cylinder only.
It should be noted that when compressing a saturated gas the cooling water
inlet temperature to the cylinders must be five to ten degrees centigrade
higher than the suction temperature of the gas to prevent any condensation
within the compressor.
Where process design demands that separate units be used in a multistage

compression system, interstage cooling is accomplished by using external
heat exchangers.
3.1.6 Unloading for Starting
Practically all reciprocating compressors must be unloaded to some degree

before starting so that the driver torque available during acceleration is not
exceeded. This is often a manual operation, but on all automatic control
systems, automatic starting unloading must be provided. There are many
methods, the most frequently used being a vent to atmosphere or a bypass.
3.1.7 Capacity Control
The capacity of a reciprocating compressor can be varied by the following

methods.
 Speed. This is rarely applied since the use of variable speed drivers is
limited and it is expensive.
 Clearance control. See Section 3.1.3. In addition to the normal
clearance in a compressor cylinder, a number of clearance pockets can be
incorporated at each end of the cylinder. These clearance pockets can be
closed or opened to the compressor cylinder by manually operated
valves. The amount of clearance added or reduced is proportional to the
movement of the clearance pocket piston.
SECTION 3.0
PAGE 9
DATE 06-94
Figure 3-5
EFFECT OF TWO AND THREE STAGING ON POWER
Figure 3-6
EFFECT OF TWO AND THREE STAGING ON

DISCHARGE TEMPERATURE
SECTION 3.0
PAGE 10
DATE 06-94
Figure 3-7
POWER SAVING WITH INTERSTAGE COOLING
SECTION 3.0
PAGE 11
DATE 06-94
 Unloading valves. This consists of holding inlet valves to the

compressor cylinder open during suction and discharge. Operation is by
the gas handled by the compressor, compressed air or hand operation.
 Recycle control. This is by externally bypassing gas from the discharge
side of the compressor back to the suction side. Usually this type of
control is for fine adjustments. Gas returned to the suction side of the
compressor may require cooling to prevent excessive discharge
temperatures.
For medium/high pressure applications in excess of 725 psig discharge

pressure, clearance control and unloading valve methods are not
recommended due to the risk of gas leakages from cylinder penetrations
necessary for the clearance plugs of unloading valves.
3.2 ROTARY COMPRESSORS
3.2.1 Rotary Compressor Types
Rotary compressors are constant volume machines with a variable discharge

pressure that is dependent upon the system discharge pressure. Like the
reciprocating compressor, volume flowrate is varied by changing the speed
or bypassing or wasting some of the capacity. There are essentially three
types of rotary compressor.
a) Straight Lobe Compressor (Roots Blower)
This type is illustrated in Figure 3-8. It is available for pressure

differentials up to about 14.5 psi and capacities up to 2.9 x 10 4 ft3/min.
Sometimes multiple units are operated in series to produce higher
pressures. Individual-stage pressure differentials are limited by shaft
deflection, which must necessarily be kept small to maintain rotor and
casing clearance. This type of compressor is not commonly used.
b) Screw Compressor
This type, Figure 3-9, is capable of handling capacities of up to

2.5 x 104 ft3/min at pressure ratios of four to one and higher with a
maximum discharge pressure of 680 psig. Relatively small diameter
rotors allow rotative speeds of up to several thousand rpm. Unlike the
straight lobe, the screw (or helical lobe) type has a male and female rotor
whose rotating and intermeshing causes the axial progression of
successive sealed cavities. The male rotor is usually used to drive the
female and they may rotate at different speeds depending on the ratio of
male lobes to female gullies.
SECTION 3.0
PAGE 12
DATE 06-94
The ratio between compression volume and suction volume is

determined solely by the position of the control ledges in the machine
and any machine therefore has a constant installed pressure ratio.
Some screw compressors require no lubrication within the compression

chamber and therefore deliver oil-free gas. They may also be used to
handle all commercial gases when sufficiently protected from corrosion
and are well suited to the compression of wet dirty gases since there is no
metallic contact within the casing. They are suitable for fouling service
where deposits are soft although abrasive dirt should be avoided as rotor
erosion will result with loss of machine efficiency.
Screw compressors can handle limited amounts of liquid and liquid

injection is sometimes used to cool and seal but they are not designed to
digest slugs.
Screw compressors are generally smaller than reciprocators but less

efficient except in the low pressure operating range and usually require
inlet and discharge silencers to reduce operating noise to acceptable
limits.
As with straight lobe compressors, screw types have a relatively low

limiting discharge temperature to prevent excessive casing distortion and
rotor expansion with consequent clearance change. Compression ratios
are limited by the amount of bending that rotor and shaft can accept.
c) Sliding - Vane Compressor
These units, Figure 3-10 are offered for operating pressures of up to 115
or 130 psig and capacities of up to 2.9 x 10 3 ft3/min. Generally, pressure
ratios per stage are limited to four to one. Lubrication of the sliding
vanes is required, so the discharge air or gas stream contains lubricant.
Vane type rotaries should not be used with dirty air or gas, or wear will
be unduly accelerated, so these units are almost always fitted with filters.
It is not recommended that gases containing liquid be handled although
the machine will cope with occasional light carryover as long as
lubrication is not destroyed. Vane breakage can occur when heavy slugs
of liquid are permitted to enter.
The vane rotary has higher unloaded power than the corresponding
reciprocating and water cooled units and may generally be classified as
heavy duty compressors suitable for long periods at full load.
Vane rotary compressors are used as air compressors, boosters or vacuum

pumps.
SECTION 3.0
PAGE 13
DATE 06-94
Figure 3-8
STRAIGHT LOBE COMPRESSOR
Figure 3-9
SCREW (HELICAL LOBE) COMPRESSOR
SECTION 3.0
PAGE 14
DATE 06-94
3.2.2 Slip or Leakage
Leakage occurs in rotary sliding vane compressors between adjacent cells

across the vanes at their edges and ends, and also in both straight lobe and
screw type compressors between the two rotors, between the rotors and the
housing and between the rotor ends and housing end walls. Leakage varies
with the machine design, compression ratio, type of gas and the method of
sealing which is normally by low clearance only. Water injection may be
used for sealing while simultaneously providing cooling by evaporation
though excessive use of water leads to significant rises in pumping power
requirements.
Sealing by oil flooding is primarily used in screw compressors where much

improved compression ratios and efficiencies may be attained. It is used in
refrigeration systems where as much as 9 ft 3/min of oil may be circulated
with recovery by high efficiency oil separators to prevent oil carry-over.
Figure 3-10
SLIDING VANE COMPRESSOR
SECTION 3.0
PAGE 15
DATE 06-94
Figure 3-11
APPROXIMATE PERFORMANCE CURVES

FOR A TYPICAL ROTARY COMPRESSOR
Rotary compressors are constructed with a built-in, fixed compression ratio

near which the unit should be operated for greatest efficiency. A
performance curve for a typical machine is illustrated by Figure 3-11.
Moderate variations from the rated compression ratio do not cause serious
losses but the unit should be selected for the built-in ratio best fitted to the
actual operating range.
If the operating pressure is lower than the in-built pressure ratio, the gas
expands through the discharge port into the discharge pipework. When the
pressure in the discharge main is higher than that developed by the in-built
pressure ratio, further compression takes place as the gas passes through the
discharge port into the discharge pipework.
Clearance volumes such as those found with reciprocating compressors do

not exist with rotary compressors. Therefore there are no clearance re-
expansion losses and efficiency is principally affected by leakage.
Power required for compression is calculated using the formula for adiabatic
power, Equation 1.3.17, and the proven mechanical efficiency of the unit.
It should be noted that compressor efficiency, more particularly with screw

compressors, is largely determined by two kinds of losses: internal leakage
losses as discussed in Section 3.2.2, and dynamic losses which comprise all
flow and friction losses and bearing losses.
SECTION 3.0
PAGE 16
DATE 06-94
If the internal leakage losses are referred to the quantity of gas handled
within a unit of time, they constantly decrease with increasing
circumferential speed of the machine set.
Dynamic losses, on the other hand, increase with rising circumferential

speed, and their magnitude similarly depends on the nature of gas. From the
opposed tendency of these losses there results a total loss curve with a
marked minimum at a specific circumferential speed.
The optimum circumferential speed largely depends on the molecular weight

of the medium to be compressed. Light gases, such as hydrogenous gases,
are handled by compressors at an optimum speed of about 390 to 460 ft/sec.
With air or refrigerant, screw compressors cooled by oil injection attain, high
volumetric efficiencies at low circumferential speeds of between 65 and
130 ft/sec.
3.2.4 Discharge Temperature
The discharge temperatures from rotary, and particularly, screw type

compressors will be substantially above that of comparable water cooled
reciprocating compressors as the speed at which they rotate and their
compactness do not enable effective surface cooling to occur. Discharge
temperature limits are usually set by the manufacturers and depend on
the degree of distortion of the housing and rotor that is deemed acceptable.
Some designs are air cooled while others have water or oil cooled
components.
3.2.5 Multistaging
Multistaging usually requires the use of a separate machine for each stage
with intercoolers between stages. The reasons for multistaging are the same
as for reciprocating units. The stages are sized as closely as possible to
obtain the best interstage pressures.
3.2.6 Starting Unloading
Rotary-vane compressors and boosters may be started without the use of

special unloading since the speed must reach 40 to 50 % of full speed before
the vanes are fully extended and compression begins. Boosters should
usually start on a bypass. The size, service, type of capacity control and
driver characteristics will determine requirements for starting unloading of
screw compressors and the manufacturers advice should be sought.
SECTION 3.0
PAGE 17
DATE 06-94
3.3 DIAPHRAGM COMPRESSORS
3.3.1 General
Diaphragm compressors compress gas with no contamination and no

leakage. Under normal operating conditions, the gas is completely isolated
from the hydraulic fluid by one or more diaphragms. This permits toxic,
flammable, pure or expensive gas to be compressed safely without
contamination or leakage.
3.3.2 Principles of Operation
The diaphragm compressor is a positive displacement compressor. Gases are

isolated from the reciprocating and hydraulic parts of the compressor by
three flexible, thin, metal discs called diaphragms. The motion of the
reciprocating piston is transmitted to the diaphragms by the hydraulic fluid.
This motion causes the diaphragms to move into the process cavity, thereby
reducing the volume and increasing the gas pressure.
The compression cycle of the diaphragm compressor is not unlike the

positive displacement piston compressor. Both use a reciprocating piston to
convert mechanical energy to workflow in gas. Both use spring loaded check
valves which only open when the proper differential pressure exists across
the valve. In each design, the clearance volume influences the volumetric
efficiency of the compressor. However, diaphragm compressors differ in the
way the compression cycle is managed, although a p-v diagram for the two
types of compressors would be virtually identical.
The p-v diagram (Figure 3-12) of a diaphragm compressor is identical to a

piston compressor for the gas compression cycle. Differences occur during
the compression cycle of the hydraulic fluid. The hydraulic fluid
compression cycle, often referred to as the mechanical compression cycle,
accounts for all the
pressure changes in a diaphragm compressor. A graph of the mechanical
compression cycle for a diaphragm compressor is shown in Figure 3-13.
The mechanical compression cycle traces the hydraulic system pressure from
the process suction pressure to the process discharge pressure, then to the
hydraulic pressure limiter setting and back to the process suction pressure.
Starting at 0 of the compressor crankshaft rotation (the reciprocating piston is

at bottom dead centre), the diaphragm group is fully deflected into the
hydraulic cavity plate. The diaphragm compressor head assembly is filled
with gas at the suction pressure. The check valves are closed. This compares
to point 1 on Figure 3-12.
SECTION 3.0
PAGE 18
DATE 06-94
Figure 3-12
pv DIAGRAM FOR POSITIVE DISPLACMENT COMPRESSION CYCLE
Figure 3-13
DIAPHRAGM COMPRESSOR COMPRESSION CYCLE
SECTION 3.0
PAGE 19
DATE 06-94
On the compression portion of the stroke, the hydraulic piston moves from
bottom dead centre, compressing the hydraulic fluid and forcing the
diaphragm group into the cavity in the process cavity plate. Gas volume in
the process cavity is reduced with an accompanying rise in pressure. This
compares to points 1 and 2 on Figure 3-12.
Compressed gas is flowing out of the discharge check valve and into the
discharge piping during the discharge portion of the stroke. When the
diaphragm group is fully deflected or displaced into the cavity plate, the
discharge check valve will close. This compares to points 2 and 3 on
Figure 3-12. Gas at pressure P2 is still in the cylinder.
Differences occur between the diaphragm compressor and the positive

displacement piston compressor at this point in the cycle. The positive
displacement piston compressor would now start its reversal and go into the
expansion portion of the cycle. On the other hand, the diaphragm
compressor hydraulic piston still has a distance to travel since the volume of
the hydraulic system is slightly greater than the volume of the process
system. The hydraulic system has received "extra volume" during the
suction portion of its stroke from the hydraulic system injection pump. This
"extra volume" is required to assure that the diaphragm group is fully
deflected or displaced into the process cavity plate. Without this "extra
volume" the diaphragm group would never attain full deflection or
displacement and therefore would not reach maximum discharge pressure.
The volumetric efficiency of the compressor would be reduced due to an
increase in the clearance volume. The "extra volume" is discharged through
the hydraulic pressure limiter once the hydraulic system reaches the pressure
limiting setting. The "extra volume" discharged through the hydraulic
pressure limiter is called overpump.
The expansion cycle of the metal diaphragm compressor begins once the
hydraulic pressure lifter has closed and the hydraulic piston has started its
reversal. The suction and discharge valves remain closed and the gas trapped
in the clearance volume begins to expand, resulting in a pressure reduction.
This compares to points 3 and 4 on Figure 3-12.
The cavity pressure eventually drops below the suction pressure. The suction
valve will then open and gas will flow into the process cavity until the
diaphragm group reaches its maximum deflection in the hydraulic cavity
plate. It is during this phase of the cycle that the hydraulic injection pump
will add the "extra volume" which will eventually become the overpump at
the discharge portion of the cycle.
SECTION 3.0
PAGE 20
DATE 06-94
The power requirements of a metal diaphragm compressor, it is important to

note, are not solely based on the work imparted to gas. The mechanical
energy required during the mechanical compression cycle and the
thermodynamic work of the gas compression cycle must both be considered
to determine the power requirements of the diaphragm compressor.
SECTION 4.0
PAGE 1
PROCESS MANUAL COMPRESSOR AUXILIARIES
DATE 06-94
4.0 COMPRESSOR AUXILIARIES
4.1 LUBRICATION SYSTEMS
Compressors width metal sliding parts can not operate without lubrication.
Reciprocating compressor cylinders are lubricated by forced-feed mechanical

lubricators. A metered quantity of oil is forced into the cylinder at one or more points
and to the packing as required. Some lubricators may be mechanically driven by the
compressor or by an individual external electric motor. The external motor is more
often used with motor-driven compressors to provide positive lubrication before the
compressor motor is started.
When contamination of the compressed gas by lube oil cannot be tolerated, non-
lubricated cylinder designs are available which use piston rings and rod packing
(usually carbon or teflon) which do not require lubrication. Naturally, more
maintenance is required for these cylinders than for lubricated ones. To prevent
carryover of oil from the crankcase to the cylinder, a special long distance piece must
be inserted between the frame and the cylinder.
A separate frame lubrication system supplies oil to all other moving parts such as
crank shaft bearings, crosshead guides, etc. This is similar to centrifugal compressor
lube oil consoles in that it includes pumps (main and auxiliary), coolers and filters.
The lube oil reservoir is in the crankcase.
Centrifugal compressors require lube and seal systems. Lubrications oil is always
required for the main journal bearings and thrust bearing. Seals may require a buffer
gas, seal oil or both.
Lubrication oil is supplied from a reservoir by a lube oil pump. This pump may be
integral with the compressor shaft, but an external main oil pump and an auxiliary oil
pump are preferred. One is a motor driven unit and the other is usually a steam
turbine driven unit. These are operated through adequate pressure controls so that if
the main oil pump fails to deliver oil pressure, the auxiliary will start. Each pump is
good for continuous duty and should be able to carry all requirements of the
compressor, including the driver if applicable.
4.2 SEAL AND SEALING SYSTEMS
4.2.1 Shaft Seals
Every rotary or dynamic type compressor requires a means of limiting or

eliminating gas leakage along the shaft where it leaves the casing. Leakage
will tend to be outward or inward depending on the relative atmospheric and
intake pressures. Seals are usually arranged so that only intake pressure must
be resisted. There are many designs, those used on high speed, high pressure
units being quite sophisticated.
SECTION 4.0
PAGE 2
DATE 06-94
a) Labyrinth Seals
The standard shaft seal for a rotary compressor is the labyrinth seal,
Figure 4-1. Labyrinth seals are also widely used on dynamic air
compressors. It is the simplest type of seal and sealing the action is the
result of flow resistance by repeated throttling across the labyrinth teeth.
For low pressure applications, only the labyrinth seal has teeth but for
higher pressure applications a balanced or interlocking labyrinth seal
should be used where the teeth of the seal interlock with teeth on the
rotor shaft.
Leakage across the seal depends upon the number of teeth, diameter of
the packing ring, clearance and the pressure to be sealed and care should
be taken to ensure that leakage does not present a hazard. This seal type
can be used for dirty gas.
b) Restrictive Ring Seals
The seal is used primarily on dynamic type compressors and comprises

flat rings in a case mounted in a stuffing box, refer Figure 4-2. It can
only be used when the gas is relatively free from dirt and debris. The
individual rings may be segmental and held together by a garter spring,
or solid with a circumferential metallic reinforcing band. Since these
rings fit more closely to the shaft than does a labyrinth tooth, leakage is
better controlled.
Carbon is the usual ring material since it does not readily wear the shaft
should there be contact and the seal can be purged or vented like the
labyrinth type.
c) Mechanical Seals
To limit leakage this seal relies on continuous contact between a seat on

the rotating shaft and a stationary seat. A typical arrangement is shown
in Figure 4-3 which shows a floating or wearing carbon contact ring
between the rotating and stationary seats which reduces the relative
rubbing speed on wear areas. This seal type requires a supply of sealing
oil to assist sealing, to lubricate and to cool the seal. Mechanical seals
are designed for operation up to 750 oF.
d) Liquid Film Seals
The design of this seal type varies and one arrangement is illustrated by
Figure 4-4 where sealing is accomplished by maintaining an oil film
between the rotating shaft and the shaft sleeve. The oil is circulated
SECTION 4.0
PAGE 3
DATE 06-94
continuously entering at a pressure in excess of the internal gas pressure

of the compressor. The sealant is recovered from the sealing rings and
recirculated but that in contact with the process gas may be contaminated
and not reusable.
Alternatively, the seal may be cone shaped acting to generate a head on

the sealing medium to minimize leakage into the compressor and thus
virtually eliminating liquid carryover into the gas.
e) Floating Mechanical Packing
Floating mechanical packed seals are used on reciprocating units to

prevent leakage around the rods. The seals are made to suit any process
gas and are typically illustrated by Figure 4-5. Usually a single seal
assembly will comprise between three and eight pairs of rings and will be
lubricated. In lower-pressure machines sufficient oil comes from the
cylinder to provide seal lubrication but for larger and higher-pressure
units a separate oil feed is required.
The seal must be installed carefully and properly and can quickly be
damaged by dirt and liquid carryover. Proper break-in is very important
since it must wear-in to a satisfactory seal on the rod before being
loaded.
4.2.2 Seal Materials
Springs and other metallic components are available in a wide variety of

alloys and are usually selected on the basis of temperature and corrosion
conditions. The use of a particular seal is limited by the temperature
limitation of the materials used. Most elastomers are limited to about 250 oF.
Teflon is suitable up to about 392 oF, though glass-filled teflon is stable up to
about 500 oF.
Seal faces are often made from carbon which is compatible with most
process media, but affected by strong oxidizing agents such as hydrogen
chloride and high temperature air (above 600 oF). Normal mating materials
for carbon for use in mechanical seals are tungsten or chromium chloride,
hard steel, stainless steal or cast iron.
Other sealing-face combinations that have been satisfactory in corrosion

service are carbide against carbide, ceramic against ceramic, ceramic against
carbon or carbon against glass.
SECTION 4.0
PAGE 4
DATE 06-94
Figure 4-1
LABYRINTH SEAL
Figure 4-2
RESTRICTIVE RING SEAL
SECTION 4.0
PAGE 5
DATE 06-94
Figure 4-3
MECHANICAL SEAL WITH FLOATING CARBON RING
Figure 4-4
LIQUID FILM SEAL
SECTION 4.0
PAGE 6
DATE 06-94
4.2.3 Sealant System
For compressors fitted with seals requiring circulated sealant oil, a sealant
system is provided which usually forms part of the lubrication system
providing oil to shaft and thrust bearings, etc.
The oil is usually circulated by a gear pump driven independently of the

compressor to ensure full oil pressure during start-up and shutdown. It is
important to ensure that the oil is sufficiently clean, by providing correct
means for filtration.
Figure 4-5
SINGLE PAIR OF FULL-FLOATING MECHANICAL PACKING RINGS
4.3 VIBRATION SYSTEMS
Mechanical vibration of shaft and casing and axial shaft displacements are important
indications of possible hazard to compressor operating reliability. Modern
technology renders it possible to detect even the slightest of changes in these
parameters.
Shaft vibrations may be due to a number of causes: deposits or other impeller

unbalances; shaft distortion as a result of thermal stresses or shock loads; changed
bearing condition; effects emanating from the driver or gearing. Measurements are
performed by probes that are calibrated for a certain distance between shaft and probe
head. These probes produce an electrical signal proportional to the amplitude of
vibration. The permissible shaft vibration depends on the speed of the rotating mass.
Low speeds allow higher vibration. Apart from measuring the total level, which is
the sum of the amplitudes at different frequencies, it is also possible to analyze the
vibrations on the basis of frequency. This may give a clue to the exciting frequencies
SECTION 4.0
PAGE 7
DATE 06-94
or other causes of vibration.
Seismic pickups are employed for measuring casing or bearing pedestal vibrations.
This method does not supply such precise results as shaft vibration measurement, but
it offers the advantage of permitting measurements to be performed on running
machines without having to make modifications first.
The shaft position indicator monitors the axial position of the shaft relative to the
casing. The cause of axial displacement of the shaft may be wear of the thrust
bearing or sudden loads that may occur when the compressor is operating in the
unstable region. Detection of axial shaft shift is usually by electrical, or less
frequently, by hydraulic means. Electrical measurement basically involves the same
probes as are used for contactless vibration measurement.
All devices can be fitted with switches that trigger alarms or initiate shut-down of the
plant to prevent damage when limit values are exceeded. Modern shutdown devices
use the input from several sensors into a logic module. The machine would be
automatically taken off-line if, for instance, a temperature sensor and vibration sensor
would independently confirm a violation of two setpoints.
4.4 PULSATION DAMPENERS
Pulsation Dampening is necessary to reduce gas pulsation in reciprocating

compressor piping systems, to avoid damage to piping and heat exchange equipment.
Pulsation dampening is usually accomplished by pulsation dampeners or volume
bottles attached directly to the compressor cylinder suction and discharge. These
bottles may be empty vessels or may contain internal choke tubes and baffles. Other
types of pulsation suppression devices including orifices are sometimes used on very
high pressure compressors such as "hypercompressors" used in high pressure
polyethylene plants.
Multistage compressors require pulse dampeners at the suction and discharge nozzles
of each stage. The suction pulse dampeners usually are combination of suction
bottles and K.O. drums.
Pulsation dampeners are typically guaranteed for a maximum residual peak-to-peak

pulsation pressure of 2 % of average absolute pressure at the point of connection to
the piping system. The pressure drop through the equipment is not more than 1 % of
the absolute pressure. This applies at design conditions and not necessarily for other
operating pressures and flows. Lowering pulsation pressure down to 1/2 % can be
achieved, if required, with special designs at higher equipment and operating costs.
A detailed discussion of recommended design approaches for pulsation suppression
devices is presented in API Standard 618, Reciprocating Compressors for General
Refinery Services.
On most Fluor Daniel jobs an analog study (computer simulation) is made of the
compressor and piping system by the compressor vendor or an independent
SECTION 4.0
PAGE 8
DATE 06-94
consultant, such as, Southwest Research. It is important that an isometric drawing of

the complete system be supplied to the vendor to have a complete analysis of the
system. If any changes are made to the piping system, it is also important to convey
these changes to the vendor. This will expedite completion of a final configuration
for the piping system.
4.5 CYLINDER COOLING
Most reciprocating compressor cylinders are provided with coolant jackets which
may be operated in three different modes depending on cooling requirements.
1) No coolant: This method may be used when the adiabatic discharge

temperature is less than 140 oF and the adiabatic gas temperature rise is less
than 80 oF. These limits are imposed to prevent excessive cylinder thermal
stresses.
2) Thermally circulated coolant: This method consists of filling the jacket with
suitable liquid, such as, ethylene glycol solution. Cylinder temperature
differences result in natural circulation of the coolant which reduces thermal
stresses as well as providing some heat dissipation. This mode may be used
when the adiabatic discharge temperature is less than 250 oF and the
adiabatic gas temperature rise is less than 170 oF.
3) Mechanically circulated coolant: This is the most common method of
cylinder cooling and consists of forced circulation of a coolant through the
jacket. It should be used whenever the temperature limits shown above are
exceeded. The usual coolant in this case is tempered water from either a
closed system, warmed cooling water, or intercooler outer water. The
minimum supply temperature of this jacket water should be 90 oF or 10 oF
above the dew point of the inlet gas, whichever is greater. If the coolant is
too cold, it may cause condensation on the cylinder walls resulting in
washing away of the lubricant. The coolant temperature rise should be no
more than 10 oF.
4.6 FILTERS/PIPING/SEPARATION
In addition to a reservoir and pumps, a lube oil system for a centrifugal compressor
will include a cooler and a filter. Twin coolers and filters should be employed with
suitable switching arrangement. This allows one item to be cleaned while the other is
in operation. The only real requirement for these coolers is that they have removable
tube bundles and that they be adequate for the heat rejection service expected of
them. Modern high speed bearings, in general, should have oil supplied to them at
temperatures not in the excess of 120 oF, and in sufficient quantity so that the heat
which they generate may be removed without an oil temperature rise of more than
40 oF.
SECTION 5.0
PAGE 1
PROCESS MANUAL COMPRESSOR SELECTION
DATE 06-94
5.0 COMPRESSOR SELECTION
5.1 GENERAL
5.1.1 Objectives
Selection of the compressor type and preparing compressor calculations (like

pump calculations) are an integral part of the pressure and temperature
survey. Therefore, these items should usually be completed before any
equipment specifications are issued.
In many compressor applications, some trial-and-error work must be done,

involving rough compressor selection, horsepower calculations, driver
selection, and determination of utility requirements.
Also, in some cases, the relative costs of utilities can have a strong influence
on driver selection. The compressor required can be influenced by the driver
chosen, and the final selection must be the most economical compressor -
driver combination, which will satisfy the process requirements.
In grass roots plants, economic studies to determine the cost and availability
of steam and electricity may fix the selection of the compressor driver.
When working on economic studies it is good practice to consult with the

Mechanical Engineering Section compressor specialist too, as they should be
able to help in the preliminary ground work and decrease the required
detailed work.
It is also helpful to consult sales engineers and application engineers of the

major compressor vendors on tentative selections. The better vendors have
qualified people who are willing to assist and advise you and can supply
approximate prices and utility requirements to aid in making the most
economic selection.
5.1.2 System Sketch
A system sketch or simplified process flow diagram depicting the compressor

application should include all items in the suction or discharge which will
contribute to pressure drop. If multiple destinations exist, all should be
shown on the sketch.
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5.1.3 Requirements
a) General
The conditions and requirements of the process in question, such as the

gas composition, flow rate, inlet temperature, inlet pressure available and
discharge pressure required must be determined. Establishing these
items is an integral part of developing the heat and material balance as
well as the pressure and temperature survey. Alternate operating
conditions (e.g. start-of-run and end-of-run) and start-up/shutdown
conditions must be defined as the conditions can affect the compressor
design.
b) Gas Composition
The specification of any compressor requires an analysis of the gas to be

compressed. Furthermore, any variations in gas composition must be
identified and the extremes of the gas analysis must be included on the
specification sheet.
The presence of water vapor must be included as part of the gas analysis.
c) Flow Rate
The gas flow rate is a major factor in the selection of compressor types.
If multiple stages of compression are required, some services may be
best served by combinations of different types of compressors.
d) Temperature
Inlet gas temperature may affect the compressor-type selection or

conversely, the compressor type selected may require adjustment of the
inlet temperature.
Minimum operating temperature may also have to be established.

Cooling of some gases can produce condensation which may result in
damage to the compressor.
e) Pressure
The pressure survey will establish the pressure available at the suction
nozzle and the required pressure at the discharge nozzle.
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The suction and discharge pressures stated on the compressor

specification sheet must include allowed pressure drops for all pulsation
dampeners, intercooler, interstage knockout drums, piping, filters, etc.
(e.g., the suction and discharge pressures stated on the compressor
specification sheet shall be "Package Limit" conditions). The
compressor vendor must allow adequate differential head on the
compressor to overcome the allowed pressure drops in vendor supplied
equipment. It is good idea to note on the compressor specification sheet
that this basis has been used.
5.2 PROCESS GAS COMPRESSORS
The process gas compressor is called upon to handle many and diverse types of
gases. Its capacity-control requirements have a low range (50 % being a quite
frequent minimum even with reciprocating units where control possibilities are
usually greatest), and they are often run continuously for many months at a time
without shutdown. Operational reliability is usually therefore of great importance.
Consideration must also be given to the possibility of gas flowrate and composition
variation during the life of the installation, particularly when designing for offshore
applications.
5.2.1 Compressor Capacity
Primary selection considerations are compressor capacity and discharge

pressure or compression ratio. Figure 5-1 illustrates the approximate ranges
of application and Table 5-1 lists the maximum values of capacity and
discharge pressure of the compressor types discussed.
Table 5-1
MAXIMUM VALUES OF CAPACITY AND DISCHARGE

PRESSURE FOR COMPRESSORS
Type Capacity, ACFM (a) Maximum

Discharge pressure, psig
Centrifugal 600-200,000 8,700

Axial 59,000-880,000 145
Reciprocating 9-5000 50,000
Sliding Vane 0-3,000 125
Lobe 0-30,000 115
Screw 30-20,000 250
(a)
ACFM is actual cubic feet per minute at compressor inlet.
In any compression application, for a given compression ratio the flow rate to
be handled establishes the physical size of the equipment under
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consideration. It must be remembered that the compressors discussed here

recognize only volume at inlet pressure and temperature conditions. Exact
definition of flow rate is therefore important.
If 60,000 ft3/min of gas must be compressed at near atmospheric suction

conditions, a centrifugal compressor almost certainly would be used for the
lower stages of compression. Where the centrifugal leaves off and the
reciprocating compressor takes over would depend upon the gas density and
type of regulation required.
Alternatively, if 90 ft3/min of gas must be compressed to 5,000 psig

discharge pressure a reciprocating compressor would most certainly be used
for the whole range.
The variation in flow rate from maximum to minimum can likewise affect
selection. If the process requires a change in flow rate from the maximum
down to or near zero, the reciprocating compressor can do it with a
reasonable sustained efficiency.
Screw compressors are best applied as base load machines when constant
speed drivers are used but with variable speed drivers, turndown with a
proportionate reduction in power is achieved. A 50 % turndown is the
average maximum permissible.
Centrifugal or axial compressors should not however be operated near to

their limit of stability and may therefore be limited to a minimum capacity of
between 50 % and 90 % of rated capacity.
5.2.3 Efficiency
The efficiency of a reciprocating compressor is generally higher than that of

a centrifugal compressor. For the usual range of application reciprocating
compressor compression efficiency is in the range 75-82 % compared to 70-
78 % for centrifugals. It should be noted however, that for very low
compression ratios the efficiency of the reciprocating compressor decreases
rapidly.
The axial compressor has a high compression efficiency, as can be seen from
Figure 5-2 where the efficiency of centrifugal and axial compressors are
compared. For the usual high capacity application, efficiency is in the range
80-82 %.
Rotary screw compressors, Figure 5-3, have lower efficiencies than the
reciprocating compressor at the higher pressures in its range, but efficiencies
are comparable at lower pressures.
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Figure 5-1
OPERATING RANGES OF COMPRESSOR TYPES
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5.2.4 Discharge Temperatures
Each type compressor has some practical limits as to the maximum or

minimum gas temperatures that can be handled. Centrifugal compressors are
normally limited to 300 oF discharge temperature but with use of special
means higher discharge temperatures of 450 oF and 600 oF may be
accommodated. If the flow rates are too low for the centrifugal compressor
and the reciprocating compressor must be fitted into such a process, it can be
done only by cooling, compressing, and then reheating the gas.
Screw compressors are limited to about 338 oF for low pressure units and
about 446 oF for high pressure machines while rotary vane types should not
be operated with a discharge temperature of more than about 374 oF to ensure
a satisfactory vane service life.
Reciprocating compressors are normally limited to design temperatures of

400 oF or below due to mechanical and lubrication problems.
Lubricated reciprocating compressors are being operating successfully with

suction temperatures below -100 oF although low suction temperatures do
create lubrication problems. Mechanical operation of the centrifugal
compressor is less affected by high or low temperature extremes than is the
reciprocating compressor.
5.2.5 Suction and Discharge Pressure.
It is important that the suction and discharge pressures and their variation be
evaluated correctly and their influence on power requirements realized.
Reciprocating compressors are very sensitive to suction pressure variation

especially at near atmospheric conditions. A small drop in suction pressure,
particularly multistage units, whilst maintaining discharge pressure will
lower the overall power demand, lower the differential pressure on all stages
but the last, and increase the differential pressure and temperature rise on the
last stage.
Conversely, if the suction pressure to the first stage is raised, the power demand
of the complete machine is raised, differential pressure on all stages up to the last
stage is raised, while differential on the last stage and its temperature rise is
lowered. Theoretically, if a six-stage compressor designed for atmospheric
pressure intake and a 5,000 psig discharge pressure has the suction pressure
raised to 5 psig, the power demand is increased by about 25 %. The reason is
that the density of the gas at first stage suction, in proportion with pressure,
increased 33 %, while the compression ratio component (X factor) decreased
only 6 %. At higher suction pressure this effect is less significant.
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Figure 5-2
COMPARISON OF EFFICIENCIES FOR DYNAMIC COMPRESSOR
Figure 5-3
COMPARISON OF EFFICIENCIES FOR ROTARY COMPRESSOR
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In centrifugal compressors, if suction pressure is raised, the discharge

pressure will exceed the design point, the power demand will increase, and
excess pressure will have to be throttled out. If the suction pressure is
lowered, the centrifugal will not compress to the desired discharge pressure.
Low compression ratios with reasonable capacities favor the centrifugal.

High compression ratios and higher pressures favor the reciprocating
machine. It is not possible to define the borderline in pressure between
reciprocating and centrifugal compressors because there are too many other
factors to be considered.
In some multistage process compressors, the interstage pressure is set by the

process. This may be for washing out undesirable elements, adding gas, or
for carrying out chemical reactions that change the nature of the gas between
stages. It is important that such interstage pressure restrictions be
considered, including the pressure drop involved.
5.2.6 Gas Characteristics
Gas composition and characteristics can have a decided influence on

compressor type. A low gas inlet density, for example, usually will affect the
centrifugal to a greater degree than the positive displacement machine. A
centrifugal handling low density gas will be a larger unit requiring many
more stages than when handling a high gravity inlet gas. Reciprocating and
other positive displacement compressors are not seriously effected by the gas
molecular weight, specific gravity or inlet density.
Other gas characteristics, such as ratio of specific heats, compressibility, or

moisture content do not influence choice.
At times, a gas may have certain limiting conditions within which it must be
kept during compression. These conditions, if exceeded, may cause
problems of corrosion, dangerous reaction of the gas or its components, or a
cracking of lubricating oil resulting in constituents that cannot always be
tolerated by a process. Limiting conditions are usually those of discharge
temperature which may be reduced by intercooling or lowering of the inlet
gas temperature.
5.2.7 Reliability
Properly applied, operated and maintained all compressor designs will give
years of good service. Heavy duty units are available for centrifugal, axial,
reciprocating and screw type compressors and require major overhaul very
seldom in their life. The modern reciprocating compressor is a highly
reliable machine and when evaluating centrifugal versus the reciprocating
compressor factors other than maintenance should be considered in making a
selection for a particular application.
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For applications where continuous operation is imperative consideration

should be given to the installation of a standby unit or of using two or three
50 % capacity machines.
5.2.8 Weight and Foundations
The weight of reciprocating compressors is much greater than other types of

compressor of comparable capacity. In addition, heavy foundations are also
required as a consequence of their large vibration forces.
Rotary type compressors are slightly smaller and do not produce large
vibrating loads whilst centrifugal and axial types possesses the lowest weight
to power ratio and are generally preferred for offshore applications where
weight is of importance.
5.2.9 First Cost
It should be noted that the power cost throughout the service life of a
compressor is many times the first cost. While it is possible that the more
efficient machine may be higher in original installed cost, the power savings
over a period of years usually will quickly pay off the differential and return
a profit for the remaining life.
The selection of driver is covered in Chapters 9-14.
Maintenance costs for reciprocating compressors are higher than for dynamic
compressors, although when handling dirty or corrosive gases costs for both
increase and the difference between the two is reduced.
5.3 AIR COMPRESSORS
Air pressure compressor requirements are typically between 125 psig and 1,500 psig
which is generally available from both centrifugal or rotary compressors. For
pressure requirements above 200 psig reciprocating compressors should be used.
Variation in demand for compressed air usually ranges from zero to full
compressor capacity. For such variations, dynamic compressors cannot be
used because of their relatively small operating range while the higher
efficiency of reciprocating types makes them preferable to rotary types.
5.3.2 Oil Free Air
Any requirement for oil free air prevents use of vane type rotary
compressors. The screw and dynamic units require no oil in the compression
space at any time and the reciprocating compressor can be obtained in a
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nonlubricated design. Dry lobe compressors are recommended for moderate

pressures up to 175 psig and capacities of between 300 and 600 ft 3/min and
screw compressors for capacities up to 1,200 ft 3/min. Centrifugal
compressors should be used for capacities in excess of 1,200 ft 3/min.
5.3.3 Compressor Arrangements
Of the compressor types discussed, there is little freedom of choice between

arrangements other than with the reciprocator. Many selection problems can
be solved by considering more than one of the available reciprocating
compressor designs.
5.3.4 Load Factor
Load factor is a consideration for smaller installations where only one or two
compressors are to be installed. It is the ratio of actual compressed air output
to that if the machine were operated at rated full load and should never be
100 %. Compressor selection should be made with a load factor of between
50 % and 80 % depending upon size, type and number of units as this leads
to:
 More uniform pressure

 a cooling-off period
 Less maintenance
 Ability to increase air demand without immediately increasing plant size
Load factor is particularly important with air-cooled machines where

sustained full load operation results in an early build-up of deposits on valves
and other parts, therefore adding to maintenance. Intermittent operation is
always recommended for these units, the degree depending upon the size and
operating pressure.
For most process plant and offshore applications, the use of a centrifugal
compressor is considered optimum as this offers high reliability and
efficiency at low cost.
For very high or very low flowrates, or for very high discharge pressures, the
use of alternative machines should be considered.
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5.4 REFRIGERATION APPLICATION
5.4.1 General terms
Listed below are some of the terms, and expressions commonly used in the
refrigeration business.
Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG): The light hydrocarbon portion of natural gas
(methane) which is liquefied.
Liquefied Petroleum/Refinery Gas (LPG/LRG): Propane or butane or a

mixture of both maintained in the liquid state under pressure. LRG can differ
from LPG since propylene and butylene may be present in a refinery gas.
Natural Gas Liquids (NGL): These are hydrocarbons liquefied at either the
field facilities or the gas processing plant, and normally include propane,
butanes, and natural gasoline (pentanes plus).
Ton of Refrigeration: This the heat equivalent of melting 2,000 pounds (1

ton) of ice in 24 hours. One ton is equal to 12,000 Btu/hr or 200 Btu/min
(actually is it 11,960 Btu/hr). This definition is useful in it allows different
refrigerants to be compared at a common basis. Therefore, the capacity of a
refrigeration system can be calculated as follows:
Heat Load of Process Btu/hr

Refrigeration Required =
12,000 Btu/hr, Ton
(5.4.1)
Terms specific to mechanical refrigeration processes
Mechanical Refrigeration: Also called vapor-compression refrigeration or

the reverse Carnot cycle. It is composed of two isentropic, and two
isothermal processes. The complete circuit involves liquid expansion, liquid
evaporation, vapor compression, and vapor condensation.
Refrigeration Effect (RE): This is the heat absorbed by the refrigerant in the
evaporator or chiller (Btu/lb). It is the difference in enthalpy of the vapor
leaving the evaporator with that of the liquid upstream of the expansion
valve.
RE = HVE _ Hlex (see Figure 5-4) (5.4.2)
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Figure 5-4
PRESSURE – ENTHALPY DIAGRAM
Coefficient of Performance (COP): This is the ratio of the refrigeration effect

to the work of compression.
Hve  H1ex
COP  (5.4.3)
Hvcom  Hve
Compressor Displacement per Ton of Refrigerant:
 Vi 
CFM / TON  200 
 Hve  Hlex 
(5.4.4)
vi = the specific volume (ft3/lb) of the refrigerant at the compressor intake.
Theoretical Horsepower per Ton of Refrigerant:
200  Hvcom  Hve 

HP / Ton  (5.4.5)
42.418  Hve  Hlex 
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The value 42.418 is the conversion factor of Btu/min to horsepower.

5.4.2 Types of Refrigeration Systems
Table 5-2 identifies the three most common types of refrigeration systems
along with their suggested economic operating temperature range, and the
type of refrigerant used.
Capacity Temperature
System Range, tons Range, oF Refrigerant
Steam-Jet 50 to 600 35 to 70 Water

Water Vapor Compression
Absorption 60 to 1,500 40 to 70 Lithium Bromide Soln

(1) Water/Lithium Bromide 50 to 5,000 - 40 to + 30 Ammonia absorbed in
(2) Aqua Ammonia H2O
Vapor Compression -240 to + 40 Ammonia, Propane,
Ethane, Ethylene,
CO2, Halogenated
Hydrocarbons
a) Steam Jet Refrigeration
Water as the refrigerant is evaporated under a vacuum pressure

equivalent to the chilled water temperature desired. The low pressure is
created by steam jets or ejectors. The water to be chilled enters the flash
tank where it boils at the reduced pressure. Vapor is drawn out of the
tank to maintain the vacuum, and condensed in the condenser.
Steam vacuum refrigeration systems are available with barometric

condensers, surface condenser or evaporative condensers. Evaporative
condensers are surface condensers and cooling towers combined into one
unit. Condensing temperatures are approximately 3 to 8 oF above the
chilled water temperature.
b) Absorption Refrigeration
The principles of operation of the aqua ammonia, and lithium bromide

processes are quite similar although the equipment and refrigerant are
different. The aqua ammonia process uses ammonia as the refrigerant.
The lithium bromide process uses water under vacuum at the refrigerant.
Only the aqua ammonia process will be briefly discussed here.
Ammonia is vaporized in the chiller by the process heat load. It then
passes through a series of water cooled absorbers where the vapor comes
into contact with a weak aqua ammonia solution. Because of the high
affinity for water by ammonia the solution strength increases until
equilibrium is reached at the operating temperature and pressure (15 to
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25 psig). Refrigerant grade ammonia (99.99 wt %) is produced from this

strong solution by stripping in a distillation column. The bottoms weak
solution from the column is returned to the absorbers. Ammonia is
condensed overhead, and the process is repeated.
c) Vapor - Compression Refrigeration
This is the most common type of refrigeration system.
Applications include:
 Ethane, propane, and butane recovery in natural gas processing

facilities
 Gas dew point control for pipeline transmission of natural gas
 LNG production and storage
 Chlorine liquefaction
 Product de-waxing in refineries
 Ammonia production and storage
 Ethylene oxide storage
 Air separation plants
d) Refrigerant Selection Criteria
1) Refrigerant Availability and Cost: Can the refrigerant be obtained

from the process or must a refrigerant be purchased? Can it be
delivered to site quickly if the refrigerant is accidentally lost?
2) Process Acceptability: Will the refrigerant contaminate the process
should a leak occur in the evaporator?
3) Evaporator Temperature and Pressure: it is best to use a refrigerant
which will be above atmospheric pressure when at the outlet of the
evaporator or inlet to the compressor to prevent air and moisture
ingestion. Water can freeze or form emulsions with hydrocarbon
refrigerants. With a chloro-fluoro refrigerant in contact with water
an acid is formed. Air can create an explosive atmosphere with
hydrocarbons, and can mean high discharge pressures.
4) Condenser Temperature and Pressure: depends on the cooling media
available, and the refrigeration system pressure drops.
5) Refrigerant Properties (see Table 5-3 and Figure 5-5):
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 Critical Temperature and Pressure - system must operate below

critical conditions
 Specific Volume - low suction volumes for reciprocating
compressors.
 Latent Heat - it affects the amount of refrigeration circulated, and
the size and cost of equipment (see
 column F of Table 5-3).
 Specific Heat of Liquid - it should be low so the sensible heat
load is small.
 Molecular Weight - high molecular weight gas for centrifugal
compressors (see columns D and G of the Table 5-3).
 Noncorrosive
 Thermal Conductivity - high
 Viscosity – low
6) Oil Miscibility: Oil is miscible with all refrigerants except ammonia.

Lubricating oil leaking into the system may cause foaming in a
reciprocating compressor and damage the crankcase. With
centrifugal compressors it will carry through the system and hamper
the condensation process in the condenser. For oil injected screw
compressors the refrigerant solubility and reactivity with the
lubricant must be considered.
7) Safety Aspects: Refrigerants are classified by A.S.A. Safety Code
into three groups according to toxicity, flammability, and
explosiveness.
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Table 5-3
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF VARIOUS REFRIGERANTS
Datum Plane: 0 ˚F Suction, 110 ˚F Condensing
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Figure 5-5
COMPARISION OF REFRIGERANTS AT CONDENSING TEMPERATURES

OF 85 ˚F AND 105 ˚F
(Assumed 75 % Efficiency for brake horsepowers)
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Group Safety Aspect Refrigerant

I nonflammable/non-toxic chloro-fluoro refrigerants(a),
carbon dioxide
II toxic or flammable ammonia, methyl chloride
III highly toxic and hydrocarbons

flammable
5.4.3 Refrigeration System Components
a) Basic System
The basic system is comprised of the following equipment:
Condenser
Receiver (Surge Drum or Complete System Drainage Tank)
Expansion Valve or Evaporator Level Control Valve
Evaporator/Chiller
Compressor Suction Scrubber
Compressor and Driver
The condenser removes the evaporator heat plus the heat from
compression. Cooling can be accomplished with air or water. Because
of varying ambient conditions, provisions to control the condensing
temperature are necessary. Air cooler control can be achieved with
variable pitch and variable speed fans, and with air dampeners. Cooling
water flow can be regulated with a control valve into the water cooled
exchangers. The condenser should be free draining to keep the tube
surface free of liquid accumulation.
The size of the receiver can vary considerably depending on how it is to

be used. It can be used as just a surge volume to smooth out fluctuations
in the system flow or it may need to be sized to contain the entire
volume of the refrigeration system either for maintenance or shutdown
purposes. As a storage receiver it should be sized to hold 100 % of the
inventory, when 80 % full at the anticipated standby temperature. If
there is an economizer in the circuit, it can also be used to store the
refrigerant. The surge drum only needs about 8 - 10 minutes of
inventory.
A flooded type of evaporator/chiller as shown in Figure 5-6 is the most

common. The refrigerant flows on the shell-side, and the liquid level
covers the tubes. Only approximately 1/3 of the shell is full of liquid, so
that the remainder of the vessel is used for vapor/liquid disengagement.
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In a spray type evaporator, the refrigerant wets the tube surface rather
than flooding the tubes (see Figure 5-7).
The compressor suction scrubber is used to prevent damage to the
compressor from possible liquid carryover from the evaporators or
economizers, or condensation in the suction line. The scrubber should be
equipped with a mist eliminator or stripping vanes. It should have high
level alarm and compressor shutdown controls. A vaporizing coil in the
bottom of the vessel is advisable to remove any accumulated liquids
(depending on the vapor pressure of the refrigerant, even cooling water
can be used as the heating medium).
b) Auxiliary Equipment
Economizers are basically flash drums used in multistage compression.

Figure 5-8 illustrates a basic configuration with a reciprocating
compressor and a centrifugal unit. Condensed refrigerant is partially
expanded and flashed in the economizer. The flashed vapor mixes with
the inter-stage compressor suction feed, cooling it. The liquid from the
economizer is used in the chiller. This arrangement reduces compressor
horsepower, and improves efficiency.
Evaporator Feed Pumps: liquid pumps may be necessary where

evaporators are separated from the compressor by a great distance, or the
evaporator is located at a high elevation.
Pump Out Systems: To execute routine maintenance on the refrigeration

system, pump out equipment which includes a transfer compressor,
another condenser, and storage drum may be employeed. This transfer
compressor is used to pressurize the storage, provide quick transfers, and
can also be used to help reduce the starting torque on the main
compressor of large units.
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Figure 5-6
FLOODED EVAPORATOR WITH ELIMINATOR
Figure 5-7
SPRAY EVAPORATOR
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Figure 5-8
A REFRIGERATION SYSTEM WITH ECONOMIZER
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5.4.4 Compressor Type Selection
Three types of compressors are normally used:
 Rotary Screw (most common)

 Centrifugal
 Reciprocating
Compressor Operating Compression Operating Capacity Control

Type Range Ratio Per Efficiency Method
CFM/Stage Stage (%)
Reciprocating 0 - 600 9.5 to 1 50 - 70 Changing Speed or

(Positive Unloading Cylinders
Displacement)
Screw (Positive 0 - 7,000 15 to 1 Internal Slide Valve (Load
Displacement) Range 10-100 %)
Centrifugal 0 - 15,000 20 to 1 70 - 75 Prerotational Guide Vanes,
Suction or Discharge
Throttling Valves, Speed
Control, Hot Gas
Bypassing
The oil injected screw compressors provides a direct seal between the rotors
and housing as the gas flows without pulsations radially, and axially. The oil
injected adsorbs much of the heat from compression, so the discharge gas
temperatures are seldom above 200 oF. The oil is removed from the
refrigerant in a multistage oil (vertical or horizontal) separators with an
internal coalescing element. It is cooled, filtered, and then re-injected at the
appropriate points of the machine. To ensure oil free operation, gas filters
with replaceable elements are added downstream of the separators. The
developed pressure is predetermined by the design of the machine, and is not
a function of speed. Positioning of the slide valve changes the point of where
compression begins.
5.4.5 System Design
Step 1
Determine the refrigerant load or duty from the process material balance.
Add a 20 % safety factor to this load - this safety factor accounts for the
design contingencies added on the process side, and for approximately 1 - 5
% system heat losses.
Step 2
Specify the evaporator or chiller operating temperature of the vapor so that it
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is between 10 and 15 oF lower than that required by the process outlet. With
the temperature established, the pressure is determined. Allow 2 -10 psi
pressure drop to the compressor inlet (depending on distance). The suction
pressure should be above atmospheric conditions.
Step 3
Determine the latent heat at the chiller pressure and temperature. Calculate
the amount of refrigerant vaporized (this is not the amount circulated, as
there is flashing across the expansion valve upstream of the chiller).
Step 4
With the cooling medium selected for the condenser, its outlet temperature
can be determined as follows:
For air coolers allow a 15 to 40 oF approach
For water cooled condensers allow a 10 to 30 oF approach
The high end approach temperatures were extracted from the Fluor Daniel
Process Design Criteria Manual. The low end approach temperatures are
what can be expected from package refrigeration vendors if cooling
temperatures are not specified on the condenser data sheet.
Now with the condenser outlet temperature set, the refrigerant pressure as a
saturated liquid is known. Allow approximately 5 psi pressure drop through
the condenser.
Step 5
Now that when the conditions at the receiver and chiller are set, the amount
of vapor flashed across the expansion valve can be determined, and hence the
total circulation rate.
wv
Circulating Refrigerant w  (5.4.6)
1  Xg
where:
Xg = the weight percent vapor downstream of the expansion valve
Wv = mass rate of refrigerant vaporized in the chiller
Step 6
Calculate the compressor discharge temperature and horsepower.
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Step 7
From the compressor discharge temperature determine the condenser duty.
Line Sizing: Use approximately 1.0 psi/100 ft pressure drop in the liquid line
from the receiver to the evaporator or economizer for a first estimate. Allow
a maximum velocity of 2.5 ft/sec out of the condenser to the receiver. This
line should not be trapped so liquids can drain freely from the condenser.
Keep the piping runs short downstream of the expansion valve because of
two phase flow. Check the flow to ensure it is not in the slug flow regime. If
it is, consider decreasing the line size.
Corrosion Allowance: Refrigeration systems are generally non-corrosive so

for carbon steel equipment use 1/16" corrosion allowance. No corrosion
allowance for alloy steels.
5.5 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
Selection of materials of construction for compressors requires evaluating not only

the normal operating conditions, but also variations in the gas analysis and operating
conditions.
Process engineer's input to compressor material selection shall concentrate on the

corrosion or erosion impact of the compressed gas and the potential impact of
abnormal gas temperatures. The selection of material for the structural strength of
the compressor due to high pressures or high velocities shall be the responsibility of
the mechanical engineer and of the manufacturer.
The following items shall be considered by the process engineer:
a) What are the extreme temperatures of the gas at suction pressure?

b) Is the compressed gas corrosive at normal or at extreme/upset conditions?
c) Are the extreme operating conditions transient or long-term?
d) Is the gas dry or wet, or can it get wet at extreme conditions?
e) Can corrosive conditions develop during start-up or shutdown
Previous jobs and Fluor Daniel Design Manuals are helpful in the selection of materials
of construction. Material selection is the responsibility of the Fluor Daniel metallurgist.
The article "Selecting Centrifugal Compressor Materials for Harsh Environments"
provides some general guidelines for material selection and emphasizes points to
consider (see Reference No. 8).
SECTION 6.0
PAGE 1
PROCESS MANUAL DESIGN PROCEDURES
DATE 06-94
6.0 DESIGN PROCEDURES
6.1 SPECIFICATION AND STANDARDS
Codes and standards applicable for the specification and rating of compression
equipment and their drivers are listed in Section 16.1.
6.2 SYSTEM DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
6.2.1 Operation of Compressors in Series
Compressor units may be connected in series to increase the overall

compression ratio at constant volume flow rate. For dynamic compressors
with units run off a common driver, the system may be likened to a single
body of multiple stages. Where units are run at different speeds they must be
treated separately. Often the low pressure unit is driven at constant speed,
letting the discharge pressure fluctuate about the design point in accordance
with the compressors characteristic curve. The high pressure unit is then
speed controlled to maintain constant mass flow.
Reciprocating and dynamic types should be installed with separate bypass

lines to facilitate start-up and intercoolers where necessary. Separators
between units are necessary if condensation is likely to occur under
compression of the gas, and pulsation dampeners should be installed between
reciprocating units to remove pulsations in the suction stream of successive
units.
6.2.2 Operation of Compressors in Parallel
If the characteristic head capacity curve of the individual machines are

identical and the piping resistance were equal, then as many machines as are
needed can be installed in parallel without trouble. However, this is rarely
the case and it is usually necessary to install a special control over each
machine that will assure its taking only its proportion of the total capacity.
As a rule, when installing centrifugal
compressors in parallel, it is advisable to have their characteristics as similar
as possible. In some cases it may be possible to use dissimilar machines in
parallel with extensive controls.
This problem does not exist for reciprocating or rotary type compressors as
they are essentially constant volume machines but if connected to a common
suction manifold, pulsations should be removed both upstream and
downstream of the units.
6.2.3 Receivers and Separators
Separators, or knockout drums, are devices for removing condensate from a
SECTION 6.0
PAGE 2
DATE 06-94
system. They should be employed on suction lines to compressors to prevent

liquid damage to the compressor internals, and on vertically rising discharge
lines to prevent run back of condensate.
Every reciprocating, and most other positive displacement, air compressors

should be piped to a discharge air receiver (dynamic units do not
require receivers because they have capacity control that always equalizes
line output with demand). Positive displacement units unload in steps and a
receiver helps reduce pressure variations and provides air storage for sudden
heavy demands and acts as secondary separator beyond the aftercooler
removing more of the oil and condensate.
Receivers are not so commonly used with gas compression systems but are
necessary if stop-start control is employed and when the system volume
without the receiver is relatively small.
6.2.4 Filters and Silencers
There are many installations where intake and possibly discharge silencers
are required, particularly with rotary type compressors. Reciprocating and
dynamic air compressors may require inlet silencers but their use is more
usual for pulsation dampening than high frequency abatement. The noise
produced by a compressor depends upon the size and type of unit and the
equipment supplier should be able to provide further details.
Inlet filters should be used with all types of compressor type to prevent
damage.
Permanent filters should be installed in front of first stage suction when the
source can not ascertain gas purity. Temporary start-up screens shall be
placed in front of all compressors to prevent damage by foreign objects
during initial operation.
6.3 COMPRESSOR SIZING
Fast, reliable estimates of compressor power and operating conditions are frequently
needed for process studies, economic evaluations and plant engineering. Such
estimates need not be of the highest accuracy because exact designs will ultimately
be made by the manufacturer based on actual mechanical designs and operating
conditions. The methods for making such quick estimates before manufacturers
quotations are received are outlined as follows, using equations and information
already provided.
SECTION 6.0
PAGE 3
DATE 06-94
6.3.1 Sizing Calculation Method
a) General
Usually the inlet gas conditions and exit pressure are known and the
compressor power and outlet temperature are required. Where this
information is required to assist in the selection of a compressor type, the
calculation process should be repeated for each of the types under
consideration.
As an example, consider the following situations:
Medium = dry air
Required Capacity, Q = 88,300 SCFM
Inlet Temperature, T1 = 560 oR
Inlet Pressure, p1 = 14.5 psia
Required Discharge Pressure, p2 = 45 psia
From Figure 5-1 it can be seen that the types of compressor capable of
delivering this relatively high capacity are centrifugal and axial. The
following information required for the power calculation is available
from tables included in this manual or from readily available texts:
1. Density of dry air at S.T.P.[18]  = 1.255 kg/m3

(0.0783 lb/ft3)
2. Compressibility of dry air [18] Z = 1.0
3. Adiabatic Exponent, [18] k = 1.40
4. Polytropic efficiency, (centrifugal p = 0.758

3
compressors) at 150,000 Sm /hr (88,300
SCFM) (Figure 5-2)
5. Polytropic efficiency, (axial compressors) p = 0.816

at 150,000 Sm3/hr (88,300 SCFM)
(Figure 5-2)
6. Molecular weight of air, [18] M = 28.964

lb/lbmole
SECTION 6.0
PAGE 4
DATE 06-94
b) Centrifugal Compressor
The procedure for calculating the power and discharge temperature for a
centrifugal compressor is given below:
1) Determine the ratio (n-1)/n:
The ratio (n-1)/n is related to the ratio (k-1)/k and the polytropic
efficiency is thus easily found.
n 1 k 1
 (1.3.9)
n k p
= (1.40-1)/(1.40 x 0.758)
= 0.377
2) Determine the temperature ratio, T2/T1:
The ratio of outlet to inlet temperature is found using the pressures

given in Section 6.3.1.a and the value of the ratio (n-1)/n calculated
above.
 n 1 
 
T2  p2  n 
 
T1  p1 
(1.3.7)
= (45/14.5)0.377
= 1.532
3) Discharge temperature, T2:
The discharge temperature is found using the absolute inlet

temperature as follows,
T2 = T1 x 1.532
= 560 x 1.532
= 858 oR
4) Determine the weight of air handled, w:
The weight of air handled is found as follows, weight of air handled,
w = Q (SCFM) x air density

= (88,300/60) x 0.0783
= 115.2 lb/s
SECTION 6.0
PAGE 5
DATE 06-94
5) Determine the specific gas constant, R:
The specific gas constant is related to the universal gas constant and
molecular weight by the following equation
Ro
R= (1.3.13)
M
= 1,545/28.964
= 53.34 ftlbf/lboR
6) Determine the X - factor.
The X-factor is found from the following equation.
  n 1 / n 
 p 2  
X =    1 (1.3.21)
p
 1
  

X = (45/14.5)0.377 - 1
= 0.532
7) Use R and X-factor to calculate the polytropic head, h p.
The polytropic head is calculated using the following equation
n
hp = ZavRT1 X
n 1
(1.3.22)
= 1.0 x 53.34 x 560 x 0.532 / 0.377
= 42,151 ft
8) Calculate the power, Pactual
The actual power required to compress the gas is related to the actual
head and weight of gas handled by the following equation
whactual
Pactual =
550
(1.3.24)
SECTION 6.0
PAGE 6
DATE 06-94
whp
=
550p
= (115.2 x 42,151)/(550 x 0.758)
= 11,647 hp
The adiabatic efficiency, ad
The adiabatic efficiency is calculated by considering the adiabatic

compression of the gas. The X-factor and polytropic head for
adiabatic compression are calculated and used to determine the
adiabatic power requirement as follows:
 k 1

 p 2  k 

X   
  1 (1.3.14)
 p1  
 
X = (45/14.5)(1.40-1)/1.40 -1
= 0.382
k
had = ZavRT 1
k 1
X (1.3.15)
= 1.0 x 53.34 x 560 x 0.382/[(1.40-1)/1.40]
= 39,937 ft
whad
Pad = (1.3.17)
550
= 115.2 x 39,937 / 550
= 8,365 hp
The adiabatic efficiency is the ratio of the power required for

adiabatic compression to the actual power, Pactual.
ad = Pad/Pactual
= 8,365/11,647
= 0.718
= 71.8%
SECTION 6.0
PAGE 7
DATE 06-94
c) Axial Compressor
The steps one to eight of the procedure of the centrifugal compressors are
followed to determine the discharge temperature and power requirements
for an axial compressor under similar operating conditions.
1) Determine the ratio, (n-1)/n.

n 1 k 1
 (1.3.9)
n k p
= (1.40-1)/(1.40 x 0.816)
= 0.350
2) Determine the temperature ratio, T2/T1

 n 1 
 
T2  p 2   n 
(1.3.7)
 
T1  p 1 
= (45/14.5)0.350
= 1.486
3) Discharge Temperature, T2
T2 = T1 x 1.486
= 560 x 1.486
= 832 oR
4) Determine the weight of gas handled, w.
The weight of gas handled, w, is the same as that handled in the

example section 6.3.1.b.
w = 115.2 lb/s
5) Determine the specific gas constant, R.
The specific gas constant, R, is the same as that of the example

Section 6.3.1.b.
R = 53.34 ftlbf/lboR
6) Determine the X-factor.
SECTION 6.0
PAGE 8
DATE 06-94
  n 1 / n 
 p 2  
X =  p1   1 (1.2.21)

  

= (45/14.5)0.350 -1
= 0.486
7) Calculate the polytropic head, hp

n
hp = ZavRT1
n 1
X (1.3.22)
= 1.0 x 53.34 x 560 x 0.486 / 0.350
= 41,477 ft
8) Calculate the power, Pactual
whactual
Pactual = (1.3.24)
550
whp
=
550p
= (115.2 x 41,477)/(550 x 0.816)
= 10,647 hp
9) The adiabatic efficiency
As the adiabatic power is dependent upon the properties of the gas

and the inlet conditions, both of which are the same as in the
example of Section 6.3.1.b, the value of P ad is as calculated
previously.
Pad = 8,365 hp
The adiabatic efficiency is found as follows.
ad = Pad/Pactual
= 8,365/10,647
= 0.785
= 78.5%
SECTION 6.0
PAGE 9
DATE 06-94
d) Reciprocating Compressors
Positive displacement compressors are compared with the adiabatic

cycle. The same operating conditions as those in the sample in 6.3.1.a
are used except in this worked example a capacity of 590 ft 3/min is
required.
1) Calculation of the X-factor.
The X-factor is calculated using the following equation.
  k 1 / k 
 p 2  
X =  p1   1 (1.3.14)

  

where (k-1)/k = (1.40 - 1)/1.40
= 0.286
X-factor = (45/14.5)0.286 -1
= 0.3821
2) Determination of adiabatic head, had
The adiabatic head is calculated using the following equation.

k
had = Z RT k  1 X
av 1
= 1.0 x 53.34 x 560 x 0.3821 / 0.286
= 39,907 ft
3) Determine the weight of gas handled, w
The weight of gas handled is found as follows.
w = Q (SCFM) x air density
= (590/60) x 0.0783
= 0.77 lb/s
4) Calculate the power required, Pad
SECTION 6.0
PAGE 10
DATE 06-94
The adiabatic power, Pad, is calculated using the following equation.

whad
Pad = (1.3.17)
550
= 0.77 x 39,907/550
= 55.9 hp
Mechanical efficiencies of reciprocating units are typically between

88 % and 95 % so the actual power is estimated here by assuming a
mechanical efficiency of, for example, 92 %. In practice, the
mechanical efficiency of a particular compressor is available from
the vendor.
Pactual = Pad/0.92
= 55.9/0.92
= 60.8 hp
5) Calculate the discharge temperature, T2:
In the adiabatic cycle as applied to positive displacement

compressors, it is customary to use the theoretical discharge
temperature in calculations. In the actual compressor, there are many
factors acting to cause deviations from the theoretical but on average
the theoretical temperature is closely approached and any error is
slight. The following equation is used.
k 1
T2  p 2 k
   (1.3.18)
T1  p1 
= (45/14.5)0.286
= 1.3821
SECTION 6.0
PAGE 11
DATE 06-94
The discharge temperature,
T2 = 1.3821 x T1
= 1.3821 x 560
= 774 oR
6.3.2 Sizing by Graphic Method
An alternative to the calculation procedure shown in Section 6.3.1 is the use

of graphic charts to find quickly the power demand of both centrifugal and
reciprocating compressors. Charts developed by Natural Gas Processors
Supplies Association (NGPSA) and by compressor manufacturers are
available in various forms for different applications.
Figures 6-1, 6-2 and Figure 6-3 obtained from NGPSA Data Book (1972)
provide quick method for centrifugal and reciprocating compressors
respectively.
a) Using the charts for establishing power demand for the centrifugal
compressor shown in the example in 6.3.1.b results P actual = 12,000 bhp
based on 60 -70 % adiabatic efficiency.
b) Using the chart for the sample shown in 6.3.1.d for a reciprocating
compressor the power demand is established as P = 61.1 bhp.
6.3.3 Sizing by PC Program
For processes when the material balance calculations performed by PCs the
power demand can be calculated quickly by the sanctioned GPC or HYSIM
programs. The required input data for these programs should be available
from the material balance. HYSIM can handle a wider range of gas
compositions than GPC. Selection of the program is the option by the user.
Adiabatic and polytropic efficiencies must be handled as separate input data
and multistage machines must be calculated stage-by-stage.
SECTION 6.0
PAGE 12
DATE 06-94
Figure 6-1
HEAD
SECTION 6.0
PAGE 13
DATE 06-94
Figure 6-2
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR
HORSEPOWER DETERMINATION
EFFICIENCY CONVERSION
SECTION 6.0
PAGE 14
DATE 06-94
Figure 6-3
APPROXIMATE POWER REQUIRED TO COMPRESS GASES
SECTION 7.0
PAGE 1
PROCESS MANUAL CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION
DATE 06-94
7.1 COMPRESSOR CAPACITY CONTROL
7.1.1 General
Output of compressors must be controlled to match the system demand. The

controlled point may be discharge pressure (the most prevalent), temperature
of a fluid being cooled (refrigeration), intake pressure of a system being
evacuated (vacuum applications and some safety controls) or a constant
weight or constant volume output meter (certain process applications). The
control point usually does not influence the type of capacity control used on a
compressor. This is determined more by the size, type of unit, type of driver,
and the amount and range of control required. It is sometimes necessary to
combine two types of control.
Nearly all types of capacity control may be arranged for manual operation.
There are many examples, particularly in process industries, where changes
in demand are infrequent and slow enough to permit manual operation.
Automatic control systems are used in most applications and may often be
complex.
The method of controlling a particular compressor depends on the type and

design of the unit being used. Those most commonly employed are
described as follows.
7.1.2 Automatic Start and Stop
Automatic start and stop is almost entirely limited to use with electric motor
driven units although there are cases where turbine or gas engine drives can
be so arranged. The compressor is run at full load for a period and is then
stopped. This type of arrangement is usually used to maintain a relatively
constant receiver pressure in an air system.
7.1.3 Variable Speed Control
Variable speed control is the most efficient method of controlling compressor

capacity. Its use with axial compressors is not so effective because of the
much smaller operating range. The description of drivers for variable speed
applications is discussed in Chapter 10.
7.1.4 Constant Speed Control
Constant speed control can be applied to all types of compressors, regardless

of driver. With this, the compressor operates at full speed continuously,
loaded part of the time and fully or partially unloaded at other times. There
are a number of control methods.
SECTION 7.0
PAGE 2
DATE 06-94
a) Inlet Guide Vanes
Variable inlet guide vanes are used for controlling centrifugal

compressors and for some axial types. They may be installed at the inlet
of any or all compressor stages but normally are provided only at the first
stage. The effect of inlet guide vane setting is discussed further in
Section 2.7.5.
b) Suction Throttling
Suction throttling is used for dynamic units only and should never be
attempted with reciprocating or rotary type compressors without the
guidance of the compressor manufacturer. By throttling the flow to a
dynamic unit the gas density at suction is reduced, resulting in a smaller
mass flow for a given inlet volume flow and a reduction in power. The
drop in power is slightly offset by an increase due to increasing
compressor head which is caused by the lower suction pressure. In low
power machines throttling is carried out with a butterfly valve on the
intake; larger machines use inlet guide vanes.
For services where the normal suction pressure is low, beware of the
possibility of creating a vacuum by the use of suction throttling. This
could cause undesirable (or unsafe) in-leakage of air.
c) Discharge Throttling
Discharge throttling is used to control dynamic compressors and cannot

be used for reciprocating or rotary types which are effectively constant
volume-variable pressure machines. It is the least efficient control
scheme since it allows the compressor to develop more head than the
process requires. This method does not permit the power reduction
attained by suction throttling. While discharge throttling is least
efficient, it is probably the simplest and may be used on small
compressors where the power losses are insignificant.
d) External Bypassing
External bypassing of compressed gas back to the intake can be used for
continuous modulation of the compressor output but requires that it operate
at full load and capacity at all times and is therefore uneconomical at part
load. The returned gas must be cooled prior to its return to the suction to
avoid excessive discharge temperatures. This method of control is valuable
in a few process applications, usually for fine adjustments unobtainable by
other acceptable methods. It is applicable to all types of compressors and is
used with dynamic types for anti-surge control, see Section 7.2.
SECTION 7.0
PAGE 3
DATE 06-94
e) Blow-off
Blow-off refers to the relief of excess gas to the atmosphere and is

similar in effect to external bypassing.
f) Clearance
Reciprocating compressors may be fitted with a number of pockets

located at the end of each cylinder which under normal operating
conditions are closed. By opening one or more of the pockets the
volume of the cylinder, and more specifically, the clearance volume, is
increased and thus the volume flow rate, volumetric efficiency and
compressor power are all reduced. Capacity control by this means is in
steps and may be operated by manually or automatically using an
instrumentation control system.
Alternatively, compressors are available with adjustable clearance

pockets which allow continuously variable control over the full range.
The effect of clearance volume control is illustrated by Figure 7-1 which

shows the pressure, displacement curves for a unit with two pockets.
The pockets are sized so that the volumetric efficiency with one pocket
open is about half the full load volumetric efficiency. With both pockets
open volumetric efficiency is reduced to zero.
For medium/high pressure applications in excess of 7.3 psig discharge

pressure, adjusting compressor clearance to control capacity is not
recommended due to the risk of gas leakages from the cylinder
penetrations necessary for the clearance plugs.
g) Valve Unloading
This is the most commonly used form of capacity control of constant

speed reciprocating compressors. It consists of holding open the inlet
valves during both suction and compression strokes so that all the air
taken into the cylinder on the suction stroke is pushed back through the
intake valves on the discharge stroke. For a double-acting cylinder valve
unloading provides a three step control: full load, half load and no load.
This method of capacity control is not recommended for medium/high
pressure applications in excess of 725 psig due to the risk of gas leakage
from the unloading valves.
SECTION 7.0
PAGE 4
DATE 06-94
7.2 ANTI-SURGE CONTROL
This section covers the anti-surge control systems used in the protection of dynamic
compressors. It should be understood that the primary function of these systems is
not to control capacity (as this is carried out by other control systems) but to
recognize the limit of stability under a variety of conditions of speed, compressor
vane position and pressure for values of gas flow and to ensure that under no
conditions does flow rate fall to the point where surge is initiated and is shown on
Figure 7-2 (a) and Figure 7-2 (b).
7.2.1 Blow-off Anti-surge Control
In some compressor applications operation is almost always practically at

design capacity. In this case anti-surge control would consist of an
automatic or manual bleed valve at the compressor discharge. The output
can thus be reduced while maintaining the compressor above the limit of
stability for compression of air or inexpensive nontoxic gas. The simplest
system is shown by Figure 7-3(a).
7.2.2 Minimum Flow Anti-surge Control
Minimum flow uses a predetermined flow as the set-point for the surge
protection controller (in this case a flow indicating controller, FIC), Figure 7-
3(b). Surge protection is activated when the flow (calculated from the flow
transmitted signal representing the pressure differential across an orifice plate
at the compressor suction), falls to the set-point and a portion of compressed
gas is bypassed from the discharge to the suction.
The bypass line contains a heat exchanger where gas cooling takes place to
prevent compressor overheating. For this system to work properly, the
compressor must be operating at constant speed with constant gas properties
and with constant suction pressure and temperature to prevent the surge limit
from rising above the set-point.
7.2.3 Minimum Flow with Automatic Speed Control
This system type, Figure 7-4, provides surge protection by changing the
compressor speed and thus changing the limit of stability with respect to
capacity. The surge protection controller in this system is the speed
indicating controller, SIC.
SECTION 7.0
PAGE 5
DATE 06-94
Figure 7-1
THE EFFECT OF ADDING CLEARANCE FOR

CAPACITY CONTROL
SECTION 7.0
PAGE 6
DATE 06-94
Figure 7-2(a)
PERFORMANCE OF TYPICAL SINGLE-STAGE CENTRIFUGAL

COMPRESSOR AT VARYING SPEED
Figure 7-2(b)
EFFECT OF INLET GUIDE VANE ROTATION ON THE CHARACTERISTIC

OF A CONSTANT-SPEED COMPRESSOR
SECTION 7.0
PAGE 7
DATE 06-94
7.2.4 Flow-Speed System
This system, Figure 7-5, is a combination of the minimum flow and

automatic speed control systems and operates by varying the amount of gas
bypassed at a particular speed. The set-point of the surge protection
controller is determined from inputs from the speed transmitter, ST and is
thus varied as the surge point varies with speed. The amount of gas bypassed
is determined by the controller from signals received from the flow
transmitter, FT.
7.2.5 Guide Vane/Stator Vane Positioning
In a constant speed system, inlet guide vanes and stator vanes are used for
flow regulation. The principle of operation of the anti-surge system, Figure
7-6, is similar to that of the flow-speed system except that the set-point of the
surge protection controller is varied with the signal received from the
position transmitter, ZT representing vane angle. The amount of gas to be
bypassed is determined by the controller using input from the flow
transmitter, FT.
7.2.6 Flow-Differential Pressure Control
This system, Figure 7-7, is the most accurate of the more popular systems
because it is independent of compressor speed and suction conditions.
The surge protection controller determines the amount of gas bypassed from
signals received from the flow transmitter, FT, via the amplifying relay, FY,
and from the pressure differential transmitter, dpT.
SECTION 7.0
PAGE 8
DATE 06-94
Figure 7-3(a)
BLOW-OFF ANTI-SURGE CONTROL
Figure 7-3(b)
MINIMUM FLOW ANTI-SURGE
SECTION 7.0
PAGE 9
DATE 06-94
Figure 7-4
MINIMUM FLOW WITH AUTOMATIC SPEED CONTROL
Figure 7-5
FLOW SPEED ANTI-SURGE CONTROL
SECTION 7.0
PAGE 10
DATE 06-94
Figure 7-6
GUIDE – VAN/STATOR VAN POSITIONING
Figure 7-7
FLOW/DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE ANTI-SURGE CONTROL
SECTION 8.0
PAGE 1
PROCESS MANUAL COMPRESSOR SPECIFICATION
DATE 06-94
8.0 COMPRESSOR SPECIFICATION
The preparation of the detailed specification sheet is a cooperative effort of the

process engineer, the mechanical engineer, and the compressor vendor. The process
engineer will originate the applicable forms, and then transfer them to the mechanical
engineer (sometimes through the project engineer). The mechanical engineer
incorporates all the general compressor specifications of the job into the data sheet.
In some cases the client's specifications form part of this general document. The
process engineer should be familiar with the document, so that you will know why
certain conditions were indicated (by others) on the data sheet. All information on
the specifications sheet must meet the process requirements.
The Fluor Daniel compressor and compressor auxiliary specification forms are listed
below. Many of these forms were extracted from the API standards.
The Compressor Requirements form provides an easy reference one page description,
with all the pertinent process information. This form is usually sufficient when
preparing preliminary quotations, and/or proposals.
When specifying a compressor competitive bid and purchase, the process engineer
will originate and issue the appropriate compressor data sheets along with the
auxiliary, and driver data sheets. Of course most of the information required to
complete these forms will be furnished by either the mechanical engineer or the
compressor vendor.
FORM DESCRIPTION FORM NUMBER
Compressor Requirement E-537
DYNAMIC COMPRESSORS
Centrifugal Compressor E-523 A-F
Centrifugal Compressor DS-617 (Pages 1-6)
Low Pressure Centrifugal Compressors E-985 A/B
Integrally Geared Centrifugal Compressor DS-672 (Pages 1-11)
Plant and Instrument Air Compressor E-216 A-H
Turbo-Expander Compressor HOU-2883 A-D
Centrifugal Compressor Instrumentation E-440 A-B

Fans and Blowers E-517
SECTION 8.0
PAGE 2
DATE 06-94
POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT UNITS
Reciprocating Compressor E-524 (page 1-4)
Reciprocating Compressor DS-618 (pages 1-22)
Rotary Type Positive Displacement DS-619 (pages 1-9)

Compressor
Liquid Ring Positive Displacement Rotary E-987 A/B

Compressor
AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT
Oil System Data Sheet DS-614 (pages 1-10)
Lube Oil Cooler E-673 A
Sea Oil Cooler E-673 B
Turbine Gland Condenser E-673 C
Special Purpose Gear Unit
8.2 PROVIDING PROCESS DATA
The general procedures of completing specifications for the compressors by the

process engineer are:
8.2.1 Preparing System Sketch
Sketching of compressor arrangement is especially important for multistage

machines. Indicate on the sketch the expected streams entering or exiting at
each stage and show planned location of K.O. drums.
8.2.2 Establishing Cases for Operation
Cases shall include normal, rated, minimum conditions and other conditions
such as start-of-Run (SOR), End-of-Run (EOR) or fouled exchanger, etc.
Any change of the following gas conditions/properties shall require listing as

a separate case:
 Flow rate (at inlet or at interstage, if applicable)
SECTION 8.0
PAGE 3
DATE 06-94
 Composition and its impact on:
Molecular weight (MW)
Adiabatic exponent (k)
Compressibility (Z)
Relative humidity
 Trace (corrosive) components
 Suction temperature (at inlet or at interstage, if applicable)
 Suction pressure (at inlet or at interstage, if applicable)
 Discharge pressure
8.2.3 Identifying Process Requirements
Process engineer shall fill out Process Specification Form E-537 completely
as far as data are available.
Process data to be completed are:
 Identification of compressor (item number, title, service, unit/site, number

required, type, preferred type of driver).
 Gas handled (short identification)
 Gas flow rate on wet basis (lbmol/hr, lb/min, SCFM, ICFM)
 Gas composition (mol % with trace components expressed as ppm by vol.)
 Gas molecular weight on wet basis
 Suction pressure
 Suction temperature
 Relative humidity
 Adiabatic exponent (k)*
 Compressibility (Z)*
 Discharge pressure
SECTION 8.0
PAGE 4
DATE 06-94
 Location (indoor/outdoor, winterization, etc.)
 Site data (elevation, barometric pressure, ambient temperatures: design,

normal, maximum, minimum)
 Process control (preferred control method)
 Description of unusual conditions
 Electric area classification (if available)
 Suction and discharge pipe size (if available)
 Cooling water data (normal/design inlet temperature and pressure at

compressor, maximum permissible
 differential temperature and pressure)
 Steam supply pressure and temperature (for turbine driver, if applicable)

and condensing pressure or back pressure
 Notes identifying special requirements for start-up and shutdown
* Preliminary values. Final values are the responsibility of the

compressor manufacturer.
8.2.4 Completing Compressor Data Sheets
a) Centrifugal Compressors
Another approach, instead of filling out Form E-537, is to complete

process data on the appropriate sheets of Centrifugal Compressor Data
Sheet Forms E-523(A-F) or DS-617(1-6). The same information
identified for Form E-537 shall be included. (Selected pages of some
blank forms are attached, and completed sample pages of some forms in
the Appendix.)
b) Reciprocating Compressors
Reciprocating compressors may be specified, instead of completing

Form E-537, by completing process data on the appropriate sheets of
Reciprocating Compressor Data Sheet Forms E-524(1-4) or DS-618(1-
22). The same information identified for Form E-537 shall be included.
(Selected pages of some blank forms are attached, and completed sample
pages of some forms are in the Appendix.)
SECTION 8.0
PAGE 5
DATE 06-94
Reciprocating compressors in addition to the general process data require

the following specific information:
 Maximum permitted differential pressure between stages.
This value shall include the pressure drop in the suction and
discharge pulse dampeners, intercooler, K.O. drum and some
allowance for interstage piping. If the responsibility is split for
supplying these items between compressor manufacturer, pulse
dampener vendor and installer, then the final pressure drop
coordination shall be followed up by the responsible process
engineer.
 Maximum permitted pressure fluctuation at the first stage suction

and last stage discharge.
Process engineer shall identify the allowed peak to peak variation

(1/2 - 2% from high peak to low peak) and the reason for the
required tolerance such as process flow or accounting flow
measurement.
8.2.5 Attached Specification Data Sheet Forms
Compressor Requirements E- 537
DS-617-1
DS-617-2
Centrifugal Compressor
DS-617-6
D6-618-1
DS-618-2
Reciprocating Compressor DS-618-6
DS-618-13
SECTION 8.0
PAGE 6
DATE 06-94
SECTION 8.0
PAGE 7
DATE 06-94
SECTION 8.0
PAGE 8
DATE 06-94
SECTION 8.0
PAGE 9
DATE 06-94
SECTION 8.0
PAGE 10
DATE 06-94
SECTION 8.0
PAGE 11
DATE 06-94
SECTION 8.0
PAGE 12
DATE 06-94
SECTION 8.0
PAGE 13
DATE 06-94
SECTION 9.0
PAGE 1
PROCESS MANUAL DRIVERS THEORY
DATE 06-94
9.0 DRIVERS THEORY
9.1 TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
9.1.1 Electric Motors
Air gap The annular air space between the rotor and stator in
which the magnetic field rotates.
Alternating current A current whose magnitude is alternately negative

(A.C) and positive and whose variations in magnitude are
repeated periodically. The number of cycles or
periods per second is the frequency.
Rotor The cylindrical magnetic structure mounted on

bearings such that it may rotate within the stator.It
may be a squirrel-cage type or made up of three-
phase windings.
Slip Ns  N
Slip, S, is defined by: S 
Ns
where:
Ns = synchronous speed
N = rotor speed
Slippage The condition that exists when the rotor turns at a

speed less than that of that of the rotating magnetic
field of the stator.
Squirrel cage The simplest type of rotor comprising a number of

solid conductors embedded axially in the surface of
the rotor and connected at each end.
Stator The cylindrical field windings of an electric motor in

which the rotor rotates.
Synchronicity The condition that exists when the rotor turns at the
same speed as, and in step with, the rotating
magnetic field produced by the current in the stator.
9.1.2 Steam Turbines
rotor Rotating shaft or drum of a compressor or a turbine to

which are attached the rotating blades.
stage A set of one stationary blading and one rotating blading
SECTION 9.0
PAGE 2
DATE 06-94
superheated Steam heated such that when it is cooled at steam constant

pressure there is no formation of condensate.
9.1.3 Gas Turbines

can A gas turbine combustion chamber may be divided
into a number of separate cylindrical compartments
known as cans each fitted with a separate fuel injector.
casing That into which the rotor is mounted, and which

supports the stationary blading and contains the
working fluid.
cross over tubes These are tubes connecting combustion chamber cans
to ensure an equalization of pressure.
9.1.4 Diesel and Gas Engines
bottom dead center The lowest position of the piston in its stroke.
brake mean That part of the indicated mean effective pressure

developed in an engine cylinder which would result in a
cylinder output equal to the brake power of the engine.
engine rating Industrial engine rating is a measure of the maximum

power developed by a machine under constant load.
engine size Engine size is usually defined in terms of power output.

Frame size is determined in terms of number of
cylinders, cylinder diameter and length of stroke.
indicated mean The average pressure exerted by the working fluid

effective pressure in an engine cylinder throughout the
cycle.
LHV The maximum energy that can be released during

combustion of the fuel if (1) the water in the products
remains in the vapor phase, (2) the products are
returned to the initial reference temperature of the
reactants, (3) the combustion process is carried out such
that essentially complete combustion is attained.
top dead center The uppermost position of the piston in its stroke.
SECTION 9.0
PAGE 3
DATE 06-94
9.2 ELECTRIC MOTORS
The theory of electric motors is not part of the scope of this manual and is therefore
not covered here.
9.3 STEAM TURBINE
9.3.1 Ideal Steam Turbine Cycle
The ideal cycle for steam plant is shown by Figure 9-1. It is called the
Rankine cycle and comprises four processes which are described in Table 9-
1. A typical simple steam turbine plant is shown diagrammatically by Figure
9-2.
The process carried out by the steam turbine is the expansion of superheated
steam which is illustrated by that part of the curve between points 3 and 4.
For an ideal cycle this process is adiabatic and frictionless and therefore
isentropic.
The thermal efficiency and specific work of the plant is given as follows:
Efficiency
(H3  H 4 )  V1(p 2  p1 )
= (9.3.1)
H3  H 2
(H 3  H 4 )  (H 2  H1 )
= (approximately)
H3  H 2
H3  H 4
= (approximately)
H3  H1
Specific Work
= (H3 - H4) - V1(p2 - p1) (9.3.2)
where:
H = enthalpy, Btu/lb
p = pressure, psi
v = specific volume, ft3/lb
subscripts refer to the stage of the cycle
SECTION 9.0
PAGE 4
DATE 06-94
Figure 9-1
SIMPLE RANKINE SYSTEM
Figure 9-2
DIAGRAM OF SIMPLE CLOSED STEAM TURBINE SYSTEM
SECTION 9.0
PAGE 5
DATE 06-94
9.3.2 Real Steam Turbine Cycle
In real cycles there are losses in the turbine so the expansion process is not
therefore isentropic. It may be
The curve between points 3 and 4 in figure 9-1. The difference in entropy
between points e and 4’ is a measure of the losses in the system and the
overall turbine efficiency is obtained by comparing the work
Done by the which would have been done under an ideal system. Thus,
overall
Turbine performance = (H 3  H 4 ' )(H 3  H 4 )
Where,
H3 = enthalpy at turbine inlet, Btu/lb
H 4' = enthalpy at turbine outlet under real cycle, Btu/lb
H4 = enthalpy at turbine outlet under ideal cycle, Btu/lb
Typically, turbine performance is between 75 and 85 %.
Ishould be noted that the cycle need not be closed as indicated in figure 9-2,
but could be open in which case the steam the trubine may be condensed but
not returned to the boiler.
There are many ways of increasing the efficiency of a system such as

interstage reheating or refeneration, these are discussed in detail in section
10.2.
Process Action and Equipment Involved Ene

Step rgy
Equ
1-2 Reversible adiabatic compression -w atio
= H2 - H1
in a feed water pump
= v1 (p2 - p1)
2-3 Reversible constant pressure heat q = H3 - H 2

transfer in a steam generator
3–4 Reversible adiabatic expansion -w = H4 - H 3

in a turbine
4–1 Reversible constant pressure heat q = H1 - H4
removal in a condenser
SECTION 9.0
PAGE 6
DATE 06-94
9.4 GAS TURBINE
9.4.1 Ideal Gas Turbine Cycle
The ideal cycle for a gas turbine plant is the Joule cycle which is shown by
Figure 9-3. It comprises four processes which are described in Table 9-2.
The three major components of the system are a compressor which raises the
pressure of the working medium, a heater where heat transfer to the fluid
occurs and a turbine where the fluid is expanded; in a closed cycle a cooler is
necessary to remove heat from the fluid. In an ideal system the compression
and expansion processes are isentropic and the heat transfer processes occur
at constant pressure. Assuming no changes in potential and kinetic energy:
Work of the compressor,
Wc = ma (H2 - H1) (9.4.1)
Work of the turbine,
Wt = (ma + mf) (H3 - H4) (9.4.2)
Total output work,
Wcyc = Wt - W c (9.4.3)
Heat added to system,
Q23 = mf x LHV (fuel) (9.4.4)
= (ma + mf) H3 - maH2
Therefore overall efficiency,
W cyc
 cyc = (9.4.5)
Q 23
Where symbols are as defined in Table 9-3.
By assuming that the mass flow rate of air is much greater than that of the
fuel, that the specific heat capacity ratio is constant and that all components
operate without loss, efficiency can be further represented by:
(T3  T4 )  (T2  T1 )
 cyc =
T3  T2
(9.4.6)
SECTION 9.0
PAGE 7
DATE 06-94
Figure 9-3
SIMPLE JOULE CYCLE
Figure 9-4
DIAGRAM OF SIMPLE GAS TURBINE SYSTEM
SECTION 9.0
PAGE 8
DATE 06-94
which by substitution of
( K 1) / K
T3 T2  p 2 
  
T4 T1  p1 
reduces to:
cyc = 1 - Rp-(k-1)/k (9.4.7)
Specific work
= Cp[(T3 - T4) - (T2 - T1)] (9.4.8)
Process
Step Action and Equipment Involved Energy
Equation
1-2 Reversible adiabatic compression in a s -w = H2 - H 1
rotary compressor
= Cp (T2 - T1)

transfer in a heater
= Cp (T3 - T2)
3-4 Reversible adiabatic expansion in a -w = H4 - H 3

turbine
= Cp (T4 - T3)

transfer in a cooler
= Cp (T1 - T4)
Cp = specific heat capacity at constant pressure, Btu/lb oR

 cyc = cycle efficiency
LHV = lower heating value, Btu/lb of fuel
k = ratio of specific heat capacities
m = mass flow rate, lb/s
Rp = pressure ratio
T = temperature, oF, oR
W = work/output, hp
Subscripts:
1 = compressor inlet
SECTION 9.0
PAGE 9
DATE 06-94
2 = compressor outlet
3 = turbine inlet
4 = turbine outlet
a = air
act = actual cycle
c = compressor
cyc = cycle
f = fuel
i = ideal cycle
t = turbine
9.4.2 Real Gas Turbine Cycle
In a real gas turbine plant, shown diagrammatically by Figure 9-4, the cycle
is usually an open one with the cooling process omitted. The compressor and
turbine both operate with losses and the compression and expansion
processes are not therefore isentropic. They are represented on Figure 9-5 by
the curves between points 1 and 2  and points 3 and 4  respectively. The
heat transfer to the fluid is accomplished by use of a combustion chamber
which operates with pressure losses and this process is represented by the
curve from point 2 to 3.
Analysis of the real cycle gives the following:
Wc m a (H 2  H1 )
Wc   (9.4.9)
c c
(m a  m f )(H3  H 4 )
W ta  (9.4.10)
t
SECTION 9.0
PAGE 10
DATE 06-94
Figure 9-5
REAL GAS TURBINE CYCLE
SECTION 9.0
PAGE 11
DATE 06-94
Therefore, actual work,
Wact = Wta - Wca (9.4.11)
The actual fuel required to raise the temperature from 2' to 3' is:
H3  H 2
mf 
 LHV  b
(9.4.12)
where:
b = is the efficiency of the gas turbine combustion chamber or burner
Thus, the overall cycle efficiency can be calculated from the following
equations:
Wact
cyc  (9.2.13)
m f (LHV )
9.5.1 Gas Engine Heat Cycle
The heat cycle of the gas engine follows the constant volume curve shown in
Figure 9-6. Ideally it
assumes an adiabatic and isentropic compression of the charge, addition of
the fuel heat by instantaneous combustion and then adiabatic expansion of
the burnt gases.
The real heat cycle departs quantitatively from the ideal cycle in that:
 Heat is lost in the later stages of compressor making T 2 lower.
 The heat energy is not added instantaneously (the nearest approach to this
is violent detonation which soon leads to pre-ignition and cannot be tolerated in practice). The fuel
starts to burn before top center and continues for an appreciable time during expansion. Since it can be
shown that the cycle efficiency is dependent on the expansion ratio, it is evident that the fuel which
burns later is not used as efficiently as that burned at top center.
 The specific heat of gases rises with temperature, so that the addition of a
certain quantity of heat does not produce the rise in temperature (and therefore pressure) which would
result if the specific heat were constant.
Figure 9-6
SECTION 9.0
PAGE 12
DATE 06-94
GAS AND DIESEL ENGINE CYCLES
SECTION 9.0
PAGE 13
DATE 06-94
 Dissociation of steam and carbon dioxide, the products of combustion, into

carbon monoxide, hydrogen and oxygen, occurs at high temperatures. This absorbs heat in the early
stages, and recombination later on raises the terminal temperature and therefore the amount of rejected
heat.
 Heat loss, with consequent falling off in pressure, occurs during burning
and expansion and as it is greatest at the highest temperature, this loss produces its effects throughout
the working stroke.
 Since the process of evacuating the cylinder takes some time, the exhaust
valve or ports must be opened well before the end of the stroke, thus lowering the real expansion ratio.
9.5.2 Diesel Engine Heat Cycle
The ideal heat cycle for the Diesel engine follows the constant pressure curve
illustrated by Figure 9-6(b). The chief difference between this cycle and the
constant volume cycle is that the pressure of combustion rises above that of
compression and then remains roughly constant for a part of the expansion
process. In practice, the Diesel engine follows more closely the dual cycle
Figure 9-6(c) which is a combination of the constant volume and constant
pressure cycles. The comments of Section 9.5.1 that differentiate real from
ideal cycles applies to the Diesel heat cycle.
The principle of operation of the two types of engines is fully described in

Section 10.4.
9.5.3 Gas and Diesel Engine Cycle Efficiency
The indicated thermal efficiency,  ti , is the efficiency of the actual

thermodynamic cycle and is difficult to measure directly. It is expressed by
the following relationship.
ip
 ti = (9.5.1)
1.415 cb m f LHVp
where:
ip = engine indicated power, hpcb

 cb = efficiency of combustion
LHVp = constant pressure lower heating valve, Btu/lb of fuel
mf = mass flow rate of fuel, lb/s
The combustion efficiency is the efficiency of converting the chemical

energy of the fuel to thermal energy (enthalpy) of the products of
combustion. It may be expressed as below:
SECTION 9.0
PAGE 14
DATE 06-94
 DH
 cb =
LHVp
(9.5.2)
where:
DH = actual enthalpy of reaction, Btu/lb
The engine mechanical efficiency is dependent on the frictional losses in the

engine and is the ratio of the brake power, bp, to the indicated power, ip,
where the brake power is the useful power measured at the engine output
shaft.
bp
m = (9.5.3)
ip
The turbo-expander is used to obtain low temperature and refrigeration and its use as
a driver is secondary; while the power recovery turbine is used to recover the energy
from a high pressure and usually large volume fluid stream.
The turboexpander in combination with a compressor and a heat exchanger functions

as a heat pump and is analyzed as follows. For Figure 9-7 consider the compressor
and aftercooler as an isothermal compressor operating at T 2 with an efficiency ηc, and
assume the working fluid to be a perfect gas. Further, consider the removal of a
quantity of heat Qe by the turboexpander at an average low temperature T 1. This
requires that it deliver shaft work equal to Q e. Now, make the reasonable assumption
that one-tenth of the temperature drop in the expander is used for the temperature
difference in the heat exchanger. If the expander efficiency is η e and this efficiency is
multiplied by 0.9 to include the effect of the temperature difference in the heat
exchanger, the needed ideal enthalpy drop across the expander is:
Qe
He  (9.6.1)
0 .9  e
The theoretical required (isothermal) compression work in the compressor, which is

assumed to operate isothermally at T2, is:
 Qe  T2 
  
 0.9e  T1 
(9.6.2)
Figure 9-7
SECTION 9.0
PAGE 15
DATE 06-94
TURBOEXPANDER SYSTEM FUNCTIONING

AS A REFRIGERATION MACHINE
SECTION 9.0
PAGE 16
DATE 06-94
The actual compressor work Wc, is this latter quantity, divided by the compressor
isothermal efficiency, c thus:
 Qe  T 2 
Wc =   
 0. 9 e c  T1 
(9.6.3)
Mechanical work equal to Q e/0.9 is returned by the expander to the compressor, so

the net work to the compressor is:
Qe
W = Wc 
0.9
 Qe  T2  Qe
=    
 0.9   e  c T1  0.9
 Q e   T2 
=     1
 0.9    e  c T1 
 Qe  T2  ecT1 
W =    (9.6.4)
 0.9  ecT1 
The second law theoretical work is:
Qe( T 2  T1)
Wtheor = (9.6.5)
T1
Hence, the second-law efficiency of the expander-heat-exchanger-compressor system

is:
Qe(T2  T1 ) / T1
W theor
=  Qe  T2  ecT1 
W   
 0.9  ecT1 
0.9(T2  T1 )ec
= (9.6.6)
T2  ecT1
SECTION 9.0
PAGE 17
DATE 06-94
9.7 SHAFT VIBRATION AND CRITICAL SPEED
It is well known that all parts of a machine which are subjected to recurring or
periodic forces are prone to vibrate. Even a small force, applied at regular intervals,
may set up a dangerous state of vibration. Such a vibration is termed a forced
vibration, as distinct from a natural or free vibration, which occurs when a part of the
machine is displaced from its normal static position, and then suddenly released and
allowed to oscillate freely.
The amplitude of a forced vibration depends upon two things, namely the frequency
with which the disturbing force is being applied, and the forces which tend to damp
out any vibrations set up, in short, the damping forces.
Every plastic body when vibrating freely does so with a certain definite frequency,
which is usually termed the natural frequency. If the frequency with which the
disturbing force is applied is the same as the natural frequency, it will be apparent
that, at first, the disturbing force will set up small displacements of the body, and that
during these small displacements the body will be displaced always in the direction
of the applied periodic force. Consequently, the disturbing force will be doing work
on the body, and so building up bigger and bigger amplitudes. This is the
phenomenon of resonance of synchronism, and is obviously a condition to be
avoided. When the frequency is different from the natural frequency, vibration still
occurs, but with small amplitude or movement, and only when the natural frequency
is approached does the amplitude tend to become large. Damping forces, due to fluid
friction, internal friction in the material, etc., always tend to limit vibration. In steam
turbine work, however, the damping forces are usually negligible.
The shaft, rotating at a high speed, is subjected to a periodic force having the same
frequency as the speed of rotation, owing to the small out-of-balance forces which
are inevitable, no matter how carefully the rotor is constructed and balanced. At a
certain speed, known as the critical or whirling speed, resonance occurs, and the shaft
whips or whirls.
The critical speed is always determined by calculation during the design stage, and
that the dimensions of the shaft are so chosen that the critical speed is well removed
from the normal running speed and in the case of turbo-generators from any speed
within the range from normal speed to overspeed. In turbines of moderate output, the
critical speed would be made from 1.2 to 1.25 times the rated full speed, giving for a
speed of 3,000 rpm a margin of 600 - 750 rpm at rated speed and of 300 - 450 rpm at
overspeed.
Shaft vibration may also be caused by a badly balanced rotor or a badly aligned shaft.
Another cause of vibration is a bent shaft caused by previous whirling, by the
unsymmetrical heating of the shaft and rotor, or some such cause.
SECTION 10.0
PAGE 1
PROCESS MANUAL DRIVER DESCRIPTION
DATE 06-94
10.0 DRIVER DESCRIPTION
There are essentially two types of A.C. electric motors: Induction and synchronous.
10.1.1 A.C. Induction Motors
The A.C. electric motor comprises a bearing mounted rotor which is able to
turn within a stator. A three phase alternating electric power supply is
applied to the stator or field winding which produces a rotating magnetic
field in the air gap. The rotating magnetic field crossed through, or "cuts" the
rotor winding and induces in it a voltage and thus a current. The induced
current reacts with the magnetic field and a torque is produced which causes
the rotor to turn. Clearly if the rotor is synchronous with the rotating
magnetic field, the latter no longer "cuts" the rotor winding and torque is
zero.
This never occurs with A.C. induction motors and there always exists a
certain amount of slip under load, typically 2-1/2 % for units of about 7 hp
to 1/2 % for larger units of about 1,350 hp. An induction motor will thus
always run at such a speed so that the induced rotor current can provide
sufficient torque to balance the load.
The A.C. induction motor may have either a squirrel cage or a three-phase
winding type of rotor.
a) Squirrel Cage Rotor
This type of rotor is simple and inexpensive to manufacture, robust and

reliable. Its disadvantages lie in its low efficiency (relative to three-
phase winding types) and its lower degree of speed control with load.
With smaller size motors efficiency is not so important and it is most
widely used in applications up to 200 hp.
b) Three-phase Winding Rotor
This rotor contains a full three-phase winding which is more sensitive to

the rotating magnetic field and therefore produces a better response. It is
more efficient and maintains better speed control but is also more
expensive and the rotor windings require more regular maintenance than
the cage type. They are more commonly used for larger hp motors.
SECTION 10.0
PAGE 2
DATE 06-94
10.1.2 A.C. Synchronous Motors
The A.C. induction motor operates continuously on the same winding under start-up
and under normal running conditions and its design is necessarily compromised.
The synchronous motor, however, has a rotor with an induction motor type
cage which is used during start-up and a set of electro-magnets spaced
around its periphery which are used during normal running.
Once start-up has been achieved, i.e., the motor is running at about 95 %
operating speed, direct current is applied to the stator. Torque is developed
by the interaction of the rotor magnetic field and the stator current.
The characteristics of this type of motor are a very high efficiency and
complete synchroneity which means a high degree of speed control. The
high efficiency makes this type of motor attractive for large power
applications where power losses are expensive.
10.1.3 Multispeed Motors
The speed of an A.C. electric motor is determined by the frequency of the

power supply and the number of poles into which its rotor winding is
arranged, and for these reasons it is usually fixed at a constant value.
Table 10-1 shows speed combinations for multispeed A.C. induction motors.
It is possible to give an induction motor more than one pole arrangement and
thus more than one speed although this is not possible with synchronous
motors due to the complexity of their rotor. Multiple pole arrangements are
achieved by supplying a rotor with more than one winding of different pole
numbers or by using a P.A.M. (Pole Amplitude Modulating) winding which
is tapped off at different points to give two pole arrangements.
It is also possible to use multiples of these two winding types together to

give, for example, a three speed motor using a regular winding with a P.A.M.
winding. Multiple speed motors are usually designed to provide one of the
following characteristics:
 Constant torque; such as required by conveyors, feeders and reciprocating

compressors
 Variable torque; such as required by fans and centrifugal pumps
 Constant power; such as for power tools
Obvious advantages are increased flexibility but disadvantages are that

multispeed motors are much heavier and larger than equivalent output one
SECTION 10.0
PAGE 3
DATE 06-94
speed motors.
SECTION 10.0
PAGE 4
DATE 06-94
Close Speed Ordinary Speed Wide Speed

Ratios
50 Mz 60 Hz Poles Ratios
50 Mz 60 Mz Poles Ratios
50 Mz 60 Mz Poles
rpm rpm rpm rpm rpm rpm
Two Speed for 950/710 1140/852 6/8 1420/950 1704/1140 4/6 1420/560 1704/672 4/10
Constant Torque or
Fan Torque
710/560 852/672 8/10 950/560 1140/672 6/10 2850/710 3420/852 2/8

560/470 672/564 10/12 710/470 852/564 8/12
Torque Only Three 950/710/560 1140/852/672 6/8/10 1420/950/710 1704/1140/852 4/6/8 2850/1420/560 3420/1704/672 2/4/10
Speed for Fans
710/560/470 852/682/564 8/10/12 1420/950/470 1704/1140/564 4/6/12 2850/710/560 3420/852/672 2/8/10
SECTION 10.0
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DATE 06-94
10.1.4 A.C. Electric Motor Gear Drives
A.C. electric motor gear drives have been successfully developed to handle
most speed and power applications, within limits. They are most useful for
low speed use where a high speed motor with a reduction gear is preferred to
the higher cost and larger size (attributable to the larger number of rotor
poles) of a standard low speed motor. The comparative costs of a standard
and geared 75 hp motor are given in Figure 10-1 where reference is made to
the cost of a standard four pole motor. It is seen that for motors with eight
poles or more, a geared motor is cheaper.
The sizes of the two types are compared in Figure 10-2 where, for example;
an 11 kW, eight pole standard motor, is heavier and larger than a four pole
geared unit of the same power and speed output.
10.1.5 Variable Speed A.C. Electric Motors
A.C. electric motor speed may be varied by one of the following methods:
a) Mechanical or Fluid Coupling
This device is used also by other types of drive and is therefore discussed
in Section 10.6.
b) Variable Frequency Power Supply
This method of speed variation is capital intensive and in the past it was
rarely used in the U.S. It is installed more frequently in Europe where
power costs are higher. In recent years, however, usage picked up in the
U.S. and in certain applications became economically competitive. It is
used mostly for medium and large load applications where variable speed
and/or associated capacity control can not be achieved by other type of
drivers. This method comprises a complex arrangement of electrical
components that convert the characteristics of a power source into one
that may be manipulated to vary both voltage and frequency. In the
future with the availability of more sophisticated electronic controls this
method may become more widespread. (See recent Centrifugal
Compressor application in Section 18.0)
10.1.6 A.C. Electric Motor Start-up Current
Start-up of electric motors is usually accomplished by applying full voltage

to the motor terminals from start through to normal running. This results in
the production of a large in-rush current which may be as high as seven times
normal operating current. For large motors the start-up current may cause
voltage dip which can shut down other equipment, temporarily dim lights or
initiate malfunctions in sophisticated instrument systems.
SECTION 10.0
PAGE 6
DATE 06-94
There are means to alleviate this problem, they are discussed in Section
13.1.1.
10.1.7 Electric Motor Capabilities
Electric motors are available in standard sizes from fractional hp to 13,500

hp and with speeds from 375 rpm to 3,000 rpm Gear drives may be used to
extend this range and to provide output speeds between the normal operating
speeds of standard motors.
Motor efficiencies depend on the motor size and type, and on the load
imposed on the motor. Generally, induction motor efficiencies vary from 75
- 94 % for smaller machines to 97 % for larger motors; this is illustrated by
Figure 10-3. Table 10-2 shows the variation of efficiency of currently
available high efficiency induction motors with 2, 4, 6 and 8 poles. At
reduced loads the efficiencies are lower by 1-2 %. Synchronous motors are
more efficient, particularly at larger sizes. Figure 10-4, shows efficiency
variations for synchronous motors.
Motors used with reduction gearing have slightly reduced efficiencies though
gearbox efficiencies as high as 98 % are common.
10.1.8 A.C. Electric Motor Aging/Derating
A.C. electric motors are very reliable machines and if properly maintained and
protected from electrical damage from dirt, moisture etc., (by providing the correct
motor enclosure) they will continue to perform for many years without loss of
efficiency, speed or power output. Maintenance of motors is generally uncomplicated
and is usually limited to bearing replacement and reconditioning of insulation windings
(which are subject to aging). No derating of electric motors is necessary.
10.2 STEAM TURBINES
The steam turbine, Figure 10-5, comprises two main components: a casing which
contains the working fluid and a rotor mounted within the casing. The steam enters
at the high pressure end of the turbine and passes through guide vanes or inlet nozzles
which direct the steam at a moving row of blades. The steam turbine may have a
number of fixed and moving rows of blades (stages) through which the steam is
directed and is made to undergo stages of expansion. The blading shape, of which
there are two types determines the way in which the steam is expanded.
10.2.1 Impulse Blading
Pure impulse blading, Figure 10-6, is shaped such that the whole pressure drop in a
stage occurs at the stationary nozzles so that the heat energy of the steam is converted
into the kinetic energy of the steam jet issuing from the nozzles. The steam jet so
produced does work on the rotor by impinging on its blading.
SECTION 10.0
PAGE 7
DATE 06-94
Figure 10-1
PRICE COMPARISON BETWEEN A STANDARD MOTOR (N)

AND A GEARED UNIT (G) FOR NOMINAL OUTPUT 55 kW
WITH A FOUR POLE AS REFERENCE
Figure 10-2
SIZE AND WEIGHT COMPARISON OF AN EIGHT POLE AND A FOUR

POLE GEARED MOTOR OF 11 kW AND 700 rpm OUTPUT
SECTION 10.0
PAGE 8
DATE 06-94
In practice, impulse blading is designed to have a small pressure drop across

the moving blades since it is found that this pressure drop has the effect of
reducing losses in the moving blade row.
10.2.2 Reaction Blading
Reaction blading, Figure 10-7, is designed so that in addition to the pressure

drop at the fixed blades a further drop occurs at the moving blade row. The
moving blades thus act partly as nozzles causing the relative velocity of the
steam to be greater at outlet from the blade row than at inlet. The reaction
associated with this higher leaving velocity causes additional work to be
done on the moving blades. In the normal form of reaction blading equal
heat drops occur in the fixed and moving blade rows and in this case the
fixed and moving blades are identical in shape but reversed. This is typical
of a steam turbine with a reaction degree of .5.
10.2.3 Single and Multistage Turbine
In a turbine operating with normal steam conditions and consisting of only a

single stage, the steam velocities produced are extremely high. It is
impractical to design the rotor and moving blades to handle the high speeds
at which maximum efficiency is found, so single stage machines are
generally relatively inefficient and are primarily used where weight and size
are of considerable importance.
It is more usual to divide the pressure drop over a number of stages as in

multistage turbines where the steam speeds produced in each stage are much
lower. As a result the blade speeds required for maximum efficiency are
within design limitations. The effect of multistaging on turbine efficiency
can be seen from Table 10-3: it should be noted that efficiency increases
with the number of stages and that the increased number of stages
corresponds to larger power output values. For each stage, characterized by
speed and diameter there is a heat energy drop that gives optimum efficiency
for the turbine. Consequently the nine stage machine, for example, will not
operate as efficiently as the five stage machine at an output of 1,000 hp.
Turbine Turbine Efficiency Steam

Power (hp) % Consumption
lb/hph
Single Stage 500 30 19.10

5 - stage 1,000 55 10.40
7 - stage 4,000 65 8.70
9 - stage 10,000 75 7.60
SECTION 10.0
PAGE 9
DATE 06-94
Figure 10-3
VARIATION OF EFFICIENCY OF STANDARD SQUIRREL CAGE

INDUCTION MOTORS WITH MOTOR SIZE
Figure 10-4
VARIATION OF EFFICIENCY OF SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS WITH SIZE
SECTION 10.0
PAGE 10
DATE 06-94
Nu 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0

mb
No 0
3,6 0
1,8 0
1,2 900 rpm
mi
hp 00 00 00
1.0 75. 82. 80. 74.0
1.5 5
82. 5
84. 0
85. 77.0
2.0 5
84. 0
84. 5
86. 82.5
3.0 0
85. 0
87. 5
87. 84.0
5.0 5
87. 5
87. 5
87. 85.5
5 5 5
7.5 88. 89. 89. 85.5
10. 5
89. 5
89. 5
89. 88.5
0
15. 5
90. 5
91. 5
90. 88.5
0
20. 2
90. 0
91. 2
90. 89.5
0
25. 2
91. 0
92. 2
91. 89.5
0 0 4 7
30. 91. 92. 91. 91.0
0
40. 0
91. 4
93. 7
93. 91.0
0
50. 7
92. 0
93. 0
93. 91.7
0
60. 4
93. 0
93. 0
93. 91.7
0
75. 0
93. 6
94. 6
93. 93.0
0 0 1 6
10 93. 94. 94. 93.0
0.0
12 6
94. 5
94. 1
94. 93.6
5.0
15 5
94. 5
95. 1
95. 93.6
0.0
20 5
95. 0
95. 0
95. 94.1
0.0
30 0
93. 0
94. 0
94. 94.0
0.0
60 5
93. 8
95. 5
95. 94.4
0.0
1,0 1
94. 6
95. 3
95. 95.1
00.
1,5 5
95. 0
94. 6
95. 95.6
Figure 10-5
STEAM TURBINE COMPONENTS

(CONDENSING TURBINE)
SECTION 10.0
PAGE 11
DATE 06-94
SECTION 10.0
PAGE 12
DATE 06-94
Figure 10-6
TWO – ROW IMPULSE STAGE
Figure 10-7
REACTION STAGE
SECTION 10.0
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DATE 06-94
10.2.4 Condensing and Noncondensing Steam Turbines
The exit conditions of a turbine determine whether it is being used as a

condensing or noncondensing steam turbine. The former exhausts at
pressures below atmospheric and requires a condenser downstream to
maintain the vacuum. Such a system is illustrated by Figure 10-8.
A noncondensing turbine exhausts at pressures in excess of atmospheric, the

back pressure usually being supplied by the steam header into which the
steam is being exhausted.
10.2.5 Steam Turbine Regeneration and Reheating
The thermal efficiency of the turbine cycle may be improved by using bled
steam feed heating (regenerating). A fraction of the total amount of steam
entering the turbine is extracted at a point in its expansion in the turbine and
utilized for preheating the condensate before it enters the boiler. The
regeneration system is shown diagrammatically by Figure 10-9 and the
effect of regeneration on a particular turbine system is illustrated by Figure
10-10. It should be noted that efficiency improves not only with an increased
number of regeneration stages but also with turbine inlet pressure. Thus it
may be concluded that the number of regeneration units that are
economically justified in a system increases with pressure.
Similarly, thermal efficiency may be improved by returning the steam to the

boiler after partial expansion in the turbine and reheating it to a temperature
equal to or approaching the initial steam inlet temperature after which the
steam re-enters the turbine and expands down to condenser pressure. The
reheating system is shown by Figure 10-11 and its effect on turbine
efficiency is shown by Figure 10-12. It can be seen that pressure has very
little effect on efficiency improvement due to reheat but that improvement is
progressively depressed with increase in steam temperatures.
10.2.6 Effect of Inlet Conditions
Other than regeneration and reheating, inlet conditions also affect the thermal
efficiency of the steam turbine cycle. The effects upon efficiency are shown
in Figure 10-13 where it can be seen that an increase in both pressure and
temperature show improvement but that the rate of efficiency improvement
falls with pressure.
The overall turbine performance, (refer to Section 9.3.2), is however affected

differently by inlet steam pressure. Figure 10-14 shows a decrease in turbine
efficiency with increasing pressure and reducing output which is primarily
due to the reduced volumetric flow of steam at the turbine inlet. The lower
volumetric flow is associated with proportionately higher leakage losses and
greater losses with smaller blade and nozzle heights in the high pressure
stages.
SECTION 10.0
PAGE 14
DATE 06-94
The turbine efficiency is also seen to fall with decreasing amounts of

superheat, chiefly due to an increase in wetness loss in the low pressure
stages.
10.2.7 Steam Turbine Capabilities
Steam turbines are available for duties from 100 hp and up with speeds
generally in the range of 1,500 rpm to 15,000 rpm. The characteristics of
steam turbines are shown in Table 10-4. The speed of a turbine is relatively
flexible and often may be varied within 70 to 105 % of its rated speed. The
means by which this is accomplished is discussed in Section 13.2.
Table 10-4
STEAM TURBINE CHARACTERISTICS
Available in wide range of sizes up to 1.5 x 106 hp

Generally high speed 5,000-10,000 rpm
Speed may be varied to give process flexibility
High overall energy efficiency for extraction turbine applications
Turbine isentropic efficiency varies widely with design of turbine,
desuperheating of exhaust steam generally required
High reliability
Low cost
Second most commonly used driver in refinery and chemical plant
applications
Application generally restricted by availability of steam
Figure 10-15 indicates the ranges of the most widely used turbines. The
majority of those under 1,350 hp and 5,500 rpm are single stage machines
and at 1,800 rpm and 3,600 rpm are the turbo-electric generator drives with
capacities up to 1.5 x 106 hp.
As has been discussed, turbine efficiency varies depending upon a number of

factors including the number of stages and inlet conditions of temperature
and pressure. Generally, the efficiency of steam turbines varies from 20 %
for small back pressure machines to 75 to 85 % for large industrial turbines.
10.2.8 Steam Consumption
The consumption of steam varies significantly for different types of turbine and is
best determined by consultation with the machine supplier. Generally, steam
consumption is made up of two parts. A portion of steam is required to turn the
turbine under no load to overcome back pressures and losses and is approximately a
fixed quantity. The second portion of steam performs the work in the turbine and is
directly proportional to the turbine output for machines that are t hrottle governed.
SECTION 10.0
PAGE 15
DATE 06-94
Figure 10-8
CONDENSING TURBINE ARRANGEMENT
SECTION 10.0
PAGE 16
DATE 06-94
Figure 10-9
DIAGRAM – STEAM TURBINE SYSTEM WITH REGENERATION
Figure 10-10
EFFECT OF REGENERATION ON THERMAL EFFICIENCY
SECTION 10.0
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DATE 06-94
Figure 10-11
DIAGRAM – STEAM TURBINE SYSTEM WITH REHEATING
Figure 10-12
EFFECT OF REHEATING ON THERMAL EFFICIENCY

(FIRST AND SECOND FIGURES ON EACH CURVE RELATE TO STOP
VALVE AND REHEAT TEMPERATURES RESPECTIVELY)
SECTION 10.0
PAGE 18
DATE 06-94
SECTION 10.0
PAGE 19
DATE 06-94
Figure 10-15
STEAM TURBINE CAPABILITIES
SECTION 10.0
PAGE 20
DATE 06-94
The steam consumption rate is given for various multistage units in Table
10-3. Back pressure steam turbines use slightly more steam than condensing
turbines because the fixed portion is larger due to work done against the back
pressure.
10.2.9 Aging and Derating Steam Turbines
Steam turbines are very reliable machines but they do suffer long term
deterioration which affects their performance. Among the problems
encountered with steam turbines are blade erosion, blade corrosion and blade
deposits which affect the efficiency of steam expansion, and gland leakage
which permits loss of steam energy. The cause of these problems is
discussed in Section 15.2. It is sufficient to point out that the aging of a
steam turbine and its subsequent loss in efficiency should be taken into
consideration at design stage. A value of 5 % is usually taken to allow for
such losses.
10.2.10 Loss of Exit Pressure
For condensing turbines a drop in design vacuum of at least 0.6 psi is quite
common. The effect on turbine power heat rate also depends on steam inlet
conditions but the combined effect of reduced turbine efficiency and loss of
vacuum can be 10-15 % in most applications after about five years
operation. For critical services involving a condensing turbine, a
conservative power margin is therefore recommended.
10.3 GAS TURBINES
10.3.1 Principle of Operations
Gas turbines are open cycle machines using air as the working medium and
burning relatively clean fuels. They comprise three main components: a
compressor, a combustion chamber and a turbine. A simple gas turbine
system components are shown in Figure 10-16. Each component performs
one of the processes in the cycle, refer Section 9.4.2, which are discussed as
follows.
a) Compressor
The air is drawn in at atmospheric pressure and expelled at high pressure

to the combustion chamber. The compressor may be either centrifugal or
axial flow. Its function is to raise the pressure of the air adiabatically and
with a minimum of loss and therefore as close to the isentropic curve as
possible.
SECTION 10.0
PAGE 21
DATE 06-94
Figure 10-16
SIMPLE GAS TURBINE SYSTEM COMPONENTS
SECTION 10.0
PAGE 22
DATE 06-94
b) Combustion Chamber
High pressure air from the compressor, and fuel from an injector enter
the chamber where combustion occurs producing hot gases which are
passed to the turbine. The combustion chamber is designed such that
combustion occurs at maximum efficiency and that the heat transfer
process follows the constant pressure curve as closely as possible. This
leads to consideration of the following points.
1) Pressure Drop
The magnitude of the pressure drop that occurs in combustion

chambers directly affects the amount of work available to the turbine
and thus the gas turbine overall efficiency. Pressure drop is
unavoidable as it is caused primarily by flow obstructions essential
to the proper mixing and stabilization of the gas flow stream.
2) Combustion Efficiency
This is a measure of the completeness of combustion. High

efficiencies are achieved by adequate mixing of the fuel/air mixture,
complete vaporization of the fuel and by providing sufficient time
provided for the combustion to take place before secondary air is
introduced.
3) Outlet Gas Temperature Distribution
The temperature distribution of the gas as it enters the turbine affects

the life and performance of the turbine. Poor distribution leads to the
formation of hot spots at the turbine inlet and consequently,
mechanical damage due to thermal stress. Secondary air is added to
the combustion chamber downstream of the combustion process to
mix the hot gases. This ensures as even a temperature distribution as
possible and also cools the gas temperature sufficiently to prevent
combustion from occurring within the turbine.
4) Stability
The stability and reliability of the combustion process is important to

the performance of the gas turbine. The gas turbine must be able to
produce a steady output of power over its entire operating range.
SECTION 10.0
PAGE 23
DATE 06-94
c) Turbine
In gas turbine systems, the axial flow type of turbine is almost always
used. Its operation is similar to that of steam turbines which has been
covered in Section 10.2 of this handbook, and only departures from
steam turbine characteristics will be covered here.
1) Turbine Inlet Temperatures
The power output of a turbine may be increased by reducing the

secondary air cooling of gases leaving the combustion chamber and
thus increasing the turbine inlet temperature. Higher temperatures
may be used provided that the combustion process is halted in the
turbine feed stream and provided that the turbine can be designed to
operate safely under these conditions.
Turbine cooling is used to maintain temperatures within the design
limits of the component materials and is commonly accomplished by
one of the following methods.
To prevent major hot section damage as described above, the gas

temperature profile can be measured by multi-thermocouples located
either in the gas generator exhaust for all aeroderivative engine (refer
to Section 10.3.8) or at the power turbine outlet for industrial types.
Temperature measurement is covered in more detail in Section 13.3.
 Air Cooling
Air cooling involves passing cool air radially outward through

cavities in the rotor blades or by passing it under high pressure
through holes or pores in the blades such that the air forms a cool
insulating film. Disadvantages associated with this form of
cooling are increased blading cost and turbine losses due to
cooling of the hot gases.
 Water Cooling
A more effective way of cooling turbine blades is to use water as

a coolant as it has a higher specific heat capacity than air and its
use provides the opportunity for evaporative cooling. Problems
exist in transferring the water to the moving rotor blades and
eliminating the effects of corrosion and scaling.
10.3.2 Simple Gas Turbine System
The simple gas turbine system comprises only the three main components
already discussed. The power required to drive the air compressor is
SECTION 10.0
PAGE 24
DATE 06-94
provided by the turbine mounted on a common shaft. The turbine also

provides mechanical shaft power which may be used to drive rotating or
electricity generating equipment. The efficiency of this system is relatively
low with a large proportion of energy being wasted as heat energy of the
exhaust gases.
a) Effect of Inlet Air Temperature
The gas turbine differs from other prime movers in being particularly
sensitive to inlet, or ambient, air temperatures as shown by Figure 10-17.
The output, curve (a), increases markedly at low air temperatures (which
may be important in peak load applications where peak loads occur in
winter). The efficiency, indicated by the fuel consumption curve (b), also
improves but less markedly; this is mainly because at a given speed, the
compressor aspirates a mass of air roughly proportional to the air density.
Therefore, the mass flow is increased both by low temperature, and high
atmospheric pressure. There are increased losses due to the change in
pressure ratio resulting from a greater volume flow through the turbine,
but in most cases these can be ignored.
The effect of inlet air temperature on output can be approximated to a 1

% increase in output for each one degree centigrade fall in inlet
temperature.
10.3.3 Complex Gas Turbine Systems
a) Gas Turbine with Intercoolers
The compressor work is a severe penalty in the system requiring 60 to

75 % of the turbine generated power in simple systems. It depends
directly upon the temperature of the air being compressed and as this
increases at each successive stage so the work required for compression
increases. As discussed in Section 10.3.2.a, the inlet air temperature has
a large influence on output and efficiency. Output and efficiency may be
considerably improved by intercooling which is achieved by passing the
compressed air through a cooler in between compression stages. In
systems employing pressure ratios of over five to one it is advantageous
to employ more than one intercooler.
For a gas turbine cycle employing an intercooler the overall efficiency is

barely changed but the output is increased by as much as 30 %.
SECTION 10.0
PAGE 25
DATE 06-94
Figure 10-17
EFFECT OF AMBIENT AIR TEMPERATURE ON

GAS TURBINE PERFORMANCE
SECTION 10.0
PAGE 26
DATE 06-94
b) Gas Turbine with Regeneration
As mentioned in Section 10.3.2, a large proportion of energy is unused by the

simple system and escapes as exhaust gas heat with temperatures ranging between
350 oC (662 oF) and 500 oC (932 oF). Compressor exit temperatures usually
vary between 180 oC (356 oF) and 300 oC (572 oF) so there exists the
opportunity to transfer exhaust gas heat energy to the compressed air prior to its
entry into the combustion chamber.
The amount of fuel required to maintain the same turbine inlet temperature can be
reduced by the use of a regenerator thus increasing the thermal efficiency.
Improvements in efficiency of about 40 % may be achieved; however, output is
unaffected by regeneration. The point of maximum efficiency in the regenerative
cycle occurs at a lower pressure ratio than that of the simple cycle but the
optimum pressure ratio for the maximum work is the same in the two cycles.
c) Gas Turbine with Reheating
The output of the gas turbine may be increased by as much as 35 % by

raising the temperature of the gas in between the expansion stages of the
turbine. This is known as reheating and involves the use of a secondary
combustion chamber. Though the output is improved, the efficiency is
lower than that of the simple system because of the additional fuel
requirement and pressure losses during secondary combustion.
d) Intercooled-Regenerative-Reheat-Cycle
The three modifications to the simple system so far discussed can be

combined to provide the closest practical approximation to the ideal
cycle. The intercooled-regeneration-reheat system, Figure 10-18,
achieves maximum efficiency and work output with efficiency
improvements of up to 30 % over the simple cycle and output enhanced
by up to 70 %.
10.3.4 Combined Gas Turbine Systems
There exists a wide variety of possible gas turbine arrangements other than
those already discussed. Only the most important of these will be discussed
briefly.
a) Waste Heat Recovery
This system combines the gas turbine with the steam turbine, making it
particularly attractive for electric utilities and process industries where
steam is being used. The arrangement is shown in Figure 10-19.
SECTION 10.0
PAGE 27
DATE 06-94
A large amount of heat is available in the exhaust gas leaving a gas

turbine resulting in low and basic cycle efficiencies. The exhaust stream
is oxygen rich as approximately 300 % excess air is supplied for fuel
combustion in the gas turbine. Heat can therefore be recovered in an
unfired waste heat steam generator or a waste heat steam generator with
supplementary firing. The exhaust gas can also be used for process heat
or as preheated combustion air for a utility steam generator or process
heater. The generated steam pressure is limited by the gas turbine exhaust
temperature, which is typically in the range 450 oC-550 oC (842 oF-
1,022 oF). Steam in the range 40-60 barg (568-853 psig) at 400 oC-480
o
C (752 oF to 896 oF) can therefore be produced. Under these operating
conditions, the output of the power turbine is equal to about 50 % of that
of the gas turbine with overall efficiency improved.
By utilizing supplementary firing of the exhaust gases to consume the

excess oxygen content, the gas temperature can be raised to 650 oC-750
o
C (1,202 oF-1,382 oF) allowing a significantly increased quantity of
higher pressure steam to be produced. It should be noted that any
supplemental fuel is fired in excess of 100 % theoretical efficiency.
With supplemental firing the output of the power turbine may be raised
to equal that of the gas turbine, but at some sacrifice to system efficiency.
To maximize energy recovery, production of LP steam in the waste heat

boiler is indicated, although hp steam generation is often preferential for
process integration reasons. For large installations, the provision of a
two stage heat recovery system may be justified.
The increase in output relative to simple cycle output varies with turbine
inlet temperatures from 65 % at 1,200 oC (2,192 oF), 80 % at 870 oC
(1,598 oF) and 150 % at 650 oC (1,202 oF) at constant pressure ratios
with efficiency improvements of between 50 and 75 %.
The disadvantage of this system is its high initial cost.
b) Steam Injection
The gas turbine system with steam injection is shown diagrammatically

in Figure 10-20. Water is pumped through a heat exchanger where heat
energy is transferred from the exhaust gas to produce a source of steam.
The steam is injected downstream of the compressor but sufficiently
upstream of the combustion chamber to create a proper mixture.
SECTION 10.0
PAGE 28
DATE 06-94
Figure 10-18
DIAGRAM – INTERCOOLED – REGENERATIVE – REHEAT GAS TURBINE SYSTEM
SECTION 10.0
PAGE 29
DATE 06-94
Figure 10-19
DIAGRAM – SIMPLE RECUPERATION SYSTEM

(WASTE HEAT RECOVERY)
SECTION 10.0
PAGE 30
DATE 06-94
Figure 10-20
DIAGRAM – STEAM INJECTION CYCLE
SECTION 10.0
PAGE 31
DATE 06-94
The cycle leads to an increase in output work and a slight increase in

overall thermal efficiency. For a system employing 5 % injection at a
pressure of four bar above that of compressor discharge pressure results
in 20 % increase in output and 1 % - 2 % increase in efficiency. The
improvement in performance is approximately proportional to the
rate of steam injection up to values of about 5 % steam.
An advantage of the steam injection system over other gas turbine

arrangements is the lower production of nitrogen oxide compounds
which is best accomplished when the steam is injected well upstream of
the combustor allowing a uniform mixture of steam and air to be created.
The mixture reduces the oxygen content of the fuel-air mixture and
increases its heat capacity thus reducing the temperature in the
combustion area and the rate of nitrogen oxide formation. Major
problems include internal corrosion of the system components.
10.3.5 Gas Turbine Capabilities
Gas turbines are available in capacities up to about 300,000 hp for power

generation and 50,000 hp for mechanical drive applications with typical
output shaft speeds for mechanical drive applications varying from 3,000
rpm at the higher power levels to between 10,000 and 15,000 rpm at lower
power levels. The characteristics of gas turbines are shown in Table 10-5.
Table 10-5
GAS TURBINE CHARACTERISTICS
High total cost

Applicable only for larger size range >1,350 hp
Variable speed enables process flexibility
Low efficiency unless waste heat recovery included
Lower reliability than electric motors/steam turbines
Sparing required to achieve high overall on-stream times
Needs discrete starting system
Generally used for large compressor stations or power generation applications
Efficiencies, as discussed in Section 10.3.3, vary from about 15 % to 50 %

depending on the complexity of the gas turbine system, the pressure ratio
employed and the turbine inlet temperature. It should be noted that generally
a 1 % change in compressor efficiency results in a change in shaft power
output of 2 %. A similar change in turbine efficiency leads to a 3 % change
in power output. It is therefore important that all losses be minimized.
a) Speed Variation
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DATE 06-94
The popularity of the single shaft gas turbine is due to its low cost and
compactness. Its disadvantage is a relatively low operating speed range
and its sensitivity to atmospheric temperatures. The low operating speed
range is caused by the following:
 The quantity of air flow is proportional to the compressor speed

 The back pressure produced at the turbine nozzles is proportional to
the air flow
At low speeds the turbine power is decreased by low air flows. At low
air flows the decreased back pressure at the turbine inlet may require a
reduced turbine inlet temperature to keep the exhaust temperature within
design limitations. This results in a further loss of power. The normal
operating range is given in Figure 10-21 for a single shaft gas turbine.
A wider operating speed range is provided by the split-shaft turbine; refer

to Figure 10-22. It comprises two turbines, on separate shafts. The
fixed speed primary turbine is used solely to drive the compressor and
the secondary turbine is used as a power source for driving equipment
and can typically operate over a speed range of 70 - 105 % of the
primary turbine speed. Speed variation is achieved by varying the
quantity of air flow to the secondary turbine and by adjusting its inlet
nozzles. The split-shaft turbine is primarily used for variable mechanical
drive applications. Its use also offers the following benefits:
 Improved part load performance by speed variation

 Improved suitability to different volume flow rates using different
speeds
 Improved suitability of torque characteristics to drive requirements
 Very high torque capabilities at low speed
 Flexibility may be used to avoid compressor surge
Split-shaft arrangements with equal numbers of expansion stages as

simple gas turbines operate at similar levels of efficiency but give a
better load performance.
The speed range can be further enlarged by use of gearing.
SECTION 10.0
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DATE 06-94
Figure 10-21
OPERATING RANGE OF SINGLE SHAFT GAS TURBINES
SECTION 10.0
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DATE 06-94
Figure 10-22
DIAGRAM – SPLIT SHAFT GAS TURBINE
SECTION 10.0
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DATE 06-94
b) Start-up
A gas turbine is started by bringing it up to starting speed, commonly

between 20 % and 30 % of full load speed and maintaining this speed
usually for several minutes in order to purge the casing. Some machines
require that the casing or rotor be heated slowly by burning a nominal
amount of fuel in the combustor. The turbine inlet temperature is then
increased rapidly to a value above the design temperature, thus
producing enough power in the turbine to bring it up to full speed.
Start-up power requirements of an unloaded gas turbine are usually

between 5 % and 10 % of the machine rating and may be provided by
an electric motor, steam turbine or diesel or gas engine. For offshore
applications, a high pressure natural gas stream is often used to drive a
turbo-expander to start up the gas turbine.
10.3.6 Fuels
The gas turbine's major advantage is its flexibility with regard to fuel type.
Gaseous fuels include natural gas, process gas, coal gas and vaporized fuel
oil gas. The requirements of a suitable fuel are listed below.
a) High Heating Value
The heating capabilities of a fuel affect the overall size of the plant.
Generally, liquid fuels show small heating value variations but gaseous
fuels can vary from 300 Btu/ft3 for process gas to 1,050 Btu/ft3 for
natural gas. The fuel system for process gas will of necessity be larger
than that for natural gas to accomplish the same heating effect.
b) Cleanliness
It is necessary for the fuel to be clean and free of sediment or solid

particles that may cause damage or fouling in the fuel system and poor
combustion.
c) Corrosivity
Corrosion by compounds of sulfur or vanadium usually occurs in the hot

section of the engine, either in the combustor or the turbine blading.
Corrosivity can be reduced by fuel treatment.
10.3.7 Gas Turbine Aging/Derating
Gas turbines suffer from the same long term deterioration as steam turbines,
but in addition are subject to temporary performance deterioration due to
SECTION 10.0
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DATE 06-94
deposition. Deposition and fouling may occur in the fuel system and in the
hot sections of the turbine. Certain compounds contained in the fuel may
form a residue of combustion which may cause fouling as solid particles.
Fouling also occurs from deposition of oil or water soluble traces of metallic
elements such as sodium.
Deposition, which may be removed by washing, leads to a decrease in the

maximum gas flow rate, gas turbine efficiency and output power and causes
machine failures (refer to Section 15.3).
The degradation of gas turbine performance with time is dependent on the

type of fuel, environmental conditions, air filters, operation and maintenance
adherence, operating mode and starting time (the gas turbine is a quick
starting engine and full use of this capability reduces its life due to
introduction of thermal fatigue). Degradation of 3 % to 15 % may occur
during three years of operation.
Specific aging/derating experience for each gas turbine model must be

obtained from the manufacturer, as part of the inquiry.
10.3.8 Industrial and Aeroderivative Gas Turbines
Gas turbines are generally either of the aeroderivative type, developed for the
aero industry but down-rated for industrial use, or of the industrial type
developed specifically for industrial applications.
The aeroderivative gas turbine is likely to cost less than the industrial gas
turbine but more to maintain. The main difference in the repair procedure is
that in the event of an internal failure the aeroderivative type is usually
removed and overhauled in a workshop. This is often necessitated by the use
of special tooling, delicate components and critical settings during assembly.
A replacement gas turbine may be installed within a few hours minimizing
plant downtime but usually at high cost.
The industrial gas turbine, which typically has an overhaul life of 25,000 -
100,000 hours, is usually repaired on site and is likely to require attention
less often than the aeroderivative type which has an overhaul life of 10,000 -
40,000 hours.
The light weight, compactness and supply as pre-packaged units makes

aeroderivative gas turbines particularly attractive for offshore applications
where they may be used for power generation or for pumping duties.
The aeroderivative gas turbine is the more efficient type (up to 37 %), but
this may be matched by regeneration in the industrial type.
Some manufacturers offer gas turbines with aero-derivative gas generators

i.e., the compression stages and combustion chamber.
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Gas and diesel engines may be divided into two categories determined by
their method of operation. The first class includes engines that operate on the
two stroke cycle which comprises a power stroke and gas exchange once per
revolution. Two stroke engines are used either for very small or very high
power applications. The second class of engine operates on a four stroke
cycle.
a) Two Stroke Cycle
Combustion occurs in the region of top dead center of every revolution

with gas exchange (scavenging) occurring near the bottom of each
stroke. This means that exhaustion of combustion gases and recharging
of the cylinder with fresh air or air/fuel mixture must occur in a single
flow over the shortest possible period.
The different cycle stages are as follows:
 compression: compression of the homogenous air/fuel mixture (gas

engine) by the upward stroke of the piston. For diesel engines, a
charge of air is compressed and towards the end of the compression
stroke, the fuel is sprayed into the cylinder to form a heterogeneous
mixture.
 heat release: ignition of the fuel/air mixture by spark (gas engine) or
heat of compression (diesel engine) leading to controlled
combustion.
 expansion: the hot combustion gases perform work by expansion
during the piston downstroke.
 blowdown: exit valves are opened resulting in a rapid pressure drop
as combustion gases leave the cylinder.
 scavenging: gas exchange during which combustion gases are fully
exhausted and replaced by a fresh charge of air (diesel engines) or
air/fuel mixture (gas engines).
 supercharge: the exit valves are closed but the recharging of the
cylinder continues until the scavenge valves are closed.
SECTION 10.0
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DATE 06-94
b) Four Stroke Cycle
The different stages of the cycle are as follows:
 compression: compression of the homogenous fuel/air mixture (gas

engines) by the upward stroke of the piston. For diesel engines, a
charge of air is compressed and towards the end of the compression
stroke the fuel is sprayed into the cylinder to form a heterogeneous
mixture.
 heat release: ignition of the fuel/air mixture by spark (gas engine) or
heat of compression (diesel engine) leading to controlled
combustion.
 expansion: the hot combustion gases perform work by expansion
during the piston downstroke.
 blowdown: exit valves are opened resulting in a rapid pressure drop
as combustion gases leave the cylinder.
 exhaust: the combustion gases are exhausted from the cylinder
during the second upstroke.
 overlap: the inlet valve is opened followed by the closure of the exit
valve.
 induction: the second downstroke of the cylinder draws in a fresh
charge of a homogenous fuel/air mixture (gas engines) or a fresh
charge of air (diesel engines).
 recompression: the beginning of the compression stroke during
which all ports are closed.
10.4.2 Supercharging and Turbocharging
The purpose of supercharging is to raise the mass of air trapped in the

cylinders of the engine by raising its density. This allows more fuel to be
burnt thus increasing the power output of the engine for a given swept
volume of the cylinders. Supercharging leads to high cylinder pressure
which results in improved efficiency.
The density of the inducted air is increased by use of a compressor, which

may be driven directly off the engine (supercharging) or may be driven by a
turbine which is itself driven off the exhaust gas (turbocharging).
The turbocharger is similar in design and operation to a turbo-expander, refer

to Section 10.5, and because it is powered by the energy of exhaust gas
rather than shaft power it proves a more efficient system.
The process of compression raises temperature as well as pressure so air

coolers are often used to maximize the density increase.
SECTION 10.0
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DATE 06-94
Since the inlet and exhaust pressures are above ambient the induction
temperature is higher and more fuel is burnt in the engine. The cylinder
pressure throughout the cycle is substantially higher than for a naturally
aspirated cycle. In practice, the compression ratio of turbo-charged diesel
engines must be reduced to avoid an excessive maximum cylinder pressure.
For gas engines the pressure ratio is limited by the fuel quality; the increase
in induction and thus compression temperature with supercharging increases
the probability of detonation. To avoid detonation, lower pressure ratios and
higher quality fuels are used.
10.4.3 Internal Combustion Engine Starting
Starting is achieved by rotating the engine at a speed sufficient to achieve

ignition and self-sustained operation. Small engines are started by electric
motors and large engines are provided with special valving whereby some of
the engine cylinders can be operated as air motors, utilizing high pressure air
to rotate the engine. Starting motors are usually sized to 5 or 10 % of the
engine rating. Starting air requirements are dependent on the engine type but
typically are 0.05 ft3 (free air) per hp stored at about 250 - 290 psig. The
starting air compressor and receiver are usually sized to handle three starts
per successful firing.
Diesel engines operating on heavy residual fuel oils require two fuel systems,
a heavy fuel oil system for normal operation and a light fuel oil system for
starting and stopping.
10.4.4 Diesel and Gas Engine Capabilities
The operating characteristics of the gas and diesel engine, whether two or
four stroke, are basically the same regardless of fuel type. The speed and
load carrying capacity (which can range from zero to full torque for all
speeds within the operating range) is varied by adjusting the fuel input. All
engines use a governor, refer to Section 13.4, to control the fuel input rate
and maintain constant speed under load variation. The characteristics of
diesel and gas engines are shown in Table 10-6.
Diesel and gas engines are available in sizes up to 1,500 hp and diesel
engines up to 40,000 hp. Efficiencies are in the range 28 % - 43 %.
SECTION 10.0
PAGE 40
DATE 06-94
Table 10-6
GAS AND DIESEL ENGINES
Applicable up to approximately 40,000 hp
Low speed <1,000 rpm
Speed may be varied to give flexibility
Generally low efficiency
Reduced reliability as compared to motors/steam turbines
Generally used for small remote oilfield applications
10.4.5 Fuel Types
Fuels used in industrial engines of the internal-combustion type are usually

derivatives of petroleum or else natural or manufactured gases. Alcohols and
mixtures of gasoline and alcohol or benzol can also be used. A gas engine
will operate satisfactorily on any gas which is free of dust, is noncorrosive,
does not detonate, does not pre-ignite during the compression stroke and
produces enough heat on burning to develop power.
In general, the fuel must have a heat capacity of over 600 Btu/ft 3. In
addition, gas engines require that the fuel will vaporize in the carburetor.
Diesel engines will burn any fuel that can be injected, provided that it will
burn under controlled conditions, possess sufficient lubricity to lubricate the
injection plungers, will supply enough heat, and is grit-free. Preheating of
the fuel will lower viscosity.
Gaseous fuels containing fractions whose ignition temperature is lower than

that of methane may require the use of low compression heads and a
resulting derating of the gas engine.
10.4.6 Maintenance/Reliability
Preventative maintenance requires that all engines be shut down at periodic

intervals for inspection and repair. Properly maintained machines give an
availability of over 95 % but if frequently used, the gas or diesel engine is
subject to more frequent breakdown than electric motors or steam turbines.
The performance of diesel and gas engines deteriorates as the cylinders,
piston rings and other mechanical components become worn but performance
may be improved by major overhaul.
10.4.7 Diesel and Gas Engines in Flammable Atmospheres
SECTION 10.0
PAGE 41
DATE 06-94
A hazard exists when a diesel or gas engine is operated in an area where

flammable vapors may exist. In the event of an escape of such a vapor it is
possible that it may be drawn into the air intake of the engine and act as fuel.
Gas engines should be shut down when this occurs but with diesel engines,
cutting off the normal fuel supply may not stop the engine. Certain
flammable materials may cause the engine to race out of control of its
governor and fuel cut-off device leading to valve bounce and back-firing.
This condition may cause ignition of any surrounding flammable
atmosphere. Safety regulations should be consulted to ensure that the
possibility of this occurrence is minimized.
The turbo-expander is primarily found in low temperature refrigeration

systems where its turbine component is used in the expansion of a vapor.
The by-product of this process is work carried out by the vapor during
expansion which is usually utilized by a compressor mounted on a common
shaft. Such an arrangement is illustrated in Figure 10-23, where the turbo-
expander drives a compressor to raise the exit stream pressure.
a) Turbo-expander Design
The turbo-expander is shown in Figure 10-24. Vapor enters the unit

radially via its inlet scroll and expands while doing work at the expander
wheel before exiting axially through the discharge. The expander wheel,
which is rotated by the expanding vapor, is directly connected to a
compressor impeller which compresses vapor entering axially and
discharges it radially.
b) Turbo-expander Inlet Nozzles
The pressurized process stream is guided radially into the rotor by a set
of primary nozzles which are a series of vanes forming nozzles jetting
the gas tangentially and inwardly into the rotor. The nozzle vanes are
held between two flat rings and are pivoted so that they can be opened or
closed together to vary the nozzle throat areas. This enables the flow to
be varied widely through the expander without wasteful throttling: all the
expansion energy is recovered on the rotor. The variable nozzles thus
behave as a throttling valve but without throttling losses and can easily
be controlled by conventional instrumentation.
SECTION 10.0
PAGE 42
DATE 06-94
Figure 10-23
TURBO – EXPANDER USED IN THE SEPARATION OF AIR
SECTION 10.0
PAGE 43
DATE 06-94
c) Turbo-expander Capabilities
Turbo-expanders are very efficient machines, usually operating at

between 75 to 88 % efficiency. The power output developed depends on
the process using the turbo-expander and the enthalpy drop across it.
Generally they are high speed machines and are only used on small or
moderately sized streams.
The potential for power recovery from liquid streams exists whenever a
liquid flows from a high pressure source to one of lower pressure in such a
manner that throttling to dissipate energy occurs. A power recovery turbine
may be installed into a process system to behave as a pressure reducing valve
while at the same time providing a source of power. An example of such an
application is illustrated in Figure 10-25 where a recovery turbine is used to
power a pump in another process stream.
a) Power Recovery Unit Design
The power recovery unit is very similar in design to the turbo-expander

except that the power recovery unit wheel is shaped differently to enable
it to recover energy from the pressure of the liquid. It is also developed
to handle problems associated with liquids such as cavitation, flashing
and vaporization.
b) Power Recovery Turbine Operating Behavior
Like a pump, a power recovery unit will follow its characteristic curve
and seek a point at which its particular relationship to operating
conditions of head, capacity speed and power output is satisfied. In most
applications the head available is largely composed of static pressure
difference (which is nearly constant) and varies only with flow related
line friction losses. Thus the unit behaves as an orifice in a relatively
fixed differential system with a definite flow limit and thus with definite
torque and horsepower limits.
Speed control of the unit may be necessary to match the generated power
of the turbine with the absorbed power of the pump at the common
speed. Speed control is accomplished by throttling the process flow,
refer to Section 13.5.2.
SECTION 10.0
PAGE 44
DATE 06-94
Figure 10-24
COMPONENTS OF A TURBO–EXPANDER
SECTION 10.0
PAGE 45
DATE 06-94
Figure 10-25
FLOW DIAGRAM OF POWER RECOVERY TURBINE

UNIT IN A PROCESS SYSTEM
SECTION 10.0
PAGE 46
DATE 06-94
c) Power Recovery Turbine Start-up
Power recovery pump-turbine units do not generate power until they

attain about 40 % of design flow. They also consume power but in
decreasing amounts from zero to 40 % which means that they should be
brought up to operating speed as quickly as possible.
The basic hydraulic behavior of power-recovery units is not much

different from that of centrifugal pumps and follows the same sort of
affinity laws over narrow ranges. Typical generalized curves are shown
in Figure 10-26.
Connecting the pump to the recovery turbine by a clutch which permits

the turbine to run independently. If the pump is only connected when
operating speed is reached, start-up from zero to operating speed can be
effected at zero torque.
d) Over Capacity
At design head, capacity does not change markedly with speed so that
once the design point has been passed the unit behaves as a restriction in
the line. Little or no benefit is realized from any over-capacity in terms
of fluid flow available to the unit.
e) Power Recovery Turbine Capabilities
In general, operating experience in regard to reliability, serviceability and

maintainability has shown the units to be comparable with centrifugal
pumps and has resulted in increasing acceptance even as drivers in large
power units on essential service equipment. Presently accepted industrial
limits are shown in Figure 10-27.
SECTION 10.0
PAGE 47
DATE 06-94
Figure 10-26
GENERALIZED CURVES FOR POWER RECOVERY UNIT
SECTION 10.0
PAGE 48
DATE 06-94
Figure 10-27
POWER RECOVERY TURBINE CAPABILITIES
SECTION 10.0
PAGE 49
DATE 06-94
10.6 POWER TRANSMISSION EQUIPMENT
10.6.1 Rigid Coupling
The simplest form of rigid coupling and the type normally used when high
speeds and large powers are involved is the integral coupling where the
connecting flange is formed as part of the forging from which the shaft or
rotor is machined. A disadvantage of this type is that all bearings, glands
etc., must be split to be assembled and shaft alignment must be kept within
very tight tolerances to prevent excess shaft stressing and bearing
overloading.
10.6.2 Flexible Couplings
In many situations where shafts need to be coupled, there is a complication

that requires the application of a flexible coupling. Temperature differences
can produce lateral and axial misalignment and axial accommodation must
be provided where shafts are subject to thermal expansion or where variable
thrust load occurs. Torsional flexibility or damping is required where
vibration or shock loading can occur. Such couplings are the rubber disc,
Bibby and geared couplings.
10.6.3 Variable Speed Couplings
In line variable speed couplings may be of the mechanical or hydraulic type.
a) Mechanical Variable Speed Couplings
The drive and driven shafts are terminated in drive cones, Figure 10-28,
which are connected by balls of equal diameters mounted on spindles.
Speed control from 30 % to 300 % is achieved by varying the spindle
angle. With the spindles in the M-M position output speed is equal to
that of the input.
Figure 10-29 shows a similar type of mechanical variable speed coupling

where speed variation is achieved by axial movement of connecting
rollers.
The efficiency of these types of speed couplings is usually better than 80

% over most of the speed range. Output power is approximately constant
giving a considerable torque gain as speed is reduced.
b) Hydraulic Variable Speed Couplings
This is essentially a liquid cooled slipping clutch. One design is

illustrated in Figure 10-30 where two rotors with straight radial vanes
form a torus ring. An impeller attached to the driving motor acts as a
SECTION 10.0
PAGE 50
DATE 06-94
pump and sets up a vortex of oil which drives the runner like a turbine
wheel. The runner is connected to the output shaft. By changing the
amount of oil in the vortex the output speed is adjusted. This type is
used in applications up to 350 hp, though by using an external oil
reservoir and a pump to control the amount of oil in the vortex, the
hydraulic coupling can be used in applications from 100 hp to 2,000 hp.
10.6.4 Vee Belt Drives
Continuous Vee Belt drives are essentially friction drives and therefore be
used only for low power transmission, usually to provide an output speed
different from that of the input. This is achieved by using different sized
pulleys on the input and output shafts. They are most commonly employed
with small electric motor drivers where input shaft speed does not exceed
3,000 rpm and power transmitted is less than 70 hp.
10.6.5 Gear Units
Gear units are used to transmit power from the driver to the driven equipment
at an output speed different from that of the input. The most commonly used
gear units employ spur gears for general purpose applications because of
their relative economy and simplicity of construction. They do not produce
axial thrust but are very noisy at high speed. High speed applications require
units with helical or spiral bevel gears which will sometimes require a
balancing idler wheel. The tooth action of this type of gear produces axial
thrust which must be catered for in the box design. Worm and wheel gears
are used for low speed applications and will permit large speed reduction
ratios.
Generally, gearboxes require lubrication to lubricate the teeth and to carry the
heat away. Commonly, the oil is sprayed over the gears, collected in a
reservoir and then passed back to the top of the gearbox via a water cooled
heat exchanger.
SECTION 10.0
PAGE 51
DATE 06-94
Figure 10-28
MECHANICAL VARIABLE SPEED COUPLING (BALL TYPE)
Figure 10-29
MECHANICAL VARIABLE SPEED COUPLING (ROLLER TYPE)
SECTION 10.0
PAGE 52
DATE 06-94
Figure 10-30
HYDRAULIC VARIABLE SPEED COUPLING
SECTION 11.0
PAGE 1
PROCESS MANUAL DRIVER SELECTION
DATE 06-94
11.0 DRIVERS SELECTION
11.1 PROCESS CONSIDERATIONS
11.1.1 Availability and Duty
A summary of primary driver selection considerations is shown in Table 11-

1. The first of these considerations is the availability of commercially proven
equipment in the required range of power output or speed; this is summarized
for the various driver types by Table 11-2.
As can be seen the use of gas turbines is not applicable in the smaller ranges
while gas and diesel engines, which have low power to weight ratios, are
limited by physical size to outputs of less than about five megawatts.
Electric motor size is limited by the problems of high starting current and
output speed is limited by the frequency of the power source. Steam and gas
turbines are also high speed machines and cannot therefore be used for low
speed equipment such as reciprocating compressors without the use of
expensive gearing.
Table 11-1
DRIVER SELECTION CONSIDERATIONS
Availability of equipment in required size range
Driver/process service speeds and gearing requirements
Overall system reliability and sparing requirements
Required process flexibility
Overall system economics
Utility system integration opportunities
Safety considerations
Topsides equipment weight in offshore applications
SECTION 11.0
PAGE 2
DATE 06-94
0 - 1 MW 1 MW - 5 MW 6 MW - 40 MW Output
Shaft Speed
rpm
Electric Motors X X (a) < 3,000
Extraction Steam Turbines X X (b) 3 - 10,000
Gas Turbines .. X X 5 - 15,000
Diesel and Gas Engines X X .. < 1,000
Power Recovery Turbines X X .. < 5,000
Notes:
(a) Use of motors is restricted by starting and voltage stability considerations.
(b) Use of steam turbines is restricted by steam availability
11.1.2 Flexibility and Reliability
In selecting the driver, consideration should also be given to the required

overall system reliability and flexibility. Gas turbines, steam turbines and
SECTION 11.0
PAGE 3
DATE 06-94
gas/diesel engines are variable speed machines and are therefore suited to:
 Capacity adjustment on positive displacement compressors and pumps
 Head/capacity adjustment on centrifugal and axial equipment
Power recovery turbine speed is also variable by adjustment of the upstream

flow conditions. Turbo-expanders are generally run to perform refrigeration
with the power output being secondary. Electric motors are normally fixed
speed and capacity/head control is made by throttling, by-pass or recycling
which leads to increased power consumption on turndown as compared with
speed variation. Variable speed electric drives are available and may be
commercially attractive for the larger sizes although they are considerably
more expensive than fixed speed drives.
Although electric motors are potentially the least flexible process drive, they
give the highest reliability at a low installed cost. They are also suitable for
both infrequent use and the smaller sized motors for frequent starting. A
comparison of driver reliabilities and relative process availabilities, Table 11-
3, shows that steam turbines are equally reliable but are used mainly for
continuous running applications as they are not suited to frequent starting.
Both of these driver types also require little maintenance thus keeping
downtime to a minimum. For large driver applications, such as for
centrifugal compressors the problems of start-up and shutdown must also be
considered. Steam turbines are often selected where electric motor start-up
currents are prohibitive. They may be directly connected to the driven
equipment which can be started without speed increasing gears.
Table 11-3
REALATIVE DRIVER
RELIABILITY/AVAILABILITY
Driver Reliability Availability
Electric Motor High >99%
Steam Turbine High >99%
Gas Turbine Avg 90-95%
Gas/Diesel Engine Low <90%

11.2 REFINERY/CHEMICAL PLANT DESIGN
SECTION 11.0
PAGE 4
DATE 06-94
In these plants choice will normally be between electric motors or steam turbines.
Generally, the electric motors are used for both standby and duty process equipment
with the steam turbine being allocated to critical services, such as those listed in
Table 11-4, where operation is essential during power failure. Steam turbines may
also be selected to satisfy the plant steam balance. The driver selection procedure
starts by selecting the drivers that may be used for particular applications based on
the required capacity, speed etc. (More than one driver type may satisfy these
requirements). The selection process continues by considering the type of energy
available for the drivers. The selection process is shown in Figure 11-1. Generally, if
a particular form of energy is readily and inexpensively available then that energy
should be used. Low operating costs will usually compensate for the capital outlay of
the equipment and services.
Overall energy consumption levels and costing should however be reviewed together
with process integration concepts to determine an optimum configuration.
Table 11-4
CRITICAL SERVICES FOR STEAM TURBINE APPLICATION
Cooling water circulation pumps

Boiler feed water pump
Steam condensate pumps
Fuel oil pump
Instrument air compressor
Furnace feed pumps
Reactor recycle compressors
11.3 OFFSHORE PRODUCTION FACILITIES
For an offshore oil production facility, major power consumption is associated with
the compression of associated gas and the availability of relatively cheap gas means
that energy consumption levels are less critical than for onshore installations. Wide
use is therefore made of gas turbines.
The problems of gas turbine starting is overcome by using the gas to drive a turbo-
expander which in turn is used to bring the gas turbine up to starting speed. The
procedure of Section 11.2 may be used for driver selection for offshore facilities
though in addition to the considerations already discussed, the weight of drivers is of
importance in order that platform topside weight may be minimized.
SECTION 11.0
PAGE 5
DATE 06-94
Figure 11-1
DRIVER SELECTION PROCEDURE BASED ON ENERGY AVAILABILITY
SECTION 12.0
PAGE 1
PROCESS MANUAL DRIVER DESIGN PROCEDURES
DATE 06-94
12.0 DRIVER DESIGN PROCEDURES
Refer to Section 16.2 of this manual for applicable codes and standards.
12.2.1 General
The most economical choice between induction and synchronous A.C.

electric motors depends on an evaluation of the installed and running costs.
Generally, at the lower power levels, induction motors have the lower
installed cost, whereas at higher power levels the synchronous motor is
usually cheaper.
The synchronous motor typically has lower operating costs as a consequence
of its better efficiency and unity or leading power factor. A summary of
motor design and operating considerations is shown on Table 12-1.
Table 12-1
MOTOR DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Motor Rating
Voltage Levels
Speed
Motor Temperature Rise
Starting Currents
System Voltage Stability
12.2.2 Motor Rating
The selected motor size for any process service must include an appropriate
design margin which is provided in the appropriate specification and the API
Specifications listed in the preface.
Electric motors are available in a range of standard sizes which are the same
for both 50 Hz and 60 Hz supplies.
These are listed in Table 12-2 with preferred motor voltages given in
SECTION 12.0
PAGE 2
DATE 06-94
kW hp kW hp kw hp
0.25 0.33 168 225 7,500 10,000
0.37 0.5 185 250 8,250 11,000
0.55 0.75 200 270 9,000 12,000
0.75 1 224 300 9,750 13,000
1.1 1.5 260 350 10,500 14,000
1.5 2 300 400 11,250 15,000
2.2 3 337.5 450 12,000 16,000
3 4 375 500 12,750 17,000
4 5.5 450 600 13,500 18,000
5.5 7.5 525 700 14,250 19,000
7.5 10 600 800 15,000 20,000
11 15 675 900 16,875 22,500
15 20 750 1,000 18,750 25,000
18.5 25 937.5 1,250 20,625 27,500
22 30 1,125 1,500 22,500 30,000
30 40 1,312.5 1,750 24,375 32,500
37 50 1,500 2,000 26,250 35,000
45 60 1,687.5 2,250 28,125 37,500
55 75 1,875 2,500 30,000 40,000
75 100 2,250 3,000 33,750 45,000
90 125 2,625 3,500 37,500 50,000
105 140 3,000 4,000 41,250 55,000
110 150 3,375 4,500 45,000 60,000
115 155 3,750 5,000 48,750 65,000
120 160 4,125 5,500 52,500 70,000
125 167 4,500 6,000 56,250 75,000
132 175 5,250 7,000 60,000 80,000
140 190 6,000 8,000 62,500 90,000
150 200 6,750 9,000 75,000 100,000
SECTION 12.0
PAGE 3
DATE 06-94
Table 12-3
PREFERRED MOTOR VOLTAGE
Preferred Nominal Preferred Type Preferred Range Preferred Range

No. of Phases Voltage hp kW
3 200 or 230/460 Squirrel Cage 0 to 50 0 to 37.5

3 460.00 Squirrel Cage 51 to 250 37.5 to 185
3 2,300 or 4,000 Squirrel Cage above 250 above 185
3 2,300/4,000 Squirrel Cage 500 to 4,000 375 to 3,000
3 6,600 or 13,200 Squirrel Cage 4,000 to 15,000 3,000 to 11,200
3 6,600 or 13,200 Squirrel Cage above 15,000 above 11,200
Induction motors have a lagging power factor, whereas synchronous motors

have a unity or leading power factor. Selection of synchronous motors for
some drives will have the effect of improving the electrical system overall
power factor. The closer the overall power factor is to unity the lower will be
the cost of generators, transformers and transmission lines since these are
sized on the basis of kVA. Synchronous and induction motor speeds
comparisons are given in Table 12-4.
12.2.3 Starting Requirements
The time required to accelerate the motor to full speed is a function of the
motor torque and driver torque versus speed. The net accelerating torque at a
given speed is the difference in motor torque and driver torque. These torque
characteristics must be considered in selecting the motor for large drivers. It
should be noted that for compressors or pumps driven by large synchronous
motors, the torque requirements must usually be reduced during starting by
unloading the compressor or pump.
It should be noted that the electrical system voltage stability may limit the
maximum size of electric motor driver utilized in any design. This relates
directly to system stability on both starting and tripping the motor. As a rule
of thumb, for preliminary evaluation purposes, the maximum size process
load should not exceed 25 % of the total plant or system demand.
12.2.4 Other Design Considerations
Heat is generated in an operating electric motor as a function of the motor

efficiency. The allowable temperature rise of a motor above ambient
temperature depends upon the type of electrical insulation. For rating
purposes, ambient conditions are standardized at 104 oF and a maximum
altitude of 3,300 ft. At higher altitudes the manufacturer may de-rate the
motor.
SECTION 12.0
PAGE 4
DATE 06-94
Table 12-4
MOTOR SPEEDS
Synchronous Induction Motor Speed

3,000 2,900
1,500 1,450
1,000 970
750 725
Synchronous Speed Induction Motor Speed
3,600 3,550
1,800 1,750
1,200 1,180
900 875
The designated service factor is a multiplier, usually 1.0 or 1.15, which is

related to allowable temperature rise. The allowable continuous operating
power, without causing overheating, is the rated power multiplied by the
service factor.
Large motors are usually protected by providing an over-current cutout, refer

to Section 13.1.3, which will disconnect the motor from the power supply.
Motor enclosure requirements depend on the operating environment and

hazardous area classification. For protection against the operating
environment motors may be drip-proof, splash-proof or weather-proof. For
operation in a hazardous area enclosures are usually totally enclosed or
totally enclosed explosion proof, depending on Hazardous Area
Classification. The various enclosure classifications are outlined in "NEMA
Standards Publications, Motors and Generators" Publication No. MG1-1972,
Part 1, Ref 2.
The totally enclosed design is designed to prevent ingress of the surrounding

atmosphere, which may be flammable. The explosion proof design is
designed to withstand an explosion inside the enclosure. Various cooling
arrangements are provided for the enclosure, as follows;
 Fan-cooled. The enclosure is cooled externally by an integral fan.
 Pipe-ventilated. The enclosure is cooled by external air which is circulated

into and out of the enclosure either by an external or integral fan.
 Water air-cooled. Integral fans circulate air through a water-cooled

exchanger.
 Inert gas-filled. An inert gas is circulated and cooled by an external

exchanger.
SECTION 12.0
PAGE 5
DATE 06-94
 The Hazardous Area Classification should be determined in accordance

with generally accepted guidelines.
12.3 STEAM TURBINES
12.3.1 Turbine Classification and Application
API have classified turbines for refinery application as "General-Purpose" or

"Special-Purpose". The API standards for these are API 611 and API 612,
respectively.
As defined in these standards; "General-purpose" turbines are used to drive

equipment items that are usually spared, are relatively small or are in
noncritical service. They are usually single stage and are intended for
applications where steam conditions will not exceed 595 psig or 750 oF and
where speed will not exceed 6,000 rpm.
A "special-purpose" turbine is used to drive equipment that usually is not

spared, is relatively large in size or is in critical service. This category is not
limited by steam conditions or turbine speed. For larger applications, where
efficient steam utilization is required a more costly multistage design is
preferred. In this design efficiency may be increased to greater than 70 %.
The type of turbine selected will usually depend on the overall steam balance
considerations. Condensing turbines are generally applicable only to large
loads such as drivers for turbo-generators or large compressors and have
found reduced process plant applications in recent years as a consequence of
the reduced overall cycle efficiency. A summary of overall considerations
relating to steam turbine application and systems design is shown in Table
12-5.
12.3.2 Operational and Design Considerations
a) Pressure and Temperature Limitations
General-purpose steam turbines, as defined by API 611, are limited to

inlet conditions of 595 psig or 750 oF. For special-purpose turbines,
API 612, there is no specified limitation on steam conditions.
SECTION 12.0
PAGE 6
DATE 06-94
Table 12-5
STEAM TURBINE DESIGN
Turbine type
Turbine efficiency
Operating pressure levels
Critical service applications
Steam balance limitations
Turbine cost will increase with pressure and temperature, alloy steel
being required above 750 oF. The selection of pressure levels for turbine
drivers will take into consideration turbine costs, overall steam system
design and costs. In a refinery or petrochemical plant there will usually
be turbines at more than one pressure level.
Turbines are generally available up to steam conditions of 2,030 psig and

1,000 oF.
b) Steam Quality
Superheated steam is generally required for turbine drivers. Saturated or

low superheat steam can result in wet steam in the latter stages of
multistage turbines, thus causing erosion. Turbine manufacturers usually
require less than 8 or 9 % moisture in condensing turbine exhausts.
Saturated steam may however be acceptable for small single-stage
turbines.
Solids carry-over in steam generation equipment can lead to deposits on

turbine blades. This can result in loss of efficiency, corrosion and
corrosion fatigue. Proper design and operation of the steam system will
minimize or eliminate deposits.
c) Special Precautions/Hazards
Turbines must not be operated close to their critical speeds. API 611 and
API 612 specify criteria for critical speeds relative to operating speeds.
An independent emergency trip device and a shut-off valve which is
separate from the speed control valve, are required.
SECTION 12.0
PAGE 7
DATE 06-94
In addition to trips on overspeed, special-purpose turbines, API 612,

require a pre-alarm and trip on low lube-oil pressure and alarms on
bearing temperature, lube-oil temperature, high exhaust or extraction
pressure. Special-purpose turbines also require shaft vibration and axial
position monitors and alarms.
d) Condensers
Condensers for condensing turbines may be shell and tube water cooled
condensers or air cooled condensers. Auxiliary equipment will include
vacuum ejectors, condensate drums and pumps.
e) Equipment Sizing
Selection of the steam turbine may be made based on
 Inlet steam conditions

 Exhaust steam pressure
 Consumed process power
 Driver process shaft speed
Based on the above information, the appropriate turbine may be selected

from a standard range of sizes available from a large number of vendors.
12.3.3 Steam Turbine Sizing
a) Using Steam Tables
Enthalpy data can be obtained from Mollier diagrams or from steam

tables from which the theoretical steam rate can be calculated.
1) For example, consider a steam turbine operating at the following

conditions:
Steam Inlet Pressure = 600 psig

Steam Inlet Temperature = 750 oF
Steam Discharge Pressure = 50 psig
From steam tables, the enthalpy at turbine inlet is found to be 1,379.4

Btu/lb. Assuming the expansion process to be adiabatic and
frictionless and therefore isentropic, the enthalpy of steam at
discharge is found to be 1,156.5 Btu/lb giving an enthalpy of 222.9
Btu/lb available to the turbine.
SECTION 12.0
PAGE 8
DATE 06-94
Using the Btu equivalent per horsepowerhour, the theoretical steam

rate is calculated thus:
222.9 x 3.929 x 10-4 = 8.76 x 10-2 hphr/lb
or:
11.4 lb/hphr
The actual steam rate is obtained by dividing the theoretical steam

rate by the turbine efficiency which includes for thermodynamic and
mechanical losses.
Efficiency varies over a wide range, dependent upon the number of

stages in the turbine, operating conditions and on turbine design.
Efficiency values are available from the turbine supplier.
Theoretical steam rate tables such as Table 12-6 may also be used to
determine steam rates.
For example, consider a steam turbine operating at following

conditions:
Steam Inlet Pressure = 600 psig

Steam Inlet Temperature = 750 oF
Steam Discharge Pressure = -12.5 psig
Referring to Table 12-6, under the column representing inlet

conditions of 600 psig and 750 oF and at the row for a discharge
pressure -12.5 psig it can be seen that the theoretical steam rate for
the turbine is 5.70 lb/hphr.
The actual steam rate is shown in Table 12-7 for single, five, seven
and nine stage turbines and as discussed in Section 10.2.3, it is seen
that efficiency significantly increases with the number of stages and
that the increased number of stages corresponds to larger turbine
power outputs. For each stage, as characterized by diameter and
speed there is a power drop that gives the best efficiency provided
that there is sufficient steam to fill the stage so that it operates with
minimum friction and windage loss per lb of steam.
b) Using Steam Rate Curves
Curves such as those of Figure 12-1(a) and (b) can be used for estimating
steam rates for single stage turbines only. Consider a steam turbine
operating at the following conditions:
SECTION 12.0
PAGE 9
DATE 06-94
Steam Inlet Pressure = 27.6 barg (400 psig)

Steam Inlet Temperature = 399 oC (750 oF)
Steam Discharge Pressure = 5.17 barg (75 psig)
Steam Turbine Speed = 4,000 rpm
Required Developed Power = 225 kW (301.7 hp)
1) Referring to Table 12-6 for inlet conditions and discharge pressure as

above the theoretical steam rate is read off as 15.35 lb/hphr (9.34
kg/kWhr).
2) Referring to Figure 12-1(a), the figure is entered at the top left hand
corner under 4,000 rpm and a horizontal line drawn until it intersects
with one of the turbine wheel diameters, for example, 460 mm (18"),
at point A.
3) A vertical line is drawn from Point A until it intersects the curve for
the theoretical steam rate of 15.35 lb/hphr (9.34 kg/kWhr), at point
B.
4) A horizontal line is drawn from Point B to intersect the vertical axis
from which the base steam rate is read off as 23.51 kg/kWhr (38.65
lb/hphr).
5) The turbine losses are found from Figure 12-1(b). The figure is
entered in the top left hand corner at the point corresponding to a
turbine speed of 4,000 rpm. A horizontal line is drawn until it
intersects with the curve representing a discharge pressure of 5.17
barg (75 psig), at point C.
6) A vertical line is dropped from point C to intersect with the curve for
the previously selected turbine wheel diameter of 460 mm (18") at
point D.
7) A horizontal line drawn from point D to its intersection with the
vertical axis gives a power loss of 6.34 kW (8.5 hp).
8) Total steam turbine power is thus 225 + 6.34 = 231.34 kW (310.2 hp)
and steam required is 231.34 x 23.51 = 5,438.80 kg/hr
(11,990.4 lb/hr)[5,289.75 kg/hr (11,661.78 lb/hr) to provide a power
output of 225 kW (301.7 hp) and 149.05 kg/hr (328.6 lb/hr) to
overcome turbine losses of 6.34 kW (8.5 hp)].
9) The steam rate for the turbine is the steam required to drive the
turbine while developing the required output and is thus the ratio of
the total steam required to the turbine output, in this case, of 225 kW
(301.7 hp).
SECTION 12.0
PAGE 10
DATE 06-94
10) By using Figure 12-1(a) and (b) for other turbine wheel diameters, a
selection table such as Table 12-8 can be prepared for comparison.
From this table the most efficient turbine can be selected and
balanced against price for the steam conditions of the above
example. It is apparent that for a turbine output of 225 kW (301.7
hp) the 710 mm (28") diameter bladed unit achieves no gain over the
560 mm (22") turbine because of increased power losses while for
560 mm (22") versus 460 mm (18") the gain is small and may be
offset by higher capital cost.
150 psig 200 psig 250 psig 400 psig 600 psig 600 psig 850 psig 850 psig
Exhaust 367 oF 388 oF 500 oF 750 oF 750 oF 826 oF 826 oF 900 oF
Pressure 61 oF S.H. 270 oF S.H. 311 oF S.H. 304 oF S.H. 266 oF S.H. 340 oF S.H.
psig lb/hphr lb/hphr lb/hphr lb/hphr lb/hphr lb/hphr lb/hphr lb/hphr
-13.5 7.84 7.46 6.76 5.49 5.28 5.05 4.90 4.67
-12.5 8.76 8.29 7.46 5.95 5.70 5.43 5.26 5.01
0 14.43 13.05 11.31 8.35 7.76 7.32 6.94 6.56
10 17.87 15.72 13.33 9.49 8.25 8.17 7.68 7.23
30 25.05 20.91 17.11 11.36 10.16 9.50 8.80 8.25
50 34.31 26.85 21.03 13.10 11.46 10.67 9.83 9.11
60 40.20 30.13 23.20 13.99 12.07 11.23 10.18 9.49
70 47.35 34.00 25.43 14.88 12.68 11.77 10.60 9.88
75 51.69 36.15 26.70 15.35 12.97 12.05 10.80 10.06
SECTION 12.0
PAGE 11
DATE 06-94
Turbine Turbine Turbine Exhaust Available Theoretical Actual

Power Efficiency Enthalpy Enthalpy Steam Rate Steam Rate
hp % Btu/lb Btu/lb lb/hphr lb/hphr
Single Stage 500 30.00 1,246.8 133.30 5.70 19.02
Five Stage 1,000 55.00 1,135.0 245.10 5.70 10.37
Seven Stage 4,000 65.00 1,092.0 292.30 5.70 8.78
Nine Stage 10,000 75.00 1,023.2 361.10 5.70 7.61
SECTION 12.0
PAGE 12
DATE 06-94
Figure 12-1(a)
APPROXIMATE STEAM RATE FOR SINGLE STAGE TURBINE
SECTION 12.0
PAGE 13
DATE 06-94
Figure 12-1(b)
APPROXIMATE POWER LOSS FOR SINGLE STAGE TURBINE
Turbine Base Power Total Steam Steam

Blading Steam Loss Power Required Rate
SECTION 12.0
PAGE 14
DATE 06-94
Diameter Rate
kg/kWhr KW kW kg/hr kg/kWhr
mm (in) (lb/hphr) (hp) (hp) (lb/hr) (lb/hphr)
360 27.17 2.24 227.24 6,174.11 27.44
(14) (44.67) (3.00) (304.73) (13,611.73) (45.11)
460 23.51 6.34 231.34 5,438.80 24.17
(18) (38.65) (8.50) (310.23) (11,990.38) (39.74)
560 21.47 19.39 244.39 5,247.05 23.32

(22) (35.30) (26.00) (327.73) (11,567.65) (38.34)
710 18.70 47.72 272.72 5,099.86 22.67
(28) (30.74) (64.00) (365.72) (11,243.15) (37.27)
c) Using Mollier Diagram
Steam flowrate can be calculated using a Mollier Diagram for steam (i.e.,
an Entropy/Enthalpy Diagram).
The source for the Mollier Diagram used below is Elliott Multivalve
Turbines, Bulletin H-378 which is readily available from them.
Consider steam turbine operating at the following conditions
Steam Inlet Pressure = 42.38 bara (614.5 psia)

Steam Inlet Temperature = 399 oC (750 oF)
Steam Discharge Pressure = 4.48 bara (65 psia)
From the Mollier chart at inlet conditions of 42.38 bara (614.5 psia) and
399 oC (750 oF) the following can be read off:
Inlet Enthalpy H1 = 3,204 kJ/kg (1,377.5 Btu/lb)
Inlet Entropy S = 6,740 J/kg0K (1.61 Btu/lb oF)
Assume that the expansion to outlet conditions is 100 % isentropically

efficient. Thus the outlet enthalpy H 2 at 4.48 bara (65 psia) can be
determined by following the line of constant entropy (at S=6,740 J/kg 0K)
vertically down the chart until it crosses the isobaric line at 4.48 bara
(65 psia). At this point H2 is 2,690 kJ/kg (1156.5 Btu/lb).
Thus the theoretical steam rate (TSR) is given by:

3,600J / Whr
TSR =
H1  H2
3.6 x10 3
=
3,204  2,690
= 7.0 kg/kWhr (11.55 lb/hphr)
SECTION 12.0
PAGE 15
DATE 06-94
As the expansion process is not 100 % isentropically efficient, the actual

steam rate and outlet conditions can be determined as follows:
The actual steam rate (ASR) is given by:
TSR
ASR = kg / Whr

where:
η = turbine efficiency
The turbine efficiency is made up of three factors:
 Superheat Correction Factor (SCF) which can be determined from

use of Mollier Chart and Figure 12-2
 Basic Efficiency (BE) of a multi-valve multistage turbine using
either Figure 12-3 or Figure 12-4 depending on whether turbine is
either condensing or noncondensing type
 Speed Factor using Figure 12-5
To determine the superheat correction factor
Superheat is the difference between the actual temperature of the steam

and the temperature of steam at saturated conditions at the same pressure.
SECTION 12.0
PAGE 16
DATE 06-94
Figure 12-2
SUPERHEAT CORRECTION FACTOR FOR TURBINES
SECTION 12.0
PAGE 17
DATE 06-94
Figure 12-3
BASIC EFFICIENCY OF MULTI-VALVE, MULTI-STAGE

CONDENSING TURBINES
SECTION 12.0
PAGE 18
DATE 06-94
Figure 12-4
BASIC EFFICIENCY OF MULTI-VALVE, MULTI-STAGE NON-CONDENSING TURBINES
SECTION 12.0
PAGE 19
DATE 06-94
Figure 12-5
SPEED FACTOR FOR CONDENSING AND

NON CONDENSING TURBINES
SECTION 12.0
PAGE 20
DATE 06-94
Thus in the example case, inlet condition of steam is 42.38 bara (614.5
psia) at 399 oC (750 oF). Using the Mollier chart, follow the isobaric line
of 42.38 bara (614.5 psia) until it crosses the saturation line. Where the
isothermal line crosses this point gives the saturation temperature of the
steam. At 42.38 bara (614.5 psia) the saturation temperature on the
saturation line is approximately 252 oC (486 oF). Therefore degrees of
superheat is given by: 399 - 252 = 147 oC (264 oF). From Figure 12-2
(note that at the outlet condition of 4.48 bara approximately 2.4 % of the
steam has condensed), SCF = 1.03
To determine the basic efficiency (BE)
From Figure 12-3, assuming a turbine rating of 5,000 kW (6,700 hp), at

inlet steam pressure of 42.38 bara (614.5 psia) basic efficiency is 73 %.
To determine the speed factor (SF)
From Figure 12-4, assuming a rated speed of 7,000 rpm and turbine
rating of 5,000 kW, speed factor is 0.955:
 ASR =
TSR
SCFxBExSF
7
=
1.03x 0.73x 0.955
= 9.7 kg/kWh (15.9 lb/hphr)
To determine the condition of the steam at the outlet, the isentropic

efficiency of the turbine is given by the factors above, i.e., 1.03 x 0.73 x
0.955 = 0.72. Therefore the actual enthalpy of the steam at outlet
condition is given by:
Ha2 = H1 - (H1 - H2) x η

= 3,204 - (3,204 - 2,690) x 0.72
= 2,833.9 kJ/kg (1,218.3 Btu/lb)
where:
Ha2 = the actual outlet enthalpy of steam
The outlet condition of steam can be found from the Mollier chart as
follows:
SECTION 12.0
PAGE 21
DATE 06-94
 At enthalpy H2 read horizontally across chart until it crosses the

isobaric line at the outlet pressure. This gives the temperature and
condition of the steam.
 In the example case, at 2,833.9 kJ/kg (1,218.3 Btu/lb), this gives an
outlet steam temperature of approximately 195 oC (383 oF) and no
steam has condensed.
The slope of the line from the steam inlet conditions, H 1, to the actual
outlet conditions at Ha2 gives the system efficiency, 0 % efficiency is a
horizontal line, i.e., at constant enthalpy, 100 % is a vertical line, i.e., at
constant entropy.
12.4 GAS TURBINES
12.4.1 Performance Considerations
Gas turbine ratings are specified by the manufacturers at the International

Standards Organization (ISO) conditions. This data gives the rated power of
the machine compressing inlet air with 60 % relative humidity at sea level
and 59 oF, with zero inlet and exhaust losses. The ISO information provided
by vendors will usually include the heat rate, air flow rate, turbine speed, air
compression ratio, turbine inlet and exhaust conditions. Vendor ISO
performance data is given in Gas Turbine World Handbook [22].
It should be remembered that the power quoted must be downrated to allow

for inlet and exhaust power losses. Base load power is determined by the
manufacturer, such as to give a 20,000 hour operational period between
major overhauls. Short extensions to the peak power level are permitted
within the turbine firing temperature limits.
In situations where large seasonal swings in temperature occur, the turbine

may be flat rated to increase the nominal power output. Using this technique
the turbine is not rated for design summer conditions, and credit is taken for
operation under reduced temperature conditions during winter to increase the
average base power available while maintaining the required maintenance
interval. The flat rated power level for any turbine must be determined by
the manufacturer, based on environmental data provided by the process
engineer.
The power output and efficiency of the turbine is very dependent upon the
fuel firing temperature. In general, every 100 oF decrease in firing
temperature will result in a 10 % decrease in the machine output and 1 % to
4 % decrease in machine thermal efficiency. The maximum firing
temperature is largely dictated by mechanical and corrosion limitations;
consequently, the selection of fuel is very important in turbine design.
SECTION 12.0
PAGE 22
DATE 06-94
The gas turbine supplier should be consulted regarding fuel consumption and
developed power.
12.5.1 Fuel Consumption
Fuel consumption figures should be obtained by approaching the supplier of

the engine, who should produce curves such as those of Figure 12-6 giving
specific fuel consumption for BMEP and engine speed. The typical
efficiencies (LHV) are given in Table 12-9 based on methanol fuel for gas
engines and oil fuel for diesel engines.
12.5.2 Fuel Economy
The engine heat losses as percentages of heat input are shown for various gas
engines in Table 12-10. Plant fuel costs chargeable to power production can
be reduced if heat losses can be utilized to provide process or other heating.
Generally, lubricating oil cooling losses are between 5 and 7 % at about

176 oF and jacket cooling losses are between 17 and 30 % at about 176 oF (or
with vapor phase cooling as steam).
Engine exhaust gas heat losses vary between 26 and 30 % with

approximately half of this available at sufficient temperature to generate 100
psig steam in waste heat boilers.
Power Diesel and Gas Engine

Output Efficiency Based on LHV
hp %
67 - 400 28
401 - 800 32
801 - 3,000 38
over 3,000 43
SECTION 12.0
PAGE 23
DATE 06-94
Figure 12-6
SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION (g/kWhr) CURVES

FOR A PARTICULAR DIESEL ENGINE
SECTION 12.0
PAGE 24
DATE 06-94
Table 12-10
HEAT BALANCE FOR A PARTICULAR TWO AND FOUR CYCLE GAS ENGINE
WITH AIR AND WATER COOLING
Two Four
Cycle
Water Air Cycle
Atmosp Superchar
Cooled
Btu/hp % Cooled
Btu/hp % heric
Btu/hph % ged Air
Btu/hphr %
hr hr r
Heat input (LHV) 8,013 .... 7,679 .... 8,572 .... 6,900 ....
Work 2,832 35.40 2,832 36.90 2,832 33.10 2,832 41.0
Jacket 1,892 23.60 1,337 17.40 2,451 28.60 1,393 20.20
Lube Oil 511 6.40 559 7.2 500 5.80 334 4.80
Exhaust 2,333 29.10 1,998 26.0 2,561 29.90 1,876 27.20
Radiation 445 5.50 956 12.50 228 2.60 224 3.20
Combustion .... .... .... .... .... .... 244 3.50
SECTION 12.0
PAGE 25
DATE 06-94
The supplier should be approached for information regarding turbo-expander

efficiency and capacity. A computer thermodynamic program should be used
for computation of turbo-expander performance under various operating
conditions.
The performance of these machines is described by supplier's curves of head,

capacity and power for various driving heads and speeds which can be used
to determine power output. Generalized curves for a power recovery turbine
are shown in Figure 12-7.
12.7 DRIVER POWER RATING
12.7.1 The driver power rating is defined as follows:
a) For electric motors: the motor nameplate power rating (hp).

b) For gas turbines: the power available at the turbine driver coupling when
operating at the rated turbine speed and after derating of the turbine for
the specified altitude, summer ambient temperature, inlet and exhaust
duct losses, fuel quality and power deduction for any auxiliary
equipment driven from the turbine shaft.
c) For steam turbines: the power available at minimum steam conditions
(minimum temperature and pressure) and maximum back pressure at the
turbine coupling after deducting power absorbed by auxiliary equipment
driven from the turbine shaft.
d) For internal combustion engines: the power available at the engine
coupling after any derating for type of service, altitude, summer ambient
temperature, fuel quality and after subtracting engine power absorbed by
auxiliary equipment driven from the engine shaft.
12.7.2 The driver can be sized as follows:
a) For centrifugal pumps:
Power absorbed at shaft: Hydraulic Power

Pump efficiency
See Section 12.7.3 for service factors.
SECTION 12.0
PAGE 26
DATE 06-94
Figure 12-7
GENERALIZED CURVES SHOWING HYDRAULIC

BEHAVIOR OF A POWER RECOVERY UNIT
SECTION 12.0
PAGE 27
DATE 06-94
Pump efficiency can be obtained from pump vendor curves.
Driver rating = Power absorbed at shaft x service factor

mechanical efficiency of power transmission
Mechanical Efficiency of
power transmission is: - 100 % for direct coupling
- 95 - 97 % for fluid coupling or gear
coupling at full load
b) For reciprocating pumps:
Power absorbed = Hydraulic Power = Hydraulic Power

pump efficiency 0.9
Mechanical efficiency is normally 90 % or higher for noncompressible

fluids, efficiency data can be obtained from pump vendors.
Driver rating = Power absorbed x service factor

Mechanical efficiency of power transmission
c) For centrifugal compressors:
Power absorbed = gas power + mechanical losses
For calculation of gas power, see Section 6.
Efficiency used in calculating gas power is either the polytropic or

isentropic efficiency dependent on whether polytropic or isentropic head
is used in calculating gas power. The mechanical losses due to bearings
and seals can be approximated from Scheel's equation:
Mechanical losses = (Gas power)0.38

d) For reciprocating compressors:

For calculation of power absorbed, see Section 6.
SECTION 12.0
PAGE 28
DATE 06-94
Under certain conditions, it may be necessary to calculate the absorbed

power at alternate operating conditions. The larger of the two values
should be used for sizing the drive.
12.7.3 Service factor for drivers:
Driver rated power requirement (power absorbed) is the power required by

the driven equipment at the rated duty point, and includes all mechanical
losses within the driven equipment except electric power transmission losses.
The service factor for a particular application can be determined from Table
12-11. Alternate conditions for selecting driver power rating are as follows:
a) For centrifugal pumps in parallel operation, firewater and boiler feed

water pumps the driver is sized either for operation over the entire head
capacity curve without using the service factor multiplier or rated power
with the service factor multiplier whichever is the larger.
b) For reciprocating pumps the pump power is calculated for normal
capacity but with a discharge pressure equal to the setting of the pressure
relief valve.
c) For vacuum pumps the pump power is the peak power required during
the vacuum pull-down period.
SECTION 12.0
PAGE 29
DATE 06-94
Drive Type Electric Motor Gas Steam Turbine Internal

Turbine(a) Combustion
Service Engine
Compressors Gas Service
1.10 1.15 1.10 1.10
Axial, Centrifugal or Rotary
Reciprocating
Integral - - - 1.05
Separate 1.1 1.15 1.1 1.1
Compressors Air/Inert Gas

Axial, Centrifugal or Rotary 1.05 1.10 1.05 1.05
Reciprocating
Integral - - - 1.05
Separate 1.05 1.1 1.05 1.05
Pumps
Centrifugal 1.1(b) 1.15 1.10 1.10
Reciprocating 1.00 - 1.0 1.0
Vacuum 1.05 - 1.05 1.05
Notes:
(a) The service factor for gas turbines includes a 5 % allowance for fouling of the driver during
service.
(b) For pumps specified in accordance with API Standard 610, electrical motor drivers (Section
3.1.2 of the Standard) shall have power ratings, including service factor, if any, at least equal
to the following percentage of pump rated power:
Motor Nameplate Rating % of Rated Power
<25 hp 125
30 - 75 hp 115
100 hp 110
SECTION 13.0
PAGE 1
PROCESS MANUAL CONTROL AND ISNTRUMENTATION
DATE 06-94
The on-off operation of drivers is usually controlled automatically by an instrumentation

system responding to variable system properties, such as pressure, temperature, level, acidity
or turbidity. The operation of these instrumentation systems is not within the scope of this
manual. Only the controls peculiar to the drive are covered here.
13.1 ELECTRIC MOTOR CONTROL
A.C. electric motor control is divided here into the following categories:
 Start-up
 Braking
 protection
13.1.1 A.C. Electric Motor Start-up
The start-up of electric motors normally consists of applying full voltage

across the motor terminals. As discussed in Section 3.1.6, this can lead to
undesirably high start-up currents. The following methods have been
developed to alleviate these problems.
a) Reduced Voltage Starting
An electrical component, such as a reactor, resistor or transformer, is

temporarily connected in series ahead of the motor to limit the starting
current. When the motor has accelerated to reach 75 to 80 % full speed,
the component is bypassed and full voltage applied. As the starting
current is depressed, the starting torque is also reduced and the motor
therefore takes longer to reach operating speed. An advantage of this
system is that it provides a steady increase in motor volts and therefore a
steady torque increase during acceleration. Acceleration from run-up to
full speed continues to be smooth as the motor is not disconnected during
this operation. This method is very expensive and not frequently used.
b) Star-delta Starting
The rotor winding end connections may be arranged in two formations.

On start-up the star arrangement is used which restricts both the voltage
applied to the motor and the start-up current to 58 % of their rated values
and the start-up torque is reduced to one third of its normal value. On
attaining 75 to 80 % of rated speed the arrangement is changed to delta
which permits application of full load. This method is simple and low
cost and consequently is commonly used.
SECTION 13.0
PAGE 2
DATE 06-94
c) Part-winding Starting
This method uses a motor with an additional winding that is used only on
start-up and which draws 50 % of normal start-up current resulting in
50 % start-up torque. Disadvantages are the fixed value of available
torque and possible imbalance. It should only be used in applications
requiring infrequent start-up.
13.1.2 A.C. Electric Motor Braking
a) Plugging
This is used to obtain a very quick stop. Three-phase squirrel-cage and

wound-rotor motors may be plugged by reversing the line connections to
any two of the stator terminals while the motor is running in the forward
direction. To use plugging as a stopping means, a zero-speed switch is
necessary to open the reverse contactor and prevent reversing the motor.
A common form of zero-speed switch is the friction type, in which a
contact is held closed by the friction of a small belt over a pulley driven
by the motor. Any slight reversal of the motor will cause the contacts to
open.
b) Magnetic Brakes
These are used to obtain quick, accurate stopping and to hold the load
after stopping. Most brakes are electrically released and spring-set, so
that braking will be obtained even though an electrical failure occurs.
Disk-type brakes are supplied for mounting directly on the end of a
motor. Shoe-type brakes are supplied with floor mounting bases.
13.1.3 Motor Protection
a) Overload Protection
Thermal overload relays are provided in the motor control or in the

motor to protect it, and particularly its winding insulation, against
excessively high temperatures. There are many different types of relays
but they all operate at a predetermined temperature to open the motor
contacts and thus isolate the motor from its driving power source.
b) Short Circuit Protection
Short circuits must be removed promptly from an electrical system to

prevent heat damage and to avoid disturbances to the rest of the electrical
system.
SECTION 13.0
PAGE 3
DATE 06-94
Protection is provided by the installation of short circuit devices which

are tripped at a set current. This limit is kept as low as possible but high
enough to prevent tripping on start-up.
c) Locked Rotor Protection
During stalled conditions the rotor is the most likely component to be

damaged due to overheating. For large motors it is usual to install
separate protective devices against overloads of this nature in addition to
those discussed in Section 13.1.3.
d) Undervoltage Protection
This ensures that motors are electrically isolated when a power outage
occurs to prevent excessive system starting current surges when power is
re-established. It is also unsafe to have drives starting indiscriminately
when electrical power is resumed.
e) Surge Protection
High voltage motors should be equipped with surge-protection apparatus

consisting of a set of three lightning arresters and three surge capacitors.
Potentially damaging voltage surges can be generated on the power
system by switching operations, certain faults, or lightning. The surge
capacitors slope off these steep front voltage spikes, and the lightning
arresters limit the peak voltage; both functions are essential for adequate
protection. Surge protection should be located at each motor's terminals
for maximum protection, although in many instances one set of surge
equipment is connected at the panel serving several motors.
13.2 STEAM TURBINE CONTROL
Steam turbine speed is invariably controlled by throttling the steam with a supply
valve upstream of the machine. There are four cases for control:
1) Fixed Speed Control
The required speed is predetermined and fixed and the duty of the control
system is to maintain that speed. The control signal comes directly from the
turbine, using either a mechanical, mechanical-hydraulic or electrohydraulic
system.
2) Variable Speed Control
The required speed is variable and depends on process considerations.
SECTION 13.0
PAGE 4
DATE 06-94
The control signal comes from a process instrument and directly regulates the
throttling valve.
3) Speed Limitation
The turbine is protected from excessively high speeds by an emergency

control system which initiates a sutdown.
4) Vibration Limitation
The steam turbine is automatically shut down when vibration exceeds a

preset limit.
13.2.1 Mechanical Speed Governing System
All mechanical steam turbine control systems comprise a number of basic

components which are listed and described below.
a) Speed Governor
A device which is directly responsive to speed and whose function is to

position other components in the system. It is either driven directly off
the turbine rotor shaft or is located on a separate shaft and gear driven. It
most commonly comprises a number of weights whose centrifugal force
during rotation is utilized with linkages to provide the control output
signal. Item (a) of Figure 13-1 illustrates the widely used fly-ball
governor.
b) Speed Changer
A device which varies the set point of the speed. Item (b) of Figure 13-1
illustrates one type of speed changer.
c) Governing Valve
A simple type of steam control valve is shown by Item (c) of Figure 13-
1. It is operated directly by a link from the governor and is thus part of
what is known as a direct acting flyball governor system. Excessive
speed will tend to force the weights apart which push the spindle to the
right and via the link, throttle the steam supply to the turbine.
SECTION 13.0
PAGE 5
DATE 06-94
13.2.2 Mechanical-Hydraulic Speed Control
The force required to position the steam control valve limits the use of direct
acting systems. The mechanical-hydraulic system overcomes this limitation
by using the governor output to regulate the flow of high pressure oil which
is used to operate the valve. The components of such a system are listed and
described as follows and illustrated by Figure 13-2.
a) Pilot
The pilot is shown as Item (a) of Figure 13-2. It is operated by a link

from the governor output which raises or lowers the pilot spindle and
thus determines whether the high pressure oil is used to open or close the
steam valve. In Figure 13-2 the turbine is shown as running at the
required speed. Both ports of the pilot valve are closed, and
consequently no adjustment of the steam valve is made.
b) Servomotor
The servomotor, Item (b), is operated by the high pressure oil and is used
to translate the differential pressure between the servomotor's upper and
lower cavities into vertical movement of the servo spindle which is
directly connected to the steam throttle valve.
13.2.3 Electro-hydraulic Speed Control
The electro-hydraulic speed control system has advantages over the control
systems already discussed. These are briefly:
 More accurate speed control
 Easy adaption to computer operation
 Easy adaptation to remote control such as automatic starting and loading
 Easy adaptation to process control signals
The system is illustrated in Figure 13-3, and comprises the following

components:
a) Electronic Speed Sensing Device
Figure 13-3 shows a speed sensing device that may be used in an electro-
hydraulic control system. It comprises a toothed wheel which, as it
rotates, generates small electrical pulses in a pickup. The pulses
constitute a digital input to the amplifier which produces a signal which
drives an electrohydraulic convertor. This device uses the electrical
signal to control the hydraulic pressure in an oil line to the pilot.
SECTION 13.0
PAGE 6
DATE 06-94
Figure 13-1
MECHANICAL SPEED CONTROL COMPONENTS

USING A DIRECT ACTING FLYBALL GOVERNOR
SECTION 13.0
PAGE 7
DATE 06-94
Figure 13-2
MECHANICAL-HYDRAULIC SPEED
GOVERNING SYSTEM
SECTION 13.0
PAGE 8
DATE 06-94
Figure 13-3
ELECTRO-HYDRAULIC SPEED
CONTROL SYSTEM
SECTION 13.0
PAGE 9
DATE 06-94
b) Hydraulic Speed/Control
Operation of the turbine by the pilot, servo-meter and steam throttle

valve is as in mechanical hydraulic systems.
13.2.4 Emergency Governors
All steam turbines, except the smallest, are equipped with an emergency or
runaway governor, whose function it is to shut off the steam supply to the
unit in the event of excessive speeding arising from any cause. To ensure
absolute reliability the emergency governor is usually fitted to the turbine
rotor.
It is generally adjusted so that it comes into operation if the turbine exceeds

its normal running speed by more than 10 %. This gives a margin to allow
for sudden speed increases that may result from a rapid reduction in load.
13.2.5 Vibration Control
Vibration monitors and controls are fitted to large steam turbines for the
purpose of detecting and monitoring vibration and for protecting the unit
from abnormally high vibration. They are usually fitted to the pedestal at the
high pressure end of each turbine stage and comprise pickup units, an
electronic amplifier, indicating instruments and recorder movements.
Proximity monitors are located at the shaft between the driver and the driven
equipment to ensure alignment within tolerances during operation.
Protection is provided because relatively minor vibrations may arise from

some minor mechanical defect which, if allowed to persist, could lead to
more serious trouble or breakdown. It should be noted that on start-up and
shutdown as the turbine speed passes through the frequency of its natural
harmonics, vibration will momentarily peak: manufacturer's control systems
are designed to cater for this.
13.3 GAS TURBINE CONTROL
The gas turbine is provided with a control system, by the manufacturer, which is
responsible for three functions:
 Start-up and shutdown
 Steady running
 Protection of the gas turbine
SECTION 13.0
PAGE 10
DATE 06-94
13.3.1 Control System Inputs
To carry out these functions the gas turbine control system requires input
signals provided by monitoring the following monitoring devices:
a) Speed Monitoring
An electronic speed sensing device such as that used by steam turbine

systems and described in Section 13.2.3.a is used to send a voltage signal
(which is proportional to speed) to the control panel. If the voltage is
different from a set value a speed change is made.
b) Overspeed Protection
The panel receives a voltage signal from a separate speed sensor usually
mounted on an accessory gear or shaft. It usually initiates trip at 110 %
of maximum design speed.
c) Temperature Control
The temperature control receives its signals from a number of

thermocouples mounted in the exhaust. Normally a back-up system of
thermocouples is used to prevent tripping of the gas turbine in the event
of an instrument failure.
The thermocouples function by producing a voltage proportional to the

temperature difference between the two junctions of two dissimilar
metals. This voltage is used for decisions requiring a temperature input.
d) Over Temperature Protection
The over temperature protection system uses a separate set of

thermocouples (and is usually equipped with a back-up set) to determine
exhaust temperature and compare it with a predetermined upper limit.
e) Vibration Protection
Vibration sensors are located on both the turbine and compressor

components of the gas turbine. They are similar in arrangement to those
used with steam turbines and normally provide a warning at one
vibration level and a trip at a higher level.
f) Flame Detection
SECTION 13.0
PAGE 11
DATE 06-94
The flame detection system consists of at least two ultraviolet flame

detectors which are used to sense the presence of a flame. In gas
turbines with multiple cans, several detectors are mounted in the
combustion chamber and the machine is only tripped if more than one
detector indicates loss of flame.
13.3.2 Start-up and Shutdown
A function of the control panel is to perform the start-up sequence. The

sequence, which varies depending on manufacturer and model, ensures that
the turbine does not heat too rapidly or overheat during start-up. It is
designed for remote operations to start from rest, accelerate to operating
speed and automatically synchronize with the system before accepting load.
In guiding the gas turbine through its start-up sequence it utilizes both speed
and temperature inputs in addition to signals from ancillary services such as
the lube oil system.
Shutdown is achieved by reducing the fuel at a predetermined rate until

minimum load is reached when the fuel is cut off. In an emergency
shutdown the fuel valves are closed immediately without waiting for load
reduction. The turbine is then allowed to coast to zero speed.
13.3.3 Steady Running
The control panel, using temperature and speed inputs, will maintain the gas
turbine speed to its set level by fine adjustment of the fuel supply to the
combustor using modulating solenoid valves or pneumatic control valves.
13.4 DIESEL AND GAS ENGINES
Engine-governing systems for diesel and gas engines may be broadly divided into
two categories:
 Those which regulate engine speed only, regardless of external conditions.
 Those which control not only speed but load as well to achieve a preplanned
program of power output in response to one or more external conditions or
demands.
13.4.1 Speed Control
Governors for medium-speed engines, because of the force level required to

regulate fuel input, usually employ a highly responsive speed sensor.
Normally, this is a flyball configuration, refer to Section 13.2.1, which has
very little force output but which operates a servosystem, refer to Section
13.2.2, that can deliver sufficient force to operate the fuel control. In a diesel
engine equipped with individual fuel-injection pumps, the governor servo
SECTION 13.0
PAGE 12
DATE 06-94
acts through linkages to rotate the injection-pump plungers. By means of

helical grooves on the plungers, the length of the pumping portion of the
plunger stroke, and hence the quantity of fuel delivered, is controlled. In
addition to the regular helical groove, a second (timing) helical groove can be
located at the top of the plunger to provide variable timing for dual-fuel
engines.
13.4.2 Speed-Load Control
Speed-load governing systems are generally used in applications in which the

engine speed as well as the load is a variable. Controllable-pitch propellers,
compressors, pumps, direct-current generators, and mechanical drives are
examples of this type of application. The governor is arranged to provide an
output signal, either electric or hydraulic, which bears a predesigned
relationship with engine speed and/or load and which operates to control this
load. By careful design of the system, a power output which will take best
advantage of engine performance characteristics and load requirements can
be automatically obtained. Modifications to the power program can be
achieved automatically in response to atmospheric or subsystem performance
changes.
13.4.3 Control Systems
The performance of a governing system depends not only on the type of

governor used but equally upon the configuration of the engine and the
governor match to that engine. The basic system parameters are control of
basic steadystate speed, the amount of speed change during a load change,
and the rapidity of return to the set speed after such a load change has
occurred.
System response time is dependent upon the engine type, the time required to
convert a fuel-output change to a torque-out change, the inertia of the
rotating assembly, the basic speed, and the number of cylinders.
a) Overspeed Governor
Engines may be equipped with an overspeed trip which automatically

shuts off fuel or otherwise stops the engine if it operates at a speed in
excess of some predetermined value. This overspeed governor should be
separate from the regular speed governor.
b) Fuel-Selector Control (Dual-Fuel Engines)
This control mechanism permits selection of either diesel or dual-fuel

mode of operation. Some controls permit selection of any proportion of
fuel, ranging from dual-fuel with minimum pilot oil to full diesel
operation.
SECTION 13.0
PAGE 13
DATE 06-94
c) Fuel-Air-Ratio Control
This control is used on dual-fuel and spark-ignited engines to control the

volume of intake combustion air to achieve the necessary ratio of air to
fuel.
d) Ignition Control (Spark Advance)
This control regulates ignition advance relative to engine speed. On

engines so equipped, automatic control is possible. Ignition advance
may be manually set, automatically set, or preset, depending on the
particular requirements of the installation.
e) Alarm and Safety Shutdown Controls
These controls provide for visual and/or audio alarm and shutdown of
the engine when some malfunction, such as excessive temperature or
insufficient pressure, occurs. A wide variety of control features are
available, and the extent of an installation will depend on the needs of
the plant and the desires of the operator. Most systems utilize pneumatic
relays coupled to sensing devices such as pressure switches, vibration
switches, and temperature-sensing elements. The sensing elements are
set for predetermined values, and if these values are met,they will initiate
an automatic shutdown of the engine by cutting off the fuel or by other
means.
f) Starting Controls
Engine-starting controls are provided, the exact installation depending on

the requirements and specifications of the engine.
g) Temperature Controls (Thermostatic Valves)
Various arrangements may be designed to achieve temperature control of

cooling water and lubricating oil. Thermostatically controlled valves can
be used to modulate flow, depending on the temperature of the fluid, by
directing the flow through heat exchangers, radiators, etc., when the
temperature rises above a preset value.
h) Load Controls
There may be incorporated in an engine, controls which will signal the

driven equipment (particularly a compressor) that the engine is
approaching an overload. This signal will activate control circuits or
SECTION 13.0
PAGE 14
DATE 06-94
mechanisms in the equipment to cause it to unload before the engine is

overloaded.
Conventional flow control instrumentation is generally used to control turbo-

expanders and power recovery turbines.
The operation of the turbo-expander variable inlet nozzles has already been
described in Section 10.5.1.
The means of speed control depends on the process flow condition. For
systems where more liquid is available to the unit than is needed to generate
the power required by the pump, speed is regulated by using a control valve
in parallel with the turbine to bypass a portion of the process flow.
Where the capacity available to the unit is less than that required at available
head and design speed, speed control is achieved by throttling the available
pressure so that the unit sees only a portion of that available head needed to
satisfy its head-speed-capacity relationship at the desired speed. The bypass
and throttling valves are usually operated automatically by process
instrumentation.
SECTION 14.0
PAGE 1
PROCESS MANUAL DRIVER SPECIFICATION
DATE 06-94
14.0 DRIVER SPECIFICATION
The preparation of the driver specification data sheets is the joint responsibility of the
mechanical engineer and the compressor manufacturer. The mechanical engineer
shall originate these forms after discussion with the process engineer. The process
engineer's responsibility is to identify the type of driver needed and the required
control flexibility. For steam turbine drivers the process engineer shall specify the
supply steam pressure/temperature and the discharge conditions while ensuring that
the steam consumption fits into the steam balance.
The applicable driver specification form descriptions and form numbers are shown
below.
From Description From Number

Engine Driver – General Purpose E-553/534
Electric Motor E-527
Combustion Gas Turbine E-528 A-1
General Purpose Steam Turbine DS-611 (Pages 1-3)
Special Purpose Steam Turbine E-572 A-H
SECTION 15.0
PAGE 1
PROCESS MANUAL TROUBLE SHOOTING
DATE 06-94
15.0 TROUBLESHOOTING
The electric motor will give trouble free service for the greater part of its useful life
providing that it is properly maintained. Maintenance requirements fall into two
categories:
 Electric
Winding insulation resistance must be kept up and contact resistance kept down.
 Mechanical
Running clearances and bearings must be maintained.
Apart from regular maintenance, electric motors must also be protected from
electrical problems such as surge etc., refer to Section 13.1.3, and from moisture, oil,
grit and dust by using the proper motor enclosure.
Problems that are likely to occur from improperly maintained or protected electrical
motors are shown in Table 15-1.
15.2 STEAM TURBINES
Steam turbines may suffer from problems such as shaft, disc or blade vibration which
are usually associated with design, manufacture, or material selection. Such
problems are beyond the scope of this manual.
All steam turbines suffer from long term deterioration, usually of the blading and
glands. Damage of this nature is detected by careful log keeping of pressures,
temperatures, steam flows and power outputs. Erosion and corrosion of the blading
will result in decreased steam flow with reduced output and lower pressure drops per
stage. Deposits on the blades will increase intermediate stage pressures and reduce
steam flow and output. Loss of pressure and output may also be caused by leakage.
Deterioration of this nature may be reduced by improving the quality of the steam
feed by removal of impurities and by ensuring that the wetness fraction of the steam
is minimized. Severe erosion tends to occur at wetness in excess of 12 %.
Table 15-2 summarizes the most common problems likely to occur with steam
turbines and possible means of their prevention or alleviation.
SECTION 15.0
PAGE 2
DATE 06-94
15.3 GAS TURBINE TROUBLESHOOTING
There are many types of failure associated with gas turbines since these units are very
complex. The majority of failures (up to 80 % in all types and ranges of gas turbine)
are associated with the very high temperatures of the hot sections of the machine and
are usually connected with the fuel. Table 15-3 shows some of the more frequent
causes of failure and their frequencies of occurrence.
15.3.1 Fuel Nozzles
Fuel nozzles clog easily and can come loose. In most cases the nozzle does
not go through the turbine but it permits a large amount of fuel to enter the
combustion chamber. The liquid fuel is transported to the transition piece
and on towards the first stage nozzles. These nozzles act as flame holders
causing the fuel to ignite and create a large flame which burns out the first
stage nozzles and rotor blading.
15.3.2 Crossover Tubes
Crossover tubes are used in multiple combustion chamber units to equalize

pressure and to assure combustion in all chambers. Tube failure is caused by
increased flow of hot gases through some tubes because of blockages in
others.
15.3.3 Combustor Liners
Failure of liners is usually caused in gas turbines using steam injection, refer
to Section 10.3.4.b, where improper mixing occurs and the free steam causes
differential cooling resulting in high thermal stresses.
15.3.4 Secondary Nozzles
Failure of secondary and downstream nozzles can be caused by liquid fuel

impinging on the blades causing hot spots and cracking. If ignition fails at
start-up, liquid fuel can accumulate in pockets of low velocity and when
combustion does occur it causes an explosion or a fire which severely
damages the blading.
Table 15-4 summaries the most frequent gas turbine problems and steps that
may be taken to prevent or alleviate them.
15.4 DIESEL/GAS ENGINES
Both diesel and gas engines are subject to wear of moving mechanical parts and wear
and fatigue caused by vibration. Proper regular servicing and systematic checking of
such items as oil consumption, compression, pressures and temperatures will ensure
that the engine operates reliably.
SECTION 15.0
PAGE 3
DATE 06-94
Table 15-1
Failure Cause of Failure Effect of Failure Preventative Measures
Bearings Grit, Dust, Age Uneven air gap and mechanical damage Frequent check of bearing condition. Proper
(possibly severe) to insulation or windings motor enclosure selection to prevent ingress of
dirt
Windings Worn bearings Check bearings regularly
Short circuit in motor terminal Loss of phase winding by mechanical or Check terminal box seals, use short circuit
box electrical damage: overheating protection
Short circuit in motor Proper motor enclosure to prevent ingress of

moisture, use short circuit protection
Insulation Loose Winding Regular check of windings
Worn bearings Motor Regular check of bearings
Age Breakdown Regular test of insulation; maintain as necessary
Use surge protection

Voltage Surge
SECTION 15.0
PAGE 4
DATE 06-94
Failure Cause of Failure Effect of Failure Preventative Measures

Bent Rotor Shaft Unsatisfactory lubrication of Proper bearing maintenance
rotor bearings
Previous shaft whirling or Excessive noise and vibration, loss in turbine

whipping unsymmetrical efficiency
heating of rotor or rotor shaft.
Admission of water into turbine.

Premature Blade Excessive condensation in Loss in turbine efficiency Employ reheat, increase steam inlet
Erosion turbine stages temperature, employ blade protection, provide
means of drainage from stages
Premature Blade Impure Boiler Feed Loss in turbine efficiency Use a separator to remove impurities
Corrosion
Boiler feed containing dissolved Use a closed feed system
gases
Heavy Blade Contaminated steam from Loss of turbine power and steam flow Chemical dosing of feed steam. Regular
Deposits reciprocating engines washing with saturated steam, water injection or
Failure of thrust bearings chemicals
Impurities carried over from
boiler
Excessive Gland Worn, distorted or damaged Loss of heat energy from steam Proper seal maintenance and replacement.
Leakage gland seals Proper maintenance of clearances
Incorrect carbon ring seal Lose of turbine efficiency

clearance Remove Scaling
Scaling
Table 15-3
Power Type of Fuel Cracked Crossover Transition Turbine Turbine Turbine Turbine Guide
SECTION 15.0
PAGE 5
DATE 06-94
Output Service Nozzle Liners Tube Place Nozzle Nozzle Blade Disc Vane
1-5 Continuous
MW Base load 30 5 5 15 5 20 3
Intermittent 5 11 5 20 10 20 5
Peaking 5 15 10 20 9 20 6
5-15 Continuous
MW Base load 20 10 7 10 5 15 5 1 5
Intermittent 17 15 10 15 8 15 5 4
Peaking 15 18 10 15 7 15 5 22 4
15-35 Continuous
MW Base load 20 10 5 3 5 4 10 3 2 6
Intermittent 10 10 5 5 8 5 15 5 4 6
Peaking 10 10 7 7 10 5 15 5 4 6
Above Base loaded 20 12 5 5 10 5 10 3 2 5

35 MW
SECTION 15.0
PAGE 6
DATE 06-94
Power Type of Com- Com- Radial Thrust Seals Coupl Foreign Lube Misalign Gear Sha
Output Service pressor pressor Bearings Bearings -ings Object System -ment Failur ft
Disc Diffuser Damage Failure es
I-5 Continuous
MW base load 2 3 5 2 4 1
Intermittent 2 4 4 5 3 2 2 2
Peaking 2 4 4 3 2
5-15 Continuous
MW base load 1 4 3 4 2 2 1 2 3
Intermittent 3 3 3
Peaking 3 3 3
15-35 Continuous
MW base load 1 5 3 3 4 2 3 3 5 3
Intermittent 1 7 3 3 4 2 1 1 3 2
Peaking 1 7 3 3 4 2 1
Above Base
15 MW Loaded 2 3 4 3 2 2 1 3 2 1
SECTION 15.0
PAGE 7
DATE 06-94
15.4.1 Vibration Monitoring
Misalignment, unbalance and derived dynamic effects, such as gyroscopic

action and whirl, force the components of a machine to vibrate: the vibration
may increase the wear and other forcing influences and lead to ultimate
fatigue failure. For this reason vibration monitoring, either by broad
frequency band or by the more sensitive narrowband frequency techniques
are recommended. Shock pulse monitoring, of particular significance to
rotating element bearings, is a special application of vibration monitoring.
For what may be termed 'normal' vibration monitoring the practice involves
analysis of either the displacement, velocity or acceleration of the vibration.
This may be crudely, but adequately, based on the whole frequency range and
only the peak vibration parameter measured.
15.4.2 Wear Monitoring
With many reciprocating engines probes may be used to measure clearances,

especially those between piston and liner, although various contamination
monitoring techniques can be used to provide a whole-engine wear
monitoring facility.
Lubricating oils and hydraulic fluids transport the debris produced by wear
and corrosion. By monitoring the quantity, size and shape of the debris it is
possible to tell what is deteriorating.
Two methods of contaminant analysis are commonly used.
a) Magnetic Plug Inspection
This employs a plug with a magnetic chip insert which is inspected

periodically. An example of the type of debris that may be found is
shown in Table 15-5.
b) Oil Analysis
Oil analysis is carried out on an oil sample by a laboratory to determine

the nature of the contaminants. A knowledge of the construction and
operation of the machine will aid in the location of the source of
deterioration. Table 15-6 gives some of the most common sources of
contaminant.
The engine supplier should be consulted regarding normal operating
characteristics and possible problem areas should the engine deviate
substantially from these.
SECTION 15.0
PAGE 8
DATE 06-94
SECTION 15.0
PAGE 9
DATE 06-94
SECTION 15.0
PAGE 10
DATE 06-94
Failure Debris Characteristics

(a) ball bearings (balls) rounded 'rose-petals' with radial splits
(b) ball bearings (tracks) roughly rounded shape with crisscross
scratch lines
(c) rolling-element rectangular and curled bearings (rollers)
(d) gears (scuffing) irregular shape, lustrous surface with minute
indentations
Failure Debris Characteristics
Iron Cylinder liners, piston rings

Iron and silicon
Blocked filter/ingress of dust
plus high wear
Copper and lead Wear of copper-lead bearings
Copper, lead, tin Wear of bronze small end
bushes
Tin and lead Wear of white metal bushes
Chromates Coolant leakage, chromate in
corrosion inhibitor
Silver Wear of platings, corrosion of
silver-soldered pipe fittings
Aluminum Pistons: bearings, turbocharger
casing
Copper Bearings
Chromium Piston rings, cylinder liners
Iron Cylinder liners, crank shaft,
auxiliary drive, piston rings
and camshaft
Lead Bearings
Molybdenum Piston rings
Nickel Valves
Silver Bearings
Tin Bearings
Silicon Ingested dirt, core sand
15.5 TURBO-EXPANDER AND POWER RECOVERY UNITS
Both turbo-expanders and power recovery units tend to suffer the long term
deterioration by erosion and corrosion of blading, wheels and impellers common to
steam turbines - refer to Section 15.2.
The supplier should also be consulted regarding problems related to the use of
lubricating oil at the low temperatures at which turbo-expanders operate which affect
particularly bearings, seals and wear of moving mechanical parts.
SECTION 16.0
PAGE 1
PROCESS MANUAL CODES/STANDARDS AND SYMBOLS
DATE 06-94
16.0 CODES/STANDARDS AND SYMBOLS
Codes and standards applicable in the specification and rating of compression

equipment and their drivers are listed below.
16.1.1 Dynamic Compressors
API Standard 617, "Centrifugal Compressors for General Refinery Service."
API Standard 672, "Packaged, Integrally Geared Centrifugal Air

Compressors for General Refinery Service."
API Standard 673, "Special Purpose Centrifugal Fans for General Refinery
Service."
16.1.2 Positive Displacement Compressors
API Standard 618, "Reciprocating Compressors for General Refinery

Service."
API Standard 619, "Rotary Type Positive Displacement Compressors for

General Refinery Services."
16.1.3 Drivers
API Standard 611, "General Purpose Steam Turbines for General Refinery
Services."
API Standard 612, "Special Purpose Steam Turbines for General Refinery
Services."
API Standard 616, "Type H Industrial Combustion Gas Turbines for General
Refinery Services."
16.1.4 Compressor Auxiliaries
API Standard 613, "Special Purpose Gear Units for Refinery Service."
API Standard 614, "Lubrication, Shaft Sealing, and Control Oil Systems for
Special Purpose Application."
API Standard 615, "Sound Control of Mechanical Equipment for Refinery

Service."
SECTION 16.0
PAGE 2
DATE 06-94
16.1.5 Fluor Daniel Standards and Specifications
OpCon Practice 000 225 0710, "Project Execution - Design Criteria."
OpCon Practice 000 225 1131, "Hydraulic Design - Single Phase Flow -
Gas."
OpCon Practice 000 225 2545, "Equipment Calculation and Data -

Compressors."
OpCon Practice 000 225 9505, "Physical Properties - Thermodynamic

Models."
OpCon Practice 000 225 9510, "Computer Programs - Selection and Use."
OpCon Practice 000 250 2420, "Compressor Piping - Plot Layout -

Reciprocating Compressors."
OpCon Practice 000 250 2421, "Compressor Piping - Plot Layout -

Centrifugal Compressors."
OpCon Practice 000 250 2425, "Compressor Piping - Design - Reciprocating

Compressors."
OpCon Practice 000 250 2426, "Compressor Piping - Design - Centrifugal

Compressors."
OpCon Practice 000 250 2470, "Compressor Piping - Reciprocating

Compressors - Piping and Arrangement."
OpCon Practice 000 250 2475, "Compressor Piping - Pulse Dampener Type,
and Location of Mounting on Reciprocating Compressors.
ST-1-0011, "Flow Diagram Symbols - Compressors and Blowers."
ST-4-5071, "Piping Standards - Pump Piping, (Steam) Turbines, and

Reciprocating Pumps."
SP-5.1.1, "General Piping - Process and Utility Design, Layout, and Drawing
Specification - Compressor, Section 5.9."
SECTION 16.0
PAGE 3
DATE 06-94
16.2 SYMBOLS
The following is a list of symbols used in this manual:
bp = brake power, hp
c = clearance
Cp = specific heat capacity at constant pressure, Btu/lb oF
Cv = specific heat capacity at constant volume, Btu/lboF
DH = enthalpy change, Btu/lb
dp = differential pressure, psi
dpT = differential pressure transmitter
dT = temperature rise, oF, oR
 = efficiency
 ti = indicated thermal efficiency
FIC = flow indicating controller
FT = flow transmitter
FY = amplifying relay
h = head, ft
ip = indicated power, hp
k = adiabatic exponent
L = losses, hp
LHV = lower heating value, Btu/lb of fuel
LHVp = constant pressure lower heating value, Btu/lb of fuel
M = molecular weight, lb/lbmole
m = mass flow rate, lb/s
SECTION 16.0
PAGE 4
DATE 06-94
n = polytropic exponent
n' = number of moles
N = rotational speed, rpm
Ns = specific speed
P = power, hp
p = absolute pressure, psia
pt = total pressure, psia
ps = static pressure, psia
q = specific heat transfer, Btu/lb
Q = capacity, ft3/min
r = compression ratio or pressure ratio
R = specific gas constant, lbft/lb oR
Ro = universal gas constant, lbft/lbmole oR
Rp = pressure ratio
s = number of stages
SIC = speed indicating controller
ST = speed transmitter
T = temperature, oF, oR
T1 = air or gas temperature at fan inlet, oF, oR
V = volume, ft3
v = specific volume, ft3/lb
V.E. = volumetric efficiency
w = weight of gas handled, lb/s or specific work, Btu/lb
SECTION 16.0
PAGE 5
DATE 06-94
W = work, hp
X = X factor
Z = compressibility factor
ZT = vane position transmitter
Subscripts:
a = air
act = actual cycle
ad = referred to adiabatic process
av = average
c = compressor
ca = actual process referred to compressor
cb = combustion
cyc = cycle
e = turbo-expander
f = fuel
i = ideal cycle
isen = referred to isentropic process
o = overall
op = referred to orifice plate
p = referred to polytropic process
s = referred to a compressor stage
t = turbine
ta = actual process referred to turbine
theor = theoretical
SECTION 16.0
PAGE 6
DATE 06-94
numerical = number of steps in a process
SECTION 17.0
PAGE 1
PROCESS MANUAL REFERENCES
DATE 06-94
17.0 REFERENCES
17.1 REFERENCES
1) "What Process Engineers need to know about Compressors" Hydrocarbon

Processing, May 1978.
2) "Compressor Selection for the Chemical Process Industries", Chemical
Engineering, January 20, 1975.
3) API Data Book.
4) GPSA Engineering Data Book (SI).
5) "Compressibility Factors for Critical Super Pressures and Temperatures",
Petroleum Refiner, August 1960.
6) "How to Estimate Compressibility Factors and Specific Heat Ratios for
Hydrocarbon Gases", Chemical Engineering, February 8, 1982.
7) NACE MR-01-75, "Sulphide Stress Cracking Resistant Metallic Material for
Oil Field Equipment."
8) "Selecting Centrifugal Compressor Materials for Harsh Environments",
Hydrocarbon Processing, October 1981.
9) "Compressed Air and Gas Data", Ingersoll-Rand.
10) "How to use the Performance Curves to Evaluate Centrifugal Compressors",
Chemical Engineering, Jannuary 25 1982.
11) "Guidelines for Reapplying Centrifugal Compressors", Hydrocarbon
Processing, January 1984.
12) "Surge Control for Centrifugal Compressors", Chemical Engineering,
December 15, 1972.
13) "Understand Multistage Compressor Antisurge Control", Hydrocarbon
Processing, March 1985.
14) "Hydrogen Compression with Reciprocating Compressors", Hydrocarbon
15) "Selecting High-performance Centrifugal Compressors", Hydrocarbon
Processing, October 1985.
16) "Understand Centrifugal Compressor Stage Curves", Hydrocarbon
Processing, August 1986.
17) Gibbs, C.W., Compressed and Gas Data, Ingersol-Rand, New Jersey (1971).
18) Perry, R.H., Chemical Engineers Handbook, 6th Edition McGraw-Hill,
London (1984).
19) Ludwig, E.E., Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical
Plants.
SECTION 17.0
PAGE 2
DATE 06-94
20) "High Power Electric Drives Save Energy" Hydrocarbon Processing, July
1984.
21) "NEMA Standards Publication, Motors and Generators" Publication MG1-
1972, Part 1.
22) "Gas Turbine World Handbook" (Annual).
23) "Selection Guide for Expansion Turbines", Hydrocarbon Processing, August
1979.
24) "Process Application and Design of Large Power output Turbo-expanders",
Journal of Engineering for Industry, February 1973.
25) "Turbo-expanders and Condensate Recovery", The Oil and Gas Journal,
March 1973.
26) "Comparison of four different systems shows best FCC Power Recovery
Option", Oil and Gas Journal, September 17, 1984.
27) Bathe, W.N., Fundamentals of Gas Turbines, John Wiley and Sons, New
York (1984).
28) Kempe, Kempe's Engineering Yearbook for 1978, 83rd Edition, Morgan-
Grampian (Publishers) Ltd., London (1978).
29) Boyce, P.B., Gas Turbine Engineering Handbook, Gulf Publishing Company,
Houston (1987).
30) Kearton, W.J., Steam Turbine Operation, Pitman, London (1964).
31) Parrish, A., Mechanical Engineering Reference Book, 11th Edition, Newnes-
Butterworth, London (1973).
32) Werninck, E.H., Electric Motor Handbook, McGraw-Hill, London (1978).
33) Lilly, L.C.R., Diesel Engine Reference Book, Butterworths, London (1984).
34) Lyle, O., The Efficient Use of Steam, H.M.S.O., London (1960).
35) Fink, D.G., Standard Electrical Handbook for Electrical Engineers, McGraw-
Hill, London (1978).
17.2 OTHER ARTICLES

1) "Match motor to driver machine", Hydrocarbon Processing, August 1979.
2) "Select motors to save energy", Hydrocarbon Processing, August 1979.
3) Select equipment drives to cut operating energy costs", Chemical
Engineering, March 24, 1980.
4) "Solid state variable speed drives optimize driving power", Hydrocarbon
Processing, October 1981.
5) "Adjustable Speed drives as applied to centrifugal pumps", Conference on
Industrial Energy Conservation Technology, 1982.
SECTION 17.0
PAGE 3
DATE 06-94
6) "Consider gas turbines for heavy loads", Chemical Engineering, 25 August,

1980.
7) "Gas turbines - present and future", Process Engineering, August 1984.
8) "Integrate Gas Turbine Cogeneration with Fired Heaters", Hydrocarbon
Processing, August 1984.
9) "Select HPI Gas Turbines", Hydrocarbon Processing, Part I March 1985, Part
II April 1985.
10) "Turbine Lowers NO Emissions", Hydrocarbon Processing, October 1985.
11) "Selection guide for steam turbines", Hydrocarbon Processing, August 1979.
12) "Use steam turbines as process drivers", Chemical Engineering, 25 August,
1980.
13) "Efficiency improvements for steam turbine drives", Hydrocarbon
14) "FCCU Expanders, What's the Layout", Hydrocarbon Processing, April
1980.
15) "Turbo-expander Efficiency", Oil and Gas Journal, Part I, 5 July, 1982, Part
II, 12 July, 1982.
16) "Process Control of Turbo-expander Plants", Hydrocarbon Processing, May
1984.
SECTION 18.0
PAGE 1
PROCESS MANUAL APPENDIX
DATE 06-94
18.0 APPENDIX
18.1 SAMPLES OF COMPLETED DATA SHEET FORMS
Description Form number
Centrifugal Compressor E-523A

(total 5 pages)
Reciprocating Compressor E-537

E-524
(total 6 pages)
Note: The sample data sheets include typical information provided by Process
Engineering.

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SECTION TOC

FLUOR DANIEL COMPRESSOR AND DRIVER

1.3 BASIC THEORY

2.1 PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION

2.3 EFFECT OF SPEED

2.4 OPERATING RANGE

2.6 EFFECT OF COOLING

2.7 EFFECT OF BLADE ANGLE

3.0 POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSORS

3.1 RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS

4.1 LUBRICATION SYSTEMS

4.2 SEAL AND SEALING SYSTEMS

4.4 PULSATION DAMPENERS

4.5 CYLINDER COOLING

5.0 COMPRESSOR SELECTION

5.2 PROCESS GAS COMPRESSORS

6.0 DESIGN PROCEDURES

6.1 SPECIFICATION AND STANDARDS

6.2 SYSTEM DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

7.1 COMPRESSOR CAPACITY CONTROL

7.2 ANTI-SURGE CONTROL

8.1 SPECIFICATION DATA SHEETS

8.2 PROVIDING PROCESS DATA

9.1 TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

9.3 STEAM TURBINE

9.7 SHAFT VIBRATION AND CRITICAL SPEED

10.0 DRIVER DESCRIPTION

10.1 ELECTRIC MOTORS

10.1.2 A.C. Synchronous Motors

11.0 DRIVERS SELECTION

11.1 PROCESS CONSIDERATIONS

11.3 OFFSHORE PRODUCTION FACILITIES

12.0 DRIVER DESIGN PROCEDURES

12.1 CODES AND STANDARDS

12.2 ELECTRIC MOTORS

13.1 ELECTRIC MOTOR CONTROL

13.2 STEAM TURBINE CONTROL

14.1 SPECIFICATION DATA SHEETS

15.1 ELECTRIC MOTORS

15.2 STEAM TURBINES

15.3 GAS TURBINE TROUBLESHOOTING

16.0 CODES/STANDARDS AND SYMBOLS

16.1 CODES AND STANDARDS

16.1.5 Fluor Daniel Standards and Specifications

17.2 OTHER ARTICLES

18.1 SAMPLES OF COMPLETED DATA SHEET FORMS

1.1.1 Use of the Design Manual

This manual is intended to be a comprehensive reference document for the

 transferring it through pipeline systems

 fluidizing solid particles for their transport

 providing motive power for pneumatic instruments, and maintenance or

Almost every job at Fluor Daniel has employed compression equipment in

1.1.2 Organization of the Design Manual

Section 1 gives an overview of some of the technical features of dynamic

Section 2 covers the principles of operation of both centrifugal and axial

displacement type units. Positive displacement machines take successive

Section 5 contains the compressor type selection guidelines. The primary

Section 6 covers design procedures and compressor sizing methods. Prior to

 Provide a basic control concept for the equipment.

 Specify key operating parameters (capacity, gas composition, gas