Grade 9 - English Teacher's Guide

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION
English Language
Teacher’s Guide
GRADE 9
September 2003
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Ministry of Education is grateful to the following persons whose

dedication and expertise has produced this Grade 9 Teacher’s English
Language Guide for secondary schools.
Original Contributors
Ingrid Barker NCERD
Donna Chapman Ministry of Education
Wendella Jarvis Mackenzie High
Evadney Holder President’s College
Hazel Moses NCERD
Claudith Thompson University of Guyana
Grace Trotman Alleyne’s High
Reviewers
Elizabeth Duncan Subject Specialist SSRP
Vilma Lynch Subject Specialist SSRP
Evadney Williams Snr. Subject Specialist SSRP
Editor
Hazel Moses NCERD
FOREWORD
It is acknowledged that thorough planning is essential for effective teaching and learning.
Such planning is even more critical today when one considers the limited resources, both
human and material which are available.
The Ministry of Education, through the Secondary School Reform Project (SSRP), has developed
curriculum materials that have been designed to improve the quality, equity and efficiency of
secondary education. The curriculum materials include Grades 7-9 Curriculum Guides and
Teachers Guides for Language, Mathematics, Science, Social Studies, Reading and Practical
Activities Guides for Science. These materials have been tested in all secondary-age schools
nationwide and are considered useful in providing teachers with a common curriculum
framework for planning, monitoring and evaluating the quality of teaching and learning.
The curriculum materials also provide a basis for continuous assessment leading to the National
Third Form Examination (NTFE).
The initial draft curriculum materials have been subjected to evaluation, by Heads of
Departments, from all ten Administration Regions and Georgetown and they have been
subsequently revised to reflect the views expressed by teachers.
The revised curriculum materials are now published as National Curriculum documents
to provide consistency and support for teachers in the process of planning for an effective
delivery of the curriculum. All secondary teachers must ensure that they make good use
of these curriculum materials so that the quality of teaching and learning can be improved
in all schools.
Ed Caesar
Chief Education Officer.
PREFACE
This Grade 9 Teacher’s English Language Guide for secondary schools is

designed to help teachers acquire the necessary skills in teaching this
subject.
A team of Subject Specialists has produced this guide to meet the needs of
our Guyanese teachers. The methodology suggested in the lessons will
definitely enhance students’ understanding of how they could improve and
enhance their language skills. New and technical approaches are treated
with ample illustrations, content and concepts that are located within the
students’ experiential background.
A wide range of enrichment activities is included to infuse enjoyment into

the learning process, as enjoyment should be the corner stone of any
learning. In addition, teachers are helped in assessing students’ learning.
I wish every teacher all the best for a successful implementation of the
Grade 9 English Language Guide.
Good luck !!!
Ingrid Barker
Head, Curriculum Development and Implementation Unit.
National Centre for Educational Resource Development.
CONTENTS
Page
INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………….. 1
BACKGROUND INFORMATION……………………………………………… 3
What is Language…………………………………………………. 3
Language Across the Curriculum………………………………… 3
Skills………………………………………………………………… 4
Basic Language Skills…………………………………………….. 5
Learning Objectives……………………………………………….. 7
Types of Teaching Strategies…………………………………….. 8
Environmental Education…………………………………………. 11
The Learning Process…………………………………………….. 12
Learning Styles…………………………………………………….. 13
Principles of Effective Teaching………………………………….. 15
Preparing to Teach………………………………………………… 17
Basic Steps in Lesson Planning………………………………….. 24
UNIT 1
WRITTEN EXPRSSION………………………………………………………...
Developing Composition Skills………………………………………………… 25
Understanding how a Composition should be Written………… 26
Paragraph Structure………………………………………………. 27
Types of Paragraphs………………………………………………. 33
Ways of Development……………………………………………. 35
Introductory Paragraph…………………………………………... 40
Concluding Paragraphs………………………………………….. 42
Achieving Coherence…………………………………………….. 43
Narrative Writing
Purpose of Narrative Writing 47
Language Features……………………………………………….. 47
Narrative Framework……………………………………………… 49
Graphic Organisers……………………………………………….. 50
Time Relationships in Narrative…………………………………. 52
Expository Writing
Persuasive Writing……………………………………………………………………. 55
Ways of Persuading………………………………………………. 56
The Argument……………………………………………………… 58
Essay………………………………………………………………… 63
Letter………………………………………………………………… 67
Advertisement………………………………………………………. 67
Letter Writing ……………………………………………………………………….. 69
Formal Letter……………………………………………………….. 70
CONTENTS
Page
Letter of Application…………………………………………….. 71
Business Letter…………………………………………………. 76
Friendly Letter…………………………………………………… 78
Envelopes and Folding………………………………………… 79
Report Writing…………………………………………………………………. 81
Report Letter……………………………………………………. 82
Research Report……………………………………………….. 84
UNIT 2
CONPREHENSION
Overview………………………………………………………………………… 88
Pre-Reading Strategies……………………………………………………….. 90
Anticipation Guide………………………………………………. 90
K-W-L Strategy………………………………………………….. 93
Analogy Graphic Organiser……………………………………. 95
Frayer Model…………………………………………………….. 97
Proposition/Support Outline……………………………………. 99
Concept/Definition Mapping…………………………………….. 101
Reading………………………………………………………………………….. 103
Literal Comprehension………………………………………….. 103
Time and Place Relationships………………………………….. 105
Cause and Effect Relationship…………………………………. 106
Fact and Opinion…………………………………………………. 109
Inferential Comprehension……………………………………… 111
Summary…………………………………………………………………………. 116
Graphics………………………………………………………………………….. 119
Maps………………………………………………………………. 120
Venn Diagram……………………………………………………. 121
Graphs……………………………………………………………. 123
Understanding Text…………………………………………………………….. 124
Figurative Language……………………………………………………………. 131
Structured Note Taking………………………………………………………… 133
Speaking and Listening………………………………………………………… 136
Delivering a Speech……………………………………………… 137
Conducting a Meeting…………………………………………… 138
UNIT 3
GRAMMAR
Overview…………………………………………………………….…………… 139
How to Teach Grammar……………………………………………………….. 140
Subject/Verb Agreement………………………………………… 146
Voice of Verbs……………………………………………………. 150
Compatibility of Tenses………………………………………….. 151
Sentences………………………………………………………… 152
Clauses……………………………………………………………. 155
CONTENTS
Page
Sentence Fragments………………………………………………………….. 158

Sample Lessons ………………………………………………………………. 159
Glossary………………………………………………………………………… 168
References……………………………………………………………………… 171
INTRODUCTION
Language and communication are basic aspects of human behaviour and can be
communicated through oral and written means. A person uses words to articulate
in oral and in written forms, to manipulate ideas, to shape thoughts and to
understand that these key concepts are necessary in all forms of communication.
The effective use of language has deteriorated over recent years, and today
there is renewed emphasis on the acquisition of language skills. In the Guyanese
context the English language is an indispensable tool, it is not only a subject but
also a medium to instruct in all disciplines.
Good language achieves the purpose for which it is intended, therefore, as

language teachers you have a crucial role to play in the language development of
your students. Your aim as teachers of English is to ensure that young people
who graduate are both confident and competent in dealing with the many
challenges they would face in the use of language, whether in school, in the
workplace or in their personal lives.
Students have now completed two years in the secondary school, and would
have been exposed to language skills and aspects of language structures and
use, required at those levels. These students would have achieved varying levels
of language proficiency. It is your ongoing task as the teacher to continue to
provide opportunities for further language development in these students, so that
they exercise their full potential to achieve the required level of competence in
language use.
The Grade 9 Language Arts Curriculum Guide, like the previous Grades,
describes the basic language experiences that students can be involved in at this
level. The language components: Written Expression, Comprehension and
Grammar are presented separately; however, the English curriculum is also
about literature and about experiences. The components are inherently
integrated and are building blocks for each other. Though listening and speaking
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are two of the skills that interlace the language curriculum, they are treated
separately so as to target and develop competence in oratory, which is a skill
needed for specialised communication at specific forums and occasions.
The Grade 9 Teacher’s Guide aims to assist teachers to implement the

curriculum in such a way that students acquire the more advanced skills needed.
The Guide provides teachers with background information for topics and sub–
topics; suggestions for practical classroom activities; a repertoire of teaching
skills and strategies; and ways to introduce, conduct, conclude and evaluate
lessons among other considerations. Also included in the Guide are relevant
aspects of education principles and theories that can be used by the Head of
Department to train young teachers and upgrade others on the job.
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BACKGROUND INFORMATION
What is Language?
As teachers, you have the unique responsibility to assist your students in their
growth towards language maturity. To perform this task, you need to have a clear
view of what language is and ways in which children acquire its skills,
• Language is a means through which people, who share a common culture,

communicate with each other. It is clearly linked to our identity and personal
development.
• Language is a social tool by which we share feelings, ideas, opinions, and
knowledge. We use language to represent and make sense of the world
around us.
• Language is rule governed and has to be taught. It can be learned through
methods that employ imitation, association, differentiation and categorisation.
• Vocal sounds which verbalise words, and written symbols which visualise
words, comprise language.
Language across the Curriculum

The student who is articulate in oral and written language, who can use words to
manipulate ideas to shape thoughts and to understand key concepts, has an
indispensable tool for all school learning, because the ability to communicate
through language is a necessary skill in all subject areas.
But what do we mean by ‘language across all curriculum areas’? It certainly does
not mean that a teacher of science or social studies must take responsibility for
teaching sentence structure, grammar and composition skills in their subject
areas. Rather, language across the curriculum would ensure that the student is
cognisant of the fact that the use of good language structures gives clear
meaning to what they want to convey.
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A. This involves students
• Using correct grammatical structures in writing.
• Presenting thoughts in an ordered and classified manner.
• Learning the terms appropriate to the subject.
• Using with increasing precision the vocabulary of their subject.
B. This involves teachers

• Modeling the standard language as the lesson is delivered.
• Attending to the conventions of written language when marking scripts.
SKILLS
• Skills enable a person to respond appropriately to situations, or to initiate
change.
• Skills are developed through deliberate or unplanned practice.
• Skills are not merely physical acts; in fact, the only physical act involves
speaking.
Types of Skills
(a). Practical or Productive Skills
This skill is related to procedures or methods and the outcomes are important
e.g. the ability to construct a paragraph, write an essay etc.
(b). Social or Affective Skills

Types of behaviour are related to these skills but there are no fixed
procedures or methods to use to achieve this skill. It is concerned
with process rather than product e.g. the ability to work as a member of a
team or to convey understanding and appreciation.
The practical and social skills cover any skill that can be examined.
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(c). Basic Skills
The basic skills are literacy, oracy and numeracy. These skills open the
way or enhance other skill acquisition. The other skills that are enhanced
and acquired are problem solving, manipulative ability, everyday coping
and relationships.
(d). Transferable Skills

These skills can be applied to a number of different tasks e.g. reading,
decision-making, drawing etc. Teaching for ‘transfer’ requires the teacher
to use approaches in which the wider application of skills is made
apparent. Students’ attention must be drawn to the adaptability of what
they are learning e. g.
The teacher in a skill-focused programme is a facilitator for experiences which

give students the chance to practise the skills
Basic Language Skills

Speaking, listening, reading and writing are the basic skills that are found across
the curriculum, and these skills are complementary processes. Students should
at all times be given opportunities to engage in experiences that facilitate and
exercise them during the lesson for a more formidable development of English.
As children talk together and share what they read, and respond to each other’s
written work, they grow towards full language maturity, and also achieve a major
role of instruction which is to be better thinking students.
Teachers are therefore challenged to help students think critically and
imaginatively and speak, listen, read and write capably and effectively.
Goals
Speaking –
To develop students’ ability to speak
(a). formally, semi-formally and informally with confidence, clarity, and fluency
(b). in a variety of situations for a variety of audiences
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(c). for a range of purposes of increasing complexity
Listening –
To develop students’ ability to listen
(a). with an increased span of concentration in order to ask and to respond to
questions and express opinions
(b). attentively to readings to appreciate stories, poems, drama and other
literary material
(c). to respond appropriately, so as to give, receive and follow precise
instructions when pursuing a task individually or as a group member
Reading –
To develop students’ ability to
(a). read with fluency and confidence, a range of different kinds of material
using reading methods appropriate to the material
(b). read meaningfully to understand and interpret written text
(c). read for information, for interest, for entertainment and for the extension of
experience and insight that poetry and fiction afford
Writing –
To develop students’ ability to
(a). write confidently for a range of purposes and to a variety of audiences
(b). organise the content of what is written in ways appropriate to the purpose
(c). use the mechanics of writing, so as to convey intended meaning
Thinking is often considered to be the fifth language art. It serves as the

foundation for and is the thread that weaves together the listening, speaking,
reading and writing skills. All the levels of thinking in the process of learning is
classified in Bloom’s taxonomy of the cognitive domain. The levels of thinking are
knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation.
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Learning Objectives
Learning objectives should include the learner’s development of:

Skills to provide practical ways of doing things
Knowledge to have a framework of ideas with which to make sense of
their learning experience
Attitudes that are necessary for positive achievement
Learning objectives can be broken down into the following categories that
constitute Bloom’s Taxonomy.
Knowledge The ability to understand and recall information and facts
Comprehension The ability to understand what is being

communicated and make use of the material or idea being
communicated without necessarily relating it to other material or
seeing its fullest implications
Application The ability to abstract, relate or apply general ideas, procedures,

principles or theories to explain specific situations or phenomena
Analysis The ability to break down information into its constituent parts
such that each part is understood and/or relationship between is
explicit
Synthesis The ability to put together parts so as to form a whole. This

involves working with pieces and parts, and combining and
arranging them in such a way as to create new patterns or
structures
Evaluation The ability to make quantitative and qualitative judgments about

the degree to which this information satisfies certain criteria
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Types of Teaching Strategies
Teaching strategies can be classified as Expository, Discovery, Exploratory and
Evaluative.
Expository Methods
Lecturing
This is when the teacher provides new information by lecturing to students.
Students are required to process the information by paying attention to the
teacher. Learning takes place as students link new information with relevant
previous knowledge. It therefore means that the lecture method is most effective
when students have the necessary background knowledge with which to make
meaningful links with the new information being presented. The lecture method is
particularly useful when dealing with a relatively large class.
Demonstrations
This is another form of the expository method. This method is particularly useful
when students need to have a concrete experience to facilitate learning.
Demonstrations usually arouse students’ interest and provide excitement in the
class.
This method can also be used when
♦ there are insufficient materials
♦ the students are unable to do a particular activity
♦ there are safety and space considerations
♦ it is necessary for all students to have a common reference for a
particular learning activity.
Discovery Methods
Discovery methods include practical activities and field visits. These methods
are useful especially for concept development. They require students to process
information by doing, observing and engaging in other process skills such as
classifying, measuring and making inferences. In applying these process skills
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the students abstract salient characteristics of a particular situation for concept
development and for application of concepts and principles to solve the problem.
Discovery/Exploratory methods are usually practical activities such as hands-on
activities in science, experimenting, art-work, making models and projects.
Participatory Methods
These methods include group discussions, debates, role-play, simulation and
drama. They are particularly useful in dealing with topical issues, values in
education and for the development of desirable attitudes. They provide
opportunity for the students to express how they feel and what they think in a
non-threatening manner. They can also be entertaining and appropriate
activities that allow all students to participate in the learning experience.
Evaluative Methods
These methods are used at the end of a lesson for review and to check whether
or not the objectives of the lesson were achieved. Such methods include
questions, quizzes and tests.
Selection and use of the Teaching Strategies

It is important for you the teacher to use a variety of teaching strategies. Your
selection of a strategy should depend on factors such as
♦ the topic to be taught
♦ the number of students for the particular lesson
♦ the ability of the students
♦ the number of different activities taking place simultaneously
♦ the demand of the learning task
Use of Demonstrations
When using demonstrations, you should
Ensure that all the students are able to see what is taking place
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Elicit from students what they are observing and point out any special
features if necessary
Depending on the activity, get some students involved by asking them to
serve as volunteers
Prepare and rehearse the demonstrations to ensure that it works
Point to note
Demonstrations can be used in all subject areas.
Participatory Methods
When using this method you should
Ensure that no student is put in an embarrassing position. This can
happen if the activity deals with a sensitive matter such as family
relationship or socio-economic conditions.
Let the students enjoy the process but ensure that the point of the lesson
is not lost by asking and getting them in a summary of the lesson.
Integration
Integration is a teaching strategy that is used to link the subject matter in all
disciplines. This strategy can be planned or it may be incidental. It is not merely
the use of the content of one subject within another subject that constitutes
integration, but it is through discussion and exploration of the issues in the
content that facilitates integration. It is not necessary to integrate every lesson,
for some lessons require students to focus on the language skill/s alone e.g.
grammar lessons, while others are naturally integrated e.g. expository writing
integrated with science – How to conduct an experiment/process.
In any lesson you can use more than one of the strategies. For example, a
lesson may begin with a demonstration and then students can participate through
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discussion and at the end of the learning session an evaluative method is used to
determine how much was learnt.
Environmental Education
The Environment is not merely the physical, the biotic and the cultural, but also
refers to the immediate environs of the home, the school and the community. It is
therefore important to foster environmental responsibilities in students, teachers
and support staff.
♦ Environmental Education (EE) is about teaching the student about the

environment, in the environment and most important, for the
environment.
♦ EE enables interaction to exist between people and the environment.
♦ EE aims to develop in students the skills, knowledge, understanding and
values that will enable them to make informed decisions and take action
for the environment.
The Learning Context for EE

The ethos of the school is an important and powerful dimension in developing in
young people values, attitudes and behaviour. “The quality of the relationships
between people in the classroom and school, as well as the quality of the
surroundings inside and around the school, are key factors in creating a
stimulating learning atmosphere for students and teachers.” For effective EE,
schools should practise what they teach.
Curriculum Content
The environmental content of science and geography and to a lesser extent
history and social studies are explicitly identified within the programme of study.
The other subjects could develop knowledge, understanding and skills relevant to
EE by using environmental contexts and issues.
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Teaching and Learning Styles of EE
The development of students’ ability to express their own views, and listen to
those of others, form reasoned opinions, work co-operatively, make decisions
and take action for the environment is related to the adopted teaching and
learning styles e. g. co-operative learning, enquiry-based approach, use of real
life issues, use of secondary sources and first hand experience.
THE LEARNING PROCESS

Learning is a process by which knowledge, skills, and attitudes are acquired.
Students learn best through:
♦ Making connections - connecting new knowledge to what is already learned
♦ Meaningful experience - experiences to encourage enquiry and discovery
♦ Talking things through - discussion with others
♦ Writing things down - expressing ideas and experiences
♦ Creative expression – exploring through art, dance, drama, music and craft
♦ Praise and recognition – for success, effort and progress
♦ Challenge and expectation – acquirable standard of achievement
♦ Responsibility and self assessment – evaluating their own learning
The process is of maximum value to the student when the learning context is
structured, when learning styles are taken into account and when the teaching
style is professional.
The Learning Context

Students need to be able to make sense of their learning environment and
should be confident with what they are about to learn, be told what is expected of
them and what the learning outcome will be. Teachers will therefore need to
provide learning guidelines in the introduction of the lesson.
Learning guidelines are to a student what a road map is to a motorist. They map
out for the students what is to be learnt, how it is to be learnt and the steps to
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follow in order to achieve the intended learning.
What they need to know:

What is to be taught and its benefit to them
What the teacher expects of them in relation to the lesson
What they may/may not use
When they may/may not do certain things.
How they can succeed in tasks
How the lesson will be evaluated
Telling students how they will be evaluated helps them to know what kind of
learning will be acquired from the lesson. Students may prepare differently for
different types of evaluation. To specify evaluation procedures, the teacher can
tell the students what kinds of tests will be given, what kinds of questions will be
asked and what kind of knowledge or skills will be evaluated.
Learning Styles
There are four learning styles that are utilised by students in and out of the
classroom. Students learn through seeing, talking, doing and touching. In other
words, the human senses are the avenues for learning.
Students respond in two ways to learning. There is the cognitive response that
comprises the learning styles and there is the social response that indicates how
they interact with the learning.
A. Cognitive Response
LOOKERS –Visual learners
They like to see what they learn.
Method to use
• Demonstrations and illustrations
• Visual aids, charts, and pictures that focus attention on the lesson
• Written examples on the chalkboard
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TALKERS - Auditory learners
Like to listen and talk about what they learn.
Method to use
• Give verbal instruction and affirm students verbally.
• Use sound in the environment e.g. recordings, audio-visuals.
• Allow student to lead in discussion.
DOERS and TOUCHERS – Kinaesthetic learners

They like to be physically involved in what they learn.
Methods to use
Tasks that
• Manipulation and construction of models e.g. drama, games etc.
• Create an action–oriented environment
• Encourage peer-teaching so that they can do things for others
Basically students learn to some extent through all these styles, but each student
learns best through one style that is dominant and is his/her main channel of
learning.
B. Social Response
(1). Attention seekers (3). Intermittent workers
(2). Solitary workers (4). Quiet collaborators
Teachers, you need to get to know your students’ cognitive and social responses
as individual learners, so that you would be able to match and accommodate
your teaching to most of their learning styles.
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Principles of Effective Teaching
1. Have clear goals for instruction
2. Ensure the relevance of classroom activities to real-world context and student’s
lives
3. Exhibit adaptation to diversity by selecting instructional strategies and materials
appropriate to age, background, culture, and special needs of individual students.
4. Create a classroom climate that promotes learning, intrinsic motivation, and
achievement.
5. Encourage social interaction related to classroom subject matter.
6. Provide a structure that guides students’ learning and behaviour.
7. Facilitate effective information processing.
8. Support mastery of fundamentals, including proficiency in the basic knowledge
and skills that provide the foundation for advanced learning.
9. Provide the challenge essential for cognitive development.
10. Promote higher-level thinking skills.
11. Communicate realistic high expectations for students’ performance.
12. Engage in regular monitoring of students’ behaviour and progress towards
classroom goals.
A. Elements of teaching style

Professional Skills
(a). Interpersonal skills, relating/motivating/communicating etc.
(b). Classroom management
(c). Planning and preparation
(d). Matching tasks to children
(e). Assessment and record keeping
Professional Knowledge
(a). How children learn and develop
(b). Awareness of curriculum developments
(c) Current educational debate
(d). Recent classroom research
(e). New materials for teaching and learning
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Professional Attitudes
(a). Personal qualities, enthusiasm/energy/confidence/flexibility etc.
(b). Personal values and beliefs
(c). Personal relationships with colleagues etc
(d). Professional and life goals
(e). Self awareness and self appraisal
B. Characteristics of progressive and traditional teachers

The teacher’s professional skill is characterised in the way he/she delivers the
curriculum. The characteristics displayed should show him/her to be a
progressive or traditional teacher according to two schools of thought. However,
the characteristics reveal in both cases extremities in the role of both the teacher
and student. The table below blends the characteristics of the progressive with
the characteristics of the traditional teacher to produce the desired characteristics
for a teacher in the Guyanese context.
Characteristics
1. Integrated subject matter
2. Teacher as guide to educational experiences
3. Active student role
4. Learning by discovery techniques, practice and memory learning
5. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
6. Equal priority to academic, social and emotional development
7. Adequate testing
8. Accent on cooperative group work mixed with healthy competition
9. Teaching in and outside the classroom base
10. Accent on creative expression
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PREPARING TO TEACH
The Language lesson like all other lessons aim to help students learn, apply and
understand new concepts.
In preparing the lesson, the teacher will:

• Formulate the objectives.
• Select the content.
• Select the teaching methods.
• Select the materials needed.
• Select the method of evaluation.
There should be congruence between the stated objectives, content and
evaluation procedure. The thought process that is used in a lesson results in the
outcome that is measured as the performance. The expected performance or
outcome of any lesson is stated in the objective.
A. Objectives
(1). Learning Objectives
A learning objective is a clear and unambiguous statement about what the

learner should know, understand and be able to do as a result of some learning
experience. Learning objectives must include the learners’ development of skills,
knowledge, understanding and attitude. The learning objectives are given in the
curriculum guides.
Skills provide practical ways of doing things.
Knowledge provides a framework of ideas with which to make sense of

his / her learning experience.
Understanding applies the skills and knowledge gained to solve problems
in unfamiliar situations.
Attitudes respond positively to new learning.
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(2). Behavioural Objectives
The learning objectives that you wish to achieve at the end of the lesson are
stated in behavioural terms. Behavioural objectives specify what the learner will
be doing when an evaluation is made to discover whether the intention has been
achieved. These objectives must be clear, measurable and achievable.
Stating Behavioural Objectives

Performance
Specifies the kind of behaviour the instruction attempts to produce and that will be
accepted as evidence that the learner has achieved the objective.
Condition
Describes the important conditions under which the performance or behaviour is
expected to occur.
Criteria
Specifies the criteria of performance which would determine how good the student’s
performance must be for it to be acceptable.
Terms such as ‘to identify’, ‘to state’ and ‘to describe’ indicate the form of
behaviour the students are expected to demonstrate in terms of skills, knowledge
and understanding. The attitudinal behaviour is not stated in the objective as it is
not measured but mainly observed through enthusiasm and interest.
The tables following show the categories with some behavioural terms for stating
objectives and an example of a behavioural objective.
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Knowledge Knowledge
Students will be able to
To define identify and state the
To describe parts of speech of all
To identify the words used in
To state given sentences.
To list
To recall
To recognise
To match
To name
To acquire
To collect
Comprehension Comprehension
After listening to the
To translate reading of a story,
To give in own words
students will be able to
To illustrate
re-write the entire story
To prepare
To read in their own words.
To represent
To change
To convert
To distinguish
To estimate
To explain
Application Application
To apply produce and dramatise
To relate a scene from a section
To develop of a story they have
To generalise read.
To transfer
To prepare
To produce
To show
To solve
To use
To manipulate
To operate
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Analysis Analysis
To distinguish classify the types of all
To classify the nouns taken from a
To detect given paragraph.
To deduce
To categorise
To break down
To discriminate
To analyse
To identify
To infer
To outline
To point out
Synthesis Synthesis
To write write a short story from
To tell a narrative poem after
To relate discussing the plot of
To produce the poem.
To transmit
To modify
To document
To create
To compose
To re-write
To revise
To plan
To design
To derive
To develop
To combine
Evaluation Evaluation
To compare compare their
To conclude predictions with their
To justify
actual findings after
To judge
reading the
To standardise
To appraise comprehension
To summarise passage.
To discriminate
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THE LESSON
Content
In the Curriculum Guide, the English A content is segmented into its components
being Written Expression, Comprehension and Grammar. The content is so
structured to ensure that it is relevant and adequate to cover a year programme
and that it is progressive from Grade 7 - 9.
It is expected that teachers would choose from the components the topics that
are interrelated and would be a unit of work e.g.
A teaching unit could be taken directly from the English Language text or its parts
can be selected from several texts. The teacher must ensure that the unit of work
planned meets the needs of the recipients.
When planning a particular lesson from the unit, the teacher is required to include
the content in the lesson plan.
The content would include:

The sentences or models to be used to teach the concept.
The practice exercise/s.
The evaluation exercise/s.
Introducing the lesson

The introduction comes at the beginning of each lesson.
Purpose
• To get the students interested in the topic
• To motivate the students in preparation for the lesson
• To establish the accuracy of previous knowledge
• To introduce adequate background information about the topic
• To give students learning guidelines.
There are several things a teacher can do to achieve the purpose of the
introduction.
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Ways to Introduce a Lesson
(1). Tell a story:
A story will easily capture students’ attention. The story must hold relevance to
the topic for its use to be worthwhile. Use: Narrative Writing, Grammar
(2). Use simulation or drama:

Using simulation means having a ‘pretend’ situation that is similar to something in
real life. Students enjoy being involved and will probably be eager to dramatise
something related to the topic that is being taught.
Use: Comprehension, Written Expression
(3). Pose an interesting problem or question:

This approach may motivate students to begin to search for answers. Problems
and questions should be carefully selected to suit the students’ level of interest
and ability. Use: Oral Expression, Written Expression - Narrative
(4). Draw comparisons:

Comparisons can be made between new topics and topics which are already
familiar to the students This activity allows the child to be comfortable with the
new learning as he/she senses progress in learning and feels challenged to
achieve. Use: Grammar
(5). Offer incentives:

Teachers could point out to the students the value of learning a particular topic.
For instance, in a lesson the teacher might say, “It is important for you to write
correct grammar, so that your intended meaning is clear, and you can gain better
marks.” Another incentive that can be offered is the prospect of a longer recess.
For the use of incentives to be effective, you must select things that are desired
by your students.
(6). Arouse controversy:

This is an effective way to get students to express their opinions. For example, a
teacher might say, “We should ban mini-buses and return to the use of
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government public transport.” This extreme position on the transportation issue
may get students to give other opinions. Another method of arousing controversy
is to present a topic about which the students can hold a debate. Use: Oral
Expression, Written Expression – Points of View
(7). Present interesting audio-visuals:

It can open the door for lively discussion. An unusual object or an exciting picture
can inspire many ideas from students.
These techniques are not confined to introducing lessons but can be used
effectively within the developmental stages of the lesson.
When trying to motivate students, teachers should remember that each student is
different; what motivates one student may not motivate another. Therefore
teachers should be careful not to use the same strategy repeatedly over a short
time, because the students will soon tire of it.
Assessment
Students can be assessed at each stage of the lesson to determine their
readiness for the next stage. Then there is an assessment usually at the end of
the lesson or unit for review and to evaluate whether or not the objectives of the
lesson or unit were achieved.
Assessment Methods
There are five main methods:
1. Completion
2. Objective tests
3. Situational
4. Projects
5. Time-based
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Basic steps in Lesson Planning
The following guidelines should be followed when preparing lesson plans.
Form/Level: This guides you to the following

♦ The intellectual ability of the students
♦ Their attention span
♦ The level of information that can be given
Time: Tells you how to distribute the allocated time on the

various sections of the lesson.
Determines the amount of content that can be taught
Objective: Directs the selection and organization of strategy
Previous Knowledge: States students’ pre-requisite knowledge on which to

build
Content: Material to be taught-

♦ It should be relevant and appropriate.
♦ Information should be accurate and precise
♦ Must be organized from the known to the
unknown
Introduction: Stimulates interest and curiosity and sets the tone of

the lesson.
♦ This can take the form of a story, question,
picture etc
Development: Impartation of the concepts and facts of the content

♦ Using materials and background information
to teach new ideas and concepts
♦ Verbal interaction between you and the
students and students and students
Summary: To reinforce what was taught

♦ Single aspects of the lesson that were of
greatest importance
Evaluation: Activities at the end of the lesson

♦ Indicate if objectives were achieved/not
achieved
♦ Determine how much learning has occurred
♦ Identify skills students possess or should
possess
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UNIT 1
WRITTEN EXPRESSION
Written expression is based on oral expression and students should be
encouraged to explore their physical environment, form their impressions of what
they perceive and then express their thoughts verbally. When this is done, the
basis is laid for the teaching of written expression.
All expressions whether oral or written, require the words, and the larger unit of
that expression put into an arrangement that seeks to accomplish the purpose of
the expression. This arrangement is composition and whether it is effective or
not, will depend on the thinking that goes into it.
Writing is a mode of thinking. In order to produce a composition, writers must

generate ideas, plan for both the process of writing and for the written product
itself, translate thought into print, revise what has been written and evaluate the
effectiveness of their efforts.
Developing Composition Skills

No written expression, not even a sentence or short note, will be effective unless
it is composed well.
Readiness
It is argued that readiness for written composition is just as important as
readiness for reading. It is the view that writing readiness builds on linguistic
readiness, conceptual readiness, and on an understanding of the composing
process.
(a) Linguistic Readiness

This is developed through oral language.
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♦ Give students activities with vocabulary development, with
sentence development that uses the various syntactic patterns of
language.
♦ Give them activities such as drama and oral reporting.
Such activities will help them to develop a sense of audience. Since all
these skills are essential for effective written composition, the language
programme should stress the importance or oral language skills before
and during formal written instructions.
(b) Conceptual Readiness

Students must be able to answer several questions before they can write
effective compositions.
These questions are

1. What is the purpose of the composition?
2. How does the composition relate to the audience?
3. What are the parts of the composition?
4. How do the parts relate to each other and the composition’s purpose?
5. What is the controlling or main idea?
6. Why are they important in a composition?
7. How are supporting ideas developed?
8. Why are they important?
The answer to each of these questions is a brick in the foundation structure that
will enable students to write build on and produce effective compositions.
Understanding how a Composition should be written

Writing an effective composition with a central theme and substantiating
information requires the following
♦ A search for information
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♦ An incubation period during which thoughts can develop
♦ Writing, and often rewriting until the intended message is presented
to the appropriate audience
The writer of the composition needs to search and select information then reflect
on the main and supporting ideas in the gathered information and draw
conclusions or form new ideas.
Greene and Petty (1971) say that

“Children do not learn to write by having writing tasks assigned
to them without regard to their interests, their experiences, and
the value or lack of value they hold for the assignment. They
may write, in the sense of simply putting words on paper, usually
no more than necessary ‘get by’ – but will not write from thought,
from eagerness or from desire.”
Rather, children are encouraged to write if the topic has an apparent, meaningful
purpose and is an outgrowth of an activity and experience. They will write when
they have something to say, and when they feel that someone will read and
appreciate what they have written. For example, a student will gladly write a
summary of an experiment if he/she enjoyed working on it. Children usually have
much to write about. By careful guidance and planning of your class activities
you can help them to see the need to write.
Paragraph Development
A prerequisite for a good composition is paragraph development therefore it
should be the focus of several teaching sessions.
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The student, in addition to writing a variety of clear meaningful sentences also
needs to be able to organize ideas into paragraphs.
The following is a definition of a paragraph
A paragraph is a group of closely related sentences dealing with a single topic or

idea. Usually, one sentence, called the topic sentence, states the main idea of
the paragraph. All the other sentences must be related to this topic sentence.
These sentences further explain or support the main idea.
Activities to teach Paragraph Writing

(a) Grouping and Classifying Related Ideas
Students must be able to group and classify related ideas, since the ability
to do so demands that students be able to understand relationships. Such
classifications may relate to other content areas e.g. science or
mathematics.
(b) Identifying the Main Idea
If students cannot select the main idea from a short story or paragraph,
they will have difficulty understanding and choosing a main idea of their
own. Some activities to help them are
- choosing the best title for a paragraph or short story
- underlining the main idea in a story or paragraph
- writing titles for a paragraph or a short story
- selecting the main idea from a series of pictures which tell a story
A way to help students grasp the concept of a paragraph’s controlling idea

is to have them look at textbooks that use sub-headings which could be
used as a guide to finding the main idea. These sub-headings are really
controlling ideas of the section and can be turned into questions. For
28
example, in a chapter entitled ‘Transportation’, a sub-heading might read,
‘Land Transportation’. This sub-heading can be turned into questions
such as:
1. How are we transported on land?
2. Kinds of land transportation?
They can then read the paragraph to determine which of the questions is
answered. You can then point out to the students that the details that
answered the question are the support to the main idea. The main idea is
found in the question which is – kinds of land transportation. That is the
general information the writer is conveying.
♦ You can also lead a discussion to develop the concept that the
paragraphs are written to provide the answer to the controlling
question and do not include unrelated ideas.
♦ You can also help your students to identify the possible locations
for implied or stated main ideas (the beginning, middle or ending)
and give the key statement that conveys the main idea.
The topic sentence can be in the middle, at the end or anywhere in between.
When the writer uses an introduction to arouse the reader’s interest, he places
the topic sentence in the middle. In the following paragraph, which sentence is
the topic sentence? How many sentences make up the introduction to the
paragraph?
Example
Some people say it’s boring. Others say it’s for grandmothers. Others think it’s a
waste of time. But many people find smocking interesting and relaxing. A former
popular male basketball player does smocking as a hobby. He says it helps him
to relax and stay calm. He takes his smocking with him to card games and works
on it to help himself keep a straight face. As you can imagine, no one ever calls
him a sissy.
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♦ While the first sentence says that some thing is boring, the paragraph
states how interesting and relaxing smocking is.
♦ Sentences 1 – 3 are merely the introduction, while the fourth sentence,
“but many … relaxing”, contains the main idea.
Sometimes the topic sentence is near the end of the paragraph, or may even be
the final sentence. Writers provide information; then build up to the main idea.
It was 04:30 hr. in the morning on April 12, 1861. Suddenly, there was a flash of light. A
mortar shell burst over Fort Sumter, in Charlestown, South Carolina. For 34 hours, the
Confederate troops from the South battered the Federal troops who were in the fort.
Finally, Major Robert Anderson, the Federal commander of the fort agreed to surrender
the fort to the Confederates. The next day, President Abraham Lincoln asked the
northern states for 75,000 fighting men. The American Civil war had begun.
1. What is the main idea, and where is it mentioned?

2. Each sentence gives information about an incident.
3. Which sentence/s set/s the scene?
No. 1 & 2
4. Which one tells about the firing on a fort?
“A mortar…in the fort.”
5. What does sentence 5 tell about?
The surrendering of the fort
6. What was President’s Lincoln’s role in the passage?
His request for troops from the north intensified the conflict.
7. To which sentence do all the other sentences relate?
The final one
8. All of the preceding sentences lead up to the topic sentence,
“The American … begun.”
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Newspaper Article
HEARNS K. O.’S SHULER IN 1!
Thomas Hearns, the 27-year- When the referee, Richard
old fighter from Detroit, won the Steele, finished his 10-count,
North American Boxing Hearns threw his hands up in the
Federation’s middleweight title sign of victory and left the ring
when he knocked out James grinning.
Shuler, the champion, in the first Hearns made $1 million for
round. the fight with Shuler tonight. If
One minute and 13 seconds he gets a rematch with Hagler,
into the match, Hearns hit Shuler who beat him in three rounds
with a right hand that put the last April, he’ll earn $3.5
loser on his back on the canvas. million.
Students should examine newspaper articles to locate the topic sentence/s of

paragraphs. Discuss with them any differences therein, e.g. it is presented in
columns; sometimes a paragraph is one long sentence; the information is
summarised in the first sentence or paragraph. In the article above the main idea
and the most important information are in the first sentence. All the subsequent
sentences or paragraphs only supply the details. Reporters do this to facilitate
the busy reader; thus allowing him/her to read just the first part of an article and
get almost all of the information needed.
Teachers should encourage Grade 9 students to state the main idea at some
point in their paragraph. However, students should be aware that in many
paragraphs there is no topic sentence at all. The writer supplies the details or
information of the topic, and students have to figure out what is the main idea.
Passage
Peters, a single parent, wakes his children, gets them dressed and takes
them to school. He arrives at work late almost every morning.
Whenever he meets friends after work, he looks at his watch
constantly to see if it’s time to collect them. At 18:30 hr. he picks
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them up from the day-care centre and heads home to cook dinner. He
puts the children in bed by nine. After doing the dishes, he drinks a
beer in front of the TV, or if he finds the energy, he plays his banjo.
He figures that he sees his girlfriend about two hours a week.
After reading the passage, students figure out what is the main idea, and give
reasons to support their suggestions. Teacher writes the most appropriate ones
on the chalkboard e.g.
1. Peters is a single parent.3
2. Peters spends a lot of time with his children.3
3. Peters is so busy that he doesn’t have much time for himself.
4. It’s difficult for Peters to work and take care of his children.3
5. Peters doesn’t get to spend much time with his girlfriend, because he has
to take care of his children.3
Students check each answer and select the best one.

According to the passage:
♦ Peters is more than a single parent.
♦ Nos. 2, 4 and 5 only tell a part of what the passage is about, i.e. give
some supporting details.
♦ Since No. 3 includes all the ideas in the passage, it is the best choice.
Note that every sentence demonstrates that Peters is so busy that he
doesn’t have much time for himself.
(c) Supporting the Main Idea
A paragraph develops a main idea, and supports the main idea with facts.
When students write their own paragraphs and research facts or ideas to
include, they often have difficulty sorting important and trivial information.
♦ You can have students turn their main ideas into questions which
will help them see whether a detail is important in answering
questions.
32
♦ You can also list a number of details that accompany an idea, and
discuss with the students which are the most important and why.
(d) Logical Sequence of Ideas
Students dictating stories about their own experiences can be one of the
best ways to illustrate the concept of logical sequencing. For example,
after students have done an experiment or gone on a field trip, they can
be asked to dictate a report of their experiences, and then the class can
talk about the sequence, whether it was logical or not.
Students can also be asked to draw pictures showing the steps in an

experiment, then, write sentences or paragraphs to correspond with the
pictures.
(e) Mechanics of writing
Punctuation, subject/verb agreement, spelling and such can be anticipated

and taught in the grammar session, or can be given attention as the
problems arise during the writing of the composition.
Types of Paragraphs
Descriptive Paragraph
This type of paragraph gives a clear ‘mind picture’ of objects, scenes, persons
and experiences. It makes use of striking and significant details and comparison
and contrast.
♦ It uses words that appeal to the imagination - action verbs, adjectives

that describe size, shape and colour; adverbs that describe actions.
♦ It orders the details - a spatial arrangement for a moving or stationary

description
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Example
I gazed into the classroom and saw the most forlorn and deserted place
I had ever seen. It was a long room with three long rows of rickety desks
and benches. Torn, old textbooks and exercise books littered the dirt floor.
Some were scattered on the desks. Two miserable white mice left
behind by their owners were running up and down in a musty castle made
of cardboard and wire. On dark brown walls that were once blue, hung
dog-eared teaching aids, many of which were covered with cobweb.
To complete the picture the eastern window hung on a single hasp-
and-staple like a drunkard.
Narrative Paragraph
This type of paragraph tells a story or incident. It is written in a logical sequence,
progressing from beginning through middle to the end and follows a time
sequence.
Example
Suddenly a door slammed upstairs and we jumped in alarm.
We now spoke as though someone were listening to us.
We decided to investigate. When we were halfway upstairs, there
was a sudden swishing sound and something touched my face as
it went by. I shouted and Timothy gripped my arm. We shone
our torches upwards. It was an owl that had resented our intervention.
As we gazed at it with a mixture of surprise and relief, we saw the
open window and realized that the wind had caused the door to slam.
The Expository Paragraph

This is sometimes referred to as the explanatory paragraph because the
objective of such a paragraph is to explain. For example, such a paragraph is
used to explain how to fix, grow or make something. It can also explain why
something happened, and give information on size and location.
34
Expository paragraphs are usually developed by the use of facts or reasons. The
order in which details are set out depends on the type of explanation involved.
♦ If the aim is to give information, the facts may be stated in any order, as
long as they are clear.
♦ If it is about an event, a chronological or time order should be used.
♦ If the paragraph simply sets out to list facts, this may be done beginning
with the most important to the least important.
♦ When explaining how to make or do something, a chronological order is
the best approach.
Example
Dental care for a baby really begins during the mother’s pregnancy.
A balanced diet including adequate amounts of milk, fish and greens is
mandatory for her. The infant’s first visit to the dentist should take place
between six and twelve months after birth so that he can discover, intercept
and change any practice adopted by the parents or guardians that may be
detrimental to the baby’s oral health.
Ways in which a paragraph can be developed

After the student would have determined the subject, the purpose and the
audience, they must determine how to develop the paragraphs in the essay. The
mode of development is determined by the subject, purpose and audience.
Modes of development
♦ Description
♦ Analysis
♦ Classification
♦ Definition
♦ Comparison
♦ Contrast
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♦ Exemplification
♦ Narration
♦ Process
♦ Cause and Effect
A mode is a way or manner of developing ideas. The term is used to refer to both
the process and arrangement of the ideas. Categories such as analysis,
classification and the others refer to mental processes (thought patterns) and
processes of arrangement; also represent methods of developing paragraphs.
They appear in paragraphs because our minds think along those lines.
Examples of the modes in paragraphs
Analysis
Organises paragraphs by dividing a complex subject into its component parts.
The supporting sentences divide the term “Patriotism’, which is introduced in the
topic sentence, into its elements.
Patriotism is a very complex feeling, built up out of primitive instincts

and highly intellectual convictions. 1. There is love of home and family
and friends, making us particularly anxious to preserve our own country
from invasion. 2.There is the mild instinctive liking for compatriots as
against foreigners. 3.There is pride, which is bound up with the success
of the community to which we feel that we belong. 4.There is a belief,
that one’s own nation represents a great tradition and stands for ideals
that are important to the human race. 5.But besides all these, there is
another element, an element of worship, of willing sacrifice, of joyful
merging of the individual life in the life of the nation. This religious
element in patriotism is essential to the strength of the State, since it
enlists the best that is in most men on the side of national sacrifice.
Bertrand Russell, Why Men Fight
36
Description
The paragraphs consist basically of sentences representing objects
arranged in space. The principle of organization is based on the way the
objects are perceived in space. The scene is easier to follow if a particular
spatial arrangement is used.
♦ Left to right
♦ Bottom to top
♦ Right to left
♦ Top to bottom
As you enter the forest, it seems dark and shadowy, and as cool
as a cucumber. The light is filtered through a million leaves, and so have
a green aquarium-like quality which make everything seem unreal. The centuries
of dead leaves that have fluttered to the ground have provided a rich layer
of mold, soft as any carpet, and giving off a pleasant earthly smell. On
every side are the huge trees with their curling buttress roots, their smooth
trunks towering hundreds of feet above, their head foliage and branches merging
indistinguishably into the endless green roof of the forest. Between
these the floor of the forest is covered with the young trees, thin tender
growths just shaken free of the cradle of leaf mold, long thin stalks with a
handful of pale green leaves on top. They stood in the everlasting shade of
their parents ready for the great effort of shooting up to the life-giving sun.
In between their thin trunks, rambling across the floor of the forest, one
can see faint paths twisting and turning. These are the roads of the bush
and are followed by all its inhabitants.
Gerald Durrell, The Overloaded Ark
Classification
Classification deals with systems of classes. Begin classification paragraphs with
a general statement and support this statement by an explanation of the types or
subtypes:
37
Meteorites are of three general classes: irons – composed 98 percent
or more of nickel-iron; stony irons – composed roughly half and half of
nickel-iron and of a kind of rock known as olivine: and, finally stones. The
stones are further subdivided, depending on whether they contain tiny
bodies of the materials olivine and pyroxene. The stones that possess them,
are called chondrites. The few stones that lack these minerals are known as achondrites.
All these categories offer useful clues to those who try to
reconstruct the history of the earth.
Time-Life Books, The Earth
Exemplification
These paragraphs use supporting examples to illustrate a generalisation. The
paragraph begins with a general which is then supported by specific examples.
Almost no feature of the interior design of our current cars provides

safeguards against injury in the event of a collision. Doors that fly
open on impact, inadequately secured seats, the sharp edged rearview
mirror, pointed knobs on instrumental panels and boors, flying glass,
the overhead structure-all illustrate the lethal potential of poor design.
A sudden deceleration turns a collapsed steering wheel or a sharp-edged
dashboard into a bone-and-chest crushing agent. Penetration of the
shatterproof windshield can chisel one’s head into fractions. A flying seat
cushion can cause a fatal injury. The apparently harmless glove-compartment
door has been to unlatch under impact and guillotine a child. Roof-supporting
structure has deteriorated to a point where it provides scarcely more
protection to the occupants, in common roll-over accidents, than an open
convertible.
Ralph Nader, “The Safe Car you Can’t Buy”, the Nation (April 11,1957).
Definition
This kind of paragraph tells what a thing is. It also explains what words or
phrases mean. Lead off with a general statement or with a logical definition, then
expand the general statement by other methods of defining.
38
“Desert” is an unfortunate word all around and most of its usual associations are
inaccurate as well as unfavourable. In the first place the word doesn’t even mean “dry,”
but simply uninhabited or deserted. In that sense, the expanse around me is far from
being a desert, for it is teeming with live things very glad indeed to be right there. Even in
its secondary meaning, “desert” suggests to most people the rolling sand dunes of the
Sahara. Something like that one way find in Death Valley, perhaps in parts of the Mojave;
and especially, with an added weirdness, in the hundreds of square miles of New
Mexico’s White Sands, where the great dunes of glistening gypsum drift like the snow
banks one can hardly believe they are not. Most of my Lower Sonoran Desert, however,
is not at all like that. The sandy soil is firm and hard packed; it supports life, less crowded
than in wetter regions but pleasantly flourishing. Nature does not frown here. She smiles
invitingly.
Joseph Wood Krutch, The Desert Year
Comparison and Contrast

The comparison and contrast paragraphs deal with similarities and differences. It
is organized in the following way:
♦ The first half deals with one subject or aspect of the subject
♦ The second half takes up the second subject or aspect of the subject
to be compared
The way of the desert and the way of the jungle represent the two opposite methods of
reaching stability at two extremes of density. In the jungle there is plenty of everything life
needs except more space, and it is not for the way of anything else that individuals or that
races have any limit set to their proliferation. Everything is on top of everything else; there
is no cranny which is not both occupied and disputed. At every moment, war to the death
rages fiercely. The place left vacant by any creature that dies is seized almost instantly by
another, and life seems to suffer from nothing except too favourable an environment. In
the desert, on the other hand, it is the environment itself which serves as the limited
factor. To some extent the struggle of creature against creature is mitigated, though it is of
course not abolished even in the vegetable kingdom. For the plant which in one place
would be strangled to death by its neighbour dies a thirsty seedling in the desert because
that same neighbour has drawn the scant moisture from the spot of earth out of which it
was attempting to spring.
Joseph Wood Krutch, The Desert Year
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Narration
The emphasis is usually on the action, on the connected series of events that
take place in chronological order. Narrative paragraphs seldom use the topic
sentence; they begin with a sentence that gets the action started, then sentences
are added to advance the action. Description is often included in order to present
the action in the most vivid terms.
Slowly the minutes ticked away towards the zero hour. Officers their watches
synchronized, waiting with guns in the air, ready to fire the shots that signaled the
opening. At last the revolvers barked, and along the line pandemonium broke loose. Men
whipped up their horses, wagons careened wildly forward, horses freed from overturned
vehicles galloped madly about – all was hurrah and excitement. The Santa Fe trains,
streaming slowly at a regulated pace which would not give their passengers an undue
advantage, disgorged riders along the route as men leaped from roofs or platforms and
rushed about in search of a claim. Noise and confusion reigned as the shouts of
successful “Boomers,” the crash of hammers on stakes, the clatter of wagons, the crash
of overturned vehicles, and the curses of disappointed homeseekers mingled to create a
bedlam unique in the annals of the nation.
Ray Allen Billington, Westward Expansion
Cause and Effect

Compose cause and effect paragraphs by moving from cause to effect or from
effect to cause. The assumption is that an event takes place in time because an
initial event caused it to occur or because it is part of a causal chain.
Introductory Paragraphs
These paragraphs should lead into the subject, and arouse the curiosity and
interest of the reader and create the correct tone.
In considering strategies to begin, it could be helpful to answer these questions

1. Who are my readers?
2. Do they have any knowledge of my subject?
40
3. Do they have any interest in my subject?
4. How can I best gain their attention?
5. Is my purpose:
♦ To present them with new information?
♦ To persuade them to take a certain course of action?
♦ To entertain?
6. How can I best convey to my readers my own interest in and attitude toward
my subject?
Ways to Begin:
♦ Descriptive Details
The poster mirrored what the nightmare might be, that terrifying day when the
street gangs take over the city, any city. Some of them wore leather vests
over bare chests. Others had on Arab headdresses. A few their faces painted
harlequin colours…
♦ An Anecdote
Nearly five years ago I sat in the courtyard of a household in the village I call
Tudu, Niger, haranguing the head of the household in an attempt to
determine the year his first son was older or younger than other men whose
ages I knew very well…
♦ A Quotation
“We cannot tolerate the Cubans to go swashbuckling unchecked in Africa, the
Middle East and other areas, nor can we tolerate the Cubans of the Orient to
go swashbuckling in Laos, Kampuchea or even in the Chinese border areas.
Now some people in the world are afraid of offending them, even if they do
something terrible. These people wouldn’t dare take action against them.”
So said China’s Vice Premier Teng Hsiao-p’ing last week…
41
♦ A Question
Is it possible that a cigar-shaped spaceship descended over the tiny town of
Aurora, and crashed into Judge J. S. Proctor’s windmill?
♦ A Figure of Speech
Like fast-approaching storm clouds, the consequences of the political turmoil
that shut down Iran’s became clearer last week.
♦ An Analogy
From Florida to Maine there is war. Between man and man, fish and bird,
wave and sand. The battle rages and storms over the coast. Yet the
battlefield is strangely quiet. Grasses bend softly in the wind. Herons stalk
silently through shallow waters. This war is being fought in the narrow green-
and-tawny band of salt marsh that stretches along our eastern shore.
Concluding Paragraphs
The concluding paragraph should conclude. If the essay in short it could be
ended with the most important points. If the essay is relatively long, the main
points made in the body can be repeated. If the ideas are difficult they can be
summarized in the concluding paragraph. The reader must leave with the
feeling that the essay is completed.
Ways to Conclude
1. End with the most important point of your essay.
2. Repeat the main points of your essay.
3. Present your reader with a summary of your main ideas.
4. Conclude with a question.
5. End with a question.
6. Conclude with a prediction or forecast.
7. Give your reader an opinion, based on your previous discussion.
8. Discuss the broader implications of your subject.
42
9. End with an anecdote.
10. Conclude with a striking example.
Exercises
♦ Let students examine introductory paragraphs and discuss the following.
- What method is used to begin each paragraph
- In what way they arouse interest
- How do they lead into the body of the essay
♦ Have them bring to class three closing paragraphs from current

magazines. They will discuss the techniques used in the paragraphs.
♦ Students can write three introductory paragraphs, using one of the
techniques given.
♦ Ask students to bring articles, reports or written papers from medical
reports, so that they can examine and discuss the mode of development
♦ Let students bring an essay that uses paradigmatic structure
(comparison, classification etc.) and write an essay of their own using the
same structure
Achieving Coherence
The best way to achieve coherence in writing is to develop consecutive thinking
so that the paragraphs unfold in a logical, step-by-step manner. Coherence can
be achieved by breaking the writing into logical units, but sometimes there is
need for connecting words and phrases to make the flow of thought smooth and
effortless
Transitional devices that make the relationship among the parts clear
and, too, also, again, and then, moreover, further, indeed, in
Addition
addition, plus, likewise, besides, together, jointly.
Example: This is a wine to enjoy with your dinner. You will also enjoy its delicious
flavour with fruit, cheese, and desert after dinner is over.
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First, second, third, next, again, last, primarily, secondarily, in
Series the first place, in the second place, additionally, first and
foremost, the former, the later.
Example: First we let blueberry pie dry on a dessert dish overnight. Then we
washed it with Electrasol.
this, that, these, those, he, she, it, you, they, we, such, some,
Pronoun
Reference many, none.
Example: Welcome to Hawaii. It is a place as unique and varied as its flowers.
moisture/moistness/moisten/moist, told/tell, arrived/arrival,

Repeated
Word rare/rarity, depth/deep, mix/mixture/admixture/mixed.
Example: He arrived early. His arrival filled us with dread.
car/automobile, spectator/onlooker/observer/viewer, mere

Synonyms words/nonsense, purchase/buy, join/unite/connect,
exterior/outside
Example: One of the hottest topics in public education today is “back to the
basics.” PTA meetings resound with debates on the subject.
television/picture tube, stereo/turner, water/wave, flower/petal,

Whole-Part
book/chapter/section/paragraph, landscape/meadow.
Example: The roof on this house is made of a new kind of nonwood shingle. The
edges are thick and irregular
obviously, certainly, perhaps, surely, naturally, really, to be

Emphasis sure, in truth, very likely, undoubtedly, assuredly, without fail.
Example: Add fresh taste and variety to your salad with country-fresh mushroom.
They’re full of flavour and surprisingly low in calories.
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equally important, similarly, in the same way, also, equally,
Comparison comparably, corresponding, like
Example: Animal life on the desert is like life anywhere else. It is completely
dependent on plant life for sustenance
but, yet, however, still, nevertheless, on the contrary, on the

Contrast other hand, in spite of, conversely, although, unlike, be that as
it may.
Example: Taking care of wood is a constant job. Unlike wood, vinyl siding takes
care of itself.
consequently, therefore, thus, as a result, for this reason, on

Result this account it follows that, accordingly, hence, so, necessarily.
Example: The colour of the roof is muted. So it blends in naturally with the
architecture and the surroundings.
for instance, for example, namely, that is, thus

Example
Example: The new cars are quieter than last year’s models. You will be surprised,
for example, by the almost complete absence of road noise and body vibrations.
Here, there, above, under, near by, beyond, on the other side,
Place opposite, adjacent to, in.
Example: Spend your vacation in British Columbia. Your American dollar’s worth
much more there.
Exercise
♦ Analysing paragraphs
45
- Students can state the methods used to achieve coherence
- They can mark each paragraph in detail to illustrate the use of
transitional devices.
- Then they can discuss what they observed within the paragraphs
and between the paragraphs
♦ Rewriting paragraphs, enhancing them by including appropriate
transitional devices.
♦ Writing their own essays using the necessary transitional devices to
achieve coherence.
46
NARRATIVE WRITING
Much has already been said about Narrative Writing in Level 7 and Level 8
Teacher’s Guide. This guide will therefore build on what has already been said
in the two previous guides.
Purpose of Narrative Writing

The main purpose of a narrative is to engage in an imaginative experience.
However, some others may seek to explain a phenomenon (myth, and legends)
or to teach a lesson (fables).
Organization of Narratives
♦ Narratives usually include an Orientation in which the setting, time, main
character, and possibly some minor characters of the story are
established. Here the mood is set, and the reader is invited to continue
reading.
♦ An event or series of Events involving the main character unfold and

lead to a Complication in which the character is involved in some
conflict. There are often minor conflicts that serve to frustrate or hamper
the main character from reaching an ambition or wish. These conflicts
serve to build tension and hold the reader’s interest as they lead to a
high point or climax.
♦ The Resolution
Language Features
• Specific, often individual, participants with defined identities
Major participants are human, or sometimes animals with human
characteristics
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• Mainly action verbs are used, but also many verbs that refer to what the
human participants said, or felt, or thought
• Simple past tense
• Transitional devices of time
• Dialogue often included, during which the tense may change to the
present or future
• Descriptive language chosen to enhance and develop the story by

creating images in the reader’s mind
• Can be written in the first person (I, we) or the third person (he, she, they).
(Adapted from Derewianka, 1990, Exploring How Texts Work, p. 42)
NARRATIVE
• Orientation
- Who, When, Where
• Events which lead to a complication or problem

- Includes details which will enhance the later
development of the story
- Complication involves main characters/mirrors
complications of life
- There are also minor complications
• Complications are resolved in a satisfying manner.
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Narrative Framework
The First Boomerang

Orientation One day, many years ago, there lived a carpenter named Past tense
Adam. He was well respected by all the people and was

noted for his ability to carve. For many years he carved
creatures from the wood of trees.
As he sat in the warm sunshine, a sleepy snake slithered

Descriptive
by. Adam decided to carve a snake. Slowly he got up to language to
find a piece of wood. When he was satisfied with his create

images
selection he began to whittle away with his best blade.
The wood was hard and the carving slow. His head
nodded and he fell asleep.
Complication When he awoke the snake he had carved looked quite Linking
strange. It seemed bent in the middle and thin at both words to do

with time
ends. Adam bent down and picked up the carved wood.
He threw it as far as he could – it was of no use. He
would start again.
The snake spun through the air. Adam peered as it spun Variation in
sentence
around, turned in the air and came skipping across the length to
sandy ground at his feet. He threw it again as hard as he provide

change of
could. Back came the snake. Adam’s face began to split. mood and
He smiled. He laughed. Tears ran down his cheeks. He pace
threw his wonderful snake again and again.
Resolution Adam had made the first boomerang.
49
This simple story can help you to introduce and analyse the structure of a
narrative.
Activities to teach Narrative Writing

Graphic Organisers
1. Get your pupils to use a planning framework to make a story outline or
draw events in a story.
1. Narrative Plan
HEADINGS NOTES
Title
Orientation
Initiating Event
Complication
Resolution
Moral/Concluding Statement
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2. Narrative Plan
Title:
Orientation:
Setting: Who? When? What? Why?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
Initiating Event:
What began the event?
How did the characters get involved?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
Complication/s:
How conflict/s or problem/s began
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
Resolution:
How the character/s solve the conflict/s problem/s
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
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3. Narrative Writing - STORY BOARD –-To Sketch Story Ideas
Beginning Problem Events
Complications Ending
Time Relationships in Narrative

Stories can be difficult to follow if the writer fails to understand and manage time
relationships.
Past, Present and Future

See time as a line
Past Future
Present Moment
Any part of time which includes present time is indicated by the use of present
tense verbs, the past time by using past time verbs. Future time can be marked
in one of these ways.
1. He swims in the 400 metre relay tomorrow.
52
2. He will swim in the freestyle leg.
3. He is swimming at three pm.
4. He is going to swim the race of his life.
Keeping the Time Reference Constant

One problem in writing is keeping the time line constant. In narrative writing the
writer is talking about events in the past, so the writing is in the past tense. The
narrative tells about some point in time in the past told by someone located in the
present time.
Past POINT OF STORY PRESENT Future

Events of story Story teller
If there are events that happened before or after the point of the story the verb
form would need to change.
Referring to the past in the past
1 st 2 nd
Past STORY TELLER Future
John John met

is Jane
lonely
John had been lonely and miserable until the day he met Jane
To Refer to the Future in the Past

1 st 2 nd
Past STORY TELLER Future
He I saw
said him
goodby again
We said goodbye, but little did I know that I was to see him again soon.
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Strategy
Time relationships can be introduced to the class in a comprehension lesson with
a passage such as this.
Passage
Smokey Joe was quietly sipping his bourbon in the salon, where Belle
had been singing her new number. If Jesse were here, he thought, he would
have enjoyed hearing that. He should have been here by now.
Curly had arrived, and he would have had a long tedious wait if he had
not whiled away the time talking to Belle. Curly loved Belle. She had loved him,
too. He would spend hours gazing at her across the saloon.
Jake would be along later. He was the boss, and he had the plans for
the bank. The whole gang was to meet sundown. When they were all together
they would ride off into the sunset.
Questions
1. Which of the gang were already at the saloon?
2. Which of the gang had not yet arrived?
3. Whom was Smokey Joe expecting next?
4. Had Joe finished his bourbon?
5. Was Belle singing?
6. What was Curly doing?
7. Does Curly love Belle? Does Belle love Curly?
8. When did Curly gaze at Belle across the saloon?
9. What can you tell about the time of day when Joe was sipping his bourbon?
10. What will happen when the gang meets?
54
EXPOSITORY WRITING
Persuasive Writing
As future leaders, students must be able to influence others by
communicating with them convincingly. Knowledge of persuasive writing
will help them to do this.
A writer uses the persuasive writing form when attempting to convince a

reader to believe in something or perform a specific task. When you write
to convince someone that a certain opinion you hold is right, you present
facts and reasons in support of your opinion, a more sinister connotation.
Persuasive writing aims at convincing the reader through emotional

appeal more than valid reasons. It is supported by evidence and relies
upon persuasive devices to make its appeal. Therefore, the choice of
language should be guided by this.
Students should be taught persuasive writing as it helps them to think

clearly and arrange ideas logically. They also develop communication
skills, which can be used effectively in debates.
Persuasive writing can also help students develop research skills. When
preparing arguments for a debate, for example, students will have to do
research so as to gather facts to support whatever position is taken.
Knowledge of persuasive writing can further help students to distinguish

fact from opinion and to identify propaganda in advertisements. Since
persuasive language is used in advertisements, they need to be aware of
its purpose and not be caught into responding positively against their own
reasoning.
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Ways of Persuading
There are basically three tactics that can be used when persuading
(Tompkins 1990). The passages that follow illustrate these tactics.
Passage No 1
Questions
1. What was special about Sladden Wood?
2. What was special about Aston Keynes Long Meadow?
3. What happened to each of these important places?
4. What exactly is the point Brian Jackson is making?
This is a clear example of an argument which depends for its effect on the
evidence which the writer cites
Passage No. 2
Man has come to dominate the earth and to prosper by his cleverness. With the tools and
technological knowledge now at his command, he not only tinkers with his environment to
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make it more comfortable – he rapes it. We continue, nevertheless, to use brute force to
make natural resources yield up what we want – now – from them. Danger signals blink
urgently on all sides. Our survival really is in the balance.
Racheal Carson Silent Spring 1963
Questions
1. Summarise in one sentence the argument which is being made here?
2. Is there any evidence of the kind which Brian Jackman cites in this
passage?
3. What is the force of the verse ‘tinker’ and ‘rape’?
4. Why does the writer enclose the word ‘now’ in dashes?
5. What is the effect of the two short, crisp sentences which end the
passage?
Rachel Carson does not depend on precise evidence, this is an example

of persuasion through the force of words. The words that were used and
the actual structure of the sentences – their shortness and abruptness -
communicate to the reader the writer’s sense of the danger which
mankind faces.
Passage No. 3
The train bore me away, through the monstrous scenery of slag-heaps, chimneys, piled
scrap-iron, foul canals, paths of cindery mud criss-crossed by the prints of clogs. This
was March, but the weather had been horribly cold and everywhere there were mounds
of blackened snow. As we moved slowly through the outskirts of the town we passed row
after row of little grey slum houses running at right angles to the embankment. At the
back of one of the houses a young woman was kneeling on the stones, poking a stick up
the leading pipe which ran from the sink inside which I supposed was blocked. I had time
to see everything about her – her sacking apron, her clumsy clogs, her arms reddened by
the cold. She looked up as the train passed, and I was almost near enough to catch her
eye. She had a round pale face, the usual exhausted face of the slum girl who is twenty-
five and looks forty, thanks to miscarriages and drudgery; and it wore, for the second in
which I saw it, the most desolate, hopeless expression I have ever seen. It struck me
then that we are mistaken when we say that ’It isn’t the same for them as it would be for
us,’ and that people breed in the slums can imagine nothing but the slums. For what I
57
saw in her face was not the ignorant suffering of an animal. She knew well enough what
was happening to her – understood as well as I did how dreadful a destiny it was to be
kneeling there in the bitter cold, on the slimy stones of a slum backyard, poking a stick up
a foul drain pipe.
George Orwell The Road to Wigam Pier 1937
Questions
1. What kind of landscape is described in the first three sentences?
2. Why does George Orwell set the scene in this way before introducing
the young woman?
3. In your own words describe this woman’s appearance.
4. This is not an argument for a specific course of action but there is no
doubt that Orwell wants his readers to react in a particular way to what he
describes. What reaction do you think he wants to inspire?
The tactic here is neither to quote precise evidence nor to state the
argument in a forceful and persuasive fashion. Orwell leaves the details to
speak for themselves and the reader to draw his or her own conclusions.
The Argument
The passages above exemplified tactics which can be used to persuade
the readers. However, there are other tactics that can be used.
1. The first appeal a writer can make is based on “Reason”.

People seek to make logical generalizations and draw cause-and-
effect conclusions. For example, people can be persuaded to
practice more healthful living if told about the results of medical
research.
2. Another way to persuade is through an ‘Appeal to character’.

We can be persuaded by what another person recommends if we
trust that person.
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3. The third way to persuade someone is an appeal to the person’s
“Emotions”.
Emotional appeals can be strong as intellectual appeals, because
people have a strong concern for their well-being and the rights of
others. We support or reject arguments according to our strong
feelings about what is ethical and socially acceptable.
The object of any argument is to find out the truth or to determine what is
best, not to have a conflict in which one may vanquish another. The aim of
any argument is to convince others that your point of view is the correct
one.
Since arguments are written in order to express a point of view about an

issue, the following steps should be taken into consideration.
1. Before writing one must be clear about one’s feelings on the topic.
- One may feel that the statement is acceptable as it is.
- One may feel that the statement is only partly acceptable.
For example, let us examine the following
The law is stupid. You can vote at eighteen, drive a car at eighteen, but marry
with your parents consent at sixteen and have a child; Yet still cannot drink
legally or go to an adult movie. I think something should be done about this
ridiculous state of affairs. I vote that we reduce the age of voting, driving and
drinking to sixteen.
Step 1
In order to help students make up their minds, you can get them to explore
the topic from different viewpoints. For example, they may take the
following viewpoints.
59
1. The law is to be changed, and young people will have to be eighteen
before they can drive.
The following questions can then be asked

(i) Why might the law be changed?
(ii) Do you think it is a good idea?
(iii) In some countries you can drive at the age of fifteen. How
do you feel about it?
2. Do you think people are old enough to get married at sixteen? If so

should they be able to vote and drink alcohol?
3. At one time only married women could vote. Could a law be introduced
where married women under the age of eighteen are able to vote?
Why? Why not?
Step 2
When they have decided on their point of view get them to prove their
argument. In order to do this they must state their case and write down
what led them to this decision.
In writing an argument, the writer’s viewpoint must be clearly stated. This

is the most important part of the essay. The rest of it supports why the
writer holds that opinion. The student must therefore
Have a plan and follow a logical structure

Ensure that the viewpoint does not change, unless they have
clearly stated that they are reasons for being unsure and are trying
to present both points of view
Exclude all personal and sarcastic remarks
60
Learning Activities in Conducting Arguments
(a) Discuss with your students the guidelines for conducting
arguments. Explain the values to be gained by following them. Give
examples from your own experience in which these guidelines were
or were not followed.
(b) Allow students to listen to a taped discussion. Then in a class

discussion get the students to judge the ability and methods of the
speakers.
(c) Get students to meet in small groups and argue on topics. Allow
them to choose their own topics. In the beginning have the students
give arguments for both sides.
(d) With a student or teacher as judge conduct a class argument on one

or more topics. Let the students stand or speak from their seats. Get
someone to record the points on the blackboard as they are made.
Put them in two columns: FOR - AGAINST.
When Writing the Argument

1. Get all the information that you can find to support your point of
view.
2. Organize your facts in an outline. The outline should have an
introduction, a body and a summary.
(a) The introduction should state clearly and exactly the
subject of the argument and should explain all terms.
(b) The body should give facts to support your point of view.
Avoid any discussion of ideas that do not apply directly to
the subject.
(c) The summary should state your conclusion.
3. Make the presentation clear, logical and convincing.
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Activities to help Students Write Arguments
1. Let the students come up with a list of debatable topics. Choose

topics in which there is most interest. Divide the class into two
equal sides. Make an outline then write out the argument. Have
an imitation radio broadcast letting the participants from each side
take turns reading their written arguments.
2. Get students to write letters or argument to a newspaper either

supporting or opposing a project that is in the news.
3. Present students with a point of view e.g. a letter to the editor

(a) Get students to read the article, and then let them give
the opposing point of view
(b) Help them by getting them to respond to the following
question. Do you think this is true?
4. Give them something(s) to comment on e.g. examples of issues

raised which you believe have been dealt with effectively.
It should not be difficult for you, the teacher, to find topics for persuasive
writing since persuasion is a part of everyday life. At home, for example,
children try to persuade parents to try new clothes, to go to bed early or
maybe to join a particular club. At school, children try to persuade
teachers to give less homework. Therefore, let them write out of their
experiences.
Content area topics can also be used for persuasive writing. For example,
in Environment Education students can use persuasive writing to try to
stop pollution of the environment.
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Types of Persuasive Writing
A The Persuasive Essay
Students write persuasive essays in which they argue on topics
they have strong beliefs about. In a persuasive essay, the
argument must be organized. It must have
♦ A beginning,
♦ A middle
♦ An end.
In the beginning, the writer must state his/her position or opinion clearly.
In the body of the essay the opinion is developed. At this point, the writer
can select and present three or more reasons or pieces of evidence to
support his/her position. The reasons may appeal to
♦ Logic,
♦ Character
♦ Evidence.
They can use transitional words between paragraphs to alert the reader to
the development of the argument.
Each point is developed in a separate paragraph. It is quite effective to

present reasons in order of importance. Some writers begin with the least
important reason while others begin with the most important.
In the end, the writer may lead readers to draw conclusions that they
intend, by using one or more of these techniques:
♦ Giving a personal statement
♦ Making a prediction
♦ Summarizing the major points.
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It must be noted that a persuasive argument is most effective when based
on sound logical reasoning and the writer’s commitment to the position
he/she holds.
How to Teach Students to Write Persuasively

Students should be introduced to persuasive writing through a series of
mini lessons in which they investigate persuasive techniques. They will
then apply what they have learnt to write persuasive letters and essays.
Tompkins (1990) has outlined the following steps in the teaching of

persuasive writing.
1. Examine how persuasion is used in everyday life. Talk with

students about the points of view and positions people take on
various issues.
2. Identify the topic and develop a list of reasons to support the
position.
3. Write the rough draft.
4. Revise and edit the essay. Before meeting in a writing group

students may first revise their own papers, reviewing to make sure
they have developed the beginning, middle and end of their essays.
5. Share the writing. Compositions may be shared by being read

aloud or displayed on posters or on a bulletin board.
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Graphic Organisers for Persuasive Writing
Fig 1
POSITION STATEMENT
Reason - Explanation
Conclusion
65
Fig 2
Beginning POSITION STATEMENT
Reasons
Middle
Reasons
Conclusion
66
B. The Persuasive Letter
Another type of persuasive writing is the persuasive letter. Students can
write to different audiences. For example, they can write to editors of
newspapers, to family members or to friends.
In a persuasive letter, the writer can appeal to reason, character and
emotion. He/she can also use his/her appeal.
C. Advertisements
Advertisements use appeal to reason, character and emotions just as in
other types of persuasive writing. This is done so as to promote products,
ideas and services. Advertisers may however use propaganda in an
attempt to influence the beliefs and actions of the audience.
The aim of advertising is to persuade. The most effective means of

communication is used to persuade consumers.
In advertisements, the advertiser appeals to man’s basic desires by using

different techniques.
Some of these techniques are:

repetition
scientific and technical terms
alliteration and assonance
exaggeration
exclamations and questions
analogy
contrast
rhetorical question
Students can be asked to bring advertisements from magazines and
newspapers, and examine them in order to identify the technique that was
used to persuade.
67
68
LETTER WRITING
When students write letters they should

Format the letter correctly
Plan what they want to say in the letter
Use a suitable tone. Make sure that the words they use and the
way they use them are suitable for the occasion
Use the best possible presentation for their letter
Format of a Formal Letter
41 Republic Drive
Beterverwagting, Your address
East Coast Demerara
12th May, 2001
Mr. Nerhu The name

Proprietor and address
of the person
Nerhu Establishment you are
Corriverton writing
The greeting
Dear Mr. Nerhu:
Introduction
I am writing to enquire… Reasons for writing
Body of letter
Ending
Yours sincerely
Chandra Singh
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Punctuating a Business Letter
1. The Heading
This contains the complete address of the writer and the date.
♦ Abbreviations should not be used in headings.
♦ A comma should always follow the name of the city or village.
♦ Another comma should separate the day of the month from the
year.
♦ No other punctuation marks should appear in the heading.
2. The Inside Address

This consists of the complete name and address of the person to
whom the sender is writing. Social of friendly letters do not use the
inside address.
3. The Salutation
In a business letter the salutation is followed by a colon: in a
friendly letter by a comma. The first word of the salutation and all
nouns in it are capitalized.
4. The Body
This is made up of what you have to say to the receiver. It should
be written in paragraphs to organise and group the ideas
discussed.
5. The Complementary Close

This is followed by a comma in the social letter. Only the first word
should be capitalized
6. The signature
There is no punctuation following it.
70
♦ A letter to a person whom one does not know very well should be
signed with one’s full name.
♦ Letters to friends and relatives should be signed with the name by
which they call the writer.
♦ In signing a business letter one’s legal name should be used.
Letter of Application
A letter to a potential employer should make a good impression.
Applications can be written for part-time or full-time jobs. Your letter will be
judged by
♦ What you say
♦ How you say it
♦ Whether or not you have used the correct letter format.
♦ Whether or not you have followed all the rules of grammar,
spelling, punctuation, and neatness.
Each paragraph in the application performs a specific function.

Paragraph 1
Identify the purpose of the letter and the specific job for which application
is being made.
Paragraphs 2, 3
Calls attention to the writers qualifications, highlighting areas that are
pertinent to the specific job
Calls attention to the fact that enclosed with the application (cover letter) is
a resume and any other supplementary information.
Paragraph 4
Expresses enthusiasm for the job and a desire to be granted an interview.
71
♦ The writer says he/she will make a follow up call instead of saying,
‘I will look forward to hearing from you.
♦ Letters of application should not exceed one page f at all possible.
Sample
231 Round Tree Road

Ruimveldt
Greater Georgetown
2003-12-21
Permanent Secretary
Ministry of Health
Brickdam
Georgetown
Dear Sir/Madam:
I an writing to apply for the position of receptionist at the Open Doors Centre as
advertised in the Sunday Stabroek Newspaper of 14th of December 2003.
Il graduate from St. Andrews High School in July. Over the past five years, I have
completed studies which included bookkeeping, typing, shorthand, and academic
subjects. I have achieved passes in these studies.
As you will note in my resume, which is enclosed, I have worked part-time in the
office of Gregg Realty since leaving school in July this year. I began as a file clerk,
but my duties were gradually expanded to include typing and reception. This
experience has given me an opportunity to apply my school training to a business
setting and to familiarize myself with the responsibilities of the office. I plan to take
evening classes in personal dynamics early next year
I would very much like to meet with you to learn more about the position at Open
Door Centre and to discuss my qualifications. I will call you next week to learn when
it would be convenient for me to see you.
Yours Sincerely
Jane Chung
Jane Chung
72
Résumé
Jane Chung
231 Round Tree Road
North Ruimveldt
Greater Georgetown
TELEPHONE: 231-6828
DATE F BIRTH: 1986-09-14
EDUCATION
- Graduated from St Andrews High School in July 2003
- Completed a three year course and attained a typing speed of 50 wpm, a

shorthand speed of 120 wpm, and a working knowledge of bookkeeping.
- Achieved a B+ average.
- Completed a six month course in Micro-Soft Word and Excel.
EXPERIENCE
July 2003 to present

Part-time clerk/typist Gregg Realty
Duties include filing, typing and reception
June to July 2003

Volunteer Reader Archer’s Home
Read aloud to blind students for 2 hours, 3 afternoons a week
Also fetch and return library books for sighted persons.
EXTRA CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES

- Member of Broad Street United Church Choir.
- Book sale coordinator
- Coordinator of ticket sales for the annual Christmas Concert
REFERENCES
- Ms P. Wallash, Supervisor, Archer’s Home, Durban Street, 225-2859
- Mr. E. Fisher, Gregg Realty, 24 Palm Road, Kingston, 223-4576
To make a good resume, begin by writing a rough draft of the information

you will include. Here are some categories to include:
Person Data:
Name, address, phone number, date of birth.
73
Education:
Name of school, list of courses taken related directly to the job
applied for, any outstanding scholastic achievement.
Work Experience:
Listing of any jobs you held including volunteer work. Begin with the
most recent job and work back listing the name of each company,
the dates of your employment, a brief description of your duties.
Extracurricular Activities and Interest:

This section should be brief. List any activities, talent, skill, and
events participated in. This kind of information is given to show that
you have a sense of responsibility, a talent for leadership, or a well-
rounded personality.
References:
List two or three references, which you have permission to give,
providing name, position, address, and phone number of each
person you are suggesting.
Points to Note
Greetings and Endings
It is important that the greeting and ending of your letter tie up as follows
If you know the name of the person you are writing to, use their
name to greet them. For a formal letter you should use ‘Dear’
followed by ‘Mrs/Mr/Miss’, as appropriate, then the surname.
The correct ending for this greeting is ‘Yours sincerely’.
If you do not know the name of the person you are writing to, you
should greet them using ‘Dear Sir of Madam’.
The correct ending for this greeting is ‘Yours faithfully’.
74
Planning a letter
(a) When you are planning a letter, list all the points you wish to
include then put them in logical order
(b) Make sure that the words you choose and the way you use
them are suitable for the occasion. It is important that you make
the best impression in your letter.
When writing Formal letters do not

Use slang or dialect phrases or words
Use any short forms like; you’ve or haven’t
Write in a very personal way which may be inappropriate
Practice Exercise
Write a letter of complaint using the following information.
(a) You have bought a 200 gm jar or Nescafe from Adams store in Kitty
on October 19th 2001.
(b) When you opened the jar, you found that most of the coffee was
powder, with just a few granules in it. It smelt very bitter and was
impossible to drink. The seal had not been tampered with. You are
enclosing a sample for investigation.
(c) You are seeking an apology and a refund at the least.
Learning Activities
A. Get students to place the correct form of salutation, headings and
closings for letters.
Example. Social Letters

1. 1017 canje peasant place south ruimveldt july 1 2001
dear joe your old friend dave
75
2. ½ mile wismar linden april 1 2001
dear joy lovingly lucy
B (a) Have students model the form for the following business
letters
(b) Have them draw lines to separate paragraphs in the letters
(c).In small groups have them exchange books and check the
punctuation and capitalization in each part of the letter
1. William Brown 424 Cato Street, Agricola is writing to the

manager of Mike’s Pharmacy Robb Street Georgetown
2. You are writing to the Editor of your favourite newspaper

complaining about the closing of a road that was used by
many residents.
Business Letters
A business letter communicates to a person in a formal way about a non-
personal matter, such as business or politics.
When writing a business letter:

♦ Type it neatly
♦ Include your own name and address.
♦ Include the recipients name and address.
When reading a business letter:

♦ Pay attention to important information.
♦ Read between the lines, for companies write business letters to
get ahead.
76
3675 Rossen Street
North Ruimveldt
Greater Georgetown
March 15, 2004

The name and address
of the person to whom
Ms. Alison Wagner
you’re writing. Include Superintendent of Schools
job title if you know it.
903 North Oakdale Road,
Bel Air
End greeting with colon
Dear Ms. Wagner;
I am writing to you on behalf of the Madison School

seventh grade students. We would like to tell you about our
State the main idea of the World Culture Day on Saturday, May 8, from 11:00 a.m. to
letter in the opening
paragraph 4:00 p.m. and invite you to attend. The activities will be
held in the Madison School auditorium and playground.
Admission is $1; arts, crafts, and food will be available for
purchase. All proceeds will be donated to the Madison
School Sports Equipment Fund.
Many diverse cultures will be represented on this day.

Among the artistic offerings is a booth that will give lessons
in origami, the Japanese art of paper folding. A
demonstration of Navajo weaving will be presented at
another booth. Early American quilt-making will be
demonstrated.
Booths will serve foods from many nations. A chili relieno

dish from Mexico, a mushroom crepe dish from France, and
a Cajun-style chicken dish from the Louisiana Bayou are
just some of the delicious selections we are planning.
Also restate the main idea The children of Madison School understand how busy you
in the closing paragraph. must be with your many responsibilities as school
superintendent. We do hope, however, that you can spend
some time with us on World Culture Day.
Sincerely yours,
Tomas Ramos, President
Madison Student Council
77
Friendly Letters
Personal news is shared in a friendly letter. Thoughts and feelings can be
discussed or just some news to keep in touch.
610 North Road

Bourda
Georgetown
April 26, 2003
Dear Renu,
End salutation with
comma It was great to receive your letter. I hadn’t heard
from you in so long, I am wondering if you even remember
who I was! Hey, guess what: for once I actually have a lot
of news.
First things first. Do you remember my terrier,
Body is written in Barney? Well she had puppies – four of them! Two are
an informal tone, almost all brown, with little patches of black and grey.
similar to the kind
used in everyday There’s another one who looks a lot like Barney. And last,
conversation. there’s my personal favourite: she’s mostly white, with
brown speckles on her back and sides. I know it is totally
corney, but I couldn’t resist calling her Spot.
The other big news is that I was elected vice-
president of the ninth grade. I had serious competition from
Joseph Parks, and I have to admit it was a very close race.
But I promised a few things to a few people, and I guess
Mention of what is that made the difference.
going on with the
writer, and How’s everything in your new school? Mr.
wanting to know Tanabe’s English class really misses you. You wrote better
about the person limericks than anyone else. How about coming back for a
they are writing to.
visit sometime soon? I can’t keep your seat in the lunch
room reserved forever.
Your friend
Rick
78
Envelopes and Folding
Envelopes for friendly letters may vary in size, but for business
letters the correct size is 24.0 cm × 10.5 cm (9½” ×4⅛”).
Envelopes should always include the return address as well as
the complete address of the recipient
Jane Chung
231 Round Tree Road Guyana
North Ruimveldt
$6
Greater Goergetown.
The Permanent Secretary

Ministry of health
Brickdam
Goergetown
Sender’s address Minimum 3.5 cm Recipients name Stamp

space and address; start
a little above and
to the left of
centre.
A friendly
letter is
folded in
half, and
written on
personal
stationary
79
A business is
folded in
thirds, and
written on a
letter size
paper.
(8½”×11”)
80
REPORT WRITING
The Simple Report
The aim of the simple report is to record information objectively. As a
result the report must be based on factual information and all opinions,
preferences and judgments must be excluded. However, in some reports
recommendations and conclusions based on evidence may be included.
The Simple Report must
1. (a) Always begin with the subject.

That is, what the report is about. It is not necessary to state
the subject in a complete sentence.
Example:
Fourth Form student injured during recess
The subject must be underlined.
(b) The first paragraph of the report is the introduction. This part
of the report must restate in a complete sentence what the
subject said, and answer the question what happened.
Example:
During the recess period a fourth form student was injured.
2. After the introduction there must be an explanation of the incident

or happening being reported. In this explanation, the question how
did it happen must be answered.
3. The report must state the consequence and action taken as a

result. If necessary it should include recommendations.
4. Every report must be written in formal language. It can be in the

form of a letter however, it must include a title. If a letter is not
required the heading will start the report.
81
Example of a Simple Report Letter
Alleyne’s High
Regent Street
Georgetown
1st September 2001
The Headmistress
St Georges High
North Road
Georgetown
Dear Madam
Re: Accident to John Joe in Form Four classroom
I wish to report John Joe, a student of Form Four, got

his leg broken in an accident yesterday.
The incident occurred during the intermission at
10:30 am while the students of Form Four were about to go
for their break.
It occurred as John Joe attempted to exit the building
by sliding down the rail on the step. Someone pushed him,
and he fell and broke his leg.
The Head Prefect intervened and John Joe was taken
to the Accident and Emergency Unit of the Georgetown
Hospital. His leg was put in a cast, and he was sent home.
The Head Prefect is investigating the incident.
Yours respectfully
Ann John (Prefect)
Points to note when writing the Simple Report

• Your report must be carefully and logically arranged.
• The information must be clearly expressed.
• All unnecessary words, expressions and irrelevant details must be
excluded. You must be precise and concise.
82
• Use your own words as far as possible. However, it is sometimes
necessary to retain key words and phrases where necessary.
• You must always use formal language. Direct speech must also be
avoided.
• Do not give reasons unless asked. If asked give only those that are
presented in the material.
Steps in teaching Report Writing

1. Give students a passage and let them read to find out what it is all
about.
2. Have them read paragraph after paragraph, picking out all the
points they think are important.
3. Let them write the points they have identified in their own words.
4. Have them arrange their points in some order.
5. Have them write their reports from the points they have identified
and written in their own words.
6. Let them read and reread what they have written
(a) removing unnecessary words, phrases etc
(b) making sure that they have not omitted any important
points or included any that should not be there.
Questions to be answered when writing a report

1. Does the report have a heading or title and a date?
2. Does it indicate to whom the report is addressed?
3. Does it have the name of the person who is writing the report?
4. Is the information logically arranged?
5. Is the language formal?
If all the questions are answered in the affirmative then the student would
have written a Simple Report.
83
Research Report
A science research report explains something about science or nature that
has been learned from books, articles or experiments.
What to Do
State the main point
Develop the paper with information and examples from your
research.
Write in clear language
The writer develops the topic of this science report by using comparison
and contrast.
The title contains

a lot of useful Perceiving the World:
: information,
which will be
developed more
fully in the report.
Globes and Mercator maps of the world show

This report is
organized by the same place, yet the world shown is somehow
comparison and
contrast. The different. A globe is best for some types of references,
reader what the
and a Mercator map is best for others. Because of this,
writer is
comparing, and it is important to understand how they are different.
why.
The most accurate representation of the
characteristics of Earth’s surface is a globe. A globe
can be tilted to correspond to the tilt of Earth’s axis,
and a globe can be made so that it will rotate. On a
globe the relative sizes of the features and their
locations are accurate.
Using a globe, however, has many
disadvantages. To begin with, a globe shows only half
of Earth’s surface at a time. Globes are usually too
84
small to show much detail. On the other hand, most
globes were too large and cumbersome to carry
around as a ready reference. Because of a globe’s
rounded shape, it is awkward to chart or follow a
straight line from one place to another. Incidentally, a
globe is not completely accurate because Earth is not
truly round.
To explain the most important differences
between a globe and a Mercator map of the world, it is
necessary to understand the system meridians and
parallels. On a globe meridians are north-south half
circles that begin at one pole and end at the other.
These are used to measure longitude. Parallels are
east-west lines drawn around a globe; these circles are
used to measure latitude. The grid formed by
meridians and parallels provides standard reference
points. However when making a two-dimensional
map from a three dimensional globe, a mapmaker is
essentially stretching and compressing the distance
between them.
This spreading of the meridians and extending
of the parallels would not distort sizes or distances of
Here the writer features at the equator. The farther a feature is from
discuses the
second item in the the equator, however, the greater the distortion. Thus
comparison.
areas nearer the poles, such as Greenland, are shown
to be much larger than they should be.
Although distortion is a great disadvantage of a
Mercator map, there are several important
advantages. Like all maps, it is light weight foldable,
and easily portable. A Mercator lets the viewer use the
whole surface of the world at once. Because maps are
85
flat, charting courses and measuring distances
become easier.
The writer
concludes by When you look at the world depicted on a
restating the
main point- a Mercator map, it’s important to know what you are
globe and a map
are different. seeing and how each serves a different purpose.
This social studies report explains something about the society or other
societies that has been learned from books or articles. The writer develops
the topic by presenting historical information in time order.
The first paragraph According to a new theory, the beginning of

introduces the topic
– The origin of agriculture was the result of a change in climate and the
agriculture – and depletion of natural resources.
relates what the
report will say about These changes occurred in the Jordon Valley about
it.
12,000 years ago when the climate of the mild summer
months became hot and dry. The stress on the
environment resulted in less available food and water
because of shorter summers, shrinking lakes and scarcer
game.
The people in the region had always lived by
hunting and by gathering foods they found growing in the
wild. Now they, like the animals, were dramatically
A historical
account arranged affected by the scarcity of food and water. As a result they
in time order. moved to areas near the Dead Sea, where food and water
were more plentiful. The swelling population, however,
soon made food scarce there also. Some plants, primarily
legumes and grains, were actually helped by the change in
climate. The life cycles of these plants end in the spring.
Because of their husks, seeds for these plants survived the
86
summers, leaving them ready to germinate during the cold
Specific examples wet winters. The flourishing grains become tougher, so that
and physical
their seeds did not scatter when the plants were plucked. It
details help the
reader details help was inevitable that people would learn to save some of the
the reader picture
and understand seeds of these wild grasses for planting, to cultivate the
your subject. plants, and then to harvest these cereals.
Archaeologists have discovered that a sophisticated
culture formed in this area about 10,000 years ago. These
Present research –
archaeologists’ people lived in well-built houses in a permanent
discoveries – to
help back up the settlement. They had a social organisaton that allowed
theory. Notice that them to control the storage and distribution of grain. They
the writer gives
specific examples also had the technology of flint sickles and stone mortars.
to show what he
means by The increased food supplies made possible by agriculture
“sophisticated led to the expansion of human population and thus to the
culture.”
formation of cities.
The historical Soon a spreading population carried the idea of
developments that
the writer has agriculture east and north into Mesopotamia and what is
shown lead to the now modern Turkey. Both agriculture and civilization were
conclusion
well under way.
87
UNIT 2
COMPREHENSION
The Level 9 student is expected to write a national examination and
continue towards the CXC. The main purpose of reading at this level is to
facilitate study in the various subject areas. The content of the texts in
these subject areas has expository writing as its main feature. As
teachers, we need to use classroom strategies to develop readers who
can learn from a wide variety of print materials. Reading should be seen
as a constructive process in that the reader has to construct meaning from
print by using prior knowledge.
There are various strategies that can be used to help the students
comprehend the read content. Reading comprehension is supposed to be
an interactive process. The interaction among four conditions determines
what meaning a reader will construct from a given text. The four
conditions involve the following:
 What the reader brings to the reading situation (prior knowledge).
 The characteristics of the written text (descriptive, expository,
narrative).
 The learning context that defines the task and purpose of the
reader.
 Background knowledge about a topic.
Teachers are therefore responsible for helping students to activate their

prior knowledge. At this level students should be encouraged to ‘use’
reading to gain information. Students, as they read independently, will
discover which strategies work best for them and when to apply those
strategies in order to read with a purpose.
88
Objectives
Creative Reading
Students will be able to:
 associate personal experiences with what has been read.
 appreciate the writer’s craft.
 evaluate characters and situations.
The students would have to be exposed to the reading of short stories,
novels and extracts from these sources, to achieve these objectives.
Functional Reading
 locate the required reading material by using the relevant section of
a book.
 use a dictionary to discover meaning of technical terms.
 identify the organizational structure of the encyclopaedia and, and
use the knowledge to locate material.
 gain information from content areas by identifying cause and effect,
problem and solution.
Volume 1
Section 1 A HAPPY HOME
Building a Happy Home 19
Who’s Boss in your Home 22
The real Meaning of Marriage 25
Common causes of Trouble in the Home 29
Solving your Marriage Problems 32
Section 2 WHEN BABIES COME

So you’re Going to Have a Baby 35
Ladies I Waiting 38
Eating for Two 42
Caring for Yourself during Pregnancy 45
Trouble during Pregnancy 49
How Babies are Born 53
Students would be taught to locate the information they need without

going through the whole book.
89
Questions like these would help the student.
1. Which section would have information about giving birth to a baby?

2. Which page would you turn to, to find out about giving birth?
Such questions would help the student to understand that they must not
only locate the section but also the chapter in that section which contains
the needed information.
They should also understand that they need to check the headlines in the
chapter to determine whether the issue or topic is discussed there.
Pre-reading Strategies
Comprehension passages should be taken from a variety of reading
material covering a wide range of topics and issues. The teacher must
consider a variety of interest, appropriateness to the age level of students,
ethnic and sex balance and readability level when selecting material.
When presenting the reading text, the teacher needs to make the
students aware of the issues they are about to read about. This approach
is called ‘reading readiness’ which is accomplished through pre-reading
exercises such as the following.
(A) Anticipation Guide

It predicts the major ideas contained in a passage. Stimuli are used to
activate students’ thoughts and opinions.
The Anticipation Guide involves the following steps:
 Identifying major concepts (main ideas) by reviewing the text
 Determining students’ prior knowledge or opinions in order to
select statements
 Creating statements using information that should reflect
students’ prior knowledge and opinion
90
 Deciding on the order of the statements and their mode of
presentation, for example, whether you will use sequence in
the text
 Presenting the guide for students to respond to
 Discussing each statement briefly; encouraging students to
share opinions, giving reasons; tallying the total responses to
each of them
 Directing students to read the text and then letting them know
that the text relates to their opinions
 Conducting follow-up discussion that focuses on what
students have learnt and how their opinions have changed
The following is an example of the use of the Anticipation Guide
Write A for Agree and D for Disagree
Before After
Reading Reading
1. Many people in Columbus’ time believed

that the world was flat.
2. Columbus believed that if he sailed west

he would finally reach east.
3. Scurvy was one of the diseases that
affected sailors.
4. During the time of Columbus, ship

building was developed.
5.Trade was one of the reasons for

exploration
91
Why Europeans Sailed West
Five centuries ago times were changing. A few learned men,
of course, knew that the world was round and not flat. This
had been known ever since the time of the ancient Greeks.
Some very foolish things were nevertheless still believed
about the distant parts of the Atlantic. Some thought that
the edge of the world was somewhere beyond it and that
they would fall off if they went too far out. To others, the
ocean depths were the home of horrible monsters and evil
spirits. There was much superstition.
Those who knew that the world was round thought that if
anyone was brave enough, he could sail from Europe
towards the west and arrive finally at the east.
The journey was a dangerous thing to attempt, for the
journey might be very long and the question of preservation
of food was not easy. Besides, in those days, there were
little or no means of preventing diseases such as scurvy,
which attacked people who went for a long time without
fresh food.
Two things greatly helped the new zest for exploration. One
was the newly discovered mariner’s compass, which made
voyages possible in distant seas and made navigators much
less dependent on clear skies and familiar stars. The other
was a new development in the building of ships. The new
ships called carracks helped to make the opening up of
uncharted seas possible.
As well as the zest for exploration there was also the desire
for trade. Exploration and trade always go together. In the
fifteenth century the large eastern trade in spices, silk, and
other precious cargoes was in the hands of Venice.
92
Carter, E.H et al (1959) History of the West Indian Peoples
Bk. 111 London Thomas Nelson & sons Ltd. P.8
(B) K –W –L Strategy
The K – W – L strategy is used for activating prior knowledge and determining
purpose for reading expository texts. It is especially useful in the area of Science
and Social Studies.
The format is as follows, with a description of what each step entails.

K W L
What I know What I want to learn What I learned and still

need to learn
Select a topic specifically This is a natural sequence This step requires students
related to the main ideas to what the students know to write the answers to their
and key concepts of the about the topic. During the questions after reading. It
material to be read. discussion students are does the following:
allowed to focus on aspects - Helps to determine
Brainstorm students to get of the topic that they may which questions they
information on what they have given much thought to still need to answer.
know about the topic. previously. Students will - Allows students to
later read the entire text or think about additional
Let students identify read the text in parts in questions.
categories of information. order to have their - Takes students
questions answered. beyond the reading of a
single selection.
The K – W – L strategy is a good way to initiate a thematic unit, because it

motivates students to read several selections on a given topic. It provides for
much interaction. It also allows the teacher to assess what the students know at
each stage, and how well they have integrated their knowledge. This strategy
can become an independent student strategy after students have had much
experience with it.
The following is an example of how the teacher may use the K – W – L strategy
to introduce a passage on Juices.
93
What I have learnt and still
What I know What I want to learn need to learn
1. Juices are made from 1. Who came up with 1. Cavemen squeezed
fruits. the idea of making juices out of fruits.
2. Juices contain juices? 2. Juices are non-fattening
vitamins. 2. How are juices and a source of vitamins
3. Drink and juices are manufactured? and glucose.
not the same. 3. What are the 3. The juice of the
4. There are artificial effects of artificial watermelon contains
packaged juices. juice on the body? vitamin A.
5. Juices can be 4. Vitamin C prevents
preserved by freezing scurvy.
and adding chemicals. 5. Because the English
sailors used a lot of lime
juice on long trips they were
called “limeys”.
6. What are the effects of
preservation on the body?
The Joy of Juices
Since the first cavemen squeezed the juice out of a fruit to make
drink, people have been enjoying the easy refreshment of fruit
juices.
Juices are generally non-fattening and contain no cholesterol or

other fats. They are highly nutritious as an excellent source of
glucose and vitamins. Tomato, orange and guava juices contain
the most vitamin C, and the juice of the watermelon is rich in
vitamin A. The name “limey” which was used to refer to
Englishmen originated during the early days of exploration.
Sailors, who spent long periods at sea, developed scurvy, which
was characterised by weakness, anaemia, loss of teeth, and other
94
fearful symptoms. It was discovered that by drinking the juice of
fresh limes the disease could be cured and even prevented. It is
the vitamin C in the limes that prevents scurvy.
Citrus fruits are easily prepared using the standard glass or plastic
squeezer. Special lime squeezers made of strong metal and
which operate like a garlic press are also used. More elaborate
preparation is required for such fruit as sour-sop, papaw or
mango, including the use of blenders and strainers. Others such
as prunes and sorrel require steeping in hot water.
However it is prepared, pure juice needs refrigeration.

Commercially prepared juices have preservatives added before
being canned or bottled to extend their shelf life. Modern methods
of processing allow the marketing of frozen, concentrated, and
powdered forms of fruit juice. However, the delicate fruit flavours
change in the process.
Adapted from Liat Islander No. 13
(C) Analogy Graphic Organizer

Analogy is an effective strategy for assisting students to form new
concepts or gain new information. It helps students to link new information
to familiar concepts. For example, the cells of your body may be
compared with building blocks. An independent country may be compared
with a young adult.
The Analogy Graphic Organizer can be used to introduce a topic, to guide

comprehension during reading, and to promote research skills after
reading. It is used mainly to make students aware of similarities and
differences between a new concept and something familiar in their lives.
Students make connections by activating related experiences and
background. They also gain practice in writing well-organized summaries
that follow the compare/contrast text frame.
95
The following steps can be used in implementing this strategy:
1. Determine what students already know in order to establish the
relationship between two concepts.
2. Brainstorm students to get them to identify specific characteristics
or features common to both concepts.
3. Ask students how the two concepts are different and then place
their responses in the different columns.
4. Discuss further categories for comparison.
5. Give students the opportunity to write a summary.
Music
Music has been compared with language. While music combines easily with
actual language, it also speaks its own language regarded as universal. To
understand the significance of the organizing features of rhythm, melody,
harmony, tone, colour, and form, the analogy of a familiar language is helpful.
Music has its own alphabet. Each of these letters represents a note, and just as
certain letters are complete words in themselves, so certain notes may stand
alone, with the force of a whole world. Generally, however, a note of music
implies a certain harmony, and in most modern music the notes take the form of
actual chords. So it may be said that a chord is similar to a word in language.
Several words form a phrase, and several phrases a complete sentence, and the
same thing is true of music. Measured music corresponds to poetry, while the
old unmeasured plain-song might be compared with prose. Finally, the
relationship of modern music to free verse at once becomes apparent.
Mc Crimmon, John M. (1963) Writing With a Purpose 3rd Ed. Bouston: Houghton Miffin Co. p72
ANALOGY GRAPHIC ORGANIZER
New Concept Familiar Concepts
MUSIC LANGUAGE
96
Similarities Differences
-Music and language are forms - Language uses intonation.
of communication. Music uses melody.
-They both have an alphabet. - Language has letters and

sounds. Music has notes.
- Some letters by themselves
make complete words, and - A word represents a
certain notes can stand alone meaningful unit of language,
while a chord represents a
meaningful unit of music.
Buehl, Doug (2001) Classroom Strategies for Interactive Learning 2nd ed.
Newark, D.E. International Reading association.
(D) Frayer Model

The Frayer Model is a graphic organizer consisting of four equal sections.
This is a strategy that encourages students to go beyond the mere
definition to gain a deeper understanding of concept. It helps students to
differentiate between characteristics that define the concept. The student
can distinguish items that represent the concept items that do not contain
some of the key characteristics. The model is constructed to reflect
examples and non-examples.
The Frayer Model involves the following steps:
1. Analyse the concept to be presented and state as many

characteristics or attributes as possible. For example, if the concept
is polygon, the essential characteristics would include shape, many
sides.
2. Introduce the concept and give the students the opportunity to
generate examples. They can work in groups to add or challenge
examples given. They identify the key characteristics of the
concept.
3. Give students a selection to read based on the concept. They
confirm or reject the information they have given during the
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brainstorming session. They go back to the list, extract the
characteristics that have been confirmed. Students ask additional
questions for clarification. For example, the student may ask: Why
are triangles and rectangles called polygons?
4. Students practise using the model.
FRAYER MODEL
ESSENTIAL NON-ESSENTIAL
CHARACTERISTICS CHARACTERISTICS
- Has three or more angles. - Length of sides.

- Has three or more sides. - Size of angles.
- Is a closed figure.
- Is a plane figure.
-The sum of the interior angles =
(2n – 4) right angles.
TOPIC/WORD
POLYGON
EXAMPLES NON-EXAMPLES
- Triangle - Circle
- Square - Semi-circle
- Rectangle - Angle
- Rhombus - Arc
- Parallelogram - Line
- Quadrilateral
- Pentagon
- Hexagon
(E) Proposition/Support Outline

Preposition/Support Outline helps students become critical readers as
they interact with materials that present viewpoints, opinions, debates,
theories or hypotheses. This strategy helps the student to develop
analytical and thinking skills as they examine the types of argument an
author uses to support a conclusion or generalization. They are also
encouraged to analyse supporting details used in their arguments. The
completed outlines provide a basis for class discussion and debates. They
also facilitate writing assignments that express opinion.
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The Proposition/Support Outline involves the following:
1. Discuss with students the differences between facts and opinions.
Students are encouraged to give examples of each and to construct
definitions.
2. Introduce the term ‘proposition’ and provide students with several

propositions. Also, encourage them to suggest their own.
- The Television promotes violence.
- Corporal punishment in Schools should be abolished.
- Youths should participate in the governing of their country.
3. Model for students the categories used for support – facts, statistics,
examples, expert testimony, logic and reasoning.
4. Give students a piece of writing and let them prepare an outline.
5. Discuss with students the kind of supporting details presented to see

how convincing they are.
6. Students read material to investigate propositions and research to find

out how they may be supported.
Sharks
Sharks are not as dangerous to humans as humans are to sharks. Marine
biologists have carried out surveys to determine the ratio of humans to
sharks that die at sea every year. Even though millions of people venture into
the ocean each year, fewer than fifty serious shark attacks occur on the
average and only ten of these are fatal. The reason for this low accident rate is
that most sharks are afraid of creatures as large as humans. Of the 350
known species of sharks, only one – the great white shark – is totally unafraid
of humans. Meanwhile, humans kill sharks in record numbers. Thousands
are hunted and slain each year for food. Thousands more are killed by under
water nets positioned off the beaches to protect swimmers in Australia and
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South Africa. Even the great white shark is diminishing in number as
humans hunt it for its teeth and jaws, which are sold as collector’s items.
Maybe, it is time we begin worrying less about protecting people from sharks
and more about protecting sharks from people.
Houton Miffin English (1984) Grammar and Composition,

Fourth Course p. 426
Proposition/Support Outline
Proposition:
Sharks are not as dangerous to human beings as human beings are to sharks.
Support:
1. Facts
Millions of people venture into the oceans each year.
Sharks are afraid of creatures as large as humans.
2. Statistics
Fewer than fifty shark attacks occur each year. Only about 10 shark attacks
each year are fatal. Of the 350 species of sharks only the white shark is totally
unafraid of humans.
3. Examples
Sharks are hunted and slain for food.
Sharks are killed by under water nets.
The teeth and jaws of the great white shark are sold as collective items.
4. Expert Authority
Marine biologists have carried out surveys to determine the ratio of humans to
sharks that die at sea every year.
5. Logic and Reasoning

Maybe it is time we begin worrying less about protecting people from sharks and
more about protecting sharks from people.
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Buhel, Doug (2001) Classroom Strategies for Interactive Learning 2nd ed. Newark, D.E:
International Reading Association.
(F) Concept/Definition Mapping

This is a strategy that helps to enrich a student’s understanding of a word
or concept. The concept/definition is a graphic structure that focuses the
student’s attention on the key component of a definition. The student
integrates personal knowledge into the definition. It helps students
to extend their vocabulary while they acquire concepts as they go beyond
the dictionary definitions. The construction of a visual representation
serves as an aid to memory.
Concept/Definition Mapping involves the following steps:

(1) Display the map with the concept and get students to discuss it
according to the categories given. For example, they would say what it is
by placing it in a category; say what it is like by stating its characteristics
or qualities; give some examples of items that fit the category. Model how
to use the map.
(2) Present a new key term or concept from materials the students are
learning. For example, you may be discussing vertebrates but more
specifically mammals.
(3) After students have completed the construction of the concept /

definition maps, let them use the maps to write a complete definition. The
definition should include the category of the word, its properties or
characteristics and specific examples. It should be noted that the
definition would comprise several sentences instead of a simple dictionary
statement.
Give students practice in constructing concept/definition maps for other
terms and concepts found in other reading materials.
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Example of Definition
The savannah is a natural region in Guyana that experiences a
cool climate. It is tropical grassland with scattered trees including
the balata. Cattle-rearing is done in this region. Lethem, Aishalton,
and St. Ignatius are located in the savannah.
Concept/Definition Map
What is it? What is it
like?
Savannah Tropical grassland
Scattered trees
Natural Region
Cool climate
LETHEM AISHALTON ST. IGNATIUS
What are some examples?

Buhel, Doug (2001) Classroom Strategies for Interactive Learning. 2nd ed. Newark, D.E: International Reading
Association.
During the Reading

The students would have been motivated by one of the pre-reading
exercises and are ready to read, interpret and understand the reading
material.
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During the teaching/learning process the students should be exposed to
an equal weighting of the comprehension skills.
These skills are:
 Literal comprehension
 Time and place relationships
 Sequencing
 Cause and effect relationships
 Fact and opinion
 The main idea
 Making inferences
 Word in context
 Understanding graphs, tables and advertisements
The teaching of any comprehension skill should proceed from

TEACHING PRACTICE APPLICATION ASSESSMENT
Students should be given the opportunity to read and reflect, and through
structured discussion and interaction share their understanding of the
material.
Literal Comprehension
At this level of understanding the students are required to read and note
the facts and details presented. The information that is recalled usually
answers to the question why, where, when, what and who.
Teaching Example
A Report
John was riding his bicycle along Richmond Street on Saturday 15th
February at about 5.00 p.m. He was crossing the street and did not see
the approaching car. The car was travelling at a great speed and when
the driver saw John he swerved out of the path of the bicycle on to the
pavement. Luckily no one was on the pavement at that time. John
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escaped injuries but the car was seriously damaged. The driver,
however, was not hurt but he was very angry at John
These facts and details can be had by asking questions such as:
1. When did the accident occur?
2. Where bib it happen?
3. Who were the persons involved?
4. How did the incident happen?
These are literal comprehension questions that are used to get the facts
and information from the passage.
It should be noted that the passage is a report and this comprehension
exercise can be used to point out to students that the when, why, where,
who and what questions must be answered when composing a report.
Practice/Apply/Assess Example
A hurricane begins near the equator, in the tropical or warmest areas of the ocean.
Strong winds come together there and begin to whirl in a huge circle. If you could
see the winds-which you can’t-they would look like a giant wheel. A hurricane
circle of winds may be as much as 500 miles wide. Most hurricanes occur during
the period from May through October.
The winds of a hurricane blow at speeds of 75 miles per hour or faster. And a
hurricane moves across the ocean at about 10 to 15 miles per hour. It usually
moves in a northwest direction.
Inside the winds of a hurricane is an area called the eye. In the eye, the winds are
light. After a ship passes through the winds of a hurricane into the eye, it will
seam to those aboard that the storm is over. But the ship will have to pass through
the winds on the other side of the hurricane’s circle.
Some hurricanes will die down before they reach land. But those that don’t can
cause great damage. The winds are so strong they can overturn automobiles and
damage houses. A hurricane also stirs up large waves on the ocean. They can
destroy docks and piers, wash away roads and destroy buildings near the shore.
Heavy rainstorms also come with the hurricane. The giant downpour can force
rivers or streams to overflow and cause floods.
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Questions:
1. Where does a hurricane begin?
2. At what time do most hurricanes occur?
3. How wide is the circle of the winds in a hurricane?
4. What is the wind speed of a hurricane?
5. In what direction does a hurricane usually travel?
6. What is the ‘eye’ of the hurricane/
7. What kinds of damage can a hurricane cause/
8. What effect does a hurricane have on rivers and streams?
Time and Place Relationships

This comprehension skill enables the student to recognize when and
where actions or events take place. The writer usually tells when an event
has taken place or how much time has passed between one event and
another. Words such as after, when, during, next, then and while are used
to indicate time.
Practice/Apply/Assess Example
How did the saga of Trinidad oil begin? What led to the discovery
of oil in this island? The story is told that this substance, which
has become the backbone of Trinidad’s economy, was first
discovered in 1870 by a huntsman in the Guayaguay are forest.
He took a sample of the liquid from a forest seepage, and
showed it to the Warden. The Warden in turn had the sample
sent to London to be analysed. The quality of the oil was found
to be of such a high standard that the analyst returned the
sample saying that it was artificial
Anyway, among the people interested in the discovery of oil,

hopes were still very much alive, because the experts were sure
that oil existed in Trinidad. To them, one unfailing indication of it
was the asphalt lake at La Brea, the bitumen of which was said
to be a component of petroleum.
Ten years before, in 1860, two geologists, Wall and Sawkins, had
conducted a geological survey of the island, and their report had
been favourable enough to attract oil prospectors to these
shores.
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The first oil well to be drilled in Trinidad was one under the
charge of Captain Walter Darwent at Aripero, South Trinidad, in
1867. Using a wooden derrick, Darwent went down to 200
metres when he seemed to have struck a bed of oil.
However, because the operations were so costly, and because

the project was poorly financed, Darwent could not make the
best of his opportunity. After seeing
His dream half fulfilled, the brave pioneer had to give up. In fact
he died very soon afterwards.
Questions
(1) Where was the substance found?
(2) When did Wall and Sawkins conduct a geological survey of Trinidad?
(3) Where was the first oil well drilled in Trinidad?
(4) When did the brave pioneer, Darwent, die?
(5) Where was the ‘substance’ first sent?
(6) How long after the geological survey was oil discovered?
(7) In paragraph 3, to what shores does the writer refer?
Cause – Effect Relationship

In a story some event or person can cause something else to happen, this
is called a cause – relationship.
The question ‘Why did something happen?’ is asking for the cause.
The question ‘What happened?’ is asking for the effect or result.
Teaching Example
A. Give the students sentences to identify the ‘cause’ and ‘effect’.

1. The cricket team was happy because they won the match.
Cause – They won the match.________________________________
Effect – The cricket team was happy.__________________________
2. The night was so dark that we could not see the pathway.
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
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3. She fell asleep on the couch because the music was soft and
soothing.
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
B. Give them the ‘cause’ sentence and three other sentences to tick the
corresponding ‘effect’
The rose plant was not watered for three days.

1. On the fourth day it withered and died.
2. We planted more roses in the morning.
3. The owner of the house went on a holiday.
C. Give them an ‘effect’ sentence and three other sentences to tick the
‘cause’ that created the effect.
She went on a strict diet of vegetables and fruit.

1. She felt she was overweight.
2. She liked eating all kind of meat.
3. She looked very slim after that.
Practice/Apply/Access Example
Roxanne and her sister Jane were going to Prize Giving Day in their
school. Roxanne had won the first prize in the Essay Competition. Their
father had promised to come home early to take them to the function.
The two sisters got dressed and waited. They were anxiously looking at
the clock when the phone rang. “Roxanne,” he said, “I am in a heavy
traffic jam. I’ll b late. Can you call your cousin, David and ask him to take
you?”
Roxanne called her cousin, but he was not at home. She became uneasy,
for if they arrived late the principal would be annoyed. The door bell rang
and in walked Aunt Enid.
“Oh! Aunt Enid. We are so glad to see you!” remarked the two sisters.
They were relieved, for now they could attend the function on time.
107
The cause and effect relationships are:
Question - What caused their father to be late?
 A heavy traffic jam caused their father to be late.

CAUSE: There was a traffic jam
EFFECT: Their father would be arriving late.
Question – Why couldn’t their cousin Peter, take them to the Prize Function?
 Peter was not at home when they called.

CAUSE: Peter was not at home
EFFECT: He could not take the girls to the function.
Question – What effect had Aunt Julia’s entrance?
 They were glad and relieved.

CAUSE: Aunt Julie would take them.
RESULT: They would not be late for the function.
These cause and effect relationships can be charted on this diagram
CAUSE EFFECT
_________________________ _________________________
Why did something happen? What happened?
______________________________ _______________________________
There was a traffic jam. Their father would be arriving late.
_________________________ _________________________
_________________________ _________________________
_________________________ _________________________
It should be noted that the effect could either be explicit or implied in the
text.
Fact and Opinion

A fact is something that is true; it can be proved to be true.
E.g. Trinidad is an island in the West Indies.
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An opinion is a personal feeling or thought that varies from person to
person. It is influenced by a person’s perception, preference or outlook.
E.g. Trinidad is a beautiful island.
As is said ‘beauty is in the eye of the beholder’, therefore everyone would
not share the same opinion about Trinidad. It is important that students
are able to tell the difference between fact and opinion when reading.
Teaching Example
Students will identify the statements that are ‘fact’ and those that are
‘opinion’ and state the reasons why.
1. The book weighs two pounds. FACT
It can be weighed and proven.
2. Homework deprives children of leisure pursuits. OPINION
The statement is debatable not everyone would agree with it.
3. The anopheles mosquito spreads malaria. FACT
_______________________________________________________________________
4. Rain hardly ever falls in the desert.
__________________________________________________________
_
5. Girls study harder than boys.
__________________________________________________________
_
Practice/Apply/Access Example
Students can be asked to select the statements of ‘fact’ and those of
‘opinion’ from this extract.
109
All the children in the area attend the Government
school. The teachers in that school are hardworking
and ambitious. Some of the children are keen on
their studies. They study English Language,
Mathematics, Science and Social Studies. These
subjects
Fact are very important to them. Opinion On Friday
Some of the afternoons
children are they
keen are allowed
on their All to
the play games
children in theonarea
theattend the
studies. playground. In that school the boys school.
Government are healthier
than the girls. The girls study harder than the boys.
It is the
They study English best school in the
Language, The teachersItinwas
Region. that built
schooltoare
Mathematics,accommodate four hundred
Science and Social hardworking
students. and ambitious.
Studies.
These subjects are very important to
On Friday afternoons they are allowed them.
to play games on the playground.
The girls study harder than the boys.
In that school the boys are healthier
than the girls. It is the best school in the Region.
It was built to accommodate four

hundred students.
Students can also be asked to select the report that is ‘factual’ and the
one that is ‘opined’ and state the reasons.
(a) The fire at Kent School started in the laboratory

and spread rapidly to other parts of the school building.
(b) The fire
Students at Kent
jumped in High School started
desperation in the science
and suffered broken
laboratory. Students desperate to escape
limbs and severe burns. It is a shame that jumped ten
so many
feet belowhad
children to the
to ground floor. Many
suffer because of of them suffered
careless science
broken limbs. Several children were trapped.
teachers. Much money will be required to rebuild They
began screaming
damaged areas. Inandfuture
running wildly. should
teachers The firebebrigade
more
arrived on the scene within minutes. Firemen
careful. They are responsible for the safety of childrenfought
hard
at to control the blaze. Children trapped were
school.
brought to safety. Many of them suffered severe burns
and were taken to the hospital for treatment. The cause
of the fire is still unknown. The ground floor is burnt
entirely. Several classrooms on the upper floor were
also burnt
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Inferential Comprehension
 Identify ideas inferred from given facts (in print or pictorial).
 Predict outcomes.
 Grasp the writer’s plan and intent.
In Grades 7 and 8 students should have been familiar with literal meaning,
time and space relationship, sequencing, the main idea and supporting
details, word in context, inference, fact and opinion and understanding
simple tables and advertisements. In Grade 9 students will get more
practice in the foregoing topics in a variety of settings. One such setting is
to ask students to read a passage and then answer multiple choice
questions or allow them to formulate their own responses e.g.
Passage
Leaving for school on mornings, I walked slowly through the busy parts of the town. The
business places would all be opening then, and smells of strange fragrance would fill the
High Street. Inside the opening doors I would see clerks dusting, arranging, hanging
things up, ready for the day’s business. They looked cheerful and eager and they opened
the doors very wide. Sometimes I stood up to watch them.
In places between the stores several little alleys ran off the High Street. Some were busy
and some were not and there was one that was long and narrow and dark and very
strange. Here, too, the shops would be opening as I passed and there would be bearded
Indians in loin-cloths spreading rugs on the pavement. There would be Indian women
also, with veils thrown over their shoulders, setting up their stalls and chatting in a
strange, sweet tongue. Often I stood, too, watching them, and taking in the strange
fragrance of rugs, spices, onions and sweetmeats. And sometimes, suddenly
remembering, I would hurry away for fear the school bell had gone.
1. The best title for the passage is

(A) Strange Smells.
(B) Setting up of Stalls.
(C) Opening of Business Places.
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(D) Busy Activities of the Town. Answer
Strange Smells – refers to “smells of strange fragrance” and “strange

fragrance of rugs … sweetmeats”, but to none of the other activities.
“Setting up stalls” – refers only to “There would be women … setting up
their stalls”. The passage deals with more than the Opening of Business
Places; hence (D) is more appropriate.
2. The writer walked slowly to school because

(A) He was lazy and carefree.
(B) He was not sure of the route.
(C) He was attracted by scenes of activity.
(D) The streets were busy. Answer
The answer to this recall question comes directly from the passage.
3. “Strange sweet tongue” means

(A) Good pleasant taste.
(B) Unfamiliar but musical language. Answer
(C) Rare taste for sweet things.
(D) Flattering words and accents.
Students need practice in gleaning meaning from the context to select the
correct word or phrase to replace the ones used therein. The word
“chatting” indicates that the writer has to be referring to speech/language
and not taste. Consequently (B) and (D) are the two possible options.
Since nothing in the passage suggests that the women had any reason for
flattery, “Unfamiliar but musical language” is the only feasible answer.
4. We can infer from the details of the passage that

(A) The writer was afraid of being late for school. Answer
(B) The writer did not care to go to school.
(C) The writer was in the habit of reaching school late.
(D) The writer did not enjoy going to school.
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The last line of the passage gives the impression that he did not
want to imagine that the school-bell had gone; hence he would
hurry away. The school bell signals the assembly of school.
5. The writer appeals most to our sense of

(A) touch. (B) smell.
(C) hearing. (D) sight. Answer
There is no evidence that he touched anything. He did hear the “chatting

in a strange sweet tongue”, and inhale the ”smells of strange fragrance”
and “took in the fragrance of rugs, spices, onions and sweetmeats”
However, he was fascinated by all the activities and scenes “in and off the
High Street”.
6. The writer’s main purpose in this passage is

(A) To describe his journey to school.
(B) To describe the fascinating sights and smells of the town. Answer
(C) To describe the business places in the town.
(D) To describe the experiences before reaching school.
Having read the passage students discard (A), (B) and (D), because these
options only tell part of the writer’s story.
7. Which word best describes the mood of the clerks?

(A) zealous (B) busy Answer
(C) wild (D) talkative
The clerks were working purposefully “dusting, arranging hanging things
up, getting ready for the day’s business”.
A comprehension passage need not only be an extract but can also be a

poem.
Example
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Over the grass the hedgehog came
Questing the air for scents of food
And the cracked twig of danger.
He shuffled near in the gloom. Then stopped.
He was aware of me, I went up,
Bent low to look at him, and saw
His coat of lances pointing to my hand.
What could I do
To show I was no enemy?
I turned him over, inspected his small clenched paws,
His eyes expressionless as glass,
And did not know how I could speak,
By tongue or touch, the language of a friend.
It was grief to be a friend
Yet to be dumb; to offer peace.
And bring the soldiers out………….
Clifford Dyment
1 Why did the hedgehog come over the grass?
(A) To search for a place to rest.

(B) To smell the air.
(C) To look for food.
(D) To break the twigs.
2. The atmosphere was
(A) bright
(B) dark
(C) clouds
(D) misty
3. To what does ‘his coat of lances’ (l.7.) refer?
(A) The thorns in the bushes.

(B) The long blades of grass.
(C) The sharp bristles on the hedgehog.
(D) The rough coat of the hedgehog.
4. Why was the writer grieved?
(A) He could not take the hedgehog home.

(B) He could no communicate with the hedgehog.
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(C) The hedgehog threatened him.
(D) The hedgehog was hungry and alone.
5. What did the writer do to show friendship?
(A) He turned him over and examined him.

(B) He bent low to look at him.
(C) He held his coat of lances.
(D) He spoke the language of a friend.
6. ‘To be dumb’ (l. 15) refers to
(A) the hedgehog

(B) the writer
(C) all people
(D) a friend
7. ‘And bring the soldiers out’ (L. 16). To what does soldiers refer.
(A) An army of hedgehog.

(B) The other animals around.
(C) The quills on the hedgehog’s body.
(D) The warlike creatures.
These kinds of questions test the different comprehension skills.
Summary
A summary is a brief overview of something that was read. Most
summaries cover the material in the same order the information is
presented.
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The student must convey a balanced overview of what is read. They
should not include their own opinion on the topic or the writing style. They
should be brief and not rewrite the text.
Method
Students should:
 Study the passage until they find the theme; then record it.
 Make rough notes one section at a time.
 Link up notes properly so that they do not read in a jerky or
unconnected way.
 Check for length and amend when necessary; write out the final
version.
Points to note:
Students should:
 Always cross out their rough work.
 Desist from turning the whole passage into reported speech.
Dialogue may be converted into reported speech.
 Not use direct questions.
 Omit details, examples, repetition and irrelevant remarks.
 Not add to or comment on the subject matter.
 Make the summary the required length, if any limits are set.
 Sum up a mass of details in one or two sentences.
 Only copy passages from the original unless there is no better
way of expressing an idea.
 Check the final summary for accuracy of language, punctuation
etc.
Passage
The national parks of Africa are an important economic asset of the
territories in which they lie, for they attract tourists (our tiresome word
for modern pilgrims and travellers); and tourists bring in a substantial
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revenue, not merely through disbursements in the national parks
themselves, but chiefly through what they spend in the country at large,
on transport, accommodation, equipment, photography and souvenirs.
The national parks and wild-life preserves are now the main reasons
why they come to East Africa, and one of the main reasons why they
come to South Africa and Mozambique; and the same could soon hold
good for Central Africa. Tourism is increasing in volume throughout
Africa’s wild-life area, and in Kenya, for instance has already become the
largest source of national revenue, to the tune of $20 million. What is
more, it is capable of a very large further increase in the near future (of
course, always provided there is no World War, and no major political
trouble in eastern Africa).
So long as Western prosperity continues, with populations increasing

and industrialisation being intensified, more and more people will want
to escape farther and farther from its results, in the shape of over-large
and overcrowded cities, smoke, noise, boring routine and over-
mechanisation of life. Air travel will certainly become cheaper and more
popular, and will take more people farther afield.
I would prophesy that the revenue to be derived from tourism in East

Africa (which already runs to well over $25 million) could be certainly
increased five-fold, and probably ten-fold, in the next ten years, provided
that the business is properly organised. It will be necessary to improve
access to the national parks and accommodation within them, catering
both for those who like comfort and those who prefer a more do-it-
yourself holiday; to provide museums and guides; to maintain a really
adequate staff of wardens, scientists and games scouts, good fencing
and anti-poaching measures; and to produce the right sort of publicity.
It will be necessary to work in co-operation with travel and tourist

agencies in arranging good holidays, efficient itineraries and so-called
package tours, to set up new national parks, and to open new areas,
such as parts of the coast and the uplands, for the enjoyment of visitors;
and all of this without overcrowding the national parks. That would spell
their ruination (already at some seasons some of the roads in the Kruger
Park are overcrowded with cars full of tourists).
This will cost money – quite a lot of money. So far, game departments
and national parks have been among the most neglected of government
departments in Africa: how can they be provided with this extra finance?
I would hazard the guess that if the African territories could co-operate
in the latter, and make a reasoned application to the United Nations
agency for a loan to develop their tourist trade, they would have a good
chance of getting it.
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Rough Notes
- National parks important in economic life of some African countries
Attract tourists and bring direct and indirect revenue to countries.
- Particularly so in East and South Africa Could be in Central.
- Increasing no. of people from West will take advantage of cheaper air
fares to travel more widely to avoid industrialisation.
- Revenue could probably be increased 10-fold in next decade if facilities in

and out of parks improved.
- Good organisation and new parks needed to avoid overcrowding. Loan could
perhaps be obtained from a U.N. agency, if concerned African countries
produce co-operative plan of development.
These notes are made in point form and abbreviations, with which
students are familiar, are permissible. However, students must ensure
that the final summary is cohesive.
Final Summary
National parks and wild-life reserves play an important part in the economic life of
some African countries, particularly in East and South Africa. They attract tourists
and thus bring substantial direct and indirect revenue. In Kenya, for example,
tourists are the second largest source of revenue, and there are potentialities in
Central Africa.
With the rise in population in the West and with continued prosperity there, an
increasing number of people will take advantage of cheaper fares to travel more
widely, seeking to avoid the unpleasantness of their industrialised environment.
If there were improved facilities in and out of the parks, the revenue from tourism
could probably be increased as much as ten-fold in the next decade. To achieve this,
it is vital to have good organisation and new national parks to avoid overcrowding.
One way of financing this work would be by way of a loan that could perhaps be
118
obtained from a United Nations agency if the interested African countries produced
a co-operative plan for development.
Graphics
Graphics is another way of presenting summarised information. The
reading and understanding of these graphics is also comprehension and
students need to develop the skill of visual thinking to interpret the
information presented.
Kinds of Graphics
 Tables
 Cluster diagram
 Graphs
 Maps
 Advertisements
Maps
119
A blue line in a
land mass
indicates a
river.
The colours
suggest the
specifics
about its
divisions.
There are
other symbols
used that give
information
about this
area.
Students should be given practice in using the colour key to extract information
and to draw conclusions.
Maps are a representation of a portion of earth, showing what it contains

and what its features are.
Types of maps:
 Political – shows features that are created by or reflect the culture
of a people, such as countries, cities, districts, regions or roads.
 Physical - shows the natural features of the earth, such as rivers,
mountains and plains
Political and physical maps usually show large areas: the world, a country,
a state, a city.
Students should be given practice in using the colour key of maps to
extract information and draw conclusions.
Maps can also show smaller areas: the houses in a neighbourhood, the
buildings on a college campus, or the location of rooms in a building. A
map, a floor plan is used by architects when designing a building.
120
Double lines
are used to
show walls
and windows.
Spaces show
doorways.
The parts of
the house are
labelled.
Students can label the unlabelled areas on the house plan.
Venn Diagram
A Venn diagram may be used to show the similarities and differences
between two people/objects … that are related somehow. A comparison
between a dog and a piano will be nonsensical. But a comparison
between a dog and a cat may reveal some interesting similarities and
differences between these animals.
Preparing a Venn diagram
Draw two intersecting circles.

Title the circles with the subjects to be compared.
List the unique features of each subject.
List the similarities of the two subjects in the space where the circles intersect.
121
Differences
Likeness
Audio
Audio
Visual
Ads
Ads
Having identified the unique features and the common ones students can
formulate an oral or written paragraph or several paragraphs based on the
data. Students need to be reminded of the necessity for transitional
words/phrases such as but, however, in the same way, like, unlike,
similarly, on the other hand.
Graphs
Often a graph is the best way to convey numerical information. Graphs
can reveal patterns of relationships among different numerical facts or
statistics; thus they can be useful tools in comparison-contrast writing.
122
Whenever students use graphics in their writing, they should place them
and refer to them so that they make the greatest impact on the reader.
Students can put the diagram at:
 The beginning of their written work. To capture the reader’s

attention and establish a basic framework.
 In the middle of an essay type answer. Students may include

graphics that convey a great amount of information in a concise
way, reinforce information or serve as a handy reference for the
reader.
 At the end of an expository piece. Students will probably want to

summarise their main points.
Whenever and however they use graphics, they need to let the reader
know why they are there and when to look at them.
123
Students must remember to title graphics clearly when they present more
than one. In that way the reader will not be confused and can refer to the
appropriate graphic quickly and easily.
 For a homework assignment students may be asked to list writing

situations or subjects for which each type of graphic may be used.
 In a class discussion their peers can examine the individual
suggestions, make comments and give reasons for their other
preference.
Understanding Text
Writers select information and use loaded words very carefully, so as to
influence the readers. Students need to be alert and watch out for a
writer’s bias which is created by specific word used or specific word
omitted on purpose. It is absolutely necessary to separate the writer’s
feeling from the information he or she is giving.
A. Letter to the Editor
To the Editor:
In my opinion, drunk-driving laws are not nearly as strict enough. Anyone caught
driving drunk should have his or her driver’s licence taken away immediately –
and never returned. Why should some drunk be given a second chance to
murder innocent people?
1. What are the three loaded words?

 Drunk
 Murder
 Innocent
Let students discuss in small groups the effectiveness of the three loaded
words.
124
-. Drunk makes the reader feel that the person drinks regularly, and is not
socially acceptable.
-. Murder suggests that the drunk kills people on purpose.
-. Innocent portrays the dead as good and kind; hence the reader detests
the drunk even more.
2. What is the writer’s intention?

For the reader to have no sympathy for people who drink and drive
3. What is the phrase that tells the reader that the writer is giving a
personal opinion?
Let students read or write the sentence that contains the phrase.
“In my opinion.”
In groups have students read and examine two articles to determine by

the use of words which is bias and which is factual. They can note words
and expressions, which show the writer’s bias.
B. News Articles
1. Today, Terry Roach became the 2. Today, Terry Roach, 25, walked
second person in 22 years to be into the death chamber at South
executed in the U.S. for crimes Carolina’s Central Correctional
committed while he was a juvenile. Institution in Columbia. Soon after, he
He was sentenced to death for became only the second person in 22
murdering a 16-year-old girlfriend in years to be executed in the U.S. for
cold blood. After finding the young crimes committed while he was a
couple in their car, Roach and two of juvenile. He was sentenced to death
his sick friends shot the boy three for killing two teenagers when he was
times in the head. They then fired 17 years old.
five shots into the girl. Roach, a surly
no-account, was 17 at the time he
committed the crime.
125
ARTICLE 1 ARTICLE 2
Biased Factual
Provides more information/details to Just wants the reader to know exactly
show how cruel Roach and his “sick” what happened. He/She is not trying to
friends were. convince the reader that Roach is
good or bad.
Calls Roach a “brutal, heartless
murderer”. Since he is also “brutal and Says Roach “killed the teenagers. A
heartless” and “kills in cold blood” no “killer” doesn’t sound nearly as bad as
reader will sympathise with him. In fact, a “murderer” The reader may even
the reader feels that he deserves to think that it was accidental.
die.
The addition of he was “no-account”

and had “sick friends” further convinces
the reader of his callousness.
C. Reports
1. Mary Davis, a 46-year-old 2. Mary Davis is suing Stanford
English teacher at Stanford University. The tall, awkward
University, is suing the university to former English teacher claims that
get her job back. She says she was she was fired because she
fired because in 1994 she failed six refused to pass eight of the
basketball players in her English university’s best basketball
class. The university asked her to players. University officials say
change the grades so the athletes that Ms. Davis was fired for other
could play basketball. She refused, reasons. They say that Ms. Davis,
and the university let them play who recently had a nervous
anyway. When she objected, she breakdown, was uncooperative,
was fired. difficult to work with and
unpleasant to her students.
1. How are these two reports different?
126
____ (1) One is about Stanford University, and one is about
Mary Davis.
____ (2) One says Ms. Davis is suing the university, and the
the university is suing Ms Davis.
____ (3) They include different information about Ms. Davis.
____ (4) One is biased against Ms. Davis, and the other is not
biased.
___(5) Both 3 and 4.
The first paragraph gives the facts of the case, but the second paragraph
is biased against Ms. Davis. The reader knows this because the writer
says she is “awkward”. He also states that she had a nervous breakdown.
Finally, he includes all the negative things the university officials said
about her.
2. Which of the following do you think is used as a loaded word?

_____ (1) Awkward
_____..(2) Tall
_____..(3) Unpleasant
____ (4) Both 1 and 2
_____ (5) Both 1 and 3
Both “awkward” and “unpleasant” made the reader feel negative

emotions.
3. Scan the two paragraphs to find when Ms. Davis failed the athletes.
Write the last sentence you had to read to find the information.
4. Read the two paragraphs and find the sentence that makes you feel
that Ms. Davis is physically unattractive.
5. Write the sentence from the second paragraph that suggests that the
reader shouldn’t believe Ms. Davis.
127
6. Which paragraph is obviously biased against Ms. Davis? Give evidence
to support your view.
D. Report of a Meeting
At a meeting of the City Council, the councillors were discussing a
proposal to build a new sports stadium. Here is the speech made by
Councillor Williams of he wishes to oppose the location of the structure.
Mr. Williams: “I agree with the project

entirely but not with the proposed
site. It’s not that I’m against the idea
of helping the youth of our city, but I
think a better site can be found – one
that will do greater honour to the fine
youth of our great city. Remember
that the youth of today are the
leaders of tomorrow. Sport is
important but health and education
are more pressing. The time may not
be opportune for the expenditure of $20 000 000. on a stadium, so I suggest we
defer the scheme for the time being.”
Newspaper Report- Hostile
At the City Council other matters were more

meeting held yesterday, important than sports,
Mr. Williams admitted especially when it came
that he was against the to spending money. He
idea of helping the voted against the
young people of our proposal.
city. He did not agree
with the site and
claimed that
128
1. How does the report create an unfavourable impression of Mr.
Williams?
2. What dishonesty can you find in the report?
Newspaper Report- Supportive
Speaking on behalf of the the Council to find the best

democratic and freedom-loving possible site. His aim, he
Citizens Party, Councillor declared passionately, was to
Williams expresses his entire force the Council to pay greater
agreement with the fine honour to the city’s youth than
principles behind the proposal. they had done before. He
He looked forward to a time warned the opposition that the
when the city would provide the young men and women of today
magnificent facilities to which would be the leaders of
the young people were entitled. tomorrow, despite barriers put in
He pointed out the importance of their way, and mentioned the
health and education in the life expenditure of $20 000 00 on a
of the young worker and urged stadium in the near future.
1. How does this report create a favourable impression of Mr. Williams?

2. What dishonesty does it contain?
Divide the class in four

 Allow each group to field a team for or against two topics
suggested by the students.
 Be a facilitator as students prepare their case ‘for’ or ‘against.
 Stage the arguments.
129
 Allow the other students to give their views on the validity of the
views presented.
Advertisements
Advertisements thrive on loaded words not facts. They are written to make
buyers think that one product is much better than another. The words and
pictures chosen influence feeling and may result in the reader buying the
item.
130
Encourage students to study advertisements and reports in newspapers
and magazines to identify examples of the following:
a. Opinions given as facts
b. Opinions and facts cleverly mixed together to create the impression
that all the statements are facts.
c. Dishonesty by exaggeration
d. Dishonesty by distortion of facts
e. Dishonesty by the suppression of facts vital to the case
f. Misleading claims made by the use of words with a strong emotive
feeling.
From time to time similar selections can be used to give students practice
in speaking and listening.
Use of Figurative Language

Writers use figurative language – a word or phrase used in an imaginative
way rather than in the literal sense - to create interest and clarity. Any
figurative expressions e.g. simile, metaphor, personification used, serves
the needs of the writer’s thought, purpose and audience. Students have to
be trained to look out for the figurative expressions used in oral and
written communication and interpret the meaning and purpose for which
they are used.
 Denotation refers to the straightforward dictionary meaning or

definition of words.
131
Example: In road signs ‘P’ denotes a car park.
 Connotations are the feelings and values readers usually

associate with any given word; associations that go beyond the
simple dictionary definition of the word.
132
Examples:
(a) The language faculty discussed the proposed grading system.
(b) The language faculty debated the proposed grading system.
(c) The language faculty argued about the proposed grading
system.
(b) The language faculty quarrelled over the proposed grading
system.
 Simile compares one thing to another by using the word like or

as.
Example: My journey to Morawhanna was like a bad dream.
Literal -.At a billion, the population of China is staggering.
Simile -.Numbering one billion, the people of China seem as
numerous as blades of grass.
 Metaphor describes a thing as something else in order to suggest

a likeness.
Example: The plane ride to St. Lucia was a nightmare.
Literal -.During the 1970’s, Dr. Walter Rodney worked
aggressively and tirelessly in defence of his
principles.
Metaphor -.During the 1970’s, Dr. Walter Rodney carried an
unsheathed sword in defence of his principles.
Discuss with students what a different mental picture “carried a heavy
club” would paint if used in the above sentence.
 Personification gives human qualities to objects, animals or things

Example: Flowers saluted the morning sun.
 Pun is a joking use of a word sounding the same as another

Example: Deciding where to bury him was a grave decision
133
 Irony says the opposite for emphasis.
Example: “What a lovely day!” It may be raining or there may be several
problems at work.
It describes an oddly contradictory situation: e.g.
Example: The irony of it is that I tripped while telling Jane to be careful.
 Oxymoron is a sharp saying which at first view appears foolish, or

combines contradictory ideas.
Example: Thunderous silence…
 Synecdoche: A part represents the whole:

Example: ‘Tis God gives skill (talent), but not without men’s hands (whole
person).
 Litotes is a statement which denies its opposite.

Example: There is no little enemy.
Exercises
 Select a short passage from a novel or short story that uses
figurative language. Rewrite the passage, changing the figurative
language to literal language. Which style is more effective –
figurative or literal? Have a class discussion on the reasons for
their choice.
 Find a three- or four-paragraph passage in a history or science

textbook. Rewrite the passage, expressing the same information
but using figurative language.
Structured Note Taking

Structured note-taking is a strategy for creating graphic outlines that help
students to take notes in an organized manner. It is a graphic organizer
that provides students with a framework for seeing relationships between
134
ideas. This facilitates memorization of the material read. Notes
constructed by the students themselves stimulate independent thinking
and creativity.
Structured Note taking involves the following steps:

 Preview the content to identify the organizational pattern of the
material, for example, problem/solution, cause and effect.
 Create a graphic organizer using boxes, circles, arrows and other

visual structures to reflect the organizational pattern of the material.
 Students work in pairs to select information for the graphic outline and
place these in the relevant sections.
 After exposure to a number of models involving different text

structures, students will be able to do their own structured note taking.
Save the Turtles at Shell Beach

More and more turtles turn up dead on Guyana’s shores.
Authorities are seeking to implement measures to prevent
them from becoming extinct as the mortality figure is very
high. The Olive Ridley is one of four endangered species of
sea turtles that have become extinct in Guyana. A large
number of turtles wash up on shores dead and flipperless. It
has been observed that the Olive Ridley turtle has not been
seen in Guyana for the past three years.
What has been responsible for the disappearance of turtles
in Guyana? It has been observed that trawlers involved in
the catching of fish and shrimp do not use the Turtle
Excluder Devices (TED’S) as required by the U.S. law.
Although the main focus is on trawlers, fishermen with drift
135
seines are largely responsible for the deaths of sea turtles.
The sea turtles are accidentally caught by drift seines and
instead of releasing them the fishermen cut off their flippers
and throw them back into the sea where they die by
drowning because they are starved of oxygen. For example, a
large leatherback turtle was washed up dead on the Kitty
foreshore with its flippers chopped off. Sea turtles are also
hunted and caught by poachers to be eaten. The eggs are
also sought after for the same purpose.
It is necessary to implement measures to protect endangered
species of sea turtles since turtle protection is an
international concern. One of these measures is to place
more resources at the disposal of the rangers who patrol the
beaches. There is also need for education programmes to
make persons aware of the importance of turtle preservation.
For example, the British High Commission has funded an
education project for Santa Rosa. Another plan for protection
is the prohibition of drift seine activity during the egg-laying
and nesting season.
Also, there should be implementation of Turtle Excluder
Devices (TED’S). Finally, funding should be sought from
International donor foundations such as the World Wildlife
Fund.
Adapted from articles by Owen Evelyn and Miranda La Rose in Sunday Chronicle and Sunday
Stabroek respectively, March12, 2000.
Example of Notes
Name of endangered animal Sea turtle – Olive Ridley
Habitat the sea - Shell Beach
- Turtles are being caught in

drift seines
Kind of problem -.Their flippers are cut off and
they drown from lack of oxygen
-. Eggs are stolen
136
-.Trawlers
- Use of exclusive devices
-.Fishermen who use drift
Causes of problem seines
- Poachers
- Equip beach rangers properly

Solution to problem - Implement educational
programmes.
- Prohibit the use of drift seines
during nesting
-.Enforce law for use of TED’s
-.Seek funding
SPEAKING and LISTENING

Students need to take account of the context in which they will speak.
Is it
 A debate?
 A prepared speech by an individual?
 A panel discussion?
 A meeting?
Will they be required to

 Ask questions?
 Answer questions?
Will the venue be too large for posters or illustrations to be used?
Will there be a microphone, will the students be able to use it for

practice before the event?
Will there be a fixed time limit for their comments or presentation?
Students must practise making legible notes on cards for use as

reminders during their presentation. Speakers need to know the topic.
137
 If they are to give a speech, they must anticipate possible
questions and plan how to answer them.
 If they are the chairperson of a discussion, they must talk with each
participant and learn what type of information he/she has to offer
and what role each is likely to play.
 Debaters need to coordinate their presentation with their team
members and anticipate the arguments of the opposing side.
Delivering a Speech to Persuade

In speaking to school officials and members of the community, students
should:
 Be formal, concise and well prepared.
 Be very respectful to the audience but not too modest or
apologetic.
 Stick rigorously to the topic.
In order to convince the listeners, the student should:

 State a position with facts.
 Give arguments to support their position.
 Address any contrary opinions openly.
 Restate their position firmly.
Formal Meeting
A chairperson follows the agenda and conducts the meeting in
accordance with parliamentary procedure. Each participant must
understand in advance the rules to be used for conducting the meeting,
and be prepared to respect the chairperson’s direction. Contributors must
stick to the topic, and listen attentively to the views of others.
Agenda
1. Call to order by chairperson
138
2. Reading or distribution of the previous meeting minutes (official
record kept by secretary).
3. Confirmation of minutes
4. Reports of various committees (small groups considering a
problem)
5. Unfinished business from previous meetings
6. New business
7. Announcements
8. Adjournment by the chairperson
Conduct of the Meeting

 All remarks are addressed to the chairperson.
 Decisions are made by motions (formal suggestions put before
the group for consideration) e.g. “I move that we invite a member
of parliament to speak at our next meeting”, followed by voting.
 A motion requires a “seconder”, a person who agrees that this
motion is a good idea. The seconder says, “I second the motion.”
 During the discussion that follows, anyone wishing to speak raises
his/her hand to address the chairperson.
 When the discussion seems near an end, the chairperson will
ask, “Is there any further discussion?” If not, voting follows.
 Generally, motions are voted on by a show of hands. The
chairperson votes only if there is a tie.
Activities
1. Let students conduct a P.T.A. or any formal meeting of their choice.
They will need to nominate; then elect a chairperson and secretary and to
decide on committee/s and members thereof.
2. Divide the class in four and allow each group to field a team for or
against two topics suggested by the students. Be a facilitator as students
139
prepare their case for or against. Stage the debates. Allow the other
students to give their views on the conduct of the debates.
140
ENGLISH LANGUAGE
Sample Lesson 1 Grade 9
TOPIC SPECIFIC PREVIOUS TEACHER STUDENTS’

TIME SUB-TOPIC OBJECTIVES CONTENT KNOWLEDGE ACTIVITY ACTIVITY RESOURSE EVALUATION
40/80 Written Examine Purposes Can 1. Shares 1. Receive Sample An expository
min. Expression examples of of the construct out four samples and expository paragraph
expository expository expository samples of designate a paragraphs has the order
Expository paragraphs paragraph paragraphs paragraphs reader for each of facts that
Paragraphs to identify that give to each sample. corresponds
purpose and Order of information group of to its purpose
order of the the facts or explain students.
paragraph in the how
paragraph something is
(p.35) done or 2. Writes 2. Read each
made the four paragraph,
purposes identify its
and asks purpose and
students to examine it for the
state the order of facts.
order of the
facts for
each.
3. Listens to 3. Report their

the reports findings and clear
and up points of
moderates misunderstanding
the through
discussion. discussion.
4. Gives an 4. Respond to the

assignment. assignment
given.
ENGLISH LANGUAGE
159
TIM SUB-TOPIC OBJECTIVES CONTENT KNOWLEDGE ACTIVITY ACTIVITY RESOURSE EVALUATION
E
80 Written Develop Definition of Can 1. Defines 1. Listen Sample of a A paragraph
min. Expression from a given a construct the classification that contains
topic, a classification paragraphs classification paragraph a general
Classification paragraph paragraph paragraph. statement
Paragraphs that followed by
classifies The 2. Presents 2. Listen supporting
beginning the sample and sentences,
statement paragraph answer and which
and questions states the
Supporting examines when types or
the the general necessary subtypes
beginning statement
statement
(p.37, 38) 3. Monitors 3. Read
discussion the
giving supporting
guidance to sentences
the and identify
conclusions the types
arrived at or
subtypes
4. Gives a 4. Give
science information
related topic that
for students classifies
to write a the topic
paragraph into its
using the types or
sample subtypes,
paragraph then write
model the
paragraph
160
ENGLISH LANGUAGE
TIME TOPIC SPECIFIC PREVIOUS TEACHER STUDENTS’
SUB-TOPIC OBJECTIVE CONTENT KNOWLEDGE ACTIVITY ACTIVITY RESOURSE EVALUATION
80 Narrative Plan a story Orientation Can write 1. Explains 1. Listen, ask Graphic The
min. Writing using the Complication stories the questions and Organiser necessary
Narrative Resolution relatively well organization respond to - Narrative detail for a
Organisation Plan of the teacher Plan 1& 2 new story
Language narrative (p. 50, 51) stated in the
features and states sections of
(p. 47, 48) what is A short the Narrative
required for narrative Plan
each part (p. 49)
on the
Narrative
Plan.
2. Presents 2. Read the

the story on story and
p.49 and divide it into
monitors its
discussion organisational
as it is parts.
examined.
3. Asks 3. Respond
students to by giving the
state the setting,
details in events,
the involvement
Narrative of characters,
Plan. conflict and
solution.
4. Have
students 4. Plan story
plot a story on Narrative
on the plan
Graphic
Organiser.
161
ENGLISH LANGIAGE

40/80 Narrative Identify time Verb Students have 1. Reads a 1. Listen or Illustrations Correct
min. Writing relationships tense read narratives short read if on p. 53 answers
in a used for narrative. asked to. would
Time narrative Comprehension A short indicate that
Relationships Position of and for 2. Identifies 2. Listen narrative the time line
story teller Literature, the tense and with of the events
in time used and observe. questions was
They have directs that understood.
Referring: written attention to establish
- To the narratives with the fact the time
past in the all their that events line of the
past features occurred at events
- To the various
future in times.
the past
(p. 53) 3. Asks
N.B. The them to 3. Comply
grammar is select with
incorporated events and request
as the state time and
composition is of establish
taught. It occurrence time line of
therefore in relation events.
means that to the verb
grammar is used
taught less in
isolation 4. Instructs
students to 4.Respond
read orally or in
passage writing as
and required
answer
question.
ENGLISH LANGUAGE
162
40/80 min Expository Provide The use Naturally 1. Makes a 1. A sample An
Writing evidence of present statement to Respond. of an argumentative
that can be ‘evidence’ arguments initiate an argument paragraph
Ways to used in a to when argument. that uses that has
Persuade persuasive persuade expressing evidence to relevant and
argument to views on 2. Uses support valid evidence
support a issues argument to 2. Listen point of
viewpoint establish the and view
use of respond if
‘evidence’. necessary.
3. Have
students pick 3. Read the
out the argument
evidence and identify
used in an the
argument. evidence
used
4. Examines
the validity of 4. Examine
the validity of
evidence. evidence.
5. Gives a
topic and 5. Do as it
asks is required.
students to
write the
evidence to
support their
point of view.
ENGLISH LANGUAGE
TIM SUB-TOPIC OBJECTIVE CONTENT KNOWLEDGE ACTIVITY ACTIVITY RESOURSE EVALUATION
E S
163
80 Exposi- Examine Types of They have 1. Writes 1. Listen Samples of Choice of
min. tory the advertisements investigated the and advertisements place based
Writing techniques the use of techniques respond on the
used in Techniques: audio and and give when strongest
Advertise- ads. - Exaggeration audio-visual examples required to appeal to
ments - Exclamation advertisements of their do so services that
Decide on & questions use in ads. meet needs
an ad. that - Contrast
is most 2. Puts 2. Read
appealing several ads., state
ads. on and identify
chalkboard the
for techniques
students to used
identify the
technique
used
3. Places 3. Examine
students in all the ads.
groups given to
and uses a the group,
theme for for the
each techniques
group. used and
then
4. decide
Distributes where they
ads. would go
E.g. A to do
Wedding: business,
Ads. for: Give
-Caterer reasons for
-Music, choice
etc.
ENGLISH LANGUAGE

TIME SUB-TOPIC OBJECTIVES CONTENT KNOWLEDGE ACTIVTIY ACTIVITY RESOURSE EVALUATION
164
40/80 Expository Respond to Format Can write 1. Reviews 1. Listen and Sample A letter with
min. Writing an business the format respond letter of the
advertised Contents letters of the application appropriate
Letter of job with a of letter business format and
Application letter of letter information
application necessary for
2. Asks for 2. Give an application
the appropriate
similarity answers
between
the
business
letter and
letter of
application
3. Monitors 3. Highlight
the the
discussion information
about the given in
contents of response to
the body of the
the advertisement
application
4. Sets 4. Respond to
assignment the
for students advertisement
to write an with a letter of
application application
in response
to an
advertised
job
ENGLISH LANGUAGE

165
40/80 Expository Research a Nature of a Can write 1.Instructs 1. Read the Sample Relevance of
min. Writing topic and report simple students to report report the
write a reports read the information
Report social - Historical report noted during
studies information the research
report - Specific 2. Initiates 2. State
examples and observations,
and details monitors ask and
- Time discussion answer
order on the facts questions
presented
Purpose of in the
first and opening
concluding paragraph,
paragraphs the middle
and the
closing
paragraph
3. Gives a 3. Respond,
title and and identify
asks the areas
students to they are not
state the familiar with
kind of
information
needed for
the report.
4. Asks 4. Comply
students to with request
research
the topic
ENGLISH LANGUAGE
TIME SUB-TOPIC OBJECTIVE CONTENT KNOWLEDGE ACTIVITY ACTIVITY RESOURCE EVALUATION
166
40/8 Comprehension Interpret Venn Students can 1. Introduces the 1. Listen to A table with Information
0 information diagrams compare lesson and gives know what statistical from data on a
min on a Venn show the objects and learning is to be data Venn diagram
Graphics diagram. similarity state their guidelines. done used to write a
and differences paragraph to
differences and 2. Tells of the show proper
between similarities purpose of the under-standing
two Venn diagram 2. Listen to and
persons or and how it is gain new interpretation of
objects used.. knowledge information
about
4. Demonstrates presenting
how to interpret information.
information from
the Venn 4. Ask
diagram. questions
for
5. Guides clarification
students in a
plotting a Venn
diagram from
information
presented in a 5. Follow
paragraph. information
on
6. Sets an examples.
assignment
6. Write the
paragraph.
167
GLOSSARY
Acronym word formed from initial letters or

syllables of words in a phrase: Awol -
(Absent without leave), Mu – (Medically
unfit)
Alliteration repetition of initial sounds of words to

create a musical effect: “sunless sea”,
“the weary, war-worn wanderer,” “the
hunter home from the hill,” “dusty death”
Audience the anticipated reader or readers of the

composition
Chronological order actions in composition arranged to the

same time sequence in which they
occurred, do occur or should occur
Cloze passage a passage from which words are

omitted
at regular intervals (e. g. every tenth
word) in all except the first and last
sentences
Conflict involves a clash of forces. The usual

force pits the main character against an
opposing force – another character or
characters, society, nature or some
persistent trait
Controlled composition a composition in which students are

required to insert given words in blanks
Discussion committee a groups of four to six students with a
leader and scribe. Each group
discusses the topic, and reports to the
class before the lesson ends.
Figures of speech communicate through comparisons and
associations. Common figures of
speech are the simile, metaphor,
alliteration.
Metaphor conveys information in a non-literal way
stating or implying that two things are
similar – The book is a passport into
exotic, unknown lands.
168
Onamatopoeia hiss, bang buzz are onamatopoeic e.g.
A Tennyson wrote
“The moan of doves in innumerable
coves
And murmuring of innumerable bees”
Note the many m-sounds, o and es (z).
Plot sequence of events that occur in a work
of literature
Prefix syllable that attaches to the beginning
of a root to add or alter meaning: pre –
in preview means “before”; de – devalue
means “reduce”, mal – malfunction
means “badly”.
Root the root of a word provides its base or

primary meaning. For example, the root
of telegraphy is graph which means
“write”; the root of amorphous is morph,
which means “shape”.
Setting the time and place in which a story

occurs
Simile two dissimilar things are said to be alike.

The words ‘like’ or ‘as’ distinguish a
simile from a metaphor: problems
sprouting like weeds; a plot as
complicated as an acrostic puzzle
Spatial order descriptive details are arranged so that

readers can follow the eye’s path.
Suffix a syllable or sound that attaches to the

end of a word to alter the word’s
meaning, to change the word from one
class to another or change the word’s
form. The suffix –itis (“inflamed”) added
to the root appendix creates the new
word appendicitis, The suffix –ly
changes the adjective sad to the adverb
sadly. The suffix –ed changes the
present tense verb call to the past tense
called.
169
Theme the central idea or topic of discourse of
a work, primarily a work of literature
Topic sentence the topic sentence of a paragraph is the

main idea developed. If a
paragraph has no stated topic sentence,
one should be clearly implied.
REFERENCES
170
Benjamin Errol Integrated English for Secondary Schools Bk. 1
Caribbean Educational Publishers, Trinidad, 1991.
Carter Bonnie The Rinehart Guide to Grammar and Usage

3rd ed. Harcourt Brace College Publishers, 1993.
Carr George A. Reading for Meaning Bk.4

University of London Press Ltd.
Collins Gem English Dictionary

Harper Collins Publishers; London, 1994.
Dale Edgar Vocabulary Building

Zaner-Bloser, Inc: 1986.
Dawson Mildred A. Language for Daily Use

Harcourt, Brace and World Inc: New York, 1965.
Green Judith A. Strategies for Success

Reading
Steck-Vaughn Company, Texas,1987.
Harmer Jeremy Teaching and Learning Grammar

Longman: London, 1987.
Mercer and Mercer Teaching Students with Learning Problems

3rd ed. Macmillan, New York, 1993.
Narinesingh Roy Improving Comprehension

Royards Educational Books, 1989.
Peters Margaret The Teaching of Spelling in: Teaching Literacy

and
Balancing Perspectives
Stroughton, London,1993.
171
Sesnan Barry How to Teach English
Oxford University Press, New York, 1997.
Williams D J. English Teaching in the Primary School

Evan Brothers Limited, London, 1991.
Exploring Lyric Poetry

Scholastic Inc.
Writer’s Choice
Teacher’s Wraparound Edition
172

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MINISTRY OF EDUCATION

The Ministry of Education is grateful to the following persons whose

This Grade 9 Teacher’s English Language Guide for secondary schools is

A wide range of enrichment activities is included to infuse enjoyment into

Good luck !!!

Sentence Fragments………………………………………………………….. 158

Good language achieves the purpose for which it is intended, therefore, as

The Grade 9 Teacher’s Guide aims to assist teachers to implement the

• Language is a means through which people, who share a common culture,

Language across the Curriculum

B. This involves teachers

(b). Social or Affective Skills

(d). Transferable Skills

The teacher in a skill-focused programme is a facilitator for experiences which

Basic Language Skills

Thinking is often considered to be the fifth language art. It serves as the

Learning objectives should include the learner’s development of:

Knowledge The ability to understand and recall information and facts

Comprehension The ability to understand what is being

Application The ability to abstract, relate or apply general ideas, procedures,

Synthesis The ability to put together parts so as to form a whole. This

Evaluation The ability to make quantitative and qualitative judgments about

Selection and use of the Teaching Strategies

♦ Environmental Education (EE) is about teaching the student about the

The Learning Context for EE

THE LEARNING PROCESS

The Learning Context

What they need to know:

DOERS and TOUCHERS – Kinaesthetic learners

A. Elements of teaching style

B. Characteristics of progressive and traditional teachers

In preparing the lesson, the teacher will:

A learning objective is a clear and unambiguous statement about what the

Skills provide practical ways of doing things.

Knowledge provides a framework of ideas with which to make sense of

Attitudes respond positively to new learning.

Stating Behavioural Objectives

The content would include:

Introducing the lesson

(2). Use simulation or drama:

(3). Pose an interesting problem or question:

(4). Draw comparisons:

(5). Offer incentives:

(6). Arouse controversy:

(7). Present interesting audio-visuals:

The following guidelines should be followed when preparing lesson plans.

Form/Level: This guides you to the following

Time: Tells you how to distribute the allocated time on the

Objective: Directs the selection and organization of strategy

Previous Knowledge: States students’ pre-requisite knowledge on which to

Content: Material to be taught-

Introduction: Stimulates interest and curiosity and sets the tone of

Development: Impartation of the concepts and facts of the content

Summary: To reinforce what was taught

Evaluation: Activities at the end of the lesson

Writing is a mode of thinking. In order to produce a composition, writers must

Developing Composition Skills

(a) Linguistic Readiness

(b) Conceptual Readiness