Earlier, Cayley studied the center of gravity of flying

machines, as well as the effects of wing dihedral. Furthermore,

he pioneered directional control of aircraft by including the
earliest form of a rudder on his gliders. [Figure 1-1]

In the late 1800s, Otto Lilienthal built upon Cayley’s

discoveries. He manufactured and flew his own gliders
on over 2,000 flights. His willow and cloth aircraft had
wings designed from extensive study of the wings of birds.
Lilienthal also made standard use of vertical and horizontal
fins behind the wings and pilot station. Above all, Lilienthal
proved that man could fly. [Figure 1-2]

Octave Chanute, a retired railroad and bridge engineer,

was active in aviation during the 1890s. [Figure 1-3] His
interest was so great that, among other things, he published
a definitive work called “Progress in Flying Machines.” This
was the culmination of his effort to gather and study all the

Figure 1-2. Master of gliding and wing study, Otto Lilienthal (top)
and one of his more than 2,000 glider flights (bottom).

information available on aviation. With the assistance of

others, he built gliders similar to Lilienthal’s and then his
own. In addition to his publication, Chanute advanced aircraft
structure development by building a glider with stacked wings
incorporating the use of wires as wing supports.

The work of all of these men was known to the Wright

Brothers when they built their successful, powered airplane
in 1903. The first of its kind to carry a man aloft, the Wright
Flyer had thin, cloth-covered wings attached to what was
primarily truss structures made of wood. The wings contained
forward and rear spars and were supported with both struts
Figure 1-1. George Cayley, the father of aeronautics (top) and a and wires. Stacked wings (two sets) were also part of the
flying replica of his 1853 glider (bottom). Wright Flyer. [Figure 1-4]

1-2
 still supported by wires, but a mast extending above the
fuselage enabled the wings to be supported from above, as
well as underneath. This made possible the extended wing
length needed to lift an aircraft with a single set of wings.
Bleriot used a Pratt truss-type fuselage frame. [Figure 1-5]

Figure 1-5. The world’s first mono-wing by Louis Bleriot.

Figure 1-3. Octave Chanute gathered and published all of the More powerful engines were developed and airframe
aeronautical knowledge known to date in the late 1890s. Many structures changed to take advantage of the benefits. As
early aviators benefited from this knowledge. early as 1910, German Hugo Junkers was able to build an
aircraft with metal truss construction and metal skin due to
Powered heavier-than-air aviation grew from the Wright
the availability of stronger powerplants to thrust the plane
design. Inventors and fledgling aviators began building their
forward and into the sky. The use of metal instead of wood
own aircraft. Early on, many were similar to that constructed
for the primary structure eliminated the need for external
by the Wrights using wood and fabric with wires and struts
wing braces and wires. His J-1 also had a single set of wings
to support the wing structure. In 1909, Frenchman Louis
(a monoplane) instead of a stacked set. [Figure 1-6]
Bleriot produced an aircraft with notable design differences.
He built a successful mono-wing aircraft. The wings were

Figure 1-4. The Wright Flyer was the first successful powered aircraft. It was made primarily of wood and fabric.

1-3
Figure 1-6. The Junker J-1 all metal construction in 1910.

Leading up to World War I (WWI), stronger engines also

allowed designers to develop thicker wings with stronger
spars. Wire wing bracing was no longer needed. Flatter, lower
wing surfaces on high-camber wings created more lift. WWI
expanded the need for large quantities of reliable aircraft.
Used mostly for reconnaissance, stacked-wing tail draggers
with wood and metal truss frames with mostly fabric skin
dominated the wartime sky. [Figure 1-7] The Red Baron’s
Fokker DR-1 was typical.

Figure 1-7. World War I aircraft were typically stacked-wing fabric-

covered aircraft like this Breguet 14 (circa 1917).
Figure 1-8. The flying boat hull was an early semimonocoque design
In the 1920s, the use of metal in aircraft construction like this Curtiss HS-2L.
increased. Fuselages able to carry cargo and passengers
were developed. The early flying boats with their hull-type construction of the fuselage. [Figure 1-9] The fiberglass
construction from the shipbuilding industry provided the radome was also developed during this period.
blueprints for semimonocoque construction of fuselages.
[Figure 1-8] Truss-type designs faded. A tendency toward After WWII, the development of turbine engines led to
cleaner monowing designs prevailed. higher altitude flight. The need for pressurized aircraft
pervaded aviation. Semimonocoque construction needed
Into the 1930s, all-metal aircraft accompanied new lighter and to be made even stronger as a result. Refinements to the
more powerful engines. Larger semimonocoque fuselages all-metal semimonocoque fuselage structure were made to
were complimented with stress-skin wing designs. Fewer increase strength and combat metal fatigue caused by the
truss and fabric aircraft were built. World War II (WWII) pressurization-depressurization cycle. Rounded windows
brought about a myriad of aircraft designs using all metal and door openings were developed to avoid weak areas
technology. Deep fuel-carrying wings were the norm, but the where cracks could form. Integrally machined copper
desire for higher flight speeds prompted the development of alloy aluminum skin resisted cracking and allowed thicker
thin-winged aircraft in which fuel was carried in the fuselage. skin and controlled tapering. Chemical milling of wing
The first composite structure aircraft, the De Havilland skin structures provided great strength and smooth high
Mosquito, used a balsa wood sandwich material in the performance surfaces. Variable contour wings became easier

1-4
Figure 1-9. The DeHavilland Mosquito, the first aircraft with foam
core honeycomb in the fuselage. Figure 1-10. The nearly all composite Cessna Citation Mustang
to construct. Increases in flight speed accompanying jet travel very light jet (VLJ).
brought about the need for thinner wings. Wing loading also
General
increased greatly. Multispar and box beam wing designs were
developed in response. An aircraft is a device that is used for, or is intended to be used
for, flight in the air. Major categories of aircraft are airplane,
In the 1960s, ever larger aircraft were developed to carry rotorcraft, glider, and lighter-than-air vehicles. [Figure 1-11]
passengers. As engine technology improved, the jumbo jet Each of these may be divided further by major distinguishing
was engineered and built. Still primarily aluminum with a features of the aircraft, such as airships and balloons. Both
semimonocoque fuselage, the sheer size of the airliners of are lighter-than-air aircraft but have differentiating features
the day initiated a search for lighter and stronger materials and are operated differently.
from which to build them. The use of honeycomb constructed
panels in Boeing’s airline series saved weight while not The concentration of this handbook is on the airframe of
compromising strength. Initially, aluminum core with aircraft; specifically, the fuselage, booms, nacelles, cowlings,
aluminum or fiberglass skin sandwich panels were used on fairings, airfoil surfaces, and landing gear. Also included are
wing panels, flight control surfaces, cabin floor boards, and the various accessories and controls that accompany these
other applications. structures. Note that the rotors of a helicopter are considered
part of the airframe since they are actually rotating wings.
A steady increase in the use of honeycomb and foam core By contrast, propellers and rotating airfoils of an engine on
sandwich components and a wide variety of composite an airplane are not considered part of the airframe.
materials characterizes the state of aviation structures from
the 1970s to the present. Advanced techniques and material The most common aircraft is the fixed-wing aircraft. As
combinations have resulted in a gradual shift from aluminum the name implies, the wings on this type of flying machine
to carbon fiber and other strong, lightweight materials. These are attached to the fuselage and are not intended to move
new materials are engineered to meet specific performance independently in a fashion that results in the creation of lift.
requirements for various components on the aircraft. Many One, two, or three sets of wings have all been successfully
airframe structures are made of more than 50 percent utilized. [Figure 1-12] Rotary-wing aircraft such as
advanced composites, with some airframes approaching helicopters are also widespread. This handbook discusses
100 percent. The term “very light jet” (VLJ) has come to features and maintenance aspects common to both fixed-
describe a new generation of jet aircraft made almost entirely wing and rotary-wing categories of aircraft. Also, in certain
of advanced composite materials. [Figure 1-10] It is possible cases, explanations focus on information specific to only
that noncomposite aluminum aircraft structures will become one or the other. Glider airframes are very similar to fixed-
obsolete as did the methods and materials of construction wing aircraft. Unless otherwise noted, maintenance practices
used by Cayley, Lilienthal, and the Wright Brothers. described for fixed-wing aircraft also apply to gliders. The
same is true for lighter-than-air aircraft, although thorough

1-5
Figure 1-11. Examples of different categories of aircraft, clockwise from top left: lighter-than-air, glider, rotorcraft, and airplane.

coverage of the unique airframe structures and maintenance

practices for lighter-than-air flying machines is not included
in this handbook.

The airframe of a fixed-wing aircraft consists of five principal

units: the fuselage, wings, stabilizers, flight control surfaces,
and landing gear. [Figure 1-13] Helicopter airframes consist
of the fuselage, main rotor and related gearbox, tail rotor (on
helicopters with a single main rotor), and the landing gear.

Airframe structural components are constructed from a wide

variety of materials. The earliest aircraft were constructed
primarily of wood. Steel tubing and the most common
material, aluminum, followed. Many newly certified aircraft
are built from molded composite materials, such as carbon
fiber. Structural members of an aircraft’s fuselage include
stringers, longerons, ribs, bulkheads, and more. The main
structural member in a wing is called the wing spar.

The skin of aircraft can also be made from a variety of

materials, ranging from impregnated fabric to plywood,
aluminum, or composites. Under the skin and attached to
the structural fuselage are the many components that support
airframe function. The entire airframe and its components are
joined by rivets, bolts, screws, and other fasteners. Welding,
adhesives, and special bonding techniques are also used.

Major Structural Stresses

Aircraft structural members are designed to carry a load or
to resist stress. In designing an aircraft, every square inch of
wing and fuselage, every rib, spar, and even each metal fitting
must be considered in relation to the physical characteristics
Figure 1-12. A monoplane (top), biplane (middle), and tri-wing
of the material of which it is made. Every part of the aircraft
aircraft (bottom). must be planned to carry the load to be imposed upon it.

1-6
 A. Tension

B. Compression

C. Torsional D. Shear

Tension outside of bend

Bent structural member Shear along imaginary line (dotted)

Compression inside of bend

E. Bending (the combination stress)

Figure 1-14. The five stresses that may act on an aircraft and its parts.

A single member of the structure may be subjected to Fixed-Wing Aircraft

a combination of stresses. In most cases, the struc­tural
Fuselage
members are designed to carry end loads rather than side
The fuselage is the main structure or body of the fixed-wing
loads. They are designed to be subjected to tension or
aircraft. It provides space for cargo, controls, acces­sories,
compression rather than bending.
passengers, and other equipment. In single-engine aircraft,
the fuselage houses the powerplant. In multiengine aircraft,
Strength or resistance to the external loads imposed during
the engines may be either in the fuselage, attached to the
operation may be the principal requirement in cer­tain
fuselage, or suspended from the wing structure. There are two
structures. However, there are numerous other characteristics
general types of fuselage construc­tion: truss and monocoque.
in addition to designing to control the five major stresses that
engineers must consider. For example, cowling, fairings, and
Truss Type
simi­lar parts may not be subject to significant loads requiring
a high degree of strength. However, these parts must have A truss is a rigid framework made up of members, such as
streamlined shapes to meet aerodynamic requirements, such beams, struts, and bars to resist deforma­tion by applied loads.
as reducing drag or directing airflow. The truss-framed fuselage is generally covered with fabric.

1-8