Neurology

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Basal Ganglia Functions
1. Motor control; connections with motor cortex and thalamus
2. Regulate initiation and termination of movements
3. Some role in attention, memory and planning

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 Brain lesions
Frontal lobes lesions
Expressive (Broca's) aphasia:
Located on the posterior aspect of the frontal lobe, in the inferior frontal gyrus.
Speech is non-fluent, laboured, and halting
Disinhibition
Perseveration
anosmia
inability to generate a list
Temporal lobe lesion
Wernicke's aphasia:
This area 'forms' the speech before 'sending it' to Brocas area.
Lesions result in word substituion, neologisms but speech remains fluent
auditory agnosia
prosopagnosia (difficulty recognizing faces) , memory problem
superior homonymous quadrantanopia
Parietal lobe lesions
sensory inattention
apraxias: inability to perform particular purposive actions
astereognosis (tactile agnosia)
Gerstmann's syndrome (lesion of dominant parietal): .......
alexia or Dyslexia (inability to recognise letters or words)
Acalculia (difficulty in calculation)
Right/left disorientation
Finger agnosia (difficulty in identifying the fingers and naming them)
inferior homonymous quadrantanopia
Agraphia (difficulty in writing),
Occipital lobe lesions
homonymous hemianopia (with macula sparing)
cortical blindness
visual agnosia

Cortical blindness:
The visual cortex is located in the occipital lobes, receiving its blood supply from
the posterior cerebral arteries.
The area for macular vision is in a small area adjacent to the calcarine sulcus.
Bilateral occlusion or infarction of the vessels supplying this area results in
cortical blindness:
The visual pathways as far as the cortex are normal and as a result pupillary
reactions and fundoscopy are normal.
Patients with cortical blindness frequently have visual hallucinations and
occasionally deny that they are blind.
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 Anton's syndrome: Visual anosognosia, or the denial of loss of vision, associated with
confabulation in the setting of obvious visual loss and cortical blindness
Claude's syndrome results in ipsilateral third nerve palsy and contralateral cerebellar
ataxia and tremor.
Foville's syndrome causes ipsilateral gaze and facial weakness and contralateral
hemiparesis of upper and lower limbs.
Parinaud's syndrome causes paralysis of upward gaze and accommodation.
Weber's syndrome results in ipsilateral oculomotor palsy (CN 3 and 4) with
contralateral hemiplegia.

Cerebellum lesions
Midline Lesions: gait and truncal ataxia
Hemisphere Lesions: intention tremor, past pointing, dysdiadokinesis, nystagmus

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 Stroke by anatomy
Site of the lesion Associated effects

Anterior cerebral artery Contralateral hemiparesis and sensory loss,

lower extremity > upper

Middle cerebral artery Contralateral hemiparesis and sensory loss,

upper extremity > lower
Contralateral homonymous hemianopia
Aphasia (if dominant side usually left)

Posterior cerebral artery Contralateral homonymous hemianopia with

macular sparing
Visual agnosia

Weber's syndrome (branches of the Ipsilateral CN III palsy

posterior cerebral artery that supply the Contralateral weakness (contralateral
midbrain) hemiplegia)

Posterior inferior cerebellar artery Ipsilateral Ataxia, nystagmus

(lateral medullary syndrome, Ipsilateral: facial pain and temperature loss
Wallenberg syndrome) Contralateral limb/torso pain and
temperature loss

Anterior inferior cerebellar artery Symptoms are similar to Wallenberg's (see

(lateral pontine syndrome) above),
but: Ipsilateral: facial paralysis and deafness

Retinal/ophthalmic artery Amaurosis fugax

Anterior spinal artery occlusion The lesion is involving the anterior two thirds of
the spinal cord which spares light touch, vibration
and position sense, but causes loss of pain and
temperature distally.

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 More specific areas
Area Associated conditions

Medial thalamus and mammillary bodies of the Wernicke and Korsakoff syndrome
hypothalamus

Subthalamic nucleus of the basal ganglia Hemiballism

Striatum (caudate nucleus) of the basal ganglia Huntington chorea

Substantia nigra of the basal ganglia Parkinson's disease

Amygdala Kluver-Bucy syndrome (hypersexuality,

hyperorality, hyperphagia, visual agnosia)

Lacunar strokes
strong association with HTN
common sites include BG, thalamus and internal capsule
present with either
isolated hemiparesis,
hemisensory loss or
hemiparesis with limb ataxia

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Pseudoxanthoma elasticum (PXE):
PXE is a rare heritable connective tissue disorder with autosomal dominant and
recessive modes of inheritance.
It involves the elastic tissues of the eye, skin and cardiovascular system.
Visual loss can occur by infarction of the visual pathways and optic disc atrophy
Cerebral ischaemia in PXE is caused by small vessel occlusive disease.
Other neurological complications include:
1) Intracranial aneurysms
2) Subarachnoid and intracerebral haemorrhages
3) Progressive intellectual deterioration
4) Mental disturbances, and
5) Seizures.
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Patients under the age of 60-years-old can be referred for decompressive
hemicraniectomy if they have;
A middle cerebral artery infarct of at least 50% of the MCA territory and have;
An NIHSS score > 15 and
A decrease in the level of consciousness to give a score of 1 or more on item 1a of
the NIHSS (NICE guidelines).

The only feature that differentiates the middle cerebral artery syndrome from the
carotid artery syndrome is amaurosis fugax.
Amaurosis fugax, which is unilateral transient loss of vision that develops over
seconds, remains for up to 5 minutes and resolves over 10-20 minutes.

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 Vertebral artery dissection
A well-recognized cause of stroke in patients under 45 years and is associated with a 10%
mortality rate in the acute phase.
Death may occur due to intracranial dissection, brainstem infarction or subarachnoid
hemorrhage.
Common causes include:
1) Structural defects of the arterial wall
2) Connective tissue disease
3) Trauma (for example, road traffic accident, sporting injury), and
4) Chiropractic manipulation of the neck.

Features
The typical presentation of vertebral artery dissection is a young person (average age 40
years) with severe occipital headache and neck pain following a recent head or neck
injury. The trauma is often trivial, but is usually associated with some form of cervical
distortion.
About 85% of patients develop focal neurological signs due to ischemia of the brain stem
or cerebellum.
The commonest neurological manifestations are symptoms attributable to lateral
medullary dysfunction (Wallenberg's syndrome).

Common symptoms and signs include:

1) ipsilateral facial pain and/or numbness (the most common symptom)
2) vertigo (very common)
3) dysarthria or hoarseness (CN IX and X)
4) dysphagia (CN IX and X).
5) ipsilateral loss of taste (nucleus and tractus solitarius)
6) hiccups
7) nausea and vomiting
8) diplopia or oscillopsia (image movement experienced with head motion), and

Clinical signs depending upon which areas of the brain stem or

cerebellum are affected:
1) limb or truncal ataxia
2) nystagmus
3) ipsilateral Horner syndrome (up to 1/3 patients affected)
4) ipsilateral impairment of fine touch and proprioception
5) contralateral impairment of pain & thermal sensation in the extremities (spinothalamic
tract)
6) contralateral hemiparesis
7) lateral medullary syndrome
8) tongue deviation to the side of the lesion (impairment of CN XII), and
9) Internuclear ophthalmoplegia (lesion of the medial longitudinal fasciculus).

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Risk factors associated with the development of vertebral artery
dissection include:
judo, yoga
ceiling painting
nose blowing
minor neck trauma
chiropractor manipulation
hypertension
oral contraceptive use, and female sex

Other less likely differential diagnoses of stroke in this age

group include:
1) focal seizure
2) migraine with prolonged aura and migraine variants
3) multiple sclerosis, and
4) Conversion disorders.

Subclavian steal syndrome

This patient presents with a classic history of subclavian steal syndrome brought
on by exercising of his left hand, and associated with a reduction in blood pressure
in the left arm.
Subclavian steal syndrome occurs when there is an occlusion proximal to the
origin of the left vertebral artery. As a result blood is stolen from the right vertebral
artery with resultant basilar insufficiency.

This is manifest by brainstem features such as:

Vertigo
Diplopia
Dysarthria, and
Drop attacks.

Risk factors include:

Hypertension
Hypercholesterolaemia
Diabetes, and
Connective tissue disorders such as Takayasu's arteritis.

Carotid artery dissection can occur spontaneously and is a common cause of

young stroke (age less than 40). It typically presents with neck, facial or head pain,
ipsilateral Horner's syndrome (miosis and ptosis) and contralateral weakness.

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 Stroke management
The Royal College of Physicians (RCP) published guidelines on the diagnosis and
management of patients following a stroke in 2004. NICE also issued stroke guidelines in
2008, although they modified their guidance with respect to antiplatelet therapy in 2010.
Selected points relating to the management of acute stroke include:
blood glucose, hydration, oxygen saturation and temperature should be maintained within
normal limits
blood pressure should not be lowered in the acute phase unless there are complications
e.g. Hypertensive encephalopathy
aspirin 300mg orally or rectally should be given as soon as possible if a hemorrhagic
stroke has been excluded
with regards to atrial fibrillation, the RCP state: 'anticoagulants should not be started until
brain imaging has excluded hemorrhage, and usually not until 14 days have passed from
the onset of an ischemic stroke'
If the cholesterol is > 3.5 mmol/l patients should be commenced on a statin. Many
physicians will delay treatment until after at least 48 hours due to risk of hemorrhagic
transformation

Thrombolysis:
Thrombolysis should only be given if:
it is administered within 4.5 hours of onset of stroke symptoms (unless as part of a
clinical trial)
hemorrhage has been definitively excluded (i.e. Imaging has been performed)
Alteplase is currently recommended by NICE.

Contraindications to thrombolysis:

Absolute Relative

Previous intracranial hemorrhage Concurrent anticoagulation (INR

Intracranial neoplasm >1.7)
Suspected subarachnoid hemorrhage Hemorrhagic diathesis
Stroke or traumatic brain injury in Active diabetic hemorrhagic
preceding 3 months retinopathy
Seizure at onset of stroke Suspected intracardiac thrombus
Lumbar puncture in preceding 7 days Major surgery / trauma in
Esophageal varices preceding 2 weeks
Active bleeding
Gastrointestinal hemorrhage in preceding 3
weeks
Pregnancy
Acute pancreatitis
Uncontrolled hypertension >200/120mmHg

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Secondary prevention:
NICE also published a technology appraisal in 2010 on the use of clopidogrel and
dipyridamole
Recommendations from NICE include:
Clopidogrel is now recommended by NICE ahead of combination use of aspirin plus
modified release (MR) dipyridamole in people who have had an ischemic stroke

Aspirin plus MR dipyridamole is now recommended after an ischemic stroke only if

clopidogrel is contraindicated or not tolerated, but treatment is no longer limited to 2
years' duration

MR dipyridamole alone is recommended after an ischemic stroke only if aspirin or

clopidogrel are contraindicated or not tolerated, again with no limit on duration of
treatment

With regards to carotid artery endarterectomy:

recommend if patient has suffered stroke or TIA in the carotid territory and are not
severely disabled
should only be considered if carotid stenosis > 70% according ECST** criteria or > 50%
according to NASCET*** criteria
**European Carotid Surgery Trialists' Collaborative Group
***North American Symptomatic Carotid Endarterectomy Trial

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 Transient ischemic attack
NICE issued updated guidelines relating to stroke and transient ischemic attack (TIA) in 2008.
They advocated use of ABCD2 prognostic score for risk stratifying patient who've had suspected
TIA:

A Age >60 years 1 point

B Blood pressure at presentation >140/90 mmHg 1 point

C Clinical features Unilateral weakness 2 points

Speech disturbance without weakness 1 point

D2 Duration of symptoms More than 60 minutes 2 points

10-59 minutes 1 point

Diabetes Present 1 point

This gives a total score ranging from 0 to 7:
1) People who have had a suspected TIA who are at a higher risk of stroke (ABCD2
score 4) should have:
aspirin (300 mg daily) started immediately
specialist assessment and investigation within 24 hours of onset of symptoms
measures for secondary prevention introduced as soon as the diagnosis is confirmed,
including discussion of individual risk factors
2) If the ABCD2 risk score is 3 or below:
specialist assessment within 1 week of symptom onset, including decision on brain
imaging
if vascular territory or pathology is uncertain, refer for brain imaging
3) People with crescendo TIAs (2 or more episodes in a week)
Should be treated as being at high risk of stroke, even though they may have an
ABCD2 score of 3 or below.

Antithrombotic therapy: (From passmedicine notes)

clopidogrel is recommended first-line (as for patients who've had a stroke)
aspirin + dipyridamole should be given to patients who cannot tolerate clopidogrel
These recommendations follow the 2012 Royal College of Physicians National clinical
guideline for stroke.
These guidelines may change following the CHANCE study (NEJM 2013;369:11). This
study looked at giving high-risk TIA patients aspirin + clopidogrel for the first 90 days
compared to aspirin alone. 11.7% of aspirin only patients had a stroke over 90 days
compared to 8.2% of dual antiplatelet patients
With regards to carotid artery endarterectomy:
recommend if patient has suffered stroke or TIA in the carotid territory and are not
severely disabled should only be considered if carotid stenosis > 70% according ECST*
criteria or > 50% according to NASCET** criteria
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Treatment of TIA:
(From on examination)
Clopidogrel is the NICE approved treatment of choice for secondary prevention in
stroke, but is not licensed for treatment of TIA.
NICE TA2102 recommends Aspirin and Dipyridamole.
It is suggested that all patients are started on Aspirin 300mg, and that a choice is made
on future antiplatelet therapy at TIA clinic, depending on symptoms, presence of
infarction on CT scan, tolerability of drugs, co morbidities.
Clopidogrel may be preferred in patients who cannot tolerate dipyridamole; those with
multivascular disease (eg coronary or peripheral vascular disease); those with overt
infarction on CT brain.
There is no strong evidence regarding appropriate treatment of patient who suffers TIA
/ stroke whilst on anti-platelet therapy.
These drugs reduce, but do not eliminate, the risk of recurrent stroke/TIA.
Some patients are resistant to anti-platelet effect of Clopidogrel so can consider
changing - also consider cardiac investigations looking for embolic source/arrhythmia.
There is evidence that early Aspirin is beneficial for 1-14 days, but no evidence for
immediate initiation of other antiplatelet drugs.

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 Syringomyelia
(Central cord syndrome)
development of cavity (syrinx) within the spinal cord
if extends into medulla then termed syringobulbia
strongly associated with the Arnold-Chiari malformation

Features:
maybe asymmetrical initially
slowly progressives, possibly over years
sensory: spinothalamic sensory loss (pain and temperature)
motor: wasting and weakness of arms
loss of reflexes, bilateral upgoing plantars
also seen: Horner's syndrome

Spinal cord compression

Spinal cord compression is an emergency.
An urgent MRI spine is essential.
The whole spine should be imaged because multiple bone metastases are possible.

The commonest tumours to cause spinal cord compression from bone metastases
include:
1) lung
2) breast
3) prostate
4) renal and thyroid carcinoma, and
5) lymphoma

The most appropriate management will be immediate introduction of high-dose

steroids (Dexamethasone 8 mg BD): this has been shown to improve overall outcome
by reducing mass effect.
An urgent neurosurgical review should also be sought.
Surgery is the best option for a single site of metastases and radiotherapy for multiple
sites. Further imaging by radio-isotope bone scan will be required to determine
whether there are any metastases at other bony sites.
Pamidronate is only used to correct hypercalcaemia from malignancies and bone pain
secondary to osteoporosis.
Chemotherapy would be indicated in chemosensitive tumours such as lymphoma.

In summary, the treatment for spinal cord compression includes high doses of
steroids following by either surgery (single site) or radiotherapy (multiple sites) or
chemotherapy (lymphoma).
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 Subarachnoid hemorrhage
Classically presents with a thunderclap headache and neck stiffness
Usually occurs spontaneously
Causes:
1) 85% are due to rupture of berry aneurysms (conditions associated with berry aneurysms
include APCKD, Ehlers-Danlos syndrome and coarctation of the aorta)
2) AV malformations
3) trauma
4) tumours
Investigations:
CT: negative in 5%
LP:
done after 12 hrs (allowing time for xanthochromia to develop)
If the CSF examination revealed xanthochromia, or there was still a high level of
clinical suspicion, then cerebral angiography would be the next step.
Cerebral angiography:
If the CSF examination revealed xanthochromia, or
there was still a high level of clinical suspicion
Complications:
1) Rebleeding (in 30%)
2) obstructive hydrocephalus (due to blood in ventricles)
3) vasospasm leading to cerebral ischemia
Management:
1) neurosurgical opinion:
no clear evidence over early surgical intervention against delayed intervention
2) Nimodipine:
60mg / 4 hrly (if BP allows)
has been shown to reduce the severity of neurological deficits but doesn't reduce
rebleeding*
The way nimodipine works in subarachnoid hemorrhage is not fully understood. It has been
previously postulated that it reduces cerebral vasospasm (hence maintaining cerebral
perfusion) but this has not been demonstrated in studies

The most common cause of an isolated deep intracerebral hemorrhage in the basal ganglia is hypertension.

The Hunt and Hess scale grades subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) thus:
1) Asymptomatic or minimal headache & slight neck stiffness
2) Moderate or severe headache with neck stiffness, but no neurological deficit other than
cranial nerve palsy
3) Drowsiness with confusion or mild focal neurology
4) Stupor with moderate to severe hemiparesis or mild decerebrate rigidity
5) Deeply comatose with severe decerebrate rigidity.

Severity and mortality increase with grade.

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Cerebral ischemia
May be delayed as a result of delayed cerebral ischemia (DCI) or cerebral
vasospasm
It is the most common cause of death and disability following aneurysmal
subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH).
It may lead to death or permanent neurologic deficits in over 17-40% patients
following SAH.
The clinical diagnosis of DCI is made when the patient experiences an altered level
of consciousness or a new focal neurologic deficit following an initial bleed.
Typically the developmeent of DCI starts on day 3 after the inital SAH and is
maximal at dasy 5-14 and resolves on day 21.

The calcium channel antagonist nimodipine has been shown to improve

neurological outcome and the reduction of the incidence of cerebral vasospasm.

There is no statistical evidence from controlled studies for a beneficial effect of

triple-H therapy (hypertension, hypervolaemia and haemodilution) or the individual
components on cerebral blood flow (CBF) following SAH.

In some studies hypertension is more effective in increasing CBF than

hypervolaemia or haemodilution.
Secondary effects of SAH include increased intracranial pressure, destruction of
brain tissue by intracerebral hemorrhage, tentorial shift and brain herniation, all of
which contribute to pathology.
Patients often survive these complications, but may deteriorate more that 24 hours
later from DCI. This can cause serious morbidity or death in up to 30% of patients
with SAH.
DCI may result from angiographic vasospasm, cortical spreading ischemia,
arteriolar constriction and thrombosis.

Treatment for DCI includes prophylactic administration of nimodipine, and current

neurointensive care.

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 Subdural hemorrhage
most commonly secondary to trauma e.g. old person/alcohol falling over
Risk factors include old age, alcoholism and anticoagulation
initial injury may be minor and is often forgotten
caused by bleeding from damaged bridging veins between cortex and venous sinuses
Most commonly occur around the frontal and parietal lobes

Features:
headache
classically fluctuating conscious level
raised ICP

Treatment:
Needs neurosurgical review? burr hole

Fluctuating consciousness = subdural hemorrhage

The combination of falls, alcohol excess, fluctuating episodes of confusion and focal
neurology points towards a diagnosis of subdural hemorrhage.
The phrase 'fluctuating conscious level' is common in questions and should always bring
to mind subdural hemorrhage
S---S Slower onset of symptoms than extradural

Chronic subdural hemorrhage

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 Head injury
NICE has strict and clear guidance regarding which adult patients are safe to discharge
and which need further CT head imaging.
Who require an immediate CT head and who require CT head within 8 hours of injury:
CT head immediately:
GCS < 13 on initial assessment
GCS < 15 at 2 hours post-injury
Suspected open or depressed skull fracture.
Any sign of basal skull fracture (haemotympanum, 'panda' eyes, Battle's sign, CSF fluid
leakage from the ear or nose).
Post-traumatic seizure.
Focal neurological deficit.
more than 1 episode of vomiting

CT head scan within 8 hours of the head injury - for adults with any of the following risk
factors who have experienced some loss of consciousness or amnesia since the injury:
age 65 years or older
any history of bleeding or clotting disorders
If a patient is on warfarin who has sustained a head injury with no other indications for
a CT head scan, perform a CT head scan within 8 hours of the injury.
dangerous mechanism of injury:
a pedestrian or cyclist struck by a motor vehicle,
an occupant ejected from a motor vehicle or
a fall from a height of greater than 1 metre or 5 stairs
> 30 minutes' retrograde amnesia of events immediately before the head injury

Battle's sign:
Mastoid ecchymosis, is an indication of fracture of middle cranial fossa, and may
suggest underlying brain trauma.
Battle's sign consists of bruising over the mastoid process, as a result
of extravasation of blood along the path of the posterior auricular artery.
this sign will take at least one day to appear after the initial traumatic Basilar skull
fracture, similar to Raccoon eyes.
Battle's sign may be confused with a spreading hematoma from a fracture of the
mandibular condyle, which is a less serious injury.

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Types of traumatic brain injury
Primary brain injury may be focal (contusion/haematoma) or diffuse (diffuse axonal injury)
1) Diffuse axonal injury (DAI)
Extensive lesions in white matter tracts over a widespread area.
DAI is one of the most common types of traumatic brain injury and is a major
cause of unconsciousness and persistent vegetative state after head trauma
It occurs in about half of all cases of severe head trauma.
The outcome is frequently coma, with over 90% of patients with severe DAI
never regaining consciousness.
Those who wake up often remain significantly impaired.
DAI can occur from very mild or moderate to very severe.
Concussion may be a milder type of diffuse axonal injury
2) Intra-cranial haematomas can be extradural, subdural or intracerebral,
3) contusions may occur adjacent to (coup) or contralateral (contre-coup) to the side of
impact
4) Secondary brain injury occurs when cerebral oedema, ischemia, infection, tonsillar or
tentorial herniation exacerbates the original injury.
5) The normal cerebral auto regulatory processes are disrupted following trauma rendering
the brain more susceptible to blood flow changes and hypoxia
6) The Cushings reflex (HTN & bradycardia) often occurs late and is usually a preterminal
event

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Type of injury Notes

Extradural Bleeding into the space between the dura mater and the skull (narrow space &
(epidural) arterial bleeding history would be acute as the haematoma expands quickly
haematoma within the limited extradural space).
ExTra Often results from acceleration-deceleration trauma or a blow to the side of the
Temporal head.
The majority of epidural haematomas occur in the temporal region where skull
fractures cause a rupture of the middle meningeal artery.
Features:
features of raised intracranial pressure
some patients may exhibit a lucid interval

Subdural Bleeding into the outermost meningeal layer.

haematoma Most commonly occur around the frontal and parietal lobes.
Risk factors include old age, alcoholism and anticoagulation.
Slower onset of symptoms than an epidural haematoma.

Subarachnoid Usually occurs spontaneously in the context of a ruptured cerebral aneurysm but may be seen
hemorrhage in association with other injuries when a patient has sustained a traumatic brain injury

Extradural (epidural) haematoma:

Subdural haematoma:

Subarachnoid hemorrhage:

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 This is a non-contrast CT head which demonstrates a well circumscribed high attenuation
lesion with some surrounding oedema in the frontal lobe (A) consistent with an
intracranial haematoma.

Acute cerebral infarcts are typically hypodense with vasogenic oedema, they conform to
arterial blood supply territories and are typically wedge-shaped (when not lacunar).
Cerebral abscesses are usually hypodense with surrounding oedema, peripheral ring
enhancement is characteristically seen when contrast is administered.
Acute extradural and subdural haematomas would both be high attenuation however both
are anatomically located next to the skull - extradural haematomas have a convex border
whilst subdural haematomas have a concave border. Acutely blood is high attenuation
(bright) on CT, as time passes the degree of attenuation decreases and the area eventually
becomes hypodense. Care must be taken not to miss bleeds when they are isodense with
cerebral tissue.

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 Intracranial venous thrombosis
can cause cerebral infarction, much less common than arterial causes
50% of patients have isolated sagittal sinus thrombosis
the remainder have coexistent lateral sinus thromboses and cavernous sinus thromboses
Features:
headache (may be sudden onset)
nausea & vomiting

Sagittal sinus thrombosis

may present with seizures and hemiplegia
parasagittal--- biparietal or bifrontal hemorrhagic infarctions are sometimes seen

CT with contrast demonstating a superior sagittal sinus thrombosis showing the typical
empty delta sign. Look at the 'bottom' of the scan for the triangular shaped dural sinus. This
should normally be white due to it being filled with contrast. The empty delta sign occurs
when the thrombus fails to enhance within the dural sinus and is outlined by enhanced
collateral channels in the falx. This sign is seen in only about 25%-30% of cases but is highly
diagnostic for sagittal sinus thrombosis

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 Cavernous sinus thrombosis
Periorbital oedema
ophthalmoplegia: 6th nerve damage typically occurs before 3rd & 4th
trigeminal nerve involvement may lead to hyperaesthesia of upper face and eye pain
central retinal vein thrombosis
Causes of cavernous sinus syndrome:
1) local infection (e.g. sinusitis),
2) neoplasia,
3) trauma

Lateral sinus thrombosis

6th and 7th cranial nerve palsies

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 Epilepsy
two main categories: generalized and partial seizures
partial seizures may progress to general seizures
other types: myoclonic, atypical absence, atonic and tonic seizures are usually seen in
childhood

Generalized - no focal features, consciousness lost immediately

grand mal (tonic-clonic)
petit mal (absence seizures)
myoclonic: brief, rapid muscle jerks
partial seizures progressing to generalised seizures

Partial - focal features depending on location

simple (no disturbance of consciousness or awareness)
complex (consciousness is disturbed)
temporal lobe aura, dj vu, jamais vu;
motor Jacksonian

A Jacksonian seizure:
Also known as a focal (partial) motor seizure.
In this condition an uncontrolled, spontaneous discharge of electricity from one motor
cortex presents with contralateral motor signs.
The patient has preserved consciousness as it is a partial seizure and after the seizure
it is common to have a Todd's paralysis where the limb is weak.
Temporal lobe epilepsy:
Presents with the sensation of dj vu or an unreal feeling and can progress to
hallucinations and altered conscious level.

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 Generalized epilepsy
Absence seizures (petit mal)
Absence seizures are a form of generalized epilepsy that is mostly seen in children.
The typical age of onset of 3-10 years old and girls are affected twice as commonly as
boys

Features:
absences last a few seconds and are associated with a quick recovery
seizures may be provoked by hyperventilation or stress
the child is usually unaware of the seizure
they may occur many times a day
EEG: bilateral, symmetrical 3Hz spike and wave pattern
Management:
sodium valproate and ethosuximide are first-line treatment
good prognosis: 90-95% become seizure free in adolescence
carbamazepine may actually exacerbate absence seizure

Juvenile Myoclonic Epilepsy

The commonest of the idiopathic generalised epilepsies.
Seizures types include
Absences
Myoclonic jerks and
Tonic-clonic seizures which tend to occur within an hour of waking.
Precipitating factors include alcohol, menstruation and sleep deprivation.
The condition is genetically linked to the short arm of chromosome 6.
Prognosis is extremely favourable if the condition is treated correctly, with many patients
becoming seizure-free. No developmental delay and has no abnormalities on imaging or
blood tests.
Treatment options include sodium valproate, lamotrigine and topiramate.
Lifelong drug treatment is usually necessary to avoid relapses in patients who achieve
seizure-free status on medication.

vasovagal syncope has characteristic warning symptoms of feeling hot and

blurring of vision with quick recovery.
Patients with syncope can commonly have jerking of the limbs when they are
unconscious and this does not mean they have had a seizure.
Tilt table testing is useful to support the diagnosis of vasovagal syncope.

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Epilepsy treatment
Most neurologists now start antiepileptics following a second epileptic seizure.
NICE guidelines suggest starting antiepileptics after the first seizure if any of the
following are present:
the patient has a neurological deficit
brain imaging shows a structural abnormality
the EEG shows unequivocal epileptic activity
the patient or their family or carers consider the risk of having a further seizure
unacceptable

Sodium valproate is considered the first line treatment for patients with generalised
seizures.
Carbamazepine (Tegretol) used for partial seizures

Generalised tonic-clonic seizures

First line: sodium valproate(Depacon)
second line: lamotrigine, carbamazepine (Tegretol)

Absence seizures (Petit mal)

First line : sodium valproate or ethosuximide
sodium valproate particularly effective if co-existent tonic-clonic seizures in primary
generalised epilepsy
carbamazepine may actually exacerbate absence seizure

Myoclonic seizures:
sodium valproate
second line: clonazepam, lamotrigine

Partial seizures:
First line : carbamazepine
second line: lamotrigine**, sodium valproate

**the 2007 SANAD study indicated that lamotrigine may be a more suitable first-line drug for
partial seizures although this has yet to work its way through to guidelines

Stopping of Antiepileptic Drugs (AED) can be considered if seizure free for > 2
years
But should be stopped over 2-3 months
Benzodiazepines should be stopped over a longer period

47
 Management of status epilepticus
1) Protect airway.
2) Give oxygen 10 L/min via high-flow mask.
3) Administer benzodiazepine IV or rectally. Lorazepam is preferred because of
long duration of anti-epileptic effect. This is effective in ~80% cases.
4) If the patient does not respond, the regime may be repeated after 5-10 minutes
using the same or a different benzodiazepine.
5) If seizures recur or fail to respond after 30 minutes a parenteral anti-
epileptic agent should be started.
Intravenous phenytoin is usually used and is given as a loading dose of 18 mg/kg.
Adverse effects are common and include CNS depression and cardiac arrhythmias.
If the patient is already taking phenytoin, either IV phenytoin or fosphenytoin
should still be given: it is likely that plasma levels are subtherapeutic.
6) The anaesthetic agents thiopental and propofol may be effective in
controlling status epilepticus if the above measures fail (unlicensed indication) but
should only be done with full intensive care support.

Fosphenytoin, a disodium phosphate ester of phenytoin,

Has several advantages over phenytoin:

it can be given IV or IM (phenytoin can only be given IV) and can be given at
infusion rates three times faster than phenytoin
therapeutic levels are achieved within 10 minutes, and
it has a lower incidence of adverse events than phenytoin
Fosphenytoin is a pro-drug of phenytoin - metabolised in the body to phenytoin and
endogenous phosphates.

48
Antiepileptic drugs side effects
Sodium valproate is associated with:
1) nausea
2) increased appetite and weight gain
3) alopecia: regrowth may be curly
4) ataxia
5) tremor
6) hepatitis
7) pancreatitis
8) thromobcytopaenia
9) teratogenic
10) hyponatraemia
11) Polycystic ovary disease PCO

Lamotrigine is associated with:

Skin rash
Stevens-Johnson syndrome in severe cases.

Phenytoin is associated with: (SEGAD) see pharma

Peripheral neuropathy
Cerebellum like syndrome:
Atrophy of the cerebellum.
The degree of atrophy is related to the duration of phenytoin and is not to dosage.
Acne
Hirsutism
Stevens-Johnson syndrome
Gingival hypertrophy
Vitamin D deficiency Hypocalcaemia.
Drug induced Lupus.
Teratogenic.
aplastic anemia
Megaloplastic aneamia

Vigabatrin: V----Visual
Antiepileptic
40% of patients develop visual field defects, which may be irreversible
visual fields should be checked every 6 months

49
 Epilepsy in pregnancy and breast feeding
The risks of uncontrolled epilepsy during pregnancy generally outweigh the risks of
medication to the fetus.
All women thinking about becoming pregnant should be advised to take folic acid 5mg per
day well before pregnancy to minimise the risk of neural tube defects.
Around 1-2% of newborns born to non-epileptic mothers have congenital defects.
This rises to 3-4% if the mother takes antiepileptic medication.
Other points
aim for monotherapy
there is no indication to monitor antiepileptic drug levels
Carbamazepine: often considered the least teratogenic of the older antiepileptics
sodium valproate: associated with neural tube defects
phenytoin:
associated with cleft palate
clotting disorders: It is advised that pregnant women taking phenytoin are given
vitamin K in the last month of pregnancy to prevent clotting disorders in the newborn
Lamotrigine:
Studies to date suggest the rate of congenital malformations may be low.
The dose of lamotrigine may need to be increased in pregnancy
Breast feeding is generally considered safe for mothers taking antiepileptics with the
possible exception of the barbiturates
Sodium valproate
The November 2013 issue of the Drug Safety Update also carried a warning about new
evidence showing a significant risk of neuro-developmental delay in children following
maternal use of sodium valproate.
The update concludes that sodium valproate should not be used during pregnancy and in
women of childbearing age unless clearly necessary.
Women of childbearing age should not start treatment without specialist neurological or
psychiatric advice.
Pseudoseizures
Factors favouring pseudoseizures
pelvic thrusting
family member with epilepsy
more common in females
crying after seizure
don't occur when alone
gradual onset
Factors favouring true epileptic seizures
tongue biting
raised serum prolactin* (not fully understood)
Video telemetry is useful for differentiating
* It is hypothesised that there is spread of electrical activity to the ventromedial
hypothalamus, leading to release of a specific prolactin regulator into the hypophyseal portal
system
50
 Multiple sclerosis
Chronic cell-mediated autoimmune disorder
Characterised by demyelination in the CNS.
3 times more common in women
most commonly diagnosed in people aged 20-40 years
much more common at higher latitudes (5 times more common than in tropics)
Genetics:
monozygotic twin concordance = 30%
dizygotic twin concordance = 2%

Subtypes:
Relapsing-remitting disease
most common form, accounts for around 80% of patients
acute attacks (e.g. last 1-2 months) followed by periods of remission
Secondary progressive disease
describes relapsing-remitting patients who have deteriorated and have developed
neurological signs and symptoms between relapses
around 65% of patients with relapsing-remitting disease go on to develop secondary
progressive disease within 15 years of diagnosis
gait and bladder disorders are generally seen
Primary progressive disease
accounts for 10% of patients
progressive deterioration from onset
more common in older people
Features of Multiple sclerosis:
Patients may present with non-specific features; around 75% of patients have significant lethargy
Visual:
optic neuritis: common presenting feature
optic atrophy
Uhthoff's phenomenon: worsening of vision following rise in body temperature
internuclear ophthalmoplegia The commonest cause of unilateral INO in young person in
UK
Sensory:
pins/needles and numbness, Sensory symptoms lasting for weeks are common in MS
trigeminal neuralgia
Lhermitte's syndrome: paraesthesiae in limbs on neck flexion
Motor: spastic weakness: most commonly seen in the legs
Cerebellar:
ataxia: more often seen during an acute relapse than as a presenting symptom
tremor
Others:
urinary incontinence
sexual dysfunction
intellectual deterioration
51
Multiple sclerosis investigation:
Diagnosis requires demonstration of lesions disseminated in time and space
MRI:
high signal T2 lesions
periventricular plaques
CSF:
oligoclonal bands (and not in serum)
increased intrathecal synthesis of IgG
Visual evoked potentials: VEP
delayed, but well preserved waveform

Multiple sclerosis management:

Treatment in multiple sclerosis is focused at reducing the frequency and duration of
relapses.
There is no cure.
Acute relapse:
High dose steroids:
IV methylprednisolone may be given for 3-5 days to shorten the length of an acute relapse.
It should be noted that steroids shorten the duration of a relapse and do not alter the
degree of recovery (i.e. whether a patient returns to baseline function)
Disease modifying drugs
Beta-interferon:
Has been shown to reduce the relapse rate by up to 30% for the first two years of
treatment.
reduces number of relapses and MRI changes, however doesn't reduce overall disability
Certain criteria have to be met before it is used:
relapsing-remitting disease + 2 relapses in past 2 years + able to walk 100m unaided
secondary progressive disease + 2 relapses in past 2 years + able to walk 10m (aided or
unaided)
The Association of British Neurologists criteria (ABN) for commencing beta-
interferon:
1) Has had more than two separate episodes within the last two years
2) Is more than 18-years-old, and
3) Can walk more than 100 metres.
Contraindications to beta-interferon are:
History of severe clinical depression
1)
Uncontrolled epilepsy
2)
Hepatic dysfunction, and
3)
Myelosupression.
4)
There are three products used;
Beta-interferon 1a (Avonex and Rebif),
both of which are licensed for relapsing-remitting MS and
Beta-interferon 1b (Betaferon),
licensed for both relapsing remitting and secondary progressive forms of MS
3 or more relapses per year stop the interferons or glatiramer acetate injections
(as the objective behind using them is to reduce relapse frequency).

52
Other drugs used in the management of multiple sclerosis:
1) Glatiramer acetate: immunomodulating drug - acts as an 'immune decoy'
2) Natalizumab:
A recombinant monoclonal antibody that
Antagonises Alpha-4 Beta-1-integrin found on the surface of leucocytes,
thus inhibiting migration of leucocytes across the endothelium across the BBB
3) Fingolimod:
Sphingosine 1-phosphate receptor modulator,
Prevents lymphocytes from leaving lymph nodes.
An oral formulation is available
Mitoxantrone: reserved for high frequency relapse rates unresponsive to beta-
interferon
Plasma exchange has a place in severe function or life threatening relapses not
responding to conventional treatment.
Some specific problems:
Spasticity:
Baclofen and gabapentin are first-line.
Other options include diazepam, dantrolene and tizanidine
physiotherapy is important
cannabis and botox are undergoing evalulation
Bladder dysfunction:
may take the form of urgency, incontinence, overflow etc
guidelines stress the importance of getting an ultrasound first to assess bladder
emptying - anticholinergics may worsen symptoms in some patients
if significant residual volume intermittent self-catheterisation
if no significant residual volume anticholinergics may improve urinary frequency

Multiple sclerosis good prognostic features

female sex, young age of onset
relapsing-remitting disease
sensory symptoms
long interval between first two relapses
Ways of remembering prognostic features
the typical patient carries a better prognosis than an atypical presentation

Baclofen toxicity:
Onset of toxicity is rapid and its effect can last up to 35-40 hours post ingestion.
Features include:
1)Drowsiness, Coma
2)Respiratory depression
3)Hypotonia, Hyporeflexia
4)Hypothermia and Hypotension.
5)Bradycardia with first degree heart block and prolongation of Q-T interval can
occur
Treatment is usually supportive and often requires intensive care.
53
 Benign paroxysmal positional vertigo
(BPPV)
BPPV is one of the most common causes of vertigo encountered.
It is characterized by:
The sudden onset of dizziness and vertigo
Triggered by changes in head position.
The average age of onset is 55 years and it is less common in younger patients.
Features:
1) vertigo triggered by change in head position (e.g. rolling over in bed or gazing upwards)
2) Symptoms are usually most severe in the lateral decubitus position with the
affected ear down.
3) Hearing loss is not a feature.
4) may be associated with nausea
5) each episode typically lasts 10-20 seconds
6) Positive Dix-Hallpike manoeuvre:
The vertigo can be reproduced by turning the head of the patient 45 degrees to the
right and then taking the patient to the supine position.
There is nystagmus (upbeating and torsional), which last only a few seconds.
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RNBJLed_Slc)
7) BPPV has a good prognosis and usually resolves spontaneously after a few weeks to
months.
Symptomatic relief may be gained by:
1) Epley manoeuvre (successful in around 80% of cases)
See this link https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZqokxZRbJfw
2) teaching the patient exercises they can do themselves at home, for example Brandt-Daroff
exercises
3) Medication is often prescribed (e.g. Betahistine) but it tends to be of limited value.

Benign positional vertigo (BPV) is characterised by brief episodes of severe vertigo

accompanied by nausea and vomiting. Symptoms are usually most severe in the lateral
decubitus position with the affected ear down.
Episodic vertigo usually lasts for several weeks and then resolves spontaneously. Hearing
loss is not a feature.
In contrast to positional nystagmus from a central cause, the nystagmus in BPV exhibits
latency, fatigue and habituation.
Both central (eg, brainstem or cerebellum) and peripheral vestibular lesions can cause
positional nystagmus and vertigo. Central positional nystagmus is usually static, in that
the nystagmus persists as long as the head is kept in the provoking position.
Positional vertigo due to peripheral vestibular pathology is always transient.
Observations of the direction of nystagmus, as well as features of latency and fatigability,
can help confirm a peripheral localization and make imaging unnecessary.

54
 Tinnitus
Causes of tinnitus include:

Meniere's disease Associated with hearing loss,

vertigo,
tinnitus and sensation of fullness or pressure in one or both ears

Acoustic neuroma Hearing loss,

vertigo, tinnitus
Absent corneal reflex is important sign (cranial nerve V)
Associated with neurofibromatosis type 2 (bilateral)

Otosclerosis Onset is usually at 20-40 years

Positive FH
Conductive deafness
Tinnitus
Normal tympanic membrane*
*10% of patients may have a 'flamingo tinge', caused by
hyperaemia

Hearing loss Causes include excessive loud noise and presbycusis (age-
related sensorineural hearing loss.)

Drugs Aspirin
Loop diuretics
Aminoglycosides
Quinine

Other causes include

1) impacted ear wax
2) chronic suppurative otitis media

55
 Meniere's disease
A disorder of the inner ear of unknown cause.
Characterized by excessive pressure and progressive dilation of the endolymphatic
system.
It is more common in middle-aged adults but may be seen at any age.
Meniere's disease has a similar prevalence in both men and women.

Features:
1) Recurrent episodes of vertigo, tinnitus and hearing loss (sensorineural).
2) Vertigo is usually the prominent symptom
3) a sensation of aural fullness or pressure is now recognized as being common
4) other features include nystagmus and a positive Romberg test
5) episodes last minutes to hours
6) typically symptoms are unilateral but bilateral symptoms may develop after a number
of years

Natural history:
symptoms resolve in the majority of patients after 5-10 years
the majority of patients will be left with a degree of hearing loss
psychological distress is common

Management:
ENT assessment is required to confirm the diagnosis
Patients should inform the DVLA. The current advice is to cease driving until satisfactory
control of symptoms is achieved
Acute attacks:
Buccal or intramuscular prochlorperazine
Admission is sometimes required

Prevention: betahistine may be of benefit

Prochlorperazine: dopamine (D2) receptor antagonist that belongs to the phenothiazine class of
antipsychotics that are used antiemetic of nausea and vertigo. It is also a highly potent typical
antipsychotic, 1020 more potent than chlorpromazine. It is also used to treat migraine.
azine

56
 Acoustic neuromas
Acoustic neuromas (more correctly called vestibular schwannomas)
Account for approximately:
5% of intracranial tumors and
90% of cerebellopontine angle
Features can be predicted by the affected cranial nerves: 5, 7 & 8
cranial nerve V: absent corneal reflex
cranial nerve VII: facial palsy
cranial nerve VIII: hearing loss, vertigo, tinnitus

Bilateral acoustic neuromas are seen in neurofibromatosis type 2

MRI of the cerebellopontine angle is the investigation of choice

57
 Rinne's and Weber's test
Performing both Rinne's and Weber's test allows differentiation of conductive and sensorineural
deafness.

Rinne's test:
tuning fork is placed over the mastoid process until the sound is no longer heard,
followed by repositioning just over external acoustic meatus
air conduction (AC) is normally better than bone conduction (BC)
if BC > AC then conductive deafness

Weber's test:
tuning fork is placed in the middle of the forehead equidistant from the patient's ears
the patient is then asked which side is loudest
in unilateral sensorineural deafness, sound is localised to the unaffected side
in unilateral conductive deafness, sound is localised to the affected side

Romberg's test
Positive in conditions causing sensory ataxia such as:
1) Vitamin deficiencies such as Vitamin B12
2) Conditions affecting the dorsal columns of the spinal cord, such as tabes
dorsalis (neurosyphilis)
3) Conditions affecting the sensory nerves (sensory peripheral neuropathies), such as
chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy (CIDP).
4) Friedreich's ataxia
5) Mnire's disease

Romberg's test is a test of the proprioception receptors and pathways function.

Romberg's test is not a test of cerebellar function.
Patients with cerebellar ataxia will be unable to balance even with the eyes
open, therefore, the test cannot proceed beyond the first step and no patient with
cerebellar ataxia can correctly be described as Romberg's positive. Rather,
A positive Romberg's test has been shown to be 90% sensitive for lumbar spinal
stenosis.

58
 Idiopathic intracranial hypertension
Pseudotumour cerebri and formerly benign intracranial hypertension
a condition classically seen in young, overweight females
Features:
1) headache
2) blurred vision
3) papilloedema (usually present)
4) enlarged blind spot
5) sixth nerve palsy may be present
Risk factors:
1) obesity
2) female sex
3) pregnancy
4) drugs:
oral contraceptive pill, steroids,
Treatments for acne (tetracycline, nitrofurantoin, retinoids)
vitamin A (Hypervitaminosis A)
*if intracranial hypertension is thought to occur secondary to a known causes (e.g.
Medication) then it is of course not idiopathic
Investigations:
CT scan is often normal;
The diagnosis is confirmed by finding an elevated cerebrospinal fluid opening
pressure (more than 20 cmH2O).
CSF protein, glucose and cell count will be normal.
The differential diagnosis includes venous sinus thrombosis; increased use of MRI
has shown that small thromboses are commoner than previously thought in these
patients.MRI and/or MRI venography is essential in these patients.
Management:
1) weight loss
2) diuretics e.g. acetazolamide
3) repeated lumbar puncture
4) Surgery:
A lumboperitoneal or ventriculoperitoneal shunt may also be performed to
reduce intracranial pressure
Optic nerve sheath decompression and fenestration may be needed to prevent
damage to the optic nerve.
Visual loss is the single threatening complication of idiopathic intracranial hypertension
(IIH).
Urgent lumboperitoneal shunt is the treatment of choice.
Optic nerve fenestration is an alternative.
There are no comparative studies between the two interventions.

59
 The slide shows papilloedema

Headache
Medication overuse headache:
One of the most common causes of chronic daily headache.
It may affect up to 1 in 50 people
Features:
1) present for 15 days or more per month
2) developed or worsened whilst taking regular symptomatic medication
3) patients using opioids and triptans are at most risk
4) may be psychiatric co-morbidity
Management: (from 2008 SIGN guidelines)
simple analgesics and triptans should be withdrawn abruptly (may initially worsen
headaches)
opioid analgesics should be gradually withdrawn

60
 Migraine
Migraine without aura
The International Headache Society has produced the following diagnostic criteria for migraine
without aura:

Point Criteria

A At least 5 attacks fulfilling criteria B-D

B Headache attacks lasting 4-72 hours* (untreated or unsuccessfully treated)

C Headache has at least two of the following characteristics:

1. unilateral location*
2. pulsating quality (i.e., varying with the heartbeat)
3. moderate or severe pain intensity
4. aggravation by/or causing avoidance of routine physical activity
(e.g. walking or climbing stairs)

D During headache at least one of the following:

1. nausea and/or vomiting*
2. photophobia and phonophobia

E Not attributed to another disorder

(history and examination do not suggest a secondary headache disorder or, if
they do, it is ruled out by appropriate investigations or headache attacks do not
occur for the first time in close temporal relation to the other disorder)
*In children, attacks may be shorter-lasting, headache is more commonly bilateral, and
gastrointestinal disturbance is more prominent.
Migraine with aura
Seen in around 25% of migraine patients
Tends to be easier to diagnose with a typical aura being progressive in nature and may
occur hours prior to the headache. Dizziness and fatigue
Typical aura include:
a transient hemianopic disturbance or
A spreading scintillating scotoma ('jagged crescent'). ..... SSS
Tunnel vision, zigzag lines or stars.
Sensory symptoms may also occur
If we compare these guidelines to the NICE criteria the following points are noted:
NICE suggests migraines may be unilateral or bilateral
NICE also give more detail about typical auras:
Auras may occur with or without headache and:
are fully reversible
develop over at least 5 minutes
last 5-60 minutes
61
The following aura symptoms are atypical and may prompt further investigation/referral:
1) Decreased level of consciousness.
2) motor weakness
3) poor balance
4) double vision
5) visual symptoms affecting only one eye

Migraine management
It should be noted that as a general rule:
5-HT receptor agonists are used in the acute treatment of migraine whilst
5-HT receptor antagonists are used in prophylaxis.
NICE produced guidelines in 2012 on the management of headache, including migraines.
Acute treatment:
1) First-line: offer combination therapy with:
an oral triptan and NSAID, or
an oral triptan and paracetamol
for young people aged 12-17 years consider a nasal triptan in preference to an oral
triptan
2) if the above measures are not effective or not tolerated:
Offer a non-oral preparation of metoclopramide* or prochlorperazine and
consider adding a non-oral NSAID or triptan
*caution should be exercised with young patients as acute dystonic reactions
(extrapyramidal) may develop with metoclopramide
Prophylaxis:
Prophylaxis should be given if patients are experiencing 2 or more attacks per month.
Modern treatment is effective in about 60% of patients.
NICE advise either:
Topiramate or
Propranolol 'according to the person's preference, co morbidities and risk of adverse
events'.
Propranolol should be used in preference to topiramate in women of child bearing age as
it may be teratogenic and it can reduce the effectiveness of hormonal contraceptives
If these measures fail NICE recommend:
1) a course of up to 10 sessions of acupuncture over 5-8 weeks' or
2) gabapentin
3) riboflavin 400 mg once a day may be effective in reducing migraine frequency and
intensity
4) For women with predictable menstrual migraine treatment NICE recommend either:
Frovatriptan (2.5 mg twice a day) or
Zolmitriptan (Zomig)(2.5 mg twice or three times/day) as a type of 'mini-
prophylaxis'
Pizotifen is no longer recommended. Adverse effects such as weight gain & drowsiness
are common
62
Topiramate is associated with:
Renal stones
Weight loss
Cognitive impairment
Tingling in extremities.

To summarize
Sumatriptan is structurally similar to serotonin, and is a 5-HT1 agonist.
Acute treatment: oral triptan + an NSAID, or an oral triptan + paracetamol
(for young 12-17 years---> a nasal triptan)
if not effective or not tolerated offer a non-oral preparation of metoclopramide* or
prochlorperazine + a non-oral NSAID or triptan
Prophylaxis: - either topiramate or propranolol
10 sessions of acupuncture over 5-8 weeks' or gabapentin
riboflavin (400 mg once a day)
predictable menstrual migraine frovatriptan (2.5 mg bd) or zolmitriptan (2.5 mg bd
or tds) as 'mini-prophylaxis'

63
Migraine: pregnancy, contraception and other hormonal factors
SIGN produced guidelines in 2008 on the management of migraine, the following is selected
highlights:

Migraine during pregnancy

paracetamol 1g is first-line
aspirin 300mg or ibuprofen 400mg can be used second-line in the first and second
trimester

Migraine and the combined oral contraceptive (COC) pill

If patients have migraine with aura then the COC is absolutely contraindicated due to an
increased risk of stroke (RR 8.72)

Migraine and hormone replacement therapy (HRT)

safe to prescribe HRT for patients with a history of migraine but it may make migraines
worse
Migraine and menstruation
many women find that the frequency and severity of migraines increase around the time of
menstruation
SIGN recommends that women are treated with:
mefanamic acid or
A combination of aspirin, paracetamol and caffeine.
Triptans are also recommended in the acute situation

Triptans
Triptans are specific 5-HT1 agonists producing vasoconstriction used in the acute
treatment of migraine.
They are generally used first-line in combination therapy with an NSAID or paracetamol.
Prescribing points:
should be taken as soon as possible after the onset of headache, rather than at onset of
aura
oral, orodispersible, nasal spray and subcutaneous injections are available
Adverse effects:
'triptan sensations': tingling, heat, tightness (e.g. throat and chest), heaviness, pressure
Contraindications:
patients with a history of, or significant risk factors for, ischemic heart disease or
cerebrovascular disease

64
 Cluster headache
Cluster headaches* are more common in men (9:1) and smokers.

Features:
1) pain typical occurs once or twice a day, each episode lasting 15 mins - 2 hours
2) Clusters typically last 4-12 weeks with each cluster occurring several times yearly.
3) intense pain around one eye (recurrent attacks 'always' affect same side)
4) patient is restless during an attack
5) accompanied by redness, lacrimation, lid swelling
6) nasal stuffiness
7) miosis and ptosis in a minority (post ganglionic Horner Synd)---transient
8) The attacks often are nocturnal and associated with parasympathetic over activity

Management:
acute:
1) 100% oxygen,
2) SC or a nasal triptan
prophylaxis: verapamil, prednisolone, sodium valproate, lithium, ergotamine
NICE recommend seeking specialist advice from a neurologist if a patient develops cluster
headaches with respect to neuroimaging

Chronic paroxysmal hemicrania

It has features of cluster headaches but is associated with attacks of shorter
duration and increased frequency.
Each headache can last between 3-45 minutes and occur 20-40 times per day.
Chronic paroxysmal hemicrania almost invariably responds to indomethacin.

*some neurologists use the term trigeminal autonomic cephalgia to group a number of
conditions including cluster headache, paroxysmal hemicrania and short-lived unilateral
neuralgiform headache with conjunctival injection and tearing (SUNCT). It is recommended
such patients are referred for specialist assessment as specific treatment may be required,
for example it is known paroxysmal hemicrania responds very well to indomethacin

Cluster headache: Episodic eye pain, lacrimation, nasal stuffiness daily

Cluster headache ----> post ganglionic Horner Synd.

Triptan: agonist effects on serotonin 5-HT1B and 5-HT1D receptors in cranial blood
vessels (causing their constriction) and subsequent inhibition of pro-inflammatory
neuropeptide release.

65
 Post-lumbar puncture headache
Headache following lumbar puncture (LP) occurs in approximately one-third of patients.
The pathophysiology of is unclear but may relate to a 'leak' of CSF following dural
puncture.
Post-LP headaches are more common in young females with a low body mass index

Typical features:
1) usually develops within 24-48 hours following LP but may occur up to one week later
2) may last several days
3) worsens with upright position
4) improves with recumbent position

Factors which may contribute to headache Factors which do not contribute to headache

Increased needle size Opening pressure of CSF

Direction of bevel Increased volume of CSF removed
Not replacing the stylet Increased fluid intake post procedure
Increased number of LP attempts Bed rest following procedure
Position of patient

Management:
supportive initially (analgesia, rest)
if pain continues for more than 72 hours then specific treatment is indicated, to prevent
subdural haematoma
Treatment options include:
1) blood patch,
2) epidural saline and
3) intravenous caffeine

66
 Acute confusional state
Also known as delirium or acute organic brain syndrome.
It affects up to 30% of elderly patients admitted to hospital.

Features: wide variety of presentations

1) poor attention
2) disorientation
3) memory disturbances (loss of short term > long term)
4) mood change
5) may be very agitated or withdrawn
6) visual hallucinations
7) disturbed sleep cycle

Management:
1) treatment of underlying cause
2) modification of environment
3) the 2006 Royal College of Physicians publication 'The prevention, diagnosis and
management of delirium in older people: concise guidelines' recommended haloperidol
0.5 mg as the first-line sedative
4) the 2010 NICE delirium guidelines advocate the use of haloperidol or olanzapine

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Transient global amnesia (TGA)
Most attacks last one to eight hours with a mean duration of 4.2 hours.
Patients are disoriented to time and place with 60% to 90% exhibiting repetitive
questioning, "Where am I?" which may last throughout the attack.
The precise pathophysiology of TGA is not clear.
On positron emission tomography (PET) and diffusion-weighted MRI (DWI), blood
flow to specific brain areas that involve memory appears to be disrupted transiently
during TGA. This includes the thalamus and/or mesial temporal structures (in
particular the amygdala and hippocampus).

67
 Neurodegenerative Diseases
Dementia
Dementia is thought to affect over 700,000 people in the UK and accounts for a large
amount of health and social care spending.
The most common cause of dementia in the UK is Alzheimer's disease followed by
vascular and Lewy body dementia. These conditions may coexist.

Features:
diagnosis can be difficult and is often delayed
The mini-mental state examination is widely used. A score of 24 out of 30 suggests
dementia
Causes:
Common causes:
Alzheimer's disease
CVD: multi-infarct dementia (c. 10-20%)
Lewy body dementia (c. 10-20%)
Rarer causes (c. 5% of cases)
Huntington's (progressive dementia and chorea appear between 30 -50 years age)
CJD
Pick's disease (atrophy of frontal and temporal lobes)
HIV (50% of AIDS patients)

Important differentials: potentially treatable

hypothyroidism, Addison's, B12/folate/thiamine deficiency
normal pressure hydrocephalus, subdural haematoma, brain tumour, syphilis
depression
chronic drug use e.g. Alcohol, barbiturates

Management:
In primary care a blood screen is usually sent to exclude reversible causes (e.g.
Hypothyroidism)
NICE recommend the following tests: FBC, U&E, LFTs, calcium, glucose, TFTs, vitamin
B12 and folate levels.
Patients are now commonly referred on to old-age psychiatrists (sometimes working in
'memory clinics').
in secondary care neuroimaging is performed* to exclude other reversible conditions (e.g.
Subdural haematoma, normal pressure hydrocephalus) and help provide information on
aetiology to guide prognosis and management

*in the 2011 NICE guidelines structural imaging was said to be essential in the investigation
of dementia

68
 Alzheimer's disease
A progressive degenerative disease of the brain
accounting for the majority of dementia seen in the UK

Genetics:
most cases are sporadic
5% of cases are inherited as an autosomal dominant trait
mutations in:
the amyloid precursor protein (chromosome 21),
presenilin 1 (chromosome 14) and
presenilin 2 (chromosome 1) genes are thought to cause the inherited form
apoprotein E allele E4 - encodes a cholesterol transport protein

Pathological changes:
1) macroscopic: widespread cerebral atrophy, particularly involving the cortex and
hippocampus
2) microscopic:
Cortical plaques: Due to deposition of:
1) type A-Beta-amyloid protein and
2) intraneuronal neurofibrillary tangles caused by abnormal aggregation of the tau
protein
3) biochemical:
There is a deficit of acetylecholine from damage to an ascending forebrain
projection

Management:
NICE guidelines on Alzheimer's disease and the pharmacological management of
dementia suggest the following:
1) Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors:
NICE now recommend (donepezil, galantamine and rivastigmine) as options for managing
mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease

2) Memantine: a NMDA receptor antagonist

Recommended as an option for managing Alzheimer's disease for people with:
moderate Alzheimer's disease who are intolerant of or have a contraindication to
AChE inhibitors, or
Severe Alzheimer's disease.

NICE guidelines recommend discontinuation of cholinesterase inhibitors once the mini

mental state examination has fallen below 12.
Consider switch to memantine, which is licensed for use in moderate to severe dementia.
The new NICE draft guidelines, however, do not recommend its use because of lack of
cost effectiveness.

69
 Repeating the cognitive assessment every 6 months assesses benefit.
Up to half the patients given these drugs will show a slower rate of cognitive decline.
The drug should be discontinued in those thought not to be responding.
In those who are responding, drugs should be stopped once the MMSE score is
less than 10.

Neurofibrillary tangles:
paired helical filaments are partly made from a protein called tau
in AD: tau proteins are excessively phosphorylated

70
 Lewy body dementia
an increasingly recognized cause of dementia,
Accounting for up to 20% of cases.
The characteristic pathological feature is alpha-synuclein cytoplasmic inclusions (Lewy
bodies) in the substantia nigra, paralimbic and neocortical areas
The relationship between Parkinson's disease and Lewy body dementia is complicated,
particularly as dementia is often seen in Parkinson's disease.
Also, up to 40% of patients with Alzheimer's have Lewy bodies
Neuroleptics should be avoided in Lewy body dementia as patients are extremely
sensitive and may develop irreversible Parkinsonism.
Questions may give a history of a patient who has deteriorated following the introduction
of an antipsychotic agent

Features: Dementia+ Parkinsonism+ Visual hallucinations

1) progressive cognitive impairment
2) parkinsonism
3) visual hallucinations ( delusions and non-visual hallucinations may also be seen)
Diagnosis:
usually clinical
Single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) is increasingly used.
It is currently commercially known as a DaTscan.
Dopaminergic iodine-123-radiolabelled 2-carbomethoxy-3-(4-iodophenyl)-N-(3-
fluoropropyl) nortropane (123-I FP-CIT) is used as the radioisotope.
The sensitivity of SPECT in diagnosing Lewy body dementia is 90%, specificity100%
Management: Rivastigmine:
The treatment of choice as improves both the visual hallucinations, and cognitive impairment.

Frontotemporal dementia (Pick's disease)

A rare form of dementia characterised by degeneration of the frontal and temporal lobes.
More common under 65 years.
It presents with changes in behaviour and loss of insight more commonly than memory
problems.
Patients are disinhibited, apathetic and can be compulsive overeaters.
They may have a normal MMSE, visuospatial and language function but they fail on tasks
of verbal fluency and executive function
Presentations are of frontal or temporal lobe syndromes, depending on the location of
maximal lobar atrophy.
Patients with frontal atrophy present with early personality change.
Predominant temporal lobe atrophy is associated with aphasia and semantic
memory impairment.
Pathologically:
Pick's disease is associated with Pick bodies which are argyrophilic inclusion bodies
within the neuronal cytoplasm.
EEG is relatively normal by contrast with Alzheimer's disease.
71
 Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease
CJD is at times called a human form of mad cow disease (bovine spongiform
encephalopathy or BSE) ....
CJD is rapidly progressive neurological condition caused by prion proteins
Prions are proteins that occur normally in neurons of the CNS. These proteins affect
signaling processes damaging neurons degeneration spongiform appearance in
the affected brain.
These proteins induce the formation of amyloid folds resulting in tightly packed beta-
pleated sheets resistant to proteases.
Features:
1) Dementia (rapid onset) .....
2) Myoclonus
3) Ataxia
Investigation:
1) CSF is usually normal
2) EEG: biphasic or triphasic periodic sharp wave complexes, high amplitude (only in
sporadic CJD)
3) MRI: hyperintense signals in the BG and thalamus
Sporadic CJD:
accounts for 85% of cases
mean age of onset is 65 years
Familial 10-15% of cases
Variant CJD:
Rapid cognitive decline in a young person with myoclonus is strongly suggestive of CJD
thought to be caused by consumption of food contaminated with prions (which also cause BSE)
younger patients (average age of onset = 25 years)
psychological symptoms such as anxiety, withdrawal and dysphonia are the most
common presenting features
the 'prion protein' is encoded on chromosome 20 - it's role is not yet understood
methionine homozygosity at codon 129 of the prion protein is a risk factor for developing
CJD
all patients who have so far died have had this
median survival = 13 months
Iatrogenic:
This form of CJD arises from contamination with tissue from an infected person, usually as
the result of a medical procedure e.g. blood transfusion from the infected person, use of
human-derived pituitary growth hormones, gonadotropin hormone therapy, corneal and/or
meningeal transplants
CJD is incurable and invariably fatal disease
Other prion diseases
kuru
fatal familial insomnia
Gerstmann Straussler-Scheinker disease
72
 Normal pressure hydrocephalus
A reversible cause of dementia seen in elderly patients.
It is thought to be secondary to reduced CSF absorption at the arachnoid villi.
These changes may be secondary to head injury, subarachnoid hemorrhage or meningitis
A classical triad of features is seen:
dementia and bradyphrenia
gait abnormality (may be similar to Parkinson's disease)
urinary incontinence

Imaging:
hydrocephalus with enlarged ventricles

Management:
ventriculoperitoneal shunting
In equivocal cases therapeutic CSF drainage via lumbar puncture is performed to
identify the patients likely to benefit from permanent drainage

bradyphrenia: slow thinking

Normal pressure hydrocephalus is a reversible cause of dementia in elderly.

Normal pressure hydrocephalus-------> No Papilledema.........

73
74
 Neurodegenerative Diseases
Motor neuron disease
Features:
Motor neuron disease is a neurological condition of unknown cause.
Can present with both upper and lower motor neuron signs.
It rarely presents before 40 years
various patterns of disease are recognized including
1) amyotrophic lateral sclerosis,
2) primary lateral sclerosis,
3) progressive muscular atrophy,
4) Progressive bulbar palsy.

In some patients however, there is a combination of clinical patterns

There are a number of clues which point towards a diagnosis of motor

neuron disease:
1) fasciculation
2) absence of sensory signs/symptoms* (purely motor)
3) LMN signs in arms and UMN signs in legs
4) wasting of the small hand muscles & tibialis anterior is common
*vague sensory symptoms may occur early in the disease (e.g. limb pain) but 'never' sensory
signs

Other features:
1) doesn't affect external ocular muscles
2) no cerebellar signs
3) abdominal reflexes are usually preserved
4) sphincter dysfunction if present is a late feature

Diagnosis:
The diagnosis of motor neuron disease is clinical
nerve conduction studies show normal motor conduction and can help exclude a
neuropathy
Electromyography shows a reduced number of action potentials with increased amplitude.
MRI: usually performed to exclude the differential diagnosis of cervical cord compression
and myelopathy

75
Motor neuron disease types:
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (50% of patients)
typically LMN signs in arms
and UMN signs in legs
in familial cases the gene responsible lies on chromosome 21 and codes for superoxide
dismutase

Primary lateral sclerosis:

UMN signs only
Progressive muscular atrophy:
LMN signs only
affects distal muscles before proximal
carries best prognosis
Progressive bulbar palsy
palsy of the tongue, muscles of chewing/swallowing and facial muscles due to loss of
function of brainstem motor nuclei
carries worst prognosis
Motor neuron disease management:
A) Riluzole:
prevents stimulation of glutamate receptors
used mainly in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
prolongs life by about 3 months

B) Respiratory care:
non-invasive ventilation (usually BIPAP) is used at night
studies have shown a survival benefit of around 7 months

Prognosis:
poor: 50% of patients die within 3 years

Multifocal motor neuropathy (MMN):

autoimmune neuropathy associated in 80% of cases with an elevated anti-GM1
ganglioside antibody and typically presents with progressive weakness affecting an
isolated limb without sensory involvement
Rarely there is cranial nerve or respiratory involvement.
There is persistent motor conduction block of the innervating nerves and depressed
reflexes
It is an important differential diagnosis of motor neurone disease as it is potentially
treatable.
Treatment with IV immunoglobulin may be very effective in some patients.
Cyclophosphamide is also used on a long term basis.

76
 Cerebellar syndrome
Unilateral cerebellar lesions cause----------------> ipsilateral signs
Causes:
1) Friedreich's ataxia, ataxic telangiectasia
2) cerebellar haemangioma
3) stroke
4) alcohol
5) multiple sclerosis (relapse usually)
6) hypothyroidism
7) phenytoin, lead poisoning
8) paraneoplastic e.g. secondary to lung cancer
Friedreich's ataxia
the most common of the early-onset hereditary ataxias
It is an autosomal recessive, trinucleotide repeat disorder characterised by a GAA repeat
in the X25 gene on chromosome 9 (frataxin).
Friedreich's ataxia is unusual amongst trinucleotide repeat disorders in not demonstrating
the phenomenon of anticipation.
The typical age of onset is 10-15 years old.
Gait ataxia and kyphoscoliosis are the most common presenting features.
The posterior columns, spinocerebellar and corticospinal tracts are affected leading to
cerebellum dysfunction, spastic paraparesis and absent reflexes in lower limbs.
Neurological features:
1) absent ankle jerks/extensor plantars (LMN + UMN signs)
2) cerebellar ataxia
3) optic atrophy
4) spinocerebellar tract degeneration
5) kyphoscoliosis, pes cavus
Other features:
1) hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy HOCM (90%, most common cause of death)
2) Diabetes mellitus (10-20%)
3) high-arched palate

Ataxic telangiectasia
An autosomal recessive disorder
Caused by a defect in the ATM gene which encodes for DNA repair enzymes.
It is one of the inherited combined immunodeficiency disorders.
It typical presents in early childhood with abnormal movements (chorea).
Features:
1) cerebellar ataxia
2) telangiectasia (spider angiomas)
3) IgA deficiency resulting in recurrent chest infections
4) 10% risk of developing malignancy, lymphoma or leukaemia, but also non-lymphoid
tumors
77
 Lateral medullary syndrome
Also known as Wallenberg's syndrome,
occurs following occlusion of the posterior inferior cerebellar artery(PICA)

Ipsilateral Cerebellar features:

1) ataxia
2) nystagmus

Brainstem features:
Ipsilateral:
1) facial numbness, (spinal trigeminal nucleus & tract)
2) Dysphagia (nucleus ambiguus - ----vagus nerve and glossopharyngeal nerve) ),
3) vestibular nuclei-------vomiting, vertigo, nystagmus
4) sympathetic fibers e.g. Horner's
Contralateral: limb/torso sensory loss (pain & temperature loss ) ----lateral spinothalamic
tract

There is a loss of pain and temperature sensation on the contralateral (opposite) side of
the body and ipsilateral (same) side of the face. This crossed finding is diagnostic for the
syndrome.

........

78
 Movement Disorders
Tremor
The table below lists the main characteristics of the most important causes of tremor
Asymmetrical resting tremor, as a 'pill-rolling' action of the
Parkinsonism hands, may affect chin, lips, legs, and trunk, increased by
stress or emotions
Bradykinesia, Rigidity, Flexed posture,
Short, shuffling steps
Micrographia, Mask-like face
Depression & dementia are common
May be history of anti-psychotic use

Essential tremor Postural tremor: worse if arms outstretched

Improved by alcohol and rest
Titubation
Often strong family history
Can affect the person's ability to perform activities of daily
living

Anxiety History of depression

Thyrotoxicosis Usual thyroid signs e.g. Weight loss, tachycardia, feeling hot

Hepatic encephalopathy History of chronic liver disease

Carbon dioxide retention History of COPD

Cerebellar disease Intention tremor occurring at the end of a purposeful

movement such as touching a finger to the tip of the
person's nose.
This tremor may be accompanied by dysarthria, nystagmus,
gait problems, and postural tremor of the trunk and neck.

Holmes' tremor or rubral tremor:

It is secondary to a lesion in the red nucleus and can occur following a stroke in this area.
It classically produces an irregular low frequency tremor which is a combination of a rest,
postural and action tremor.
It is described as a 'wing-beating' type of tremor and is most prominent when the affected
person is active or is maintaining a particular posture. Signs of ataxia and weakness can
occur.
Physiological tremor:
A postural tremor occurring in every normal individual.
It is rarely visible to the eye and may be heightened by strong emotion (such as anxiety or
fear), physical exhaustion, hypoglycaemia, hyperthyroidism, heavy metal poisoning,
stimulants, alcohol withdrawal, caffeine, or fever.
79
 Essential tremor
Previously called benign essential tremor
Autosomal dominant condition, often strong family history.
usually affects both upper limbs
Features:
1) postural tremor: worse if arms outstretched
2) improved by alcohol and rest
3) most common cause of titubation (head tremor)
Management:
1) propranolol is first-line
2) primidone is sometimes used (also 1st line)

80
Causes of Parkinsonism
1) Parkinson's disease
2) progressive supranuclear palsy
3) multiple system atrophy
4) Wilson's disease
5) post-encephalitis Parkinson (oculogyric crisis)
6) dementia pugilistica (secondary to chronic head trauma e.g. boxing)
7) antipsychotics, metoclopramide - see below
8) carbon monoxide CO, MPTP

Drugs causing Parkinsonism:

1) phenothiazines: e.g. chlorpromazine, prochlorperazine
2) butyrophenones: haloperidol, droperidol
3) metoclopramide

Domperidone does not cross the blood-brain barrier and therefore does not cause extra-
pyramidal side-effects
MPTP (methyl-phenyl-tetrahydropyridine) is a neurotoxin precursor to MPP+, which causes
permanent symptoms of Parkinson's disease by destroying dopaminergic neurons in the substantia
nigra.
While MPTP itself has no psychoactive effects, the compound may be accidentally produced during
the manufacture of MPPP.
MPTP itself is not toxic, and as a lipophilic compound can cross BBB. Once inside the brain, MPTP
is metabolized into the toxic cation 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP+) by the enzyme MAO-
B of glial cells. MPP+ kills primarily dopamine-producing neurons in the substantia nigra.
Because MPTP itself is not directly harmful, toxic effects of acute MPTP poisoning can be mitigated
by the administration of (MAOIs) such as selegiline-----> prevent the metabolism of MPTP to MPP+
by inhibiting the action of MAO-B, minimizing toxicity and preventing neural death.
NB: 1-methyl-4-phenyl-4-propionoxypiperidine (MPPP) is
an opioid analgesic analog of pethidine (meperidine) . Chemically, it is a reversed ester of pethidine
which has about 70% of the potency of morphine.

81
82
 Parkinson's disease
a progressive neurodegenerative condition
Caused by degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra.
This results in a classic triad of features: bradykinesia, tremor and rigidity
The symptoms of Parkinson's disease are characteristically asymmetrical.

Epidemiology:
around twice as common in men
mean age of diagnosis is 65 years

Features:
Bradykinesia:
poverty of movement also seen, sometimes referred to as hypokinesia
short, shuffling steps with reduced arm swinging
difficulty in initiating movement

Tremor:
most marked at rest, 3-5 Hz
worse when stressed or tired
typically 'pill-rolling', i.e. in the thumb and index finger
It affects the most distal part of the limb and at onset typically appears in only a single
arm or leg, becoming bilateral later
Rigidity:
lead pipe
cogwheel: due to superimposed tremor

Other characteristic features:

1) mask-like facies
2) drooling of saliva
3) impaired olfaction
4) flexed posture
5) micrographia
6) psychiatric features:
Depression is the most common feature (affects about 40%);
dementia,
psychosis and
sleep disturbances may also occur
7) REM sleep behaviour disorder

Drug-induced Parkinsonism has slightly different features to Parkinson's disease:

motor symptoms are generally rapid onset and bilateral
Rigidity and rest tremor are uncommon ????

83
 Parkinson's disease management
Currently accepted practice in the management of patients with Parkinson's disease (PD)
is to delay treatment until onset of disabling symptoms & then to introduce a dopamine
receptor agonist.
If the patient is elderly, levodopa is sometimes used as an initial treatment.
Dopamine receptor agonists:
Bromocriptine, cabergoline,
ropinirole
apomorphine: one of the older dopamine receptor agonists
Ergot-derived dopamine receptor agonists:
Bromocriptine, cabergoline, pergolide
Have been associated with pulmonary, retroperitoneal and cardiac fibrosis.
The Committee on Safety of Medicines advice that an echocardiogram, ESR, creatinine
and chest x-ray should be obtained prior to treatment and patients should be closely
monitored
pergolide was withdrawn from the US market in March 2007 due to concern
regarding increased incidence of valvular dysfunction
patients should be warned about the potential for dopamine receptor agonists to cause:
impulse control disorders and
excessive daytime somnolence
More likely than levodopa to cause hallucinations in older patients.
Nasal congestion and postural hypotension are also seen in some patients
People with an impulse control disorder cant resist the urge to do something harmful to
themselves or others. include addictions to alcohol, drugs, eating disorders, compulsive
gambling, paraphilias sexual fantasies and behaviors involving non-human objects, suffering,
humiliation or children, compulsive hair pulling, stealing, fire setting and intermittent
explosive attacks of rage.

Levodopa:
usually combined with a decarboxylase inhibitor (e.g. carbidopa or benserazide) to
prevent peripheral metabolism of L-dopa to dopamine
reduced effectiveness with time (usually by 2 years)
no use in neuroleptic induced parkinsonism
Adverse effects:
1) dyskinesia (involuntary writhing movements)
2) 'on-off' effect
3) Drowsiness, postural hypotension
4) cardiac arrhythmias, palpitations
5) anorexia, nausea, vomiting & dry mouth
6) psychosis
7) reddish discolouration of urine upon standing

84
Monoamine Oxidase-B (MAO-B) inhibitors
e.g. Selegiline
inhibits the breakdown of dopamine secreted by the dopaminergic neurons

Catechol-O-Methyl Transferase (COMT) inhibitors:

e.g. Entacapone, tolcapone
COMT is an enzyme involved in the breakdown of dopamine.
used in conjunction with levodopa in patients with established PD

Amantadine:
mechanism is not fully understood, probably increases dopamine release and inhibits its
uptake at dopaminergic synapses
Side-effects include:
1) ataxia,
2) slurred speech,
3) confusion,
4) dizziness and
5) livedo reticularis
Antimuscarinics:
block cholinergic receptors
now used more to treat drug-induced parkinsonism rather than idiopathic Parkinson's
disease
help tremor and rigidity
e.g.
procyclidine,
benzotropine,
trihexyphenidyl (benzhexol)

SOME COMMENTS FROM ON EXAMINATION

Rasagiline is an irreversible inhibitor of monoamine oxidase and can be used as a monotherapy
in early Parkinson's disease or as an adjunct therapy in more advanced cases.
Amantadine may be used as a treatment for early Parkinson's disease but should not be the
drug of first choice.
Apomorphine is a dopamine agonist used subcutaneously later in the disease process in people
with severe motor complications unresponsive to oral medication.
Entacapone is a catechol-O-methyl transferase inhibitor which may be used to reduce motor
fluctuations in later Parkinson's disease.
Trihexyphenidyl is an anticholinergic which can be used as a symptomatic treatment in young
patients with early Parkinson's disease and severe tremor but should not be the drug of first
choice due to limited efficacy and the propensity to cause neuropsychiatric side effects.

85
 Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome
a rare but dangerous condition seen in patients taking antipsychotic medication
Caused by a sudden reduction in dopamine activity, either from blockade of dopamine
receptors or withdrawal of dopaminergic agents.
It carries a mortality of up to 10% and can also occur with atypical antipsychotics.
It may also occur with dopaminergic drugs (such as levodopa) for Parkinson's disease,
usually when the drug is suddenly stopped or the dose reduced.
Features:
more common in young male patients
Onset usually in first 10 days of treatment or after increasing dose but it can occur at
any time during the treatment with antipsychotic medications.
Concomitant treatment with lithium or anticholinergics may increase the risk of NMS.
1) Fever
2) rigidity
3) Altered mental status
4) Autonomic dysfunction
5) tachycardia
6) raised creatine kinase:
present in most cases
always elevated (>1000 IU/L1)
reflecting myonecrosis secondary to intense muscle contracture
7) leukocytosis may also be seen

Management:
1) stop antipsychotic
2) IV fluids to prevent renal failure
3) Reduction of body temperature with antipyretics.
4) dantrolene* may be useful in selected cases
5) bromocriptine, dopamine agonist, may also be used
*thought to work by decreasing excitation-contraction coupling in skeletal muscle by
binding to the ryanodine receptor, and decreasing the release of calcium from the
sarcoplasmic reticulum

NB: NMS is most often caused by antipsychotic drugs (e.g. olanzapine, risperidone,
aripiprazole, amisulpride, quetiapine, chlorpromazine, haloperidol and clozapine).
However a wide range of drugs can also cause NMS. These include dopaminergic
medication i.e. levodopa and this often occurs when these medications are stopped
abruptly, anti-dopaminergic medication such as metoclopramide and even drugs without
anti-dopaminergic effects such as lithium can also cause NMS.

86
 Malignant hyperthermia
A condition often seen following administration of anaesthetic agents
characterised by hyperpyrexia and muscle rigidity
cause by excessive release of Ca2+ from the sarcoplasmic reticulum of skeletal
muscle
associated with defects in a gene on chromosome 19 encoding the ryanodine receptor,
which controls Ca2+ release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum
neuroleptic malignant syndrome may have a similar aetiology

Causative agents:
1) halothane
2) suxamethonium
3) other drugs: antipsychotics (neuroleptic malignant syndrome)

Investigations:
1) CK raised
2) contracture tests with halothane and caffeine

Management
dantrolene: prevents Ca2+ release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Multiple system atrophy
Shy-Drager syndrome is a type of multiple system atrophy
Features:
1) parkinsonism
2) autonomic disturbance:
atonic bladder, disturbance of sphincter control, anhidrosis, , impotence
postural hypotension,
3) cerebellar signs
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Progressive supranuclear palsy
aka Steele-Richardson-Olszewski syndrome
a 'Parkinson Plus' syndrome
Features:
1) impairment of vertical gaze:
down gaze worse than up gaze
patients may complain of difficultly reading or descending stairs)
2) parkinsonism
3) falls
4) slurring of speech
5) cognitive impairment
Management: poor response to L-dopa
Parkinsonism+ impairment of vertical gaze
87
 Chorea
Caused by damage to the BG, especially the caudate nucleus.
Involuntary, rapid, jerky movements which often move from one part of the body to
another.
Slower, sinuous movement of the limbs is termed athetosis.
Causes of chorea:
1) Huntington's disease, Wilson's disease, ataxic telangiectasia
2) SLE, anti-phospholipid syndrome
3) rheumatic fever: Sydenham's chorea
4) pregnancy: chorea gravidarum
5) neuroacanthocytosis
6) thyrotoxicosis
7) polycythaemia rubra vera PRV
8) CVD
9) Drugs:
oral contraceptive pill,
L-dopa,
antipsychotics
10) CO carbon monoxide poisoning (also can cause parkinsonism)

Huntington's disease
An autosomally inherited condition
Due to an expanded CAG trinucleotide repeat on the short arm of chromosome 4.
It is characterised by progressive dementia and worsening choreiform movements.
Symptoms typically appear between 30- 50 years of age.
Genetic testing now provides an accurate method of establishing the diagnosis.
Average life span after clinical onset is about 15 years.

Sydenham's chorea:
Patient presents with acute chorea as a result of streptococcal throat infection
This tends to occur in children presenting initially with irritability and
inattentiveness.
This then progresses to generalised chorea with speech involvement occurring in
20% of cases.
Those who have had several attacks in childhood may develop chorea in adulthood
when exposed to drugs such as the oral contraceptive pill, phenytoin or digoxin, or
during pregnancy.
Treatment is for chorea with tetrabenazine or sulpiride and a course of penicillin for
acute infection.

88
 Hemiballism
The presence of severe sudden, jerking flinging movements affecting proximal
muscles and following no particular pattern is typical for hemiballism.
The site of the lesion is in the contralateral subthalamic nucleus, infarction being
the commonest cause (also neoplasia or hyperglycemia).
Bilateral ballismus is rare and implicates a metabolic cause, usually non-ketotic
hyperosmolar coma (HONK).
Symptoms may decrease whilst the patient is asleep.

Management:
Treatment of the cause
Usually the flinging movements stop spontaneously in the next four to eight weeks
Tetrabenazine is the treatment of choice.
(Dramatic response but recurrent symptoms on lowering dose)

Antidopaminergic agents (e.g. Haloperidol) ???

89
Cerebrospinal fluid:
Normal values of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) are as follows:
pressure = 60-150 mm (patient recumbent)
protein = 0.2-0.4 g/l
glucose = > 2/3 blood glucose
cells: red cells = 0, white cells < 5/mm

Raised lymphocytes:
1) viral meningitis/encephalitis
2) TB meningitis
3) partially treated bacterial meningitis
4) Lyme disease
5) Behcet's, SLE
6) lymphoma, leukaemia

Raised protein:
1) Guillain-Barre syndrome
2) tuberculous, fungal and bacterial meningitis
3) viral encephalitis
4) spinal block (Froin's syndrome*)

*describes an increase in CSF protein below a spinal canal blockage (e.g. tumor, disc,
infection)

90
 Meningitis
CSF analysis
Bacterial Viral Tuberculous

Appearance Cloudy Clear/cloudy Slight cloudy, fibrin web

Glucose Low (< 1/2 plasma) 60-80% of plasma glucose* Low (< 1/2 plasma)

Protein High (> 1 g/l) Normal/raised High (> 1 g/l)

White cells 10 - 5,000 15 - 1,000 lymphocytes/mm 10 - 1,000

polymorphs/mm lymphocytes/mm

Mumps is associated with a low glucose level in a proportion of cases.

A low glucose may also be seen in herpes encephalitis

Tuberculous meningitis
The Ziehl-Neelsen stain is only 20% sensitive in the detection of tuberculous meningitis
and therefore
PCR is sometimes used (sensitivity = 75%)

Causes for aseptic meningitis:

Behet's syndrome, Systemic diseases.
viruses - commonly enteroviruses, e.g. polio, coxsackievirus, echovirus
partially treated bacterial meningitis
fungal meningitis
parasites
drugs, e.g. intravenous immunoglobulin, and some intrathecal medications

Listeria meningitis should always be considered in patients with meningitis associated

with brain stem involvement, and in immunosuppressed patients.
The treatment of choice is gentamicin and ampicillin.
Neutrophils usually predominate in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in patients with
bacterial meningitis. However, a lymphocytosis is seen in approximately 10% of patients.
Lymphocytes may predominate in 30% of patients with meningitis caused by Gram
negative bacilli, or in Listeria monocytogenes infection.
Note that this means that 70% of patients with Listeria meningitis will have a
neutrophilic CSF.
A lymphocytic CSF predominates in TB and fungal meningitis.

91
 Herpes simplex encephalitis
a common topic in the exam
The virus characteristically affects the temporal lobes - questions may give the result of
imaging or describe temporal lobe signs e.g. aphasia.

Features:
1) fever, headache, psychiatric symptoms, seizures, vomiting
2) focal features e.g. aphasia
3) peripheral lesions (e.g. cold sores) have no relation to presence of HSV encephalitis

Pathophysiology:
HSV-1 responsible for 95% of cases in adults
typically affects temporal and inferior frontal lobes

Investigation:
1) CSF: lymphocytosis, elevated protein
2) PCR for HSV: diagnostic in 95%
3) CT:
Medial temporal and inferior frontal changes (e.g. petechial haemorrhages)
normal in one-third of patients
4) MRI is better than CT
5) EEG pattern: lateralised periodic discharges at 2 Hz

Treatment
intravenous acyclovir

Prognosis:
The prognosis is dependent on whether acyclovir is commenced early.
If treatment is started promptly the mortality is 10-20%.
Left untreated the mortality approaches 80%

92
Image 1 MRI of a patient with HSV encephalitis. There is hyperintensity of the affected white
matter and cortex in the medial temporal lobes and insular cortex.

Image 2 The MRI demonstrates a temporoparietal dense lesion.

The diagnosis is reliably confirmed by the presence of herpes simplex virus in the
cerebrospinal fluid by polymerase chain reaction.

93
 HIV Neurocomplications
Focal neurological lesions
Toxoplasmosis
Toxoplasma encephalitis is the commonest cause of focal brain disease in
HIV/AIDS, occurring at CD4 counts of less than 100 cells/mm3
accounts for around 50% of cerebral lesions in patients with HIV
Although Toxoplasma gondii may also cause a retinitis in association with
HIV/AIDS, it need not occur concomitantly with central nervous system disease.
constitutional symptoms, headache, confusion, drowsiness
CT:
1) usually single or multiple ring enhancing lesions,
2) mass effect may be seen
Management:
1) sulfadiazine and
2) pyrimethamine
Patients must subsequently be maintained on long term suppressive therapy to prevent
relapse.

Cerebral toxoplasmosis: MRI (T1 C+)

demonstrates multiple small peripherally
enhancing nodules located predominantly in
the basal ganglia as well as the central
portions of the cerebellar hemispheres. Only
a small amount of surrounding oedema is
present.

Cerebral toxoplasmosis: CT scan with

contrast showing multiple ring enhancing
lesions
94
 Primary CNS lymphoma
accounts for around 30% of cerebral lesions
associated with the Epstein-Barr virus
CT: single or multiple homogenous enhancing lesions
Treatment:
1) Generally involves steroids (may significantly reduce tumour size),
2) Chemotherapy (e.g. methotrexate) + with or without whole brain irradiation.
3) Surgical may be considered for lower grade tumours

Primary CNS lymphoma: Non-contrast

Primary CNS lymphoma: MRI (T1 C+) demonstrates a CT demonstrates a hyper-attenuating
large multilobulated mass in the right frontal lobe. It
mass adjacent to the left lateral
homogeneously enhances and extends to involve the
ventricle, with no calcification or
caudate and the periventricular area. There is
hemorrhage.
significant mass effect.

Differentiating between toxoplasmosis and lymphoma

Toxoplasmosis Lymphoma SSS

Multiple lesions Single lesion

Ring or nodular enhancement Solid (homogenous) enhancement
Thallium SPECT negative Thallium SPECT positive

Tuberculosis
much less common than toxoplasmosis or primary CNS lymphoma
CT: single enhancing lesion

95
 Generalised HIV neurocomplications
Encephalitis
may be due to CMV or HIV itself
HSV encephalitis but is relatively rare in the context of HIV
CT: oedematous brain

Cryptococcus neoformans
Most common fungal infection of CNS, CD4 < 50 cells/mm3 and
May be associated with a pneumonitis.
Cryptococcus can cause papular skin lesions that resemble molluscum contagiosum.
The disease is commoner in African populations.

Features:
Meningitis is typical presentation but may occasionally cause a space occupying lesion
1) headache, fever, malaise,
2) nausea/vomiting,
3) seizures, focal neurological deficit
CSF:
high opening pressure,
India ink test positive thick polysaccharide capsule around the cell
CT:
meningeal enhancement,
cerebral oedema
Treatment:
1) Amphotericin B and flucytosine (5FC);
2) Patients then require lifetime suppression with fluconazole.

India ink stain shows: the thick polysaccharide capsule is highlighted around the
cell (shown in slide).

96
Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML)
Widespread demyelination
due to infection of oligodendrocytes by JC virus (a polyoma DNA virus)
symptoms:
Subacute onset of:
behavioral changes,
speech, motor, visual impairment
CT:
Single or multiple lesions,
no mass effect,
Dont usually enhance.
MRI:
Better
high-signal demyelinating white matter lesions are seen
A brain biopsy would be the definitive diagnostic test showing:
Asymmetric foci of demyelination and
Intranuclear inclusions containing the JC virus.

AIDS dementia complex

Caused by HIV virus itself

Symptoms:
behavioral changes,
motor impairment

CT: cortical and subcortical atrophy

97
 Neurocutaneous syndromes
Neurofibromatosis
There are two types of neurofibromatosis, NF1 and NF2.
Both are inherited in an autosomal dominant fashion
1) NF1:
is also known as von Recklinghausen's syndrome
It is caused by a gene mutation on chromosome 17 which encodes neurofibromin
affects around 1 in 4,000

2) NF2:
caused by gene mutation on chromosome 22
affects around 1 in 100,000
Haemangiomas of the CNS (usually retina or cerebellum) ???
NF1 von Recklinghausen's syndrome NF2

Caf-au-lait spots (>= 6, 15 mm in

diameter)
Axillary/groin freckles
Bilateral acoustic neuromas
Peripheral neurofibromas
Iris: Lisch nodules in > 90%
Scoliosis
Pheochromocytomas

Mnemonic: NF1: Has 17 letters so, a gene mutation on chromosome 17 NF2: gene
mutation on chromosome 22

98
 Tuberous sclerosis
A genetic condition of autosomal dominant inheritance.
Like neurofibromatosis, the majority of features seen in TS are neuro-cutaneous
Cutaneous features:
1) depigmented 'ash-leaf' spots which fluoresce under UV light
2) Shagreen patches: roughened patches of skin over lumbar spine
3) adenoma sebaceum: butterfly distribution over nose
4) subungual fibromata: fibromata beneath nails
5) caf-au-lait spots may be seen
These of course are more commonly associated with neurofibromatosis.
However a 1998 study of 106 children with TS found caf-au-lait spots in 28% of
patients

Neurological features:
1) developmental delay
2) intellectual impairment
3) epilepsy (infantile spasms or partial)
4) retinal hamartomas: dense white areas on retina (phakomata)
5) gliomatous changes can occur in the brain lesions
6) rhabdomyomas of the heart
7) polycystic kidneys, renal angiomyolipomata

This patient has tuberous sclerosis.Fibromas may also develop within the central nervous
system, where they calcify typically in the periventricular area.
99
 Von Hippel-Lindau syndrome (VHL)
Autosomal dominant condition predisposing to neoplasia.
It is due to an abnormality in the VHL gene located on short arm of chromosome 3

Features: cerebellar & retinal haemangiomas plus Renal, extrarenal, suprarenal,

1) cerebellar haemangiomas
2) retinal haemangiomas: vitreous hemorrhage
3) Retinal haemangiomas are bilateral in 25% of patients
4) renal cysts (premalignant), renal cell carcinoma
5) extra-renal cysts: epididymal, pancreatic, hepatic
6) Suprarenal: phaeochromocytoma
7) endolymphatic sac tumors

CT scan showing a cerebellar haemangioma in a patient MRI showing renal cysts in patient with known Von Hippel-
with Von Hippel-Lindau syndrome. Lindau syndrome.

Fabry disease
an X linked lysosomal storage disease
caused by mutations in the alpha-galactosidase A gene, which
leads to accumulation of lysosomes in vascular endothelial cells and smooth muscle
cells affecting the brain, myocardium and the dorsal root ganglion
Patients can present with:
1)Small vessel stroke
2)Painful peripheral neuropathy
3)Renal disease
4)Skin stigmata,( multiple skin angiokeratomas) and
5)Myocardial infarction.
Diagnosis is clinical, although -galactosidase activity can be measured and there is a
genetic test available, which is helpful particularly in females who may have normal or
low normal levels of activity.

100
 Internuclear ophthalmoplegia
a cause of horizontal disconjugate eye movement
due to a lesion in the medial longitudinal fasciculus (MLF), which connects the IIIrd, IVth
and VIth cranial nuclei
Features:
1) impaired adduction of the eye on the same side as the lesion
2) horizontal nystagmus of the abducting eye on the contralateral side
Causes:
1) multiple sclerosis MS
2) vascular disease
Figure 22.6 PPRF and INO.
Impulses from PPRF pass via
ipsilateral VI th nerve nucleus to lateral
rectus muscle (ABduction) and via
medial longitudinal fasciculus to
opposite III rd nerve nucleus and thus
to opposite medial rectus muscle
(ADduction).
A lesion of the MLF (X) causes:
1) Failure of or slow ADduction in the
right eye and
2) nystagmus in the left eye with left
lateral gaze.

PPRF, para-median pontine reticular

formation
INO: internuclear ophthalmoplegia
MLF: medial longitudinal fasciculus.

Progressive supranuclear palsy

aka Steele-Richardson-Olszewski syndrome
a 'Parkinson Plus' syndrome
Features:
1) impairment of vertical gaze:
down gaze worse than up gaze
patients may complain of difficultly reading or descending stairs)
2) parkinsonism
3) falls
4) slurring of speech
5) cognitive impairment
Management: poor response to L-dopa
Parkinsonism, impairment of vertical gaze

101
 Nystagmus
Upbeat nystagmus up .
cerebellar vermis lesions

Downbeat nystagmus: indicates a craniomedullary junction pathology down

Arnold-Chiari malformation

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Pupillary light reflex

Figure 22.5
Pupillary light reflex.

Afferent pathway:
1) Light activates optic nerve axons.
2) Axons (some decussating at the
chiasm) pass through each lateral
geniculate body, and
3) Synapse at pretectal nuclei.

Efferent pathway:
4) Action potentials pass to Edinger
Westphal nuclei of III rd nerve, then,
5) Via parasympathetic neurones in III rd
nerves to cause (6) Miosis.

Bilateral

102
 Horner's syndrome
The sympathetic nervous supply to the eye is a 3 neurons pathway originating in
hypothalamus and descending by way of the brainstem and cervical cord to T1 nerve root,
paravertebral sympathetic chain and, on via the carotid artery wall, to the eye.
Damage to any part of the pathway results in Horners syndrome.
This is significant not only because it affects vision but also because it may indicate a
serious underlying pathology.
Causes Of Horner's syndrome:
Hypothalamic, hemisphere and brainstem lesions (central)
Massive cerebral infarction
Brainstem demyelination or lateral medullary infarction
Cervical cord (central)
Syringomyelia and cord tumours
T1 root (pre)
Apical lung tumour or TB
Cervical rib
Brachial plexus trauma
Sympathetic chain and carotid artery in neck (post)
Following thyroid/laryngeal/carotid surgery
Carotid artery dissection
Neoplastic infiltration
Cervical sympathectomy
Miscellaneous
Congenital
Cluster headache, usually transient
Idiopathic
Features:
1) ptosis
2) miosis (small pupil)
3) anhydrosis (loss of sweating one side)
4) enophthalmos
*in reality the appearance is due to a narrow palpebral aperture rather than true
enophthalmos
Distinguishing between causes:
1) heterochromia (difference in iris colour) is seen in congenital Horner's
2) anhydrosis: see below

Central lesions Pre-ganglionic lesions Post-ganglionic lesions

Anhydrosis of the face, arm and trunk Anhydrosis of the face No anhydrosis

Stroke Pancoast's tumour Carotid artery dissection

Syringomyelia Cervical rib Carotid aneurysm
Multiple sclerosis Thyroidectomy Cavernous sinus
Tumour Trauma thrombosis
Encephalitis Cluster headache

103
 Holmes-Adie pupil (Myotonic pupil)

1) It is a benign condition most commonly seen in young women

2) it is common and usually unilateral (80% of cases)
3) May occur after an episode of zoster infection.
4) This is a dilated, often irregular pupil;
5) once the pupil has constricted it remains small for an abnormally long time
6) Slowly reactive to accommodation but very poorly (if at all) to light.
7) This is due to denervation in the ciliary ganglion (parasympathetic), of unknown cause,
and has no other pathological significance.
8) At the beginning of the condition the pupil is large, but over time becomes small and
poorly reactive.
9) In adults it tends to be a benign condition and is simply observed, however infants are
usually referred because of an association with familial dystonias

Diagnosis:
1) Slit lamp examination may reveal small worm like contractions of the iris
2) pilocarpine eye drops:
The usual diagnostic test
Weak pilocarpine eye drops induce vigorous pupil contraction on the affected
side (cholinergic denervation supersensitivity), but only weak contraction of the
pupil on the unaffected side with this dilute dose of pilocarpine.
Holmes-Adie syndrome
association of Holmes-Adie pupil + absent ankle/knee reflexes

Argyll Robertson pupil

(Accommodate but not react; prostitute pupil)
One of the classic pupillary syndromes. (Now rarely seen in clinical practice)
It is sometimes seen in neurosyphilis and is often said to be the prostitute's pupil -
accommodates but doesn't react
Another mnemonic used for the Argyll-Robertson Pupil (ARP) is Accommodation
Reflex Present (ARP) but Pupillary Reflex Absent (PRA) ARP----- PRA
Features:
1) A small, irregular pupil
2) no response to light but there is a response to accommodate
Causes:
1) syphilis (Once Considered diagnostic of neurosyphilis)
2) diabetes mellitus (It is now only occasionally seen in diabetes or MS)
3) The lesion is in the brainstem surrounding the aqueduct of Sylvius.

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Mydriasis
Causes of mydriasis (large pupil):
1) congenital
2) third nerve III palsy
3) traumatic iridoplegia
4) Holmes-Adie pupil
5) phaeochromocytoma
Drug causes of mydriasis
1) topical mydriatics: tropicamide, atropine
2) sympathomimetic drugs: amphetamines, cocaine..
3) anticholinergic drugs: TCAs

Miosis
Causes of miosis (small pupil)
1) congenital
2) senile miosis
3) Horner's syndrome
4) Argyll-Robertson pupil
5) pontine hemorrhage
Drugs causes:
1) opiates (morphin)
2) organophosphate toxicity
3) parasympathomimetics: pilocarpine

Ptosis
Ptosis may be unilateral or bilateral
Causes of bilateral ptosis:
1) myotonic dystrophy
2) myasthenia gravis*
3) syphilis
4) congenital
Causes of unilateral ptosis: as above plus:
1) third nerve palsy
2) Horner's

105
Cranial Nerves

106
107
Optic nerve (Cranial Nerve II) and visual system
Visual field defects

108
 Visual fields that accompany damage to the visual
pathways
1) Optic nerve: unilateral amaurosis.
2) Lateral optic chiasm:
Grossly incongruous, incomplete (contralateral)
homonymous hemianopia.
3) Central optic chiasm: bitemporal hemianopia.
4) Optic tract:
Incongruous, incomplete homonymous
hemianopia.
5) Temporal (Meyers) loop of the optic radiation:
congruous partial or complete (contralateral)
homonymous superior quadrantanopia.
6) Parietal (superior) projection of the optic
radiation: congruous partial or complete
homonymous inferior quadrantanopia.
7) Complete parieto-occipital interruption of the
optic radiation:
Complete congruous homonymous hemianopia
with psychophysical shift of the foveal point,
often sparing central vision and resulting in
macular sparing.
8) Incomplete damage to the visual cortex:
Congruous homonymous scotomas, usually
encroaching at least acutely on central vision.

The main points for the exam are:

left homonymous hemianopia means visual field defect to the left, i.e. Lesion of right optic
tract
homonymous quadrantanopias: PITS (Parietal-Inferior, Temporal-Superior)
incongruous defects = optic tract lesion; incongruous defect is incomplete or asymmetric
congruous defects = optic radiation lesion or occipital cortex
A congruous defect simply means complete or symmetrical visual field loss and
conversely an.

Homonymous hemianopia:
incongruous defects: lesion of optic tract
congruous defects: lesion of optic radiation or occipital cortex
macula sparing: lesion of occipital cortex ???

109
Homonymous quadrantanopias*
superior: lesion of temporal lobe
inferior: lesion of parietal lobe
mnemonic = PITS (Parietal-Inferior, Temporal-Superior)
Bitemporal hemianopia:
lesion of optic chiasm
upper quadrant defect > lower quadrant defect = inferior chiasmal compression,
commonly a pituitary tumour
lower quadrant defect > upper quadrant defect = superior chiasmal compression,
commonly a craniopharyngioma

*this is very much the 'exam answer'. Actual studies suggest that the majority of quadrantanopias are caused by
occipital lobe lesions. Please see the following link for more details:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9109741

Amaurosis fugax
Unilateral transient loss of vision that develops over seconds
Remains for up to five minutes and resolves over 10-20 minutes.
The only feature that differentiates the middle cerebral artery syndrome from the
carotid artery syndrome is amaurosis fugax.

Leber's optic atrophy:

usually affects young men
It causes sequential optic neuropathies in days to weeks.
It is typically painless and severe. Visual acuity fails to improve.
Mutations in the MT-ND1, MT-ND4, MT-ND4L, and MT-ND6 genes cause Leber
hereditary optic atrophy. These genes are contained in mitochondrial DNA.
A significant percentage of people with a mutation that causes Leber hereditary optic
atrophy do not develop any features of the disorder.
Specifically, more than 50% of males with a mutation and more than 85% of females
with a mutation never experience vision loss or related medical problems.

Optic neuritis is usually painful, and visual acuity improves over a matter of weeks.

Giant cell arteritis affects elderly patients.

Alcohol/tobacco optic neuropathies are usually chronic.

110
Optic neuritis (ON) 2016/4/6
It clinically presents as acute or subacute ocular pain worse on movements and
visual loss.
The right answers and typical clinical features are described in the scenario.
It represents inflammation of the optic nerve and predominantly affects females
aged 15 to 45 years.
The most common form, idiopathic optic neuritis, is a primary demyelinating
disease occurring in isolation or as part of multiple sclerosis. Investigations
including MRI of the brain can help to predict the risk of conversion to MS and can
dictate early intervention with disease-modifying treatments (interferon-beta,
glatiramer acetate) that reduces the risk of conversion to MS.
Acute treatment for idiopathic ON includes intravenous corticosteroid treatment
followed by oral prednisolone or observation alone.

Other causes optic neuritis:

Lyme disease
Neurosyphilis
Sarcoidosis
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and other connective tissue diseases
History of exposure to toxins (lead, hyperuricaemia) and
Medications (tamoxifen, ethambutol, tetracycline, quinine, amiodarone and
disulfiram)
Deficiency of vitamin B12 and folate.

Posterior uveitis
may present as a painful loss of vision, but usually has gradual development,
associated with a history of recent systemic infection or autoimmune disease and
clinically manifests with a red eye and obscured view of retina,

Visual loss due to retinal detachment is sudden and has a pattern of floaters,
curtain or veil over vision. On examination there is relative afferent pupillary defect
and visual field defect by confrontation. The characteristic feature is that the visual
loss here is painless.

Central retinal artery occlusion

Characterised by sudden monocular loss of central and peripheral vision. Patients
may have had prior amaurosis fugax.
On examination there is relative afferent pupillary defect. The visual loss here is
usually painless and fundus examination may reveal Hollenhorst plaque in the
central retinal artery and "cherry red spot" in the macula.

111
Giant cell arteritis:
The most common cause of arteritic anterior ischaemic optic neuropathy (A-AION).
This condition usually affects older people, is associated with constitutional signs
of fatigue, anorexia and weight loss, headache, jaw claudication and markedly high
erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR).
On examination there is relative afferent pupillary defect and pale optic nerve
swelling in the affected eye with characteristically small optic nerve in the fellow
eye. There is usually no eye pain.

The differential diagnoses in a patient presenting with headaches and painful diplopia:
1) A posterior communicating aneurysm (PCA)
2) Ophthalmoplegic migraine
3) Pituitary adenoma
4) Cavernous sinus thrombosis, or
5) A medical mononeuritis.

112
 Third nerve (oculomotor) palsy
Features:
1) eye is deviated 'down and out'
2) ptosis
3) pupil may be dilated (sometimes called a 'surgical' third nerve palsy)
Causes:
1) diabetes mellitus
2) Vasculitis e.g.
Temporal arteritis,
SLE
3) false localizing sign* due to uncal herniation through tentorium if raised ICP
4) cavernous sinus thrombosis
5) posterior communicating artery aneurysm (pupil dilated)
6) Weber's syndrome (branches of the posterior cerebral artery that supply the midbrain):
Ipsilateral 3rd nerve palsy with
contralateral hemiplegia
caused by midbrain strokes
7) other possible causes:
amyloid,
multiple sclerosis
*this term is usually associated with sixth nerve palsies but it may be used for a variety of
neurological presentations
Painful third nerve palsy = posterior communicating artery aneurysm painful diplopia

The third (oculomotor) nerve nucleus complex lies in the midbrain.

Motor neurones project to the:
Ipsilateral medial rectus, Inferior rectus, Inferior oblique muscle, and
Contralateral superior rectus.

One central nucleus innervates levator palpebrae superioris bilaterally and, therefore,
a midbrain infarct that destroys the central nucleus will result in bilateral ptosis.

Damage to the oculomotor nerve during its course results in ipsilateral ptosis.
At rest, the globe is diverted downwards and laterally.

The effect on the pupil is variable, depending on the location of the lesion.
Compression of the nerve, for example by tumour, posterior communicating or
posterior cerebral artery aneurysms, results in an acute total (painful) third nerve palsy
with a dilated unreactive pupil.
Pupillary dilatation occurs early when the nerve is compressed since parasympathetic
nerve fibres that innervate the iris are carried on the outside of the nerve bundle.
Pupillary sparing is characteristic of third nerve lesions caused by infarction in
patients more than 50 years of age with diabetes or hypertension.

113
 Trigeminal (V nerve) neuralgia
Trigeminal neuralgia is a pain syndrome characterised by severe unilateral pain.
The vast majority of cases are idiopathic but compression of the trigeminal roots by
tumours or vascular problems may occur

The International Headache Society defines trigeminal neuralgia as:

a unilateral disorder characterised by brief electric shock-like pains, abrupt in onset and
termination, limited to one or more divisions of the trigeminal nerve
the pain is commonly evoked by light touch, including washing, shaving, smoking, talking,
and brushing the teeth (trigger factors), and frequently occurs spontaneously
small areas in the nasolabial fold or chin may be particularly susceptible to the
precipitation of pain (trigger areas)
the pains usually remit for variable periods

Management:
1) Carbamazepine is first-line.
2) Failure to respond to treatment or atypical features (e.g. < 50 years old) should prompt
referral to neurology.

114
 Facial (VII) Nerve
Supply - 'face, ear, taste, tear'
face: muscles of facial expression
ear: nerve to stapedius
taste: supplies anterior two-thirds of tongue
tear: parasympathetic fibres to lacrimal glands, also salivary glands
Causes of bilateral facial nerve palsy:
1) sarcoidosis
2) Guillain-Barre syndrome
3) polio,
4) Lyme disease
Causes of unilateral facial nerve palsy - as above plus
Lower motor neuron Upper motor neuron
1) Bell's palsy
2) Ramsay-Hunt syndrome (due to herpes zoster) stroke
3) acoustic neuroma
4) parotid tumors
5) HIV
6) multiple sclerosis (may also cause an UMN palsy)
7) diabetes mellitus
LMN vs. UMN:
upper motor neuron lesion spares upper face i.e. forehead
lower motor neuron lesion affects all facial muscles

Bell's palsy
Acute, unilateral, idiopathic, facial nerve paralysis.
The aetiology is unknown although the role of the herpes simplex virus has been
investigated previously.
The peak incidence is 20-40 years and the condition is more common in pregnant women.

Features:
1) lower motor neuron facial nerve palsy - forehead affected
2) patients may also notice post-auricular pain (may precede paralysis) , altered taste,
dry eyes, hyperacusis
Management:
1) in the past a variety of treatment options have been proposed including no treatment,
prednisolone only and a combination of acyclovir and prednisolone
2) Following a National Institute for Health randomized controlled trial it is now
recommended that prednisolone 1mg/kg for 10 days should be prescribed for patients
within 72 hours of onset of Bell's palsy.
3) eye care is important: prescription of artificial tears and eye lubricants should be
considered
4) Adding in acyclovir gives no additional benefit

Prognosis: if untreated around 15% of patients have permanent moderate to severe weakness
115
Glomus jugulare tumour:
lesion near the jugular foramen
presents with a combination of 9th, 10th, 11th and 12th nerve palsies

Foramen magnum syndrome:

Presents with complex findings usually with a combination of lower cranial nerve
dysfunction associated with long tract signs.
There may be an accompanying occipital headache and neck stiffness and, on
occasion, obstruction of the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) drainage can lead to
papilloedema.

Hypoglossal canal syndrome:

Causes isolated 12th nerve palsy.

116
 This is a case of skull base osteomyelitis and there are clinical clues to it - a
diabetic patient with otitis externa signs complicated by unilateral headache and
lower motor neurone (LMN) signs, cranial nerve involvement of jugular foramen
content and XIIth CN on the affected side with subsequent bulbar palsy
presentation and dysphagia.
This is a rare but potentially life threatening condition affecting people with
compromised immunity.
Typically, Pseudomonas aeruginosa is the causative pathogen. Less common
pathogens are Proteus mirabilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus
epidermidis
Usually osteomyelitis of the skull is preceded by a local infection, for example:
Sinusitis extending to the sphenoid sinuses and involving frontal bone may
have serious complications such as cavernous sinus thrombosis
Mastoid cell infection and occipital bone osteomyelitis
Necrotising otitis externa, complicated by petrous bone osteomyelitis with
cranial nerve involvement (most common site of skull base osteomyelitis).

The clinical scenario depends on the affected part of the skull base in its most
common form, that is, petrous bone involvement.
Patients suffer from chronic otitis externa with otalgia and otorrhoea, which, if
untreated, progress and cause unilateral headache, cranial nerve palsies, most
commonly IX, X, XI (jugular foramen content) and include also XII nerve form,
Villaret's syndrome.
The usual biochemical picture is raised erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) and
normal white cell count (WCC) and C reactive protein (CRP).
The typical imaging finding are signs of bone destruction especially clivus, shown
as hypointensity of bone marrow in the clivus and preclival soft tissue infiltration
on MRI T1 weighted images.
Diagnosis is confirmed by fine needle aspiration (FNA) of tissue and cultures.
Treatment is with antibiotics

117
 Types of peripheral nerve disease
Neuropathy simply means a pathological process affecting a peripheral nerve or nerves.
Mononeuropathy means a process affecting a single nerve.
Mononeuritis multiplex, several individual nerves are affected.
Polyneuropathy:
Describes diffuse, symmetrical disease, usually commencing peripherally.
The course may be acute, chronic, static, progressive, relapsing or towards recovery.
Polyneuropathies are motor, sensory, sensorimotor and autonomic.
They are classified broadly into demyelinating and axonal types, depending upon
which principal pathological process predominates.
It is often impossible to separate these clinically.
Many systemic diseases cause neuropathies.
Widespread loss of tendon reflexes is typical, with distal weakness and distal sensory
loss.
Radiculopathy:
Means disease affecting nerve roots and plexopathy, the brachial or lumbosacral
plexus.
Diagnosis is made by clinical pattern, nerve conduction/ EMG, nerve biopsy, usually
sural or radial, and identification of systemic or genetic disease.

Mononeuropathy

118
 Brachial Plexus

Erb's Palsy Pictures - Child Birth Injuries.The most common cause of a brachial plexus birth injury is shoulder
dystocia. This occurs when the infants shoulders cant pass by the mothers pelvic bone, as depicted below
119
Erb's palsy
Usually the result of traumatic avulsion of the C5 and C6 roots (commonly
occurring during delivery at birth) and causes loss of shoulder abduction and
elbow flexion with loss of biceps and brachioradialis reflexes.

Klumpke's palsy:
often the result of a fall that has been stopped by grasping a fixed object with one
hand, involves the C8 and T1 roots and causes weakness of small muscles of the
hand and of the long finger flexors and extensors, and a sensory disturbance
affecting the medial half of the ring finger and little finger.
A medial cord lesion also affects the C8 and T1 roots.

Neuralgic amyotrophy:
It usually proceeded by an upper respiratory tract infection.
Pain around the shoulder is the presenting symptom that is usually very severe.
As the pain starts resolving, weakness begins and usually affects the muscles
innervated by the upper brachial plexus (C5-6).
Treatment is conservative. It is usually a self-limiting condition (improvement over
weeks to months).
There have been several cases of elevated cerebrospinal fluid protein with neuralgic
amyotrophy.

Neuralgic amyotrophy or a brachial neuritis can be caused by a preceding infection (viral),

vaccination, or trauma. It can be total or segmental affecting only specific nerves of the
brachial plexus.
It may affect the long thoracic nerve (C5, C6, and C7), causing a total paralysis of the serratus
anterior which fixates the lateral scapula to the chest wall. Cause weakness in raising the
right arm above the head, with winging of the scapula when the outstretched arm was
pushed against resistance

Symptoms and signs of a C6 root lesion include

Paraesthesias in the thumb or lateral distal forearm

Weakness of brachioradialis, biceps, or triceps and
Diminished biceps and brachioradialis reflexes in conjunction with an increased
triceps reflex.

Patients do not always present with all of these features but the key finding here is the
inverted upper limb reflexes (brisk triceps and diminished biceps and brachioradialis).

120
 Median nerve
arises from lateral and medial cords of the brachial plexus (C6-8, T1)
Motor to (LOAF):
Lateral two lumbricals
Opponens pollicis
Abductor pollicis brevis
Flexor pollicis brevis
the above three form the thenar eminence muscles
Plus also supplies flexor muscles of the forearm
The remaining small muscles of the hand are supplied by the ulnar nerve.

Sensory to:
palmar aspect of lateral (radial) 3 & 1/2 fingers
Sensation to the thenar eminence is supplied via the palmar cutaneous branch of the
median nerve, which passes superficially to the flexor retinaculum and is therefore
unaffected by carpal tunnel syndrome.

Patterns of damage:
Damage at wrist
e.g. carpal tunnel syndrome
paralysis and wasting of thenar eminence muscles
sensory loss to palmar aspect of lateral (radial) 3 1/2 fingers
Damage at elbow, as above plus:
unable to pronate forearm
weak wrist flexion
ulnar deviation of wrist

Anterior interosseous nerve (branch of median nerve)

leaves just below the elbow
results in loss of pronation of forearm and weakness of long flexors of thumb and
index

121
 Ulnar nerve
arises from medial cord of brachial plexus (C8, T1)

Motor to
medial two lumbricals
interossei
adductor pollicis
hypothenar muscles: abductor digiti minimi, flexor digiti minimi
flexor carpi ulnaris

Sensory to
medial 1 & 1/2 fingers (palmar and dorsal aspects)

Patterns of damage
Damage at wrist
1) 'claw hand' - hyperextension of the metacarpophalangeal joints and flexion at the distal
and proximal interphalangeal joints of the 4th and 5th digits
2) wasting and paralysis of intrinsic hand muscles (except lateral two lumbricals)
3) wasting and paralysis of hypothenar muscles
4) sensory loss to the medial 1 1/2 fingers (palmar and dorsal aspects)
Damage at elbow
as above (however, ulnar paradox - clawing is more severe in distal lesions)
radial deviation of wrist

Radial nerve
arises from the posterior cord of the brachial plexus (C5-8)
Motor to
extensor muscles (forearm, wrist, fingers, thumb)

Sensory to
dorsal aspect of lateral 3 & 1/2 fingers
however, only small area between the dorsal aspect of the 1st and 2nd metacarpals is
unique to the radial nerve
Patterns of damage
In the spiral groove of humerus in midshaft fracture, and also as a result of acute
compression, commonly caused by "Saturday night palsy", when falls asleep with arm
over the side of a chair
1) wrist drop
2) sensory loss to small area between the dorsal aspect of the 1st and 2nd metacarpals
Axillary damage
as above +
paralysis of triceps

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Lumbosacral plexopathy:
Lesions affecting the entire plexus will affect all muscle groups causing weakness or
paralysis of the leg, areflexia and anaesthesia from the toes, to involve the perianal
area.
Upper lumbar plexus lesion will cause weakness of hip flexion and adduction of the
thigh and extension of the leg with anaesthesia over the anterior thigh and leg.
Lower plexus lesions will weaken the posterior thigh and foot muscles.

A femoral neuropathy (L2-4)

Hip weakness, weak knee extension and anaesthesia over the anterior thigh

A common peroneal palsy:

Cause weakness of dorsiflexion and eversion only and a sensory disturbance affecting
the outer lower leg and dorsum of the foot.
Reflexes would be preserved.

An L5 root lesion:
Cause weakness of dorsiflexion and inversion and a similar sensory disturbance to a
common peroneal neuropathy. Reflexes would be preserved.

The sciatic nerve (L4-S3)

Supplies both anterior and posterior compartment muscles and also the hamstrings.
The patient can develop weakness of the foot, knee flexion and hip extension.
Although sciatic nerve palsy is a rarity, it can occur following traumatic fracture of the
hip, or as a result of an ill-placed intramuscular injection.
Other causes include neurofibromas or nerve necrosis secondary to diabetes or
infection.

123
 Common peroneal nerve lesion
The sciatic nerve divides into the tibial and common peroneal nerves.
Injury often occurs at the neck of the fibula
The most characteristic feature of a common peroneal nerve lesion is foot drop
The commonest cause of acute foot drop after prolonged bed rest is entrapment common
peroneal neuropathy at the neck of fibula.

Other features include:

1) weakness of foot dorsiflexion
2) weakness of foot eversion
3) weakness of extensor hallucis longus
4) wasting of the anterior tibial and peroneal muscles
5) sensory loss over the dorsum of the foot and the lower lateral part of the leg

Meralgia paraesthetica
caused by compression of lateral cutaneous nerve of thigh
typically burning sensation over antero-lateral aspect of thigh

Reflexes
The common reflexes are listed below:

Reflex Root

Ankle S1-S2..1..2

Knee L3-L4..3.4

Biceps C5-C6.5.6

Triceps C7-C8..7.8

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 Dermatomes
The table below lists the major dermatome landmarks:
Nerve Landmark
root

C2 Posterior half of the skull (cap)

C3 High turtleneck shirt

C4 Low-collar shirt

C5, Thumb + index finger

C6 Make a 6 with your left hand by
touching the tip of the thumb & index
finger together - C6

C7 Middle finger + palm of hand

C8 Ring + little finger

T4 Nipples
T4 at the Teat Pore

T5 Inframammary fold

T7 Xiphoid process

T10 Umbilicus
BellybuT-TEN

L1 Inguinal ligament
L for ligament, 1 for 1nguinal

L4 Knee caps
Down on aLL fours - L4

L5 Big toe, dorsum of foot

(except lateral aspect)
L5 = Largest of the 5 toes

S1 Lateral foot, small toe

S1 = the smallest one

S2, S3 Genitalia

125
Nerve Landmark
root

C2 Posterior half of the skull (cap)

C3 High turtleneck shirt

C4 Low-collar shirt

C5, Thumb + index finger

C6 Make a 6 with your left hand by
touching the tip of the thumb & index
finger together - C6

C7 Middle finger + palm of hand

C8 Ring + little finger

T4 Nipples
T4 at the Teat Pore

T5 Inframammary fold

T7 Xiphoid process

T10 Umbilicus
BellybuT-TEN

L1 Inguinal ligament
L for ligament, 1 for 1nguinal

L4 Knee caps
Down on aLL fours - L4

L5 Big toe, dorsum of foot (except lateral

aspect)
L5 = Largest of the 5 toes

S1 Lateral foot, small toe

S1 = the smallest one

S2, S3 Genitalia

126
127
 Peripheral neuropathy
Motor or sensory loss
Peripheral neuropathy may be divided into conditions which predominately cause a motor or sensory
loss
Predominately motor loss:
1) Guillain-Barre syndrome
2) chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy (CIDP)
3) diphtheria
4) porphyria
5) lead poisoning
6) hereditary sensorimotor neuropathies (HSMN) - Charcot-Marie-Tooth
Predominately sensory loss
1) diabetes
2) uremia
3) leprosy
4) amyloidosis
5) alcoholism
6) vitamin B12 deficiency

Peripheral neuropathy
Demyelinating vs. Axonal
Demyelinating pathology:
1) Guillain-Barre syndrome
2) chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy (CIDP)
3) hereditary sensorimotor neuropathies (HSMN) type I
4) paraprotein neuropathy (MGUS, myloma)
5) amiodarone
Axonal pathology:
1)alcohol
2)diabetes mellitus*
3)vitamin B12 deficiency*
4)vasculitis
5)hereditary sensorimotor neuropathies (HSMN) type II
* may also cause a demyelinating picture

Nerve conduction studies:

Nerve conduction studies (NCS) are useful in determining between axonal and demyelinating
pathology
Axonal:
normal conduction velocity
reduced amplitude
Demyelinating:
reduced conduction velocity
normal amplitude
128
 Guillain-Barr syndrome (GBS)
Post-infectious polyradiculopathy
An immune mediated demyelination of the peripheral nervous system.
often triggered by an infection (classically Campylobacter jejuni)

Pathogenesis:
cross reaction of antibodies with gangliosides in the peripheral nervous system
correlation between anti-ganglioside antibody (e.g. anti-GM1) and clinical features has
been demonstrated
anti-GM1 antibodies in 25% of patients, (anti-GD3 also may be found)

Features:
1) The characteristic feature of GBS is progressive weakness of all four limbs.
The weakness is classically ascending i.e. the lower extremities are affected first;
However it tends to affect proximal muscles earlier than the distal ones.
2) Sensory symptoms tend to be mild (e.g. distal paraesthesia) with very few sensory signs.
(Sensory exam. Almost normal )
3) Some patients experience back pain in the initial stages of the illness
4) areflexia
5) cranial nerve involvement e.g. diplopia
6) autonomic involvement: e.g. urinary retention
7) Papilloedema: thought to be secondary to reduced CSF resorption (less common)

Investigations:
1) CSF:
High CSF protein with normal cell count are typical features (cytological
dissociation)
CSF proteins may be normal at the onset of symptoms in Guillain-Barr syndrome and
increase later on.
2) Performing FVC as a monitor of lung function
3) Nerve conduction studies (including F waves for the proximal spinal root, looking for
widespread demyelination)

Management:
1) plasma exchange
2) IV immunoglobulins (IVIG): as effective as plasma exchange.
No benefit in combining both treatments.
IVIG may be easier to administer and tends to have fewer side-effects
steroids and immunosuppressants have not been shown to be beneficial
FVC q4hrs regularly to monitor respiratory function

Prognosis:
20% suffer permanent disability,
5% die

129
Poor prognostic features:
age > 40 years
previous history of a diarrhoeal illness (specifically Campylobacter jejuni)
poor upper extremity muscle strength
high anti-GM1 antibody titre
need for ventilatory support
There is currently contradictory evidence as to whether a gradual or rapid onset of
GBS is associated with a poor outcome

Miller Fisher syndrome

variant of Guillain-Barre syndrome
Associated with:
ophthalmoplegia,
ataxia
areflexia
The eye muscles are typically affected first
usually presents as a descending paralysis rather than ascending as seen in other forms
of Guillain-Barre syndrome
Anti-GQ1b antibodies are present in 90% of cases

Chronic inflammatory demyelinating

polyneuropathy
(CIDP)
A subacute sensory and motor peripheral neuropathy
progressive weakness and impaired sensory function in the upper and lower limbs
The cause of the demyelination is not understood, but it is more common in young
adults and in men.
It presents with abnormal sensation (which typically begins distally), weakness of
the limbs, areflexia and fatigue.
Treatment for CIDP includes corticosteroids, plasmapheresis and intravenous
immunoglobulin.
Physiotherapy is an effective adjunct.
The course varies widely, and patients may be left with residual neurology or suffer
a number of relapses.
CIDP is closely linked to GBS, and is thought by some to be its chronic
counterpart.

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Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis (ADEM):
An acute demyelinating disorder.
It is thought to be an autoimmune response to myelin basic protein as a result of a
viral illness or vaccination.
This patient presents with a short history of flu-like illness, with subsequent
development of focal neurology, fever and encephalopathy.
Treatment is usually with intravenous steroids, however in some cases where
steroids have failed, intravenous immunoglobulin or plasmaphoresis have been
used with good effect.

131
Metabolic, Toxic and Vitamin Deficiency Neuropathy:
Metabolic
Diabetes mellitus
Uraemia
Hepatic disease
Thyroid disease
Porphyria
Amyloid disease
Malignancy
Refsums disease
Critical illness

Toxic
Drugs (Table 22.26)
Alcohol
Industrial toxins, e.g. lead, organophosphates

Vitamin deficiency
B1 (thiamin)
B6 (pyridoxine)
Nicotinic acid
B12
Drug-related neuropathies
Hereditary sensorimotor neuropathies, e.g. CharcotMarieTooth
Other polyneuropathies:
Neuropathy in cancer
Neuropathies in systemic diseases
Autonomic neuropathy
HIV-associated neuropathy
Critical illness neuropathy

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 Toxic neuropathies
Alcoholic neuropathy
secondary to both direct toxic effects and reduced absorption of B vitamins
sensory symptoms typically present prior to motor symptoms
affects mainly spinothalamic pathway

Neurologic effects of alcohol

Acute Alcohol intoxication:
Disturbance of balance, gait and speech
Coma
Head injury and sequelae

Alcohol withdrawal:
Morning shakes
Tremor
Delirium tremens

Thiamin deficiency:
Polyneuropathy
WernickeKorsakoff

Epilepsy
Acute intoxication
Alcohol withdrawal
Hypoglycaemia
Cerebellar degeneration
Cerebral infarction
Cerebral atrophy, dementia
Central pontine myelinolysis
MarchiafavaBignami syndrome (corpus callosum
degeneration, rare

Drugs causing peripheral neuropathy

nitrofurantoin, metronidazole
isoniazid
amiodarone
vincristine
TCAs
Phenytoin

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 Vitamin deficiencies
Vitamin deficiencies cause nervous system damage that is potentially reversible if treated
early, and progressive if not.
Deficiencies, often of multiple vitamins, develop in malnutrition.

Thiamin (vitamin B1)

Dietary deficiency causes beriberi
Its principal features are polyneuropathy and cardiac failure.
Thiamine deficiency also leads to Wernickes encephalopathy and Korsakoff psychosis.
Alcohol is the commonest cause in western countries and, rarely, anorexia nervosa or
vomiting of pregnancy

Wernicke's encephalopathy
A neuropsychiatric disorder caused by thiamine deficiency which is most commonly seen
in alcoholics.
Rarer causes include: persistent vomiting, cancer stomach, dietary deficiency.
A classic triad of acute mental confusion, ophthalmoplegia and ataxia may occur.
In Wernicke's encephalopathy petechial haemorrhages occur in a variety of structures in
the brain including the mamillary bodies and ventricle walls

Features:
1) nystagmus (the most common ocular sign)
2) ophthalmoplegia Oculomotor dysfunction
3) ataxia
4) confusion, altered GCS
5) peripheral sensory neuropathy

Investigations:
decreased red cell transketolase
MRI petechial haemorrhages occur in a variety of structures in the brain including the
mamillary bodies and ventricle walls

Treatment:
urgent replacement of thiamine

NB intravenous glucose prior to giving thiamine can significantly worsen Wernicke's

encephalopathy.

134
WernickeKorsakoff syndrome: (from Kumar)
This thiamin-responsive
Encephalopathy is due to damage in the brainstem and its connections.
It consists of:
Eye signs:
nystagmus,
bilateral lateral rectus palsies,
conjugate gaze palsies
Ataxia:
broad-based gait,
cerebellar signs and
vestibular paralysis
Cognitive change:
acutely stupor and coma,
Later a Korsakoff's amnestic syndrome with confabulation.
WernickeKorsakoff syndrome is underdiagnosed.
Thiamine should be given parenterally if the diagnosis is a possibility.
Untreated WernickeKorsakoff syndrome commonly leads to an irreversible amnestic
state.
Erythrocyte transketolase activity is reduced but the test is rarely available.

Vitamin B2 or riboflavin deficiency can cause angular cheilitis, glossitis and seborrhoeic
dermatitis.
Vitamin B3 or niacin deficiency can cause dermatitis, dementia and diarrhoea (pellagra).
Vitamin B9 or folic acid deficiency causes a macrocytic anaemia.
Vitamin B12 deficiency causes a macrocytic anaemia, peripheral neuropathy and cognitive
impairment.

Pyridoxine (vitamin B6)

Deficiency causes a mainly sensory neuropathy.
In practical terms this is seen as limb numbness developing during anti-TB therapy in
slow isoniazid acetylators
Prophylactic pyridoxine 10 mg daily is given with isoniazid.

Isoniazid toxicity intractable seizures and profound metabolic acidosis with high anion gap
Intravenous pyridoxine (vitamin B6) is the treatment of choice here.

Vitamin B12 deficiency:

B12 (cobalamin) Deficiency causes damage to the spinal cord, peripheral nerves and
brain.
subacute combined degeneration of spinal cord
dorsal column usually affected first (joint position, vibration) prior to distal paraesthesia
sensory ataxia and pseudoathetosis of upper limbs
135
 Subacute combined degeneration of cord
Combined cord and peripheral nerve damage Due to vitamin B12 deficiency.
Causes:
1) Pernicious anaemia is the commonest cause and is usually associated with other
autoimmune diseases (for example, hypothyroidism and diabetes).
2) Prolonged metformin treatment has also been associated with B12 deficiency (in up to
10% of patients in a large four year clinical trial)
therefore B12 levels should be screened every few years in patients taking long
term metformin
Features:
The combination of absent reflexes and extensor plantar response is typical and is due
to co-existing peripheral neuropathy.
Dorsal column involvement with relative sparing of spinothalamic pathways is also
typical.

Initially:
1) there is numbness and tingling of fingers and toes,
2) distal sensory loss, particularly posterior column,
3) absent ankle jerks and,
4) with cord involvement, exaggerated knee jerks and extensor plantars
Optic atrophy and retinal hemorrhage may occur.

In later stages:
1) Sphincter disturbance,
2) Severe generalized weakness and dementia develop.

Macrocytosis with megaloblastic marrow is usual though not invariable in SACD.

Treatment:
Parenteral B12 reverses nerve damage but has little effect on the cord and brain.
Without treatment: SACD is fatal within 5 years.

Copper deficiency is a very rare cause of a similar picture

136
 Autonomic neuropathy
Features:
impotence, inability to sweat
postural hypotension e.g. drop of 30/15 mmHg
loss of decrease in heart rate following deep breathing
pupils: dilates following adrenaline instillation

Causes:
1) diabetes,CKD
2) Guillain-Barre syndrome
3) multisystem atrophy (MSA), Shy-Drager syndrome
4) Parkinson's
5) infections: HIV, Chagas' disease, neurosyphilis
6) drugs: antihypertensives, tricyclics
7) craniopharyngioma

Gastroparesis:
Symptoms include:
1) erratic blood glucose control,
2) bloating and
3) vomiting

Management options include: (prokinetic agents)

1) metoclopramide,
2) domperidone or
3) erythromycin

Diabetic neuropathy:
Diabetic peripheral neuropathy usually goes in parallel with retinopathy and nephropathy.
affects mainly the spinothalamic pathway
NICE updated it's guidance on the management of neuropathic pain in 2013.
Diabetic neuropathy is now managed in the same way as other forms of neuropathic pain:

1) first-line treatment: amitriptyline, duloxetine, gabapentin or pregabalin

2) if the first-line drug treatment does not work try one of the other 3 drugs
3) tramadol may be used as 'rescue therapy' for exacerbations of neuropathic pain
4) topical capsaicin may be used for localised neuropathic pain (e.g.postherpetic
neuralgia)
5) pain clinics may be useful in patients with resistant problems

137
Neuropathic pain:
Neuropathic pain may be defined as pain which arises following damage or disruption of
the nervous system.
It is often difficult to treat and responds poorly to standard analgesia.

Examples include:
1) diabetic neuropathy
2) post-herpetic neuralgia
3) trigeminal neuralgia
4) prolapsed intervertebral disc

NICE updated their guidance on the management of neuropathic pain in 2013:

1) first-line treatment: amitriptyline, duloxetine, gabapentin or pregabalin
2) if the first-line drug treatment does not work try one of the other 3 drugs
3) tramadol may be used as 'rescue therapy' for exacerbations of neuropathic pain
4) topical capsaicin may be used for localised neuropathic pain (e.g.postherpetic
neuralgia)
5) pain clinics may be useful in patients with resistant problems

Please note that for some specific conditions the guidance may vary. For example
carbamazepine is used first-line for trigeminal neuralgia

Autonomic dysreflexia: (bradycardia &HTN IN Quadriplegic pt)

A poorly understood condition associated with abnormal control of the autonomic
nervous system in quadriplegic patients.
It affects approximately 85% of patients with a lesion above C6
may be triggered by cystitis, retention of urine or a blocked catheter or constipation
The increased sympathetic activity results in vasoconstriction and hypertension
with stimulation of the carotid and aortic baroreceptors.
These in turn respond via the vasomotor centre with increased vagal tone resulting
in a bradycardia but reduced sympathetic tone with vasodilatation not possible due
to the cord damage.
Treatment relies upon recognition and removal of the noxious stimulus.
Vasodilators such as calcium antagonists may be used to treat the hypertension.

138
 Genetic neuropathies
Hereditary sensorimotor neuropathy (HSMN)
Hereditary sensorimotor neuropathy (HSMN) is a relatively new term which encompasses
Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease
also known as peroneal muscular atrophy
Over 7 types have been characterised - however only 2 are common to clinical practice

HSMN type I: primarily due to demyelinating pathology

HSMN type II: primarily due to axonal pathology

HSMN type I:
autosomal dominant
due to defect in PMP-22 gene (which codes for myelin)
features often start at puberty
motor symptoms predominate
distal muscle wasting, pes cavus , clawed toes
foot drop, leg weakness often first features

HSMN type I: -distal muscle wasting, pes cavus, clawed toes

-foot drop, leg weakness often first features

139
 Absent ankle jerks, extensor plantars
Typically caused by lesion producing both upper motor neuron (extensor plantars) and lower
motor neuron (absent ankle jerk) signs

Causes:
1) subacute combined degeneration of the cord
2) motor neuron disease
3) Friedreich's ataxia
4) syringomyelia
5) taboparesis (syphilis)
6) conus medullaris lesion (Cauda equina syndrome )

Cataplexy
Sudden and transient loss of muscular tone caused by strong emotion (e.g. laughter,
being frightened, crying).
Around two-thirds (70%) of patients with narcolepsy have cataplexy.
Attacks typically last from a few seconds to a minute with sudden loss of muscle tone.
Partial episodes may cause patients to drop objects, sit down or stop walking
suddenly or lose sphincter tone.
Severe episodes may be associated with complete paralysis apart from respiratory
muscles. Longer episodes can be associated with hallucinations. Attacks are usually
precipitated by excitement or outbursts of emotion.
The sensation of being unable to move on going to sleep or on waking is common.
Features range from buckling knees to collapse.
Clomipramine, fluoxetine and sertraline are used in the management of cataplexy.

Narcolepsy (hypnolepsy)
A chronic neurological disorder involving the loss of the brain's ability to regulate sleep-
wake cycles normally.
People with narcolepsy experience frequent excessive daytime sleepiness, comparable to
how people who don't have narcolepsy feel after 24 to 48 hours of sleep deprivation, as
well as disturbed nocturnal sleep which often is confused with insomnia.
Those with narcolepsy generally experience the REM stage of sleep within 5 minutes of
falling asleep, while people who don't have narcolepsy do not experience REM until after a
period of slow-wave sleep, which lasts for about the first hour or so of a sleep cycle

In 1999 modafinil was approved for the treatment of excessive daytime sleepiness.
There is no cure for narcolepsy.
Amphetamine based compounds such as dexamphetamine have been used to control
excessive sleepiness but are used less commonly due to risks of addiction.

140
MUSCLE DISEASES
Definitions
Myopathy means a disease of voluntary muscle.
Myositis indicates inflammation.
Muscular dystrophies are inherited disorders of muscle cells.
Myasthenia means fatiguable (worse on exercise) weakness, seen in neuromuscular
junction diseases.
Myotonia is sustained contraction/slow relaxation.
Channelopathies are ion channel disorders of muscle cells.

Classification
Acquired
Inflammatory
Polymyositis
Dermatomyositis
Inclusion body myositis
Viral, bacterial and parasitic infection
Sarcoidosis

Endocrine and toxic

Corticosteroids/Cushings
Thyroid disease
Calcium disorders
Alcohol
Drugs, e.g. statins

Myasthenic
Myasthenia gravis
LambertEaton myasthenic-myopathic syndrome (LEMS)

Genetic dystrophies
Duchenne
Facioscapulohumeral
Limb girdle, and others

Myotonic
Myotonic dystrophy
Myotonia congenita

Channelopathies
Hypokalaemic periodic paralysis
Hyperkalaemic periodic paralysis

Metabolic
Myophosphorylase deficiency (McArdles syndrome)
Other defects of glycogen and fatty acid metabolism

Mitochondrial disease
141
Neuromuscular junction disorders

142
 Myasthenia gravis
An autoimmune disorder resulting in insufficient functioning acetylcholine receptors.
Antibodies to acetylcholine receptors are seen in 85-90% of cases
(Antibodies are less commonly seen in disease limited to the ocular muscles).
Myasthenia is more common in women (2:1)

Features:
The key feature is muscle fatigability
Muscles become progressively weaker during periods of activity and slowly improve after
periods of rest:
1) extraocular muscle weakness: diplopia
2) ptosis
3) dysphagia
4) proximal muscle weakness: face, neck, limb girdle
5) never sensory symptoms or signs
Associations:
1) thymomas in 15%
2) thymic hyperplasia in 50-70%
3) autoimmune disorders: pernicious anaemia, autoimmune thyroid disorder,
rheumatoid, SLE

Investigations:
1) Single fibre electromyography: high sensitivity (92-100%)
2) Autoantibodies:
Around 85-90% of patients have antibodies to acetylcholine receptors.
In the remaining patients, about 40% are positive for anti-muscle-specific tyrosine
kinase AB
3) CK normal
4) CT thorax to exclude thymoma
5) Tensilon test: IV edrophonium reduces muscle weakness temporarily
Not commonly used anymore due to the risk of cardiac arrhythmia

Management:
1) long-acting anticholinesterase e.g. pyridostigmine
2) immunosuppression: prednisolone initially
3) thymectomy

Management of myasthenic crisis:

1) plasmapheresis
2) intravenous immunoglobulins

143
Myasthenia gravis exacerbating factors:
The most common exacerbating factor is exertion resulting in fatigability, which is the
hallmark feature of myasthenia gravis.
Symptoms become more marked during the day
The following drugs may exacerbate myasthenia:
1) penicillamine
2) quinidine, procainamide
3) phenytoin
4) beta-blockers
5) lithium
6) gentamicin, macrolides, tetracyclines quinolones,

Lambert-Eaton syndrome
Caused by an antibody directed against pre-synaptic voltage gated calcium channel in the
peripheral nervous system
Seen in association with small cell lung cancer, and to a lesser extent breast and ovarian
cancer.
It may also occur independently as an autoimmune disorder.

Features: proximal weakness + hyporeflexia + autonomic dysfunction in a smoker

1) limb girdle weakness:
affects lower limbs first
repeated muscle contractions lead to increased muscle strength*
(In contrast to myasthenia gravis)
2) Hyporeflexia
3) Autonomic symptoms:
Dry mouth,
impotence,
difficultly micturating
4) Ophthalmoplegia and ptosis not commonly a feature (unlike in myasthenia gravis)

EMG: incremental response to repetitive electrical stimulation

Management:
treatment of underlying cancer
1) immunosuppression, for example with prednisolone and/or azathioprine
2) 3,4-diaminopyridine is currently being trialled**
3) IVIG therapy and plasma exchange may be beneficial
*in reality this is seen in only 50% of patients and following prolonged muscle use muscle
strength will eventually decrease
**works by blocking potassium channel efflux in the nerve terminal so that the action
potential duration is increased. Calcium channels can then be open for a longer time and
allow greater acetylcholine release to the stimulate muscle at the end plate

144
 Myotonic dystrophy
Also called dystrophia myotonica.
Myotonia is sustained contraction/slow relaxation
Inherited myopathy
Features develop at around 20-30 years old.
It affects skeletal, cardiac and smooth muscle.
There are two main types of myotonic dystrophy, DM1 and DM2.
Genetics:
autosomal dominant
a trinucleotide repeat disorder (Fridrich s ataxia )
DM1 is caused by a CTG repeat at the end of the DMPK (Dystrophia Myotonica-Protein
Kinase) gene on chromosome 19
DM2 is caused by a repeat expansion of the ZNF9 gene on chromosome 3

DM1 DM2

DMPK gene on chromosome 19 ZNF9 gene on chromosome 3

Distal weakness more prominent Proximal weakness more prominent
Severe congenital form not seen

General features:
1) myotonic facies (long, 'haggard' appearance) 'haggard':
2) frontal balding
3) bilateral ptosis, cataracts
4) dysarthria, dysphagia
Other features:
1) myotonia (tonic spasm of muscle)
2) weakness of arms and legs (distal initially)
3) mild mental impairment
4) diabetes mellitus
5) testicular atrophy
6) cardiac involvement: heart block, cardiomyopathy
Diagnosis can be made on electromyogram (EMG) and muscle biopsy.


.......

145
Focal dystonia
The patient describes a history suggestive of writers cramp, a focal dystonia
characterised by flexion, extension or rotation of the muscles of the hand.
The underlying pathophysiology is unclear but is thought to relate to a change in plasticity
of cortical networks.
Focal dystonias are distinguished from segmental or generalised dystonias, which involve
a greater number of muscle groups.
Focal dystonias are often relieved by a geste antagoniste, in which palpation of another
unaffected part of the body leads to relief of symptoms, thought to be a result of
alternative sensory input to cortical networks with altered plasticity. (Sensory trick)

Mitochondrial diseases
Whilst most DNA is found in the cell nucleus, a small amount of double-stranded DNA is
present in the mitochondria.
It encodes protein components of the respiratory chain and some special types of RNA

Mitochondrial inheritance has the following characteristics:

1) inheritance is only via the maternal line as the sperm contributes no cytoplasm to the
zygote
2) all children of affected males will not inherit the disease
3) all children of affected females will inherit it
4) generally encode rare neurological diseases
5) poor genotype: phenotype correlation
Within a tissue or cell there can be different mitochondrial populations, this is known as
heteroplasmy

Histology:
muscle biopsy classically shows 'red, ragged fibres' due to increased number of
mitochondria

Examples include:
1) Leber's optic atrophy
2) MELAS syndrome: mitochondrial encephalomyopathy lactic acidosis and stroke-like
episodes
3) MERRF syndrome: myoclonus epilepsy with ragged-red fibres
4) Kearns-Sayre syndrome:
onset in patients < 20 years old,
external ophthalmoplegia, Ptosis
retinitis pigmentosa
Heart block
5) sensorineural hearing loss

146
 DVLA
Neurological disorders:
The guidelines below relate to car/motorcycle use unless specifically stated. For obvious
reasons, the rules relating to drivers of heavy goods vehicles tend to be much stricter
Specific rules
stroke or TIA: 1 month off driving
multiple TIAs over short period of times: 3 months off driving

First seizure: 6 months off driving*.

patients with established epilepsy they must be fit free 12 months before being able to
drive

pituitary tumour: craniotomy: 6 months; trans-sphenoidal surgery 'can drive when

there is no debarring residual impairment likely to affect safe driving'
craniotomy e.g. For meningioma: 1 year off driving**

narcolepsy/cataplexy: cease driving on diagnosis, can restart once 'satisfactory control

of symptoms'
chronic neurological disorders e.g. multiple sclerosis, motor neuron disease: DVLA
should be informed, complete PK1 form (application for driving licence holders state of
health)

Syncope
simple faint: no restriction
single episode, explained and treated: 4 weeks off
single episode, unexplained: 6 months off
two or more episodes: 12 months off

*previously rule was 12 months. It is now 6 months off driving if the licence holder has
undergone assessment by an appropriate specialist and no relevant abnormality has been
identified on investigation, for example EEG and brain scan where indicated

**if the tumour is a benign meningioma and there is no seizure history, licence can be
reconsidered 6 months after surgery if remains seizure free

147
Paraneoplastic syndromes affecting nervous system:
Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome:
associated with SCLC (also breast and ovarian)
antibody directed against pre-synaptic voltage gated calcium channel in the peripheral
nervous system
can also occur independently as autoimmune disorder

Anti-Hu:
associated with SCLC and neuroblastomas
sensory neuropathy - may be painful
cerebellar syndrome
encephalomyelitis

Anti-Yo:
associated with ovarian and breast cancer
cerebellar syndrome

Anti-GAD antibody:
associated with breast, colorectal and SCLC
stiff person's syndrome or diffuse hypertonia

Anti-Ri:
associated with breast and SCLC
ocular opsoclonus-myoclonus

148
 Restless legs syndrome (RLS)
A syndrome of spontaneous, continuous lower limb movements that may be associated
with paraesthesia.
It is extremely common, affecting between 2-10% of the general population.
Males and females are equally affected and a family history may be present

Clinical features:
1) Uncontrollable urge to move legs (akathisia).
2) Symptoms initially occur at night but as condition progresses may occur during the day.
3) Symptoms are worse at rest
4) paraesthesias e.g. 'crawling' or 'throbbing' sensations
5) movements during sleep may be noted by the partner - periodic limb movements of sleeps
(PLMS)

Causes and associations:

1) there is a positive family history in 50% of patients with idiopathic RLS
2) iron deficiency anaemia, Mg or folate deficiency
3) uraemia
4) diabetes mellitus
5) pregnancy
6) COPD
7) Parkinsons
The diagnosis is clinical although bloods to exclude iron deficiency anaemia may be
appropriate
Management:
1) simple measures: walking, stretching, massaging affected limbs
2) treat any iron deficiency
3) dopamine agonists are first-line treatment (e.g. Pramipexole, ropinirole)
4) benzodiazepines
5) gabapentin
Spastic paraparesis
Spastic paraparesis describes an upper motor neuron pattern of weakness in the lower limbs

Causes
1) demyelination e.g. multiple sclerosis
2) parasagittal meningioma
3) cord compression: trauma, tumour
4) osteoarthritis of the cervical spine
5) transverse myelitis e.g. HIV
6) syringomyelia
7) tropical spastic paraparesis (infection of the spinal cord by Human T-lymphotropic virus
HTLV)
8) hereditary spastic paraplegia

149
 Brain tumours
The majority adult tumours are supratentorial, whereas the majority of childhood tumours are
infratentorial
Type of tumour Features

Glioblastoma The most common primary brain tumour in adults.

multiforme Histology: Pleomorphic tumour cells border necrotic areas

Meningioma The second most common primary brain tumour in adults

Histology: Spindle cells in concentric whorls and calcified
psammoma bodies

Schwannoma Often seen in the cerebellopontine angle: acoustic neuroma

Bilateral schwannoms are seen in neurofibromatosis II
Histology: Antoni A or B patterns are seen. Verocay bodies
(acellular areas surrounded by nuclear palisades)

Pilocytic astrocytoma The most common primary brain tumour in children

Histology: Rosenthal fibres (corkscrew eosinophilic bundle)

Medulloblastoma More common in children

Found exclusively in the posterior fossa
Metatases through the CSF
Histology: Small, blue cells. Rosette pattern of cells with many
mitotic figures

Ependymoma Commonly seen in the 4th ventricle

May cause hydrocephalus
Histology: perivascular pseudorosettes

Oligodendroma Benign, slow-growing tumour common in the frontal lobes

Histology: Calcifications with 'fried-egg' appearance

Haemangioblastoma Vascular tumour of the cerebellum

Associated with von Hippel-Lindau syndrome
Histology: foam cells and high vascularity

Pituitary adenoma Most common type is a prolactinoma

May present with bitemporal hemianopia

Craniopharyngioma Most common paediatric supratentorial tumour

Histology: Derived from remnants of Rathke pouch

Metastases Most common type of brain tumour

150
Meningioma - MRI showing the typical well-circumscribed appearance. A dural tail can be
where the tumour 'connects' to the dura. It is seen in around 65% of meningiomas.

Glioblastoma multiforme - CT showing a peripherally enhancing lesion within the left frontal
lobe Note the contrast to the more homogenous meningioma above.

151
Paraneoplastic neurological syndromes are uncommon but important because they
frequently present before the malignancy, and because they cause severe
neurological disability.
Examples of these are:
Limbic encephalitis
Cerebellar degeneration
Opsoclonus-myoclonus
Sensory neuronopathy
Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome
Myasthenia gravis
Dermatomyositis, and
Polymyositis

Limbic encephalitis
Acute to subacute onset of short term memory deficits, with relative preservation
of other cognitive functions, is characteristic of limbic encephalitis
The memory deficits may be noticed after several weeks of depression, personality
change, or irritability.
Seizures can occur and are most often partial complex seizures.
Olfactory and gustatory hallucinations are common.
Some patients also develop signs of diencephalic-hypothalamic dysfunction,
including drowsiness, hyperthermia, hyperphagia, and, less frequently, pituitary
hormonal deficits
In 60% of cases, limbic encephalitis is a paraneoplastic disorder and indicates the
presence of an underlying cancer; the most common underlying malignancy is
small cell lung carcinoma (SCLC), followed by testicular cancer, thymoma, and
Hodgkin's lymphoma
In contrast to patients with other paraneoplastic neurologic syndromes, in whom
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is of limited usefulness in helping to establish
the diagnosis, patients with limbic encephalitis may present with early MRI
changes suggestive of the disorder
Typically, the MRI shows hyperintense abnormalities in the medial aspect of the
temporal lobes
These MRI abnormalities should be differentiated from those in patients with
herpes simplex encephalitis, in whom the MRI usually shows signs of oedema,
mass effect, contrast enhancement, and, sometimes, areas of hemorrhage.
Regardless of the tumour type, the neurologic dysfunction usually precedes the
diagnosis of cancer.

Most paraneoplastic syndromes respond poorly to immunomodulatory treatment

although occasional improvement is seen when the underlying tumour is treated.
152
Differential diagnosis of acute/subacute encephalopathy is etiologically
wide and includes:
1) Neurodegenerative (for example sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease [CJD])
2) Endocrine (hypothyroidism)
3) Toxicological (lead, arsenic poisoning)
4) Nutritional (vitamin B1 deficiency)
5) Infective (HSV, HIV), and
6) Autoimmune causes.7

Due to the diversity of symptoms of limbic encephalitis is likely underdiagnosed

In patients without a known cancer, limbic encephalitis may be mistaken for a viral
encephalitis or a rapidly developing dementia secondary to a neurodegenerative
disorder
Symptoms of limbic encephalitis described above supported by MRI findings, in
association with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) changes characteristic of inflammation
are highly suggestive of paraneoplastic limbic encephalitis and should prompt
testing for antineuronal antibodies
Among patients with SCLC, the anti-Hu antibody is present in about 50% of those
with predominant or isolated symptoms of limbic encephalitis
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chiari malformation (intermittent obstructive hydrocephalus)

This presents with sudden pressure headache which builds up over a few seconds
before losing consciousness with precipitant as cough
The MRI imaging shows typical features of a Chiari malformation.
Chiari Type I malformations (small or misshapen posterior fossa leading to
protrusion of the cerebellar tonsils through the foramen magnum) are congenital
and Associated with hydrocephalus and syringomyelia.
Type II Chiari malformations occur in childhood with spina bifida.

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153
Permanent vegetative state (PVS):
Defined as a state of 'wakefulness without awareness'.
The patient breathes spontaneously without mechanical support, is
Haemodynamically stable and has cycles of eye closure and opening that resemble a
normal sleeping pattern but the patient is inattentive and unaware of his/her
surroundings.
Patients may have spontaneous movements (moaning, grunting, teeth grinding, roving
eye movements) and may also smile, laugh and cry without any apparent reason.
Although there may be eye movement, the eyes do not track a moving object.
Patients may respond to painful stimuli and may have myoclonus in response to
startling stimuli.
Primitive reflexes may be present.
Posture may become decorticate and plantar responses are commonly extensor.
The condition typically occurs when there is irreversible damage to the cerebral
hemispheres but the brain stem remains intact.

Causes include
1) Head injury
2) Hypoxic injury (cardiac arrest, carbon monoxide poisoning)
3) Stroke
4) Hypoglycaemia
5) Intracranial infection
6) End-stage degenerative brain disease (for example, Alzheimer's).

Locked-in syndrome:
A de-afferented state in which patients are aware of themselves and their environment
but are unable to respond due to loss of motor and speech function.
The cause is usually either
An upper motor neurone lesion of the descending corticospinal tracts in the brainstem
(often the pons) below the level of the oculomotor nerve nuclei,
for example, infarction, hemorrhage, tumour, demyelination, head injury, central
pontine myelinolysis after hyponatraemia)
or
Widespread lower motor neurone disease (for example, polyneuropathy such as
Guillain-Barre syndrome).

Clinically, the patient is unable to speak or move but patients may be able to open their
eyes and may blink in an effort to communicate.

154
Akinetic mutism:
A state of profound apathy in which there is evidence of preserved awareness and
visual attention and tracking.
Patients frequently appear as though they are about to speak but do not ('promise of
speech').

Coma:
Comatose patients are unconscious and unresponsive
unaware of themselves or their environment and cannot be roused into a state of
awareness or respond to their environment
Cyclical eye opening is absent and respiratory function is usually depressed.

Brain death:
Involves the irreversible loss of all brainstem function.
Unlike PVS, brainstem function is lost and mechanical respiratory support is required.
Brain death is, by definition, irreversible and cardiac arrest usually ensues within
hours or days of the onset of brain death.
The diagnosis should be made by two physicians on at least two separate occasions
12-24 hours apart.
Clinically, the patient is unconscious.
Absent brainstem function is demonstrated by pupils dilated (mid- or fully) and
unreactive to light. Corneal reflex is absent. 'Doll's eye' oculocephalic and caloric
reflexes are absent.
Cough, suck and gag reflexes are absent.
Ventilatory reflexes are absent and there is no spontaneous respiration when the
patient's ventilator is switched off for sufficient period to ensure that the pCO 2 has
risen above the threshold for stimulation of respiration.
Muscle tone is flaccid and there is no spontaneous movement.
In order to make the diagnosis, these findings should be consistent.

Brain stem death tests include:

Pupillary light response - CN II and III
Corneal reflex, response to supraorbital pressure - CN V and VII
Vestibulo-ocular reflex - CN III and VIII
Gag reflex - CN IX
Cough reflex - CN X
Absence of respiratory effort.

155
Fat Embolism Syndrome:
Fat embolism syndrome is aclinical diagnosis secondary to the presence of fat
globules in the lung parenchyma and circulation that are typically released
following long bone fractures.
It requires high index of suspicion and usually presents 12-72 hours after initial
injury.
There is a classic triad of:
Respiratory changes: Dyspnoea, tachypnoea and hypoxaemia are early findings.
These may progress to respiratory failure and ARDS requiring mechanical
ventilation.
Neurological features: Cerebral emboli produce neurological signs in up to 86%
cases. They often occur after onset of respiratory symptoms, with a wide
spectrum ranging from mild confusion and drowsiness to seizures. Usually
there is an acute confusional state with or without focal signs. Most neurological
deficits are transient and reversible.
Petechial rash: This is the final component of the triad to develop and occurs in
60% of cases. Rash is seen in the conjunctiva, mucous membranes, skin folds
of upper body particularly neck and axilla, appearing within the first 36 hours.
Patients may also develop:
pyrexia
tachycardia
ECG changes (ST segment depression and right heart strain)
fluffy retinal exudates
coagulopathy, and
renal changes (oliguria, lipiduria, proteinuria or haematuria)

156
Botulism
Occurs either from
gut colonisation (e.g., ingestion of contaminated home-canned food) or
an infected wound
Clostridium botulinum spores are widespread in soil and aquatic sediment.

Typical initial features include:

Diplopia
1)
Ptosis
2)
Facial weakness
3)
Dysarthria, and
4)
Dysphagia.
5)
Later, respiratory difficulty and limb weakness occur.
Neuromuscular blockade causes the clinical features.
In botulism, the impaired cholinergic transmission also involves autonomic
synapses, causing poorly reactive dilated pupils, dry mouth, paralytic ileus and
occasionally bradycardia. Reflexes are depressed or absent, sensation is normal
and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is normal in botulism.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Differential diagnosis of ring-enhancing lesions includes

Cerebral metastases
Toxoplasmosis
Histoplasmosis
Some primary brain tumours.

Histoplasmosis and tuberculosis are unlikely given the absence of chest symptoms or signs.

Toxoplasmosis infections are often asymptomatic, but symptomatic cases tend to present
with an infectious mononucleosis type picture.

157
 Pyogenic brain abscess
The post-contrast CT scan shows a ring-enhancing lesion in the right frontal area with compression of
the right lateral ventricle.

Falx calcification

158