Css

1
Cascading Style Sheets

CSS describes how HTML elements are to be displayed on screen, paper, or in other media
CSS saves a lot of work. It can control the layout of multiple web pages all at once
External style sheets are stored in CSS files
CSS is used to define styles for your web pages, including the design, layout and variations in display for
different devices and screen sizes.
CSS Solved a Big Problem
HTML was NEVER intended to contain tags for formatting a web page!
HTML was created to describe the content of a web page, like:
<h1>This is a heading</h1>
<p>This is a paragraph.</p>
When tags like <font>, and colour attributes were added to the HTML 3.2 specification, it started a
nightmare for web developers. Development of large websites, where fonts and color information were
added to every single page, became a long and expensive process.
To solve this problem, the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) created CSS.
CSS removed the style formatting from the HTML page
The style definitions are normally saved in external .css files.
With an external stylesheet file, you can change the look of an entire website by changing just one file!
CSS Syntax
A CSS rule-set consists of a selector and a declaration block:
The selector points to the HTML element you want to style.
The declaration block contains one or more declarations separated by semicolons.
Each declaration includes a CSS property name and a value, separated by a colon.
A CSS declaration always ends with a semicolon, and declaration blocks are surrounded by curly braces.
In the following example all <p> elements will be center-aligned, with a red text color:
2
p{
color: red;
text-align: center;
}
CSS Selectors
CSS selectors are used to "find" (or select) HTML elements based on their element name, id, class, attribute,
and more.
The element Selector
The element selector selects elements based on the element name.
You can select all <p> elements on a page like this (in this case, all <p> elements will be center-aligned,
with a red text color):
p{
text-align: center;
color: red;
}
The id Selector
The id selector uses the id attribute of an HTML element to select a specific element.
The id of an element should be unique within a page, so the id selector is used to select one unique element!
To select an element with a specific id, write a hash (#) character, followed by the id of the element.
The style rule below will be applied to the HTML element with id="para1":
#para1 {
text-align: center;
color: red;
}
Note: An id name cannot start with a number

The class Selector
The class selector selects elements with a specific class attribute.
To select elements with a specific class, write a period (.) character, followed by the name of the class.
In the example below, all HTML elements with class="center" will be red and center-aligned:
.center {
text-align: center;
color: red;
}
You can also specify that only specific HTML elements should be affected by a class.
In the example below, only <p> elements with class="center" will be center-aligned:
3
p.center {
text-align: center;
color: red;
}
HTML elements can also refer to more than one class.
In the example below, the <p> element will be styled according to class="center" and to class="large":
<p class="center large">This paragraph refers to two classes.</p>
Grouping Selectors
If you have elements with the same style definitions, like this:
h1 {
text-align: center;
color: red;
}
h2 {
text-align: center;
color: red;
}
p{
text-align: center;
color: red;
}
It will be better to group the selectors, to minimize the code.
To group selectors, separate each selector with a comma.
In the example below we have grouped the selectors from the code above:
h1, h2, p {
text-align: center;
color: red;
}
CSS Comments
Comments are used to explain the code, and may help when you edit the source code at a later date.
Comments are ignored by browsers.
A CSS comment starts with /* and ends with */. Comments can also span multiple lines:
p{
color: red;
/* This is a single-line comment */
text-align: center;
}
4
/* This is a multi-line comment */
Exercise 1
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<style>
</style>
</head>
<body>
<h1>This is a Heading</h1>
<p>This is another paragraph.</p>
</body>
</html>
Exercise 2
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<style>
</style>
</head>
<body>
<p id="para1">This is a paragraph.</p>
</body>
</html>
Exercise 3
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<style>
</style>
</head>
5
<body>
<p class="colortext">This is another paragraph.</p>
<p class="colortext">This is also a paragraph.</p>
</body>
</html>
Exercise 4
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<style>
</style>
</head>
<body>
<h1>This is a heading</h1>
<h2>This is a smaller heading</h2>
</body>
</html>
When a browser reads a style sheet, it will format the HTML document according to the information in the
style sheet.
Three Ways to Insert CSS
There are three ways of inserting a style sheet:
External style sheet

Internal style sheet
Inline style
External Style Sheet
With an external style sheet, you can change the look of an entire website by changing just one file!
Each page must include a reference to the external style sheet file inside the <link> element. The <link>
element goes inside the <head> section:
<head>
<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="mystyle.css">
</head>
An external style sheet can be written in any text editor. The file should not contain any html tags. The style
sheet file must be saved with a .css extension.
6
Here is how the "mystyle.css" looks:
body {
background-color: lightblue;
}
h1 {
color: navy;
margin-left: 20px;
}
Note:
Do not add a space between the property value and the unit (such as margin-left: 20 px;). The correct way
is: margin-left: 20px;
Internal Style Sheet
An internal style sheet may be used if one single page has a unique style.
Internal styles are defined within the <style> element, inside the <head> section of an HTML page:
<head>
<style>
body {
background-color: linen;
}
h1 {
color: maroon;
margin-left: 40px;
}
</style>
</head>
Inline Styles
An inline style may be used to apply a unique style for a single element.
To use inline styles, add the style attribute to the relevant element. The style attribute can contain any CSS
property.
The example below shows how to change the color and the left margin of a <h1> element:
<h1 style="color:blue;margin-left:30px;">This is a heading</h1>
Multiple Style Sheets
If some properties have been defined for the same selector (element) in different style sheets, the value from
the last read style sheet will be used.
Assume that an external style sheet has the following style for the <h1> element:
h1 {
7
color: navy;
}
then, assume that an internal style sheet also has the following style for the <h1> element:
h1 {
color: orange;
}
If the internal style is defined after the link to the external style sheet, the <h1> elements will be "orange":
<head>
<style>
h1 {
color: orange;
}
</style>
</head>
However, if the internal style is defined before the link to the external style sheet, the <h1> elements will be
"navy":
<head>
<style>
h1 {
color: orange;
}
</style>
</head>
Cascading Order
What style will be used when there is more than one style specified for an HTML element?
Generally speaking we can say that all the styles will "cascade" into a new "virtual" style sheet by the
following rules, where number one has the highest priority:
1. Inline style (inside an HTML element)

2. External and internal style sheets (in the head section)
3. Browser default
So, an inline style (inside a specific HTML element) has the highest priority, which means that it will
override a style defined inside the <head> tag, or in an external style sheet, or a browser default value.
Exercise
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
8
<style>
p{
color: red;
</style>
</head>
<body style="background-color: lightcyan">
</body>
</html>
Colors in CSS are most often specified by:
a valid color name - like "red"

an RGB value - like "rgb(255, 0, 0)"
a HEX value - like "#ff0000"
Color names are case-insensitive: "Red" is the same as "red" or "RED".
HTML and CSS supports 140 standard color names.
RGB (Red, Green, Blue)
RGB color values can be specified using this formula: rgb(red, green, blue).
Each parameter (red, green, blue) defines the intensity of the color between 0 and 255.
For example, rgb(255,0,0) is displayed as red, because red is set to its highest value (255) and the
others are set to 0. Experiment by mixing the RGB values below:
Hexadecimal Colors
RGB values can also be specified using hexadecimal color values in the form: #RRGGBB, where RR (red),
GG (green) and BB (blue) are hexadecimal values between 00 and FF (same as decimal 0-255).
For example, #FF0000 is displayed as red, because red is set to its highest value (FF) and the others are set
to the lowest value (00). Note: HEX values are case-insensitive: "#ff0000" is the same as "FF0000".
Background Color
The background-color property specifies the background color of an element.
The background color of a page is set like this:

9
body {
}
With CSS, a color is most often specified by:
a valid color name - like "red"

an RGB value - like "rgb(255,0,0)"
Look at CSS Color Values for a complete list of possible color values.
In the example below, the <h1>, <p>, and <div> elements have different background colors:
h1 {
background-color: green;
}
div {
}
p{
background-color: yellow;
}
Background Image
The background-image property specifies an image to use as the background of an element.
By default, the image is repeated so it covers the entire element.
The background image for a page can be set like this:
body {
background-image: url("paper.gif");
}
Below is an example of a bad combination of text and background image. The text is hardly readable:
body {
background-image: url("bgdesert.jpg");
}
Background Image - Repeat Horizontally or Vertically
By default, the background-image property repeats an image both horizontally and vertically.
Some images should be repeated only horizontally or vertically, or they will look strange, like this:
body {
background-image: url("gradient_bg.png");
}
10
If the image above is repeated only horizontally (background-repeat: repeat-x;), the background will look
better:
body {
background-image: url("gradient_bg.png");
background-repeat: repeat-x;
}
Background Image - Set position and no-repeat
Showing the background image only once is also specified by the background-repeat property:
body {
background-image: url("img_tree.png");
background-repeat: no-repeat;
}
In the example above, the background image is shown in the same place as the text. We want to change the
position of the image, so that it does not disturb the text too much.
The position of the image is specified by the background-position property:
body {
background-position: right top;
}
Background Image - Fixed position
To specify that the background image should be fixed (will not scroll with the rest of the page), use
the background-attachment property:
body {
background-position: right top;
background-attachment: fixed;
}
Background - Shorthand property
To shorten the code, it is also possible to specify all the background properties in one single property. This is
called a shorthand property.
The shorthand property for background is background:
body {
background: #ffffff url("img_tree.png") no-repeat right top;
}
When using the shorthand property the order of the property values is:
background-color
background-image
background-repeat
11
background-attachment
background-position
It does not matter if one of the property values is missing, as long as the other ones are in this order.
All CSS Background Properties
Property Description
background Sets all the background properties in one declaration
background-attachment Sets whether a background image is fixed or scrolls with the

rest of the page
background-color Sets the background color of an element
background-image Sets the background image for an element
background-position Sets the starting position of a background image
background-repeat Sets how a background image will be repeated
CSS Border Properties
The CSS border properties allow you to specify the style, width, and color of an element's border.
I have borders on all sides.
I have a red bottom border
I have rounded borders.
I have a blue left border.
Border Style
The border-style property specifies what kind of border to display.

12
The following values are allowed:
dotted - Defines a dotted border

dashed - Defines a dashed border
solid - Defines a solid border
double - Defines a double border
groove - Defines a 3D grooved border. The effect depends on the border-color value
ridge - Defines a 3D ridged border. The effect depends on the border-color value
inset - Defines a 3D inset border. The effect depends on the border-color value
outset - Defines a 3D outset border. The effect depends on the border-color value
none - Defines no border
hidden - Defines a hidden border
The border-style property can have from one to four values (for the top border, right border, bottom border,
and the left border).
Example
p.dotted {border-style: dotted;}
p.dashed {border-style: dashed;}
p.solid {border-style: solid;}
p.double {border-style: double;}
p.groove {border-style: groove;}
p.ridge {border-style: ridge;}
p.inset {border-style: inset;}
p.outset {border-style: outset;}
p.none {border-style: none;}
p.hidden {border-style: hidden;}
p.mix {border-style: dotted dashed solid double;}
Result:
A dotted border.
A dashed border.
A solid border.
A double border.
A groove border. The effect depends on the border-color value.
A ridge border. The effect depends on the border-color value.
An inset border. The effect depends on the border-color value.
An outset border. The effect depends on the border-color value.
No border.
A hidden border.
13
A mixed border.
Border Width
The border-width property specifies the width of the four borders.
The width can be set as a specific size (in px, pt, cm, em, etc) or by using one of the three pre-defined
values: thin, medium, or thick.
The border-width property can have from one to four values (for the top border, right border, bottom border,
5px border-width
Example
p.one {
border-style: solid;
border-width: 5px;
}
p.two {
border-width: medium;
}
p.three {
border-width: 2px 10px 4px 20px;
}
Border Color
The border-color property is used to set the color of the four borders.
The color can be set by:
name - specify a color name, like "red"

Hex - specify a hex value, like "#ff0000"
RGB - specify a RGB value, like "rgb(255,0,0)"
transparent
The border-color property can have from one to four values (for the top border, right border, bottom border,
If border-color is not set, it inherits the color of the element.
Red border
p.one {
border-color: red;
}
p.two {
14
border-color: green;
}
p.three {
border-color: red green blue yellow;
}
Border - Individual Sides
From the examples above you have seen that it is possible to specify a different border for each side.
In CSS, there is also properties for specifying each of the borders (top, right, bottom, and left):
Different Border Styles

p{
border-top-style: dotted;
border-right-style: solid;
border-bottom-style: dotted;
border-left-style: solid;
}
The example above gives the same result as this:
p{
border-style: dotted solid;
}
So, here is how it works:
If the border-style property has four values:
border-style: dotted solid double dashed;

o top border is dotted
o right border is solid
o bottom border is double
o left border is dashed
If the border-style property has three values:
border-style: dotted solid double;

o top border is dotted
o right and left borders are solid
o bottom border is double
If the border-style property has two values:
border-style: dotted solid;

o top and bottom borders are dotted
o right and left borders are solid
If the border-style property has one value:

15
border-style: dotted;
o all four borders are dotted
The border-style property is used in the example above. However, it also works with border-
width and border-color.
Border - Shorthand Property
As you can see from the examples above, there are many properties to consider when dealing with borders.
To shorten the code, it is also possible to specify all the individual border properties in one property.
The border property is a shorthand property for the following individual border properties:
border-width
border-style (required)
border-color
p{
border: 5px solid red;
}
Result:
Some text
You can also specify all the individual border properties for just one side:
Left Border
p{
border-left: 6px solid red;
background-color: lightgrey;
}
Result:
Some text
Bottom Border
p{
border-bottom: 6px solid red;
background-color: lightgrey;
}
Result:
Some text
16
Rounded Borders
The border-radius property is used to add rounded borders to an element:
Normal border
Round border
Rounder border
Roundest border
p{
border-radius: 5px;
}
Note: The border-radius property is not supported in IE8 and earlier versions.
All CSS Border Properties
border Sets all the border properties in one declaration
border-bottom Sets all the bottom border properties in one declaration
border-bottom-color Sets the color of the bottom border
border-bottom-style Sets the style of the bottom border
border-bottom-width Sets the width of the bottom border
border-color Sets the color of the four borders
border-left Sets all the left border properties in one declaration

17
border-left-color Sets the color of the left border
border-left-style Sets the style of the left border
border-left-width Sets the width of the left border
border-radius Sets all the four border-*-radius properties for rounded corners
border-right Sets all the right border properties in one declaration
border-right-color Sets the color of the right border
border-right-style Sets the style of the right border
border-right-width Sets the width of the right border
border-style Sets the style of the four borders
border-top Sets all the top border properties in one declaration
border-top-color Sets the color of the top border
border-top-style Sets the style of the top border
border-top-width Sets the width of the top border

18
border-width Sets the width of the four borders
CSS Margins
The CSS margin properties are used to generate space around elements.
The margin properties set the size of the white space outside the border.
With CSS, you have full control over the margins. There are CSS properties for setting the margin for each
side of an element (top, right, bottom, and left).
Margin - Individual Sides
CSS has properties for specifying the margin for each side of an element:
margin-top
margin-right
margin-bottom
margin-left
All the margin properties can have the following values:
auto - the browser calculates the margin

length - specifies a margin in px, pt, cm, etc.
% - specifies a margin in % of the width of the containing element
inherit - specifies that the margin should be inherited from the parent element
Tip: Negative values are allowed.
The following example sets different margins for all four sides of a <p> element:
p{
margin-top: 100px;
margin-bottom: 100px;
margin-right: 150px;
margin-left: 80px;
}
Margin - Shorthand Property
To shorten the code, it is possible to specify all the margin properties in one property.
The margin property is a shorthand property for the following individual margin properties:
margin-top
margin-right
margin-bottom
margin-left
p{
margin: 100px 150px 100px 80px;
}
19
If the margin property has four values:
margin: 25px 50px 75px 100px;

o top margin is 25px
o right margin is 50px
o bottom margin is 75px
o left margin is 100px
If the margin property has three values:
margin: 25px 50px 75px;

o top margin is 25px
o right and left margins are 50px
o bottom margin is 75px
If the margin property has two values:
margin: 25px 50px;

o top and bottom margins are 25px
o right and left margins are 50px
If the margin property has one value:
margin: 25px;
o all four margins are 25px
The auto Value
You can set the margin property to auto to horizontally center the element within its container.
The element will then take up the specified width, and the remaining space will be split equally between the
left and right margins:
div {
width: 300px;
margin: auto;
}
The inherit Value
This example lets the left margin be inherited from the parent element:
div.container {
margin-left: 100px;
}
p.one {
margin-left: inherit;
}
Margin Collapse
20
Top and bottom margins of elements are sometimes collapsed into a single margin that is equal to the largest
of the two margins.
This does not happen on left and right margins! Only top and bottom margins!
Look at the following example:
h1 {
margin: 0 0 50px 0;
}
h2 {
margin: 20px 0 0 0;
}
In the example above, the <h1> element has a bottom margin of 50px. The <h2> element has a top margin
set to 20px.
Common sense would seem to suggest that the vertical margin between the <h1> and the <h2> would be a
total of 70px (50px + 20px). But due to margin collapse, the actual margin ends up being 50px.
All CSS Margin Properties
margin A shorthand property for setting the margin properties in one declaration
margin-bottom Sets the bottom margin of an element
margin-left Sets the left margin of an element
margin-right Sets the right margin of an element
margin-top Sets the top margin of an element
CSS Padding
The CSS padding properties are used to generate space around content.
The padding clears an area around the content (inside the border) of an element.
21
With CSS, you have full control over the padding. There are CSS properties for setting the padding for each
side of an element (top, right, bottom, and left).
Padding - Individual Sides
CSS has properties for specifying the padding for each side of an element:
padding-top
padding-right
padding-bottom
padding-left
All the padding properties can have the following values:
length - specifies a padding in px, pt, cm, etc.

% - specifies a padding in % of the width of the containing element
inherit - specifies that the padding should be inherited from the parent element
The following example sets different padding for all four sides of a <p> element:
p{
padding-top: 50px;
padding-right: 30px;
padding-bottom: 50px;
padding-left: 80px;
}
Padding - Shorthand Property
To shorten the code, it is possible to specify all the padding properties in one property.
The padding property is a shorthand property for the following individual padding properties:
padding-top
padding-right
padding-bottom
padding-left
p{
padding: 50px 30px 50px 80px;
}
If the padding property has four values:

o top padding is 25px
o right padding is 50px
o bottom padding is 75px
o left padding is 100px
If the padding property has three values:
padding: 25px 50px 75px;

22
o top padding is 25px

o right and left paddings are 50px
o bottom padding is 75px
If the padding property has two values:
padding: 25px 50px;

o top and bottom paddings are 25px
o right and left paddings are 50px
If the padding property has one value:
padding: 25px;
o all four paddings are 25px
div.ex1 {
}
div.ex2 {
padding: 25px 50px 75px;
}
div.ex3 {
padding: 25px 50px;
}
div.ex4 {
padding: 25px;
}
All CSS Padding Properties
padding A shorthand property for setting all the padding properties in one
declaration
padding-bottom Sets the bottom padding of an element
padding-left Sets the left padding of an element
padding-right Sets the right padding of an element

23
padding-top Sets the top padding of an element
Setting height and width
The height and width properties are used to set the height and width of an element.
The height and width can be set to auto (this is default. Means that the browser calculates the height and
width), or be specified in length values, like px, cm, etc., or in percent (%) of the containing block.
This element has a height of 200 pixels and a width of 50%
div {
height: 200px;
width: 50%;
background-color: powderblue;
}
This element has a height of 100 pixels and a width of 500 pixels.
div {
height: 100px;
width: 500px;
}
Note: The height and width properties do not include padding, borders, or margins; they set the height/width
of the area inside the padding, border, and margin of the element!
Setting max-width
The max-width property is used to set the maximum width of an element.
The max-width can be specified in length values, like px, cm, etc., or in percent (%) of the containing block,
or set to none (this is default. Means that there is no maximum width).
The problem with the <div> above occurs when the browser window is smaller than the width of the
element (500px). The browser then adds a horizontal scrollbar to the page.
Using max-width instead, in this situation, will improve the browser's handling of small windows.
Tip: Drag the browser window to smaller than 500px wide, to see the difference between the two divs!
This element has a height of 100 pixels and a max-width of 500 pixels.
Note: The value of the max-width property overrides width.
The following example shows a <div> element with a height of 100 pixels and a max-width of 500 pixels:
div {
max-width: 500px;
height: 100px;
24
CSS Dimension Properties
height Sets the height of an element
max-height Sets the maximum height of an element
max-width Sets the maximum width of an element
min-height Sets the minimum height of an element
min-width Sets the minimum width of an element
width Sets the width of an element
The CSS Box Model
All HTML elements can be considered as boxes. In CSS, the term "box model" is used when talking about
design and layout.
The CSS box model is essentially a box that wraps around every HTML element. It consists of: margins,
borders, padding, and the actual content. The image below illustrates the box model:
Explanation of the different parts:
Content - The content of the box, where text and images appear
Padding - Clears an area around the content. The padding is transparent
Border - A border that goes around the padding and content
Margin - Clears an area outside the border. The margin is transparent
The box model allows us to add a border around elements, and to define space between elements.
div {
width: 300px;
border: 25px solid green;
25
padding: 25px;
margin: 25px;
}
Width and Height of an Element
In order to set the width and height of an element correctly in all browsers, you need to know how the box
model works.
Important: When you set the width and height properties of an element with CSS, you just set the width
and height of the content area. To calculate the full size of an element, you must also add padding, borders
and margins.
Assume we want to style a <div> element to have a total width of 350px:
div {
width: 320px;
padding: 10px;
border: 5px solid gray;
margin: 0;
}
Here is the math:
320px (width) + 20px (left + right padding) + 10px (left + right border)+ 0px (left + right margin)
= 350px
The total width of an element should be calculated like this:
Total element width = width + left padding + right padding + left border + right border + left margin + right
margin
The total height of an element should be calculated like this:
Total element height = height + top padding + bottom padding + top border + bottom border + top margin +
bottom margin
Note for old IE: Internet Explorer 8 and earlier versions, include padding and border in the width property.
To fix this problem, add a <!DOCTYPE html> to the HTML page.
CSS Outline
The CSS outline properties specify the style, color, and width of an outline.
An outline is a line that is drawn around elements (outside the borders) to make the element "stand out".
However, the outline property is different from the border property - The outline is NOT a part of an
element's dimensions; the element's total width and height is not affected by the width of the outline.
This element has a thin black border and an outline that is 10px wide and green.
Outline Style
The outline-style property specifies the style of the outline.

26
The outline-style property can have one of the following values:
dotted - Defines a dotted outline

dashed - Defines a dashed outline
solid - Defines a solid outline
double - Defines a double outline
groove - Defines a 3D grooved outline. The effect depends on the outline-color value
ridge - Defines a 3D ridged outline. The effect depends on the outline-color value
inset - Defines a 3D inset outline. The effect depends on the outline-color value
outset - Defines a 3D outset outline. The effect depends on the outline-color value
none - Defines no outline
hidden - Defines a hidden outline
The following example first sets a thin black border around each <p> element, then it shows the
different outline-style values:
p{
border: 1px solid black;
outline-color: red;
}
p.dotted {outline-style: dotted;}

p.dashed {outline-style: dashed;}
p.solid {outline-style: solid;}
p.double {outline-style: double;}
p.groove {outline-style: groove;}
p.ridge {outline-style: ridge;}
p.inset {outline-style: inset;}
p.outset {outline-style: outset;}
Result:
A dotted outline.
A dashed outline.
A solid outline.
A double outline.
A groove outline. The effect depends on the outline-color value.
A ridge outline. The effect depends on the outline-color value.
An inset outline. The effect depends on the outline-color value.
An outset outline. The effect depends on the outline-color value.
Note: None of the OTHER CSS outline properties described below will have ANY effect unless the outline-
style property is set!
Outline Color
The outline-color property is used to set the color of the outline.

27
The color can be set by:
name - specify a color name, like "red"

RGB - specify a RGB value, like "rgb(255,0,0)"
Hex - specify a hex value, like "#ff0000"
invert - performs a color inversion (which ensures that the outline is visible, regardless of color
background)
p{
outline-style: double;
outline-color: red;
}
Result:
A colored outline.
Outline Width
The outline-width property specifies the width of the outline.
The width can be set as a specific size (in px, pt, cm, em, etc) or by using one of the three pre-defined
values: thin, medium, or thick.
p {border: 1px solid black;}
p.one {
outline-color: red;
outline-width: thick;
}
p.two {
outline-color: green;
outline-width: 3px;
}
Result:
A thick outline.
A thinner outline.
Outline - Shorthand property
To shorten the code, it is also possible to specify all the individual outline properties in one property.
The outline property is a shorthand property for the following individual outline properties:
outline-width
outline-style (required)
outline-color
28
p{
outline: 5px dotted red;
}
Result:
An outline.
All CSS Outline Properties
outline Sets all the outline properties in one declaration
outline-color Sets the color of an outline
outline-offset Specifies the space between an outline and the edge or border of an
element
outline-style Sets the style of an outline
outline-width Sets the width of an outline
Text Color
The color property is used to set the color of the text.
With CSS, a color is most often specified by:
a color name - like "red"

an RGB value - like "rgb(255,0,0)"
Look at CSS Color Values for a complete list of possible color values.
The default text color for a page is defined in the body selector.
body {
color: blue;
}
29
h1 {
color: green;
}
Note: For W3C compliant CSS: If you define the color property, you must also define the background-color.
Text Alignment
The text-align property is used to set the horizontal alignment of a text.
A text can be left or right aligned, centered, or justified.
The following example shows center aligned, and left and right aligned text (left alignment is default if text
direction is left-to-right, and right alignment is default if text direction is right-to-left):
h1 {
text-align: center;
}
h2 {
text-align: left;
}
h3 {
text-align: right;
}
When the text-align property is set to "justify", each line is stretched so that every line has equal width, and
the left and right margins are straight (like in magazines and newspapers):
div {
text-align: justify;
}
Text Decoration
The text-decoration property is used to set or remove decorations from text.
The value text-decoration: none; is often used to remove underlines from links:
a{
text-decoration: none;
}
The other text-decoration values are used to decorate text:
h1 {
text-decoration: overline;
}
h2 {
text-decoration: line-through;
}
30
h3 {
text-decoration: underline;
}
Note: It is not recommended to underline text that is not a link, as this often confuses the reader.
Text Transformation
The text-transform property is used to specify uppercase and lowercase letters in a text.
It can be used to turn everything into uppercase or lowercase letters, or capitalize the first letter of each
word:
p.uppercase {
text-transform: uppercase;
}
p.lowercase {
text-transform: lowercase;
}
p.capitalize {
text-transform: capitalize;
}
Text Indentation
The text-indent property is used to specify the indentation of the first line of a text:
p{
text-indent: 50px;
}
Letter Spacing
The letter-spacing property is used to specify the space between the characters in a text.
The following example demonstrates how to increase or decrease the space between characters:
h1 {
letter-spacing: 3px;
}
h2 {
letter-spacing: -3px;
}
Line Height
The line-height property is used to specify the space between lines:
p.small {
line-height: 0.8;
}
p.big {
line-height: 1.8;
31
}
Text Direction
The direction property is used to change the text direction of an element:
div {
direction: rtl;
}
Word Spacing
The word-spacing property is used to specify the space between the words in a text.
The following example demonstrates how to increase or decrease the space between words:
h1 {
word-spacing: 10px;
}
h2 {
word-spacing: -5px;
}
Text Shadow
The text-shadow property adds shadow to text.
The following example specifies the position of the horizontal shadow (3px), the position of the vertical
shadow (2px) and the color of the shadow (red):
h1 {
text-shadow: 3px 2px red;
}
All CSS Text Properties
color Sets the color of text
direction Specifies the text direction/writing direction
letter-spacing Increases or decreases the space between characters in a text

32
line-height Sets the line height
text-align Specifies the horizontal alignment of text
text-decoration Specifies the decoration added to text
text-indent Specifies the indentation of the first line in a text-block
text-shadow Specifies the shadow effect added to text
text-transform Controls the capitalization of text
text-overflow Specifies how overflowed content that is not displayed should be signaled
to the user
unicode-bidi Used together with the direction property to set or return whether the text
should be overridden to support multiple languages in the same document
vertical-align Sets the vertical alignment of an element
white-space Specifies how white-space inside an element is handled
word-spacing Increases or decreases the space between words in a text
The CSS font properties define the font family, boldness, size, and the style of a text.
Difference Between Serif and Sans-serif Fonts

33
CSS Font Families
In CSS, there are two types of font family names:
generic family - a group of font families with a similar look (like "Serif" or "Monospace")
font family - a specific font family (like "Times New Roman" or "Arial")
Generic Font family Description

family
Serif Times New Roman Serif fonts have small lines at the ends on
Georgia some characters
Sans-serif Arial "Sans" means without - these fonts do not have

Verdana the lines at the ends of characters
Monospace Courier New All monospace characters have the same width
Lucida Console
Note: On computer screens, sans-serif fonts are considered easier to read than serif fonts.
Font Family
The font family of a text is set with the font-family property.
The font-family property should hold several font names as a "fallback" system. If the browser does not
support the first font, it tries the next font, and so on.
Start with the font you want, and end with a generic family, to let the browser pick a similar font in the
generic family, if no other fonts are available.
Note: If the name of a font family is more than one word, it must be in quotation marks, like: "Times New
Roman".
More than one font family is specified in a comma-separated list:
p{
34
font-family: "Times New Roman", Times, serif;

}
Font Style
The font-style property is mostly used to specify italic text.
This property has three values:
normal - The text is shown normally

italic - The text is shown in italics
oblique - The text is "leaning" (oblique is very similar to italic, but less supported)
p.normal {
font-style: normal;
}
p.italic {
font-style: italic;
}
p.oblique {
font-style: oblique;
}
Font Size
The font-size property sets the size of the text.
Being able to manage the text size is important in web design. However, you should not use font size
adjustments to make paragraphs look like headings, or headings look like paragraphs.
Always use the proper HTML tags, like <h1> - <h6> for headings and <p> for paragraphs.
The font-size value can be an absolute, or relative size.
Absolute size:
Sets the text to a specified size

Does not allow a user to change the text size in all browsers (bad for accessibility reasons)
Absolute size is useful when the physical size of the output is known
Relative size:
Sets the size relative to surrounding elements

Allows a user to change the text size in browsers
Note: If you do not specify a font size, the default size for normal text, like paragraphs, is 16px (16px=1em).
Set Font Size With Pixels
Setting the text size with pixels gives you full control over the text size:
35
Example
h1 {
font-size: 40px;
}
h2 {
font-size: 30px;
}
p{
font-size: 14px;
}
Tip: If you use pixels, you can still use the zoom tool to resize the entire page.
Set Font Size With Em
To allow users to resize the text (in the browser menu), many developers use em instead of pixels.
The em size unit is recommended by the W3C.
1em is equal to the current font size. The default text size in browsers is 16px. So, the default size of 1em is
16px.
The size can be calculated from pixels to em using this formula: pixels/16=em
h1 {
font-size: 2.5em; /* 40px/16=2.5em */
}
h2 {
font-size: 1.875em; /* 30px/16=1.875em */
}
p{
font-size: 0.875em; /* 14px/16=0.875em */
}
In the example above, the text size in em is the same as the previous example in pixels. However, with the
em size, it is possible to adjust the text size in all browsers.
Unfortunately, there is still a problem with older versions of IE. The text becomes larger than it should when
made larger, and smaller than it should when made smaller.
Use a Combination of Percent and Em
The solution that works in all browsers, is to set a default font-size in percent for the <body> element:
Example
body {
font-size: 100%;
}
36
h1 {
font-size: 2.5em;
}
h2 {
font-size: 1.875em;
}
p{
font-size: 0.875em;
}
Our code now works great! It shows the same text size in all browsers, and allows all browsers to zoom or
resize the text!
Font Weight
The font-weight property specifies the weight of a font:
Example
p.normal {
font-weight: normal;
}
p.thick {
font-weight: bold;
}
Font Variant
The font-variant property specifies whether or not a text should be displayed in a small-caps font.
In a small-caps font, all lowercase letters are converted to uppercase letters. However, the converted
uppercase letters appears in a smaller font size than the original uppercase letters in the text.
p.normal {
font-variant: normal;
}
p.small {
font-variant: small-caps;
}
All CSS Font Properties
font Sets all the font properties in one declaration

37
font-family Specifies the font family for text
font-size Specifies the font size of text
font-style Specifies the font style for text
font-variant Specifies whether or not a text should be displayed in a small-caps

font
font-weight Specifies the weight of a font
How To Add Icons
The simplest way to add an icon to your HTML page, is with an icon library, such as Font Awesome.
Add the name of the specified icon class to any inline HTML element (like <i> or<span>).
All the icons in the icon libraries below, are scalable vectors that can be customized with CSS (size, color,
shadow, etc.)
Font Icons
To use the Font Awesome icons, add the following line inside the <head> section of your HTML page:
<link rel="stylesheet" href="https://cdnjs.cloudflare.com/ajax/libs/font-awesome/4.7.0/css/font-

awesome.min.css">
Note: No downloading or installation is required!
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<link rel="stylesheet"href="https://cdnjs.cloudflare.com/ajax/libs/font-awesome/4.7.0/css/font-
awesome.min.css">
</head>
<body>
<i class="fa fa-cloud"></i>

<i class="fa fa-heart"></i>
<i class="fa fa-car"></i>
<i class="fa fa-file"></i>
<i class="fa fa-bars"></i>
38
</body>
</html>
Result:
Bootstrap Icons
To use the Bootstrap glyphicons, add the following line inside the <head> section of your HTML page:
<link rel="stylesheet" href="https://maxcdn.bootstrapcdn.com/bootstrap/3.3.7/css/bootstrap.min.css">
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<link rel="stylesheet" href="https://maxcdn.bootstrapcdn.com/bootstrap/3.3.7/css/bootstrap.min.css">
</head>
<body>
<i class="glyphicon glyphicon-cloud"></i>

<i class="glyphicon glyphicon-remove"></i>
<i class="glyphicon glyphicon-user"></i>
<i class="glyphicon glyphicon-envelope"></i>
<i class="glyphicon glyphicon-thumbs-up"></i>
</body>
</html>
Result:
Google Icons
To use the Google icons, add the following line inside the <head> section of your HTML page:
<link rel="stylesheet" href="https://fonts.googleapis.com/icon?family=Material+Icons">
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<link rel="stylesheet" href="https://fonts.googleapis.com/icon?family=Material+Icons">
</head>
<body>
<i class="material-icons">cloud</i>
<i class="material-icons">favorite</i>
<i class="material-icons">attachment</i>
<i class="material-icons">computer</i>
<i class="material-icons">traffic</i>
39
</body>
</html>
Styling Links
Links can be styled with any CSS property (e.g. color, font-family,background, etc.).
Example
a{
color: hotpink;
}
In addition, links can be styled differently depending on what state they are in.
The four links states are:
a:link - a normal, unvisited link

a:visited - a link the user has visited
a:hover - a link when the user mouses over it
a:active - a link the moment it is clicked
Example
/* unvisited link */
a:link {
color: red;
}
/* visited link */
a:visited {
color: green;
}
/* mouse over link */

a:hover {
color: hotpink;
}
/* selected link */
a:active {
color: blue;
}
When setting the style for several link states, there are some order rules:
a:hover MUST come after a:link and a:visited

a:active MUST come after a:hover
Text Decoration
The text-decoration property is mostly used to remove underlines from links:
Example
a:link {
40
}
a:visited {
}
a:hover {
}
a:active {
}
Background Color
The background-color property can be used to specify a background color for links:
Example
a:link {
}
a:visited {
background-color: cyan;
}
a:hover {
background-color: lightgreen;
}
a:active {
background-color: hotpink;
}
Advanced - Link Buttons
This example demonstrates a more advanced example where we combine several CSS properties to display
links as boxes/buttons:
a:link, a:visited {
background-color: #f44336;
color: white;
padding: 14px 25px;
text-align: center;
display: inline-block;
}
a:hover, a:active {
background-color: red;
}
41
HTML Lists and CSS List Properties
In HTML, there are two main types of lists:
unordered lists (<ul>) - the list items are marked with bullets
ordered lists (<ol>) - the list items are marked with numbers or letters
The CSS list properties allow you to:
Set different list item markers for ordered lists

Set different list item markers for unordered lists
Set an image as the list item marker
Add background colors to lists and list items
Different List Item Markers
The list-style-type property specifies the type of list item marker.
The following example shows some of the available list item markers:
Example
ul.a {
list-style-type: circle;
}
ul.b {
list-style-type: square;
}
ol.c {
list-style-type: upper-roman;
}
ol.d {
list-style-type: lower-alpha;
}
Note: Some of the values are for unordered lists, and some for ordered lists.
An Image as The List Item Marker
The list-style-image property specifies an image as the list item marker:
ul {
list-style-image: url('sqpurple.gif');
}
Position The List Item Markers
The list-style-position property specifies whether the list-item markers should appear inside or outside the
content flow:
Example
ul {
42
list-style-position: inside;
}
Remove Default Settings
The list-style-type:none property can also be used to remove the markers/bullets. Note that the list also has
default margin and padding. To remove this, add margin:0 and padding:0 to <ul> or <ol>:
Example
ul {
list-style-type: none;
margin: 0;
padding: 0;
}
List - Shorthand property
The list-style property is a shorthand property. It is used to set all the list properties in one declaration:
ul {
list-style: square inside url("sqpurple.gif");
}
When using the shorthand property, the order of the property values are:
list-style-type (if a list-style-image is specified, the value of this property will be displayed if the
image for some reason cannot be displayed)
list-style-position (specifies whether the list-item markers should appear inside or outside the content
flow)
list-style-image (specifies an image as the list item marker)
If one of the property values above are missing, the default value for the missing property will be inserted, if
any.
Styling List With Colors
We can also style lists with colors, to make them look a little more interesting.
Anything added to the <ol> or <ul> tag, affects the entire list, while properties added to the <li> tag will
affect the individual list items:
Example
ol {
background: #ff9999;
padding: 20px;
}
ul {
background: #3399ff;
padding: 20px;
}
ol li {
background: #ffe5e5;
43
padding: 5px;
margin-left: 35px;
}
ul li {
background: #cce5ff;
margin: 5px;
}
Result:
1. Coffee
2. Tea
3. Coca Cola
Coffee
Tea
Coca Cola
All CSS List Properties
list-style Sets all the properties for a list in one declaration
list-style-image Specifies an image as the list-item marker
list-style-position Specifies if the list-item markers should appear inside or outside the
content flow
list-style-type Specifies the type of list-item marker
The look of an HTML table can be greatly improved with CSS:
Company Contact Country
Alfreds Futterkiste Maria Anders Germany
Berglunds snabbkp Christina Berglund Sweden

44
Centro comercial Moctezuma Francisco Chang Mexico
Ernst Handel Roland Mendel Austria
Island Trading Helen Bennett UK
Kniglich Essen Philip Cramer Germany
Laughing Bacchus Winecellars Yoshi Tannamuri Canada
Magazzini Alimentari Riuniti Giovanni Rovelli Italy
Table Borders
To specify table borders in CSS, use the border property.
The example below specifies a black border for <table>, <th>, and <td> elements:
Example
table, th, td {
}
Notice that the table in the example above has double borders. This is because both the table and the <th>
and <td> elements have separate borders.
Collapse Table Borders
The border-collapse property sets whether the table borders should be collapsed into a single border:
Example
table {
border-collapse: collapse;
}
table, th, td {
}
If you only want a border around the table, only specify the border property for <table>:
Example
table {
}
Table Width and Height
Width and height of a table are defined by the width and height properties.
The example below sets the width of the table to 100%, and the height of the <th> elements to 50px:
45
Example
table {
width: 100%;
}
th {
height: 50px;
}
Horizontal Alignment
The text-align property sets the horizontal alignment (like left, right, or center) of the content in <th> or
<td>.
By default, the content of <th> elements are center-aligned and the content of <td> elements are left-aligned.
The following example left-aligns the text in <th> elements:
Example
th {
text-align: left;
}
Vertical Alignment
The vertical-align property sets the vertical alignment (like top, bottom, or middle) of the content in <th> or
<td>.
By default, the vertical alignment of the content in a table is middle (for both <th> and <td> elements).
The following example sets the vertical text alignment to bottom for <td> elements:
Example
td {
height: 50px;
vertical-align: bottom;
}
Table Padding
To control the space between the border and the content in a table, use thepadding property on <td> and
<th> elements:
Example
th, td {
padding: 15px;
text-align: left;
}
Horizontal Dividers
46
First Name Last Name Savings
Peter Griffin $100
Lois Griffin $150
Joe Swanson $300
Add the border-bottom property to <th> and <td> for horizontal dividers:
Example
th, td {
border-bottom: 1px solid #ddd;
}
Hoverable Table
Use the :hover selector on <tr> to highlight table rows on mouse over:

47
Peter Griffin $100
Lois Griffin $150
Joe Swanson $300
Example
tr:hover {background-color: #f5f5f5}
Striped Tables
Peter Griffin $100
Lois Griffin $150
Joe Swanson $300
For zebra-striped tables, use the nth-child() selector and add a background-color to all even (or odd) table
rows:
Example
tr:nth-child(even) {background-color: #f2f2f2}
Table Color
The example below specifies the background color and text color of <th> elements:
48
Peter Griffin $100
Lois Griffin $150
Joe Swanson $300
Example
th {
background-color: #4CAF50;
color: white;
}
Responsive Table
A responsive table will display a horizontal scroll bar if the screen is too small to display the full content:
First Name Last Name Points Points Points Points Points Points Points Points Point
Jill Smith 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50
Eve Jackson 94 94 94 94 94 94 94 94 94
Adam Johnson 67 67 67 67 67 67 67 67 67
Add a container element (like <div>) with overflow-x:auto around the <table> element to make it
responsive:
Example
<div style="overflow-x:auto;">
<table>
... table content ...
</table>
</div>
49
CSS Table Properties
border Sets all the border properties in one declaration
border-collapse Specifies whether or not table borders should be collapsed
border-spacing Specifies the distance between the borders of adjacent cells
caption-side Specifies the placement of a table caption
empty-cells Specifies whether or not to display borders and background on empty cells
in a table
table-layout Sets the layout algorithm to be used for a table
CSS Layout - The display Property
The display property is the most important CSS property for controlling layout.
The display Property
The display property specifies if/how an element is displayed.
Every HTML element has a default display value depending on what type of element it is. The default
display value for most elements is block or inline.
Click to show panel
Block-level Elements
A block-level element always starts on a new line and takes up the full width available (stretches out to the
left and right as far as it can).
50
The <div> element is a block-level element.
Examples of block-level elements:
<div>
<h1> - <h6>
<p>
<form>
<header>
<footer>
<section>
Inline Elements
An inline element does not start on a new line and only takes up as much width as necessary.
This is an inline <span> element inside a paragraph.
Examples of inline elements:
<span>
<a>
<img>
Display: none;
display: none; is commonly used with JavaScript to hide and show elements without deleting and recreating
them. Take a look at our last example on this page if you want to know how this can be achieved.
The <script> element uses display: none; as default.
Override The Default Display Value
As mentioned, every element has a default display value. However, you can override this.
Changing an inline element to a block element, or vice versa, can be useful for making the page look a
specific way, and still follow the web standards.
A common example is making inline <li> elements for horizontal menus:
Example
li {
display: inline;
}
Note: Setting the display property of an element only changes how the element is displayed, NOT what
kind of element it is. So, an inline element with display: block; is not allowed to have other block elements
inside it.
The following example displays <span> elements as block elements:

51
Example
span {
display: block;
}
The following example displays <a> elements as block elements:
Example
a{
display: block;
}
Hide an Element - display:none or visibility:hidden?
display:none
Remove
visibility:hidden
52
Hide
Reset
Reset All
Hiding an element can be done by setting the display property to none. The element will be hidden, and the
page will be displayed as if the element is not there:
53
Example
h1.hidden {
display: none;
}
visibility:hidden; also hides an element.
However, the element will still take up the same space as before. The element will be hidden, but still affect
the layout:
Example
h1.hidden {
visibility: hidden;
}
CSS Display/Visibility Properties
display Specifies how an element should be displayed
visibility Specifies whether or not an element should be visible
Using width, max-width and margin: auto;
Setting the width of a block-level element will prevent it from stretching out to the edges of its container.
Then, you can set the margins to auto, to horizontally center the element within its container. The element
will take up the specified width, and the remaining space will be split equally between the two margins:
This <div> element has a width of 500px, and margin set to auto.
Note: The problem with the <div> above occurs when the browser window is smaller than the width of the
element. The browser then adds a horizontal scrollbar to the page.
Using max-width instead, in this situation, will improve the browser's handling of small windows. This is
important when making a site usable on small devices:
This <div> element has a max-width of 500px, and margin set to auto.
Tip: Resize the browser window to less than 500px wide, to see the difference between the two divs!
Here is an example of the two divs above:
Example
div.ex1 {
width: 500px;
54
margin: auto;
border: 3px solid #73AD21;
}
div.ex2 {
max-width: 500px;
margin: auto;
}
Using width, max-width and margin: auto;
As mentioned in the previous chapter; a block-level element always takes up the full width available
(stretches out to the left and right as far as it can).
Setting the width of a block-level element will prevent it from stretching out to the edges of its container.
Then, you can set the margins to auto, to horizontally center the element within its container. The element
will take up the specified width, and the remaining space will be split equally between the two margins:
This <div> element has a width of 500px, and margin set to auto.
Note: The problem with the <div> above occurs when the browser window is smaller than the width of the
element. The browser then adds a horizontal scrollbar to the page.
Using max-width instead, in this situation, will improve the browser's handling of small windows. This is
important when making a site usable on small devices:
This <div> element has a max-width of 500px, and margin set to auto.
Tip: Resize the browser window to less than 500px wide, to see the difference between the two divs!
Here is an example of the two divs above:
div.ex1 {
width: 500px;
margin: auto;
}
div.ex2 {
max-width: 500px;
margin: auto;
}
CSS Layout - The position Property
The position property specifies the type of positioning method used for an element (static, relative, fixed or
absolute).
The position Property
The position property specifies the type of positioning method used for an element.
55
There are four different position values:
static
relative
fixed
absolute
Elements are then positioned using the top, bottom, left, and right properties. However, these properties will
not work unless the position property is set first. They also work differently depending on the position value.
position: static;
HTML elements are positioned static by default.
Static positioned elements are not affected by the top, bottom, left, and right properties.
An element with position: static; is not positioned in any special way; it is always positioned according to
the normal flow of the page:
This <div> element has position: static;
Here is the CSS that is used:
Example
div.static {
position: static;
}
position: relative;
An element with position: relative; is positioned relative to its normal position.
Setting the top, right, bottom, and left properties of a relatively-positioned element will cause it to be
adjusted away from its normal position. Other content will not be adjusted to fit into any gap left by the
element.
This <div> element has position: relative;
Example
div.relative {
position: relative;
left: 30px;
}
position: fixed;
An element with position: fixed; is positioned relative to the viewport, which means it always stays in the
same place even if the page is scrolled. The top, right, bottom, and left properties are used to position the
element.
56
A fixed element does not leave a gap in the page where it would normally have been located.
Notice the fixed element in the lower-right corner of the page. Here is the CSS that is used:
Example
div.fixed {
position: fixed;
bottom: 0;
right: 0;
width: 300px;
}
This <div> element has position: fixed;

position: absolute;
An element with position: absolute; is positioned relative to the nearest positioned ancestor (instead of
positioned relative to the viewport, like fixed).
However; if an absolute positioned element has no positioned ancestors, it uses the document body, and
moves along with page scrolling.
Note: A "positioned" element is one whose position is anything except static.
Here is a simple example:
This <div> element has position: relative;

This <div> element has position: absolute;
Example
div.relative {
position: relative;
width: 400px;
height: 200px;
}
div.absolute {
position: absolute;
top: 80px;
right: 0;
width: 200px;
height: 100px;
}
Overlapping Elements
When elements are positioned, they can overlap other elements.

57
The z-index property specifies the stack order of an element (which element should be placed in front of, or
behind, the others).
An element can have a positive or negative stack order:
This is a heading
Because the image has a z-index of -1, it will be placed behind the text.
Example
img {
position: absolute;
left: 0px;
top: 0px;
z-index: -1;
}
An element with greater stack order is always in front of an element with a lower stack order.
All CSS Positioning Properties
bottom Sets the bottom margin edge for a positioned box
clip Clips an absolutely positioned element
cursor Specifies the type of cursor to be displayed
left Sets the left margin edge for a positioned box
overflow Specifies what happens if content overflows an element's box

58
overflow-x Specifies what to do with the left/right edges of the content if it overflows
the element's content area
overflow-y Specifies what to do with the top/bottom edges of the content if it

overflows the element's content area
position Specifies the type of positioning for an element
right Sets the right margin edge for a positioned box
top Sets the top margin edge for a positioned box
z-index Sets the stack order of an element
CSS Overflow
The CSS overflow property specifies whether to clip content or to add scrollbars when the content of an
element is too big to fit in a specified area.
This text is really long and the height of its container is only 100 pixels. Therefore, a scrollbar is added to
help the reader to scroll the content. Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed diam
nonummy nibh euismod tincidunt ut laoreet dolore magna aliquam erat volutpat. Ut wisi enim ad minim
veniam, quis nostrud exerci tation ullamcorper suscipit lobortis nisl ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat.
Duis autem vel eum iriure dolor in hendrerit in vulputate velit esse molestie consequat, vel illum dolore eu
feugiat nulla facilisis at vero eros et accumsan et iusto odio dignissim qui blandit praesent luptatum zzril
delenit augue duis dolore te feugait nulla facilisi. Nam liber tempor cum soluta nobis eleifend option congue
nihil imperdiet doming id quod mazim placerat facer possim assum. Typi non habent claritatem insitam; est
usus legentis in iis qui facit eorum claritatem.
The overflow property has the following values:
visible - Default. The overflow is not clipped. It renders outside the element's box
hidden - The overflow is clipped, and the rest of the content will be invisible
scroll - The overflow is clipped, but a scrollbar is added to see the rest of the content
auto - If overflow is clipped, a scrollbar should be added to see the rest of the content
Note: The overflow property only works for block elements with a specified height.
Note: In OS X Lion (on Mac), scrollbars are hidden by default and only shown when being used (even
though "overflow:scroll" is set).
59
Visible
By default, the overflow is visible, meaning that it is not clipped and it renders outside the element's box:
You can use the overflow property when you want to have better control of the layout. The overflow
property specifies what happens if content overflows an element's box.
Example
div {
width: 200px;
height: 50px;
background-color: #eee;
overflow: visible;
}
Hidden
With the hidden value, the overflow is clipped, and the rest of the content is hidden:
Example
div {
overflow: hidden;
}
Scroll
Setting the value to scroll, the overflow is clipped and a scrollbar is added to scroll inside the box. Note that
this will add a scrollbar both horizontally and vertically (even if you do not need it):
Example
div {
overflow: scroll;
}
Auto
The auto value is similar to scroll, only it add scrollbars when necessary:
Example
div {
overflow: auto;
}
overflow-x and overflow-y
The overflow-x and overflow-y properties specifies whether to change the overflow of content just
horizontally or vertically (or both):
60
overflow-x specifies what to do with the left/right edges of the content.

overflow-y specifies what to do with the top/bottom edges of the content.
Example
div {
overflow-x: hidden; /* Hide horizontal scrollbar */
overflow-y: scroll; /* Add vertical scrollbar */
}
CSS Layout - float and clear
The float property specifies whether or not an element should float.
The clear property is used to control the behavior of floating elements.
The float Property
In its simplest use, the float property can be used to wrap text around images.
The following example specifies that an image should float to the right in a text:
Example
img {
float: right;
margin: 0 0 10px 10px;
}
The clear Property
The clear property is used to control the behavior of floating elements.
Elements after a floating element will flow around it. To avoid this, use the clearproperty.
The clear property specifies on which sides of an element floating elements are not allowed to float:
Example
div {
clear: left;
}
The clearfix Hack
If an element is taller than the element containing it, and it is floated, it will overflow outside of its
container.
Then we can add overflow: auto; to the containing element to fix this problem:
Example
.clearfix {
overflow: auto;
}
61
The overflow:auto clearfix works well as long as you are able to keep control of your margins and padding
(else you might see scrollbars). The new, modern clearfix hack however, is safer to use, and the following
code is used for most webpages:
Example
.clearfix::after {
content: "";
clear: both;
display: table;
}
You will learn more about the ::after pseduo-element in a later chapter.
Web Layout Example
It is common to do entire web layouts using the float property:
Example
.header, .footer {
background-color: grey;
color: white;
padding: 15px;
}
.column {
float: left;
padding: 15px;
}
.clearfix::after {
content: "";
clear: both;
display: table;
}
.menu {
width: 25%;
}
.content {
width: 75%;
}
All CSS Float Properties
clear Specifies on which sides of an element where floating elements are not
allowed to float
62
float Specifies whether or not an element should float
overflow Specifies what happens if content overflows an element's box
overflow-x Specifies what to do with the left/right edges of the content if it overflows
the element's content area
overflow-y Specifies what to do with the top/bottom edges of the content if it

overflows the element's content area
CSS Layout - inline-block

The inline-block Value
It has been possible for a long time to create a grid of boxes that fills the browser width and wraps nicely
(when the browser is resized), by using the floatproperty.
However, the inline-block value of the display property makes this even easier.
inline-block elements are like inline elements but they can have a width and a height.
Examples
The old way - using float (notice that we also need to specify a clear property for the element after the
floating boxes):
Example
.floating-box {
float: left;
width: 150px;
height: 75px;
margin: 10px;
}
.after-box {
clear: left;
}
The same effect can be achieved by using the inline-block value of the display property (notice that
no clear property is needed):
Example
.floating-box {
63
width: 150px;
height: 75px;
margin: 10px;
}
CSS Layout - Horizontal & Vertical Align
Center elements
horizontally and vertically
Center Align Elements
To horizontally center a block element (like <div>), use margin: auto;
Setting the width of the element will prevent it from stretching out to the edges of its container.
The element will then take up the specified width, and the remaining space will be split equally between the
two margins:
This div element is centered.
Example
.center {
margin: auto;
width: 50%;
padding: 10px;
}
Note: Center aligning has no effect if the width property is not set (or set to 100%).
Center Align Text
To just center the text inside an element, use text-align: center;
This text is centered.
Example
.center {
text-align: center;
}
Tip: For more examples on how to align text, see the CSS Text chapter.
Center an Image
To center an image, use margin: auto; and make it into a block element:
64
Example
img {
display: block;
margin: auto;
width: 40%;
}
Left and Right Align - Using position
One method for aligning elements is to use position: absolute;:
In my younger and more vulnerable years my father gave me some advice that I've been turning over in my
mind ever since.
Example
.right {
position: absolute;
right: 0px;
width: 300px;
padding: 10px;
}
Note: Absolute positioned elements are removed from the normal flow, and can overlap elements.
Tip: When aligning elements with position, always define margin and paddingfor the <body> element. This
is to avoid visual differences in different browsers.
There is also a problem with IE8 and earlier, when using position. If a container element (in our case <div
class="container">) has a specified width, and the !DOCTYPE declaration is missing, IE8 and earlier
versions will add a 17px margin on the right side. This seems to be space reserved for a scrollbar. So, always
set the !DOCTYPE declaration when using position:
Example
body {
margin: 0;
65
padding: 0;
}
.container {
position: relative;
width: 100%;
}
.right {
position: absolute;
right: 0px;
width: 300px;
background-color: #b0e0e6;
}
Left and Right Align - Using float
Another method for aligning elements is to use the float property:
Example
.right {
float: right;
width: 300px;
padding: 10px;
}
Tip: When aligning elements with float, always define margin and padding for the <body> element. This is
to avoid visual differences in different browsers.
There is also a problem with IE8 and earlier, when using float. If the !DOCTYPE declaration is missing, IE8
and earlier versions will add a 17px margin on the right side. This seems to be space reserved for a scrollbar.
So, always set the !DOCTYPE declaration when using float:
Example
body {
margin: 0;
padding: 0;
}
.right {
float: right;
width: 300px;
background-color: #b0e0e6;
}
Center Vertically - Using padding
There are many ways to center an element vertically in CSS. A simple solution is to use top and
bottom padding:
I am vertically centered.
66
Example
.center {
padding: 70px 0;
}
To center both vertically and horizontally, use padding and text-align: center:
I am vertically and horizontally centered.
Example
.center {
padding: 70px 0;
text-align: center;
}
Center Vertically - Using line-height
Another trick is to use the line-height property with a value that is equal to the height property.
Example
.center {
line-height: 200px;
height: 200px;
text-align: center;
}
/* If the text has multiple lines, add the following: */

.center p {
line-height: 1.5;
vertical-align: middle;
}
Center Vertically - Using position & transform
If padding and line-height is not an option, a third solution is to use positioning and the transform property:
.center {
height: 200px;
position: relative;
}
.center p {
margin: 0;
67
position: absolute;
top: 50%;
left: 50%;
transform: translate(-50%, -50%);
}
CSS Combinators
A combinator is something that explains the relationship between the selectors.
A CSS selector can contain more than one simple selector. Between the simple selectors, we can include a
combinator.
There are four different combinators in CSS3:
descendant selector (space)

child selector (>)
adjacent sibling selector (+)
general sibling selector (~)
Descendant Selector
The descendant selector matches all elements that are descendants of a specified element.
The following example selects all <p> elements inside <div> elements:
Example
div p {
}
Child Selector
The child selector selects all elements that are the immediate children of a specified element.
The following example selects all <p> elements that are immediate children of a <div> element:
Example
div > p {
}
Adjacent Sibling Selector
The adjacent sibling selector selects all elements that are the adjacent siblings of a specified element.
Sibling elements must have the same parent element, and "adjacent" means "immediately following".
The following example selects all <p> elements that are placed immediately after <div> elements:
Example
div + p {
68
General Sibling Selector
The general sibling selector selects all elements that are siblings of a specified element.
The following example selects all <p> elements that are siblings of <div> elements:
Example
div ~ p {
}
CSS Pseudo-classes
What are Pseudo-classes?
A pseudo-class is used to define a special state of an element.
For example, it can be used to:
Style an element when a user mouses over it

Style visited and unvisited links differently
Style an element when it gets focus
Mouse Over Me
The syntax of pseudo-classes:
selector:pseudo-class {
property:value;
}
Anchor Pseudo-classes
Links can be displayed in different ways:
Example
/* unvisited link */
a:link {
color: #FF0000;
}
/* visited link */
a:visited {
color: #00FF00;
}
/* mouse over link */

a:hover {
69
color: #FF00FF;
}
/* selected link */
a:active {
color: #0000FF;
}
Note: a:hover MUST come after a:link and a:visited in the CSS definition in order to be
effective! a:active MUST come after a:hover in the CSS definition in order to be effective! Pseudo-class
names are not case-sensitive.
Pseudo-classes and CSS Classes
Pseudo-classes can be combined with CSS classes:
When you hover over the link in the example, it will change color:
Example
a.highlight:hover {
color: #ff0000;
}
Hover on <div>
An example of using the :hover pseudo-class on a <div> element:
Example
div:hover {
background-color: blue;
}
Simple Tooltip Hover
Hover over a <div> element to show a <p> element (like a tooltip):
Hover over me to show the <p> element.

Example
p{
display: none;
padding: 20px;
}
div:hover p {
display: block;
}
CSS - The :first-child Pseudo-class
The :first-child pseudo-class matches a specified element that is the first child of another element.
70
Match the first <p> element
In the following example, the selector matches any <p> element that is the first child of any element:
Example
p:first-child {
color: blue;
}
Match the first <i> element in all <p> elements
In the following example, the selector matches the first <i> element in all <p> elements:
Example
p i:first-child {
color: blue;
}
Match all <i> elements in all first child <p> elements
In the following example, the selector matches all <i> elements in <p> elements that are the first child of
another element:
Example
p:first-child i {
color: blue;
}
CSS - The :lang Pseudo-class
The :lang pseudo-class allows you to define special rules for different languages.
In the example below, :lang defines the quotation marks for <q> elements with lang="no":
Example
<html>
<head>
<style>
q:lang(no) {
quotes: "~" "~";
}
</style>
</head>
<body>
<p>Some text <q lang="no">A quote in a paragraph</q> Some text.</p>
</body>
</html>
71
All CSS Pseudo Classes
Selector Example Example description
:active a:active Selects the active link
:checked input:checked Selects every checked <input> element
:disabled input:disabled Selects every disabled <input> element
:empty p:empty Selects every <p> element that has no children
:enabled input:enabled Selects every enabled <input> element
:first-child p:first-child Selects every <p> elements that is the first child
of its parent
:first-of-type p:first-of-type Selects every <p> element that is the first <p>
element of its parent
:focus input:focus Selects the <input> element that has focus
:hover a:hover Selects links on mouse over
:in-range input:in-range Selects <input> elements with a value within a

72
specified range
:invalid input:invalid Selects all <input> elements with an invalid value
:lang(language) p:lang(it) Selects every <p> element with a lang attribute

value starting with "it"
:last-child p:last-child Selects every <p> elements that is the last child
of its parent
:last-of-type p:last-of-type Selects every <p> element that is the last <p>
:link a:link Selects all unvisited links
:not(selector) :not(p) Selects every element that is not a <p> element
:nth-child(n) p:nth-child(2) Selects every <p> element that is the second child
of its parent
:nth-last-child(n) p:nth-last-child(2) Selects every <p> element that is the second child
of its parent, counting from the last child
:nth-last-of-type(n) p:nth-last-of-type(2) Selects every <p> element that is the second <p>
element of its parent, counting from the last child
:nth-of-type(n) p:nth-of-type(2) Selects every <p> element that is the second <p>
:only-of-type p:only-of-type Selects every <p> element that is the only <p>
73
:only-child p:only-child Selects every <p> element that is the only child
of its parent
:optional input:optional Selects <input> elements with no "required"

attribute
:out-of-range input:out-of-range Selects <input> elements with a value outside a

specified range
:read-only input:read-only Selects <input> elements with a "readonly"

attribute specified
:read-write input:read-write Selects <input> elements with no "readonly"

attribute
:required input:required Selects <input> elements with a "required"

attribute specified
:root root Selects the document's root element
:target #news:target Selects the current active #news element (clicked

on a URL containing that anchor name)
:valid input:valid Selects all <input> elements with a valid value
:visited a:visited Selects all visited links
All CSS Pseudo Elements

74
::after p::after Insert content after every <p> element
::before p::before Insert content before every <p> element
::first-letter p::first-letter Selects the first letter of every <p> element
::first-line p::first-line Selects the first line of every <p> element
::selection p::selection Selects the portion of an element that is selected by a

user
CSS Pseudo-elements
What are Pseudo-Elements?
A CSS pseudo-element is used to style specified parts of an element.
For example, it can be used to:
Style the first letter, or line, of an element

Insert content before, or after, the content of an element
The syntax of pseudo-elements:
selector::pseudo-element {
property:value;
}
Notice the double colon notation - ::first-line versus :first-line
The double colon replaced the single-colon notation for pseudo-elements in CSS3. This was an attempt from
W3C to distinguish between pseudo-classes and pseudo-elements.
The single-colon syntax was used for both pseudo-classes and pseudo-elements in CSS2 and CSS1.
For backward compatibility, the single-colon syntax is acceptable for CSS2 and CSS1 pseudo-elements.
The ::first-line Pseudo-element

75
The ::first-line pseudo-element is used to add a special style to the first line of a text.
The following example formats the first line of the text in all <p> elements:
Example
p::first-line {
color: #ff0000;
}
Note: The ::first-line pseudo-element can only be applied to block-level elements.
The following properties apply to the ::first-line pseudo-element:
font properties
color properties
background properties
word-spacing
letter-spacing
text-decoration
vertical-align
text-transform
line-height
clear
The ::first-letter Pseudo-element
The ::first-letter pseudo-element is used to add a special style to the first letter of a text.
The following example formats the first letter of the text in all <p> elements:
Example
p::first-letter {
color: #ff0000;
font-size: xx-large;
}
Note: The ::first-letter pseudo-element can only be applied to block-level elements.
The following properties apply to the ::first-letter pseudo- element:
font properties
color properties
background properties
margin properties
padding properties
border properties
text-decoration
vertical-align (only if "float" is "none")
text-transform
line-height
float
clear
76
Pseudo-elements and CSS Classes
Pseudo-elements can be combined with CSS classes:
Example
p.intro::first-letter {
color: #ff0000;
font-size:200%;
}
The example above will display the first letter of paragraphs with class="intro", in red and in a larger size.
Multiple Pseudo-elements
Several pseudo-elements can also be combined.
In the following example, the first letter of a paragraph will be red, in an xx-large font size. The rest of the
first line will be blue, and in small-caps. The rest of the paragraph will be the default font size and color:
Example
p::first-letter {
color: #ff0000;
font-size: xx-large;
}
p::first-line {
color: #0000ff;
}
CSS - The ::before Pseudo-element
The ::before pseudo-element can be used to insert some content before the content of an element.
The following example inserts an image before the content of each <h1> element:
Example
h1::before {
content: url(smiley.gif);
}
CSS - The ::after Pseudo-element
The ::after pseudo-element can be used to insert some content after the content of an element.
The following example inserts an image after the content of each <h1> element:
Example
h1::after {
content: url(smiley.gif);
}
CSS - The ::selection Pseudo-element
77
The ::selection pseudo-element matches the portion of an element that is selected by a user.
The following CSS properties can be applied to ::selection: color,background, cursor, and outline.
The following example makes the selected text red on a yellow background:
Example
::selection {
color: red;
background: yellow;
}
All CSS Pseudo Elements
::after p::after Insert something after the content of each <p> element
::before p::before Insert something before the content of each <p> element
::first-letter p::first-letter Selects the first letter of each <p> element
::first-line p::first-line Selects the first line of each <p> element
::selection p::selection Selects the portion of an element that is selected by a

user
All CSS Pseudo Classes
:active a:active Selects the active link
:checked input:checked Selects every checked <input> element

78
:disabled input:disabled Selects every disabled <input> element
:empty p:empty Selects every <p> element that has no children
:enabled input:enabled Selects every enabled <input> element
:first-child p:first-child Selects every <p> elements that is the first child
of its parent
:first-of-type p:first-of-type Selects every <p> element that is the first <p>
:focus input:focus Selects the <input> element that has focus
:hover a:hover Selects links on mouse over
:in-range input:in-range Selects <input> elements with a value within a

specified range
:invalid input:invalid Selects all <input> elements with an invalid value
:lang(language) p:lang(it) Selects every <p> element with a lang attribute

value starting with "it"
:last-child p:last-child Selects every <p> elements that is the last child
of its parent
:last-of-type p:last-of-type Selects every <p> element that is the last <p>
79
:link a:link Selects all unvisited links
:not(selector) :not(p) Selects every element that is not a <p> element
:nth-child(n) p:nth-child(2) Selects every <p> element that is the second child
of its parent
:nth-last-child(n) p:nth-last-child(2) Selects every <p> element that is the second child
of its parent, counting from the last child
:nth-last-of-type(n) p:nth-last-of-type(2) Selects every <p> element that is the second <p>
element of its parent, counting from the last child
:nth-of-type(n) p:nth-of-type(2) Selects every <p> element that is the second <p>
:only-of-type p:only-of-type Selects every <p> element that is the only <p>
:only-child p:only-child Selects every <p> element that is the only child
of its parent
:optional input:optional Selects <input> elements with no "required"

attribute
:out-of-range input:out-of-range Selects <input> elements with a value outside a

specified range
:read-only input:read-only Selects <input> elements with a "readonly"

attribute specified
80
:read-write input:read-write Selects <input> elements with no "readonly"

attribute
:required input:required Selects <input> elements with a "required"

attribute specified
:root root Selects the document's root element
:target #news:target Selects the current active #news element (clicked

on a URL containing that anchor name)
:valid input:valid Selects all <input> elements with a valid value
:visited a:visited Selects all visited links
CSS Opacity / Transparency
The opacity property specifies the opacity/transparency of an element.
Transparent Image
The opacity property can take a value from 0.0 - 1.0. The lower value, the more transparent:
81
opacity 0.2
opacity 0.5
82
opacity 1
(default)
Note: IE8 and earlier use filter:alpha(opacity=x). The x can take a value from 0 - 100. A lower value makes
the element more transparent.
Example
img {
opacity: 0.5;
filter: alpha(opacity=50); /* For IE8 and earlier */
}
Transparent Hover Effect
The opacity property is often used together with the :hover selector to change the opacity on mouse-over:
83
84
Example
img {
opacity: 0.5;
}
img:hover {
opacity: 1.0;
}
Example explained
The first CSS block is similar to the code in Example 1. In addition, we have added what should happen
when a user hovers over one of the images. In this case we want the image to NOT be transparent when the
user hovers over it. The CSS for this is opacity:1;.
When the mouse pointer moves away from the image, the image will be transparent again.
An example of reversed hover effect:

85
86
Example
img:hover {
opacity: 0.5;
}
Transparent Box
When using the opacity property to add transparency to the background of an element, all of its child
elements become transparent as well. This can make the text inside a fully transparent element hard to read:
opacity 1
opacity 0.6
opacity 0.3
opacity 0.1
Example
div {
opacity: 0.3;
}
Transparency using RGBA
If you do not want to apply opacity to child elements, like in our example above, use RGBA color values.
The following example sets the opacity for the background color and not the text:
100% opacity
87
60% opacity
30% opacity
10% opacity
You learned from our CSS Colors Chapter, that you can use RGB as a color value. In addition to RGB,
CSS3 introduced an RGB color value with an alpha channel (RGBA) - which specifies the opacity for a
color.
An RGBA color value is specified with: rgba(red, green, blue, alpha). The alpha parameter is a number
between 0.0 (fully transparent) and 1.0 (fully opaque).
Tip: You will learn more about RGBA Colors in our CSS3 Colors Chapter.
Example
div {
background: rgba(76, 175, 80, 0.3) /* Green background with 30% opacity */
}
Text in Transparent Box
This is some text that is placed in the transparent box.
<html>
<head>
<style>
div.background {
background: url(klematis.jpg) repeat;
}
div.transbox {
margin: 30px;
background-color: #ffffff;
opacity: 0.6;
}
div.transbox p {
margin: 5%;
font-weight: bold;
color: #000000;
}
</style>
</head>
<body>
<div class="background">
<div class="transbox">
<p>This is some text that is placed in the transparent box.</p>
</div>
88
</div>
</body>
</html>
First, we create a <div> element (class="background") with a background image, and a border. Then we
create another <div> (class="transbox") inside the first <div>. The <div class="transbox"> have a
background color, and a border - the div is transparent. Inside the transparent <div>, we add some text inside
a <p> element.
CSS Navigation Bar

Demo: Navigation Bars
Vertical
Home
News
Contact
About
Horizontal
Home
News
Contact
About
Home
News
Contact
About
Navigation Bars
Having easy-to-use navigation is important for any web site.
With CSS you can transform boring HTML menus into good-looking navigation bars.
Navigation Bar = List of Links
A navigation bar needs standard HTML as a base.
In our examples we will build the navigation bar from a standard HTML list.
A navigation bar is basically a list of links, so using the <ul> and <li> elements makes perfect sense:
Example
<ul>
<li><a href="default.asp">Home</a></li>
<li><a href="news.asp">News</a></li>
<li><a href="contact.asp">Contact</a></li>
<li><a href="about.asp">About</a></li>
</ul>
89
Now let's remove the bullets and the margins and padding from the list:
Example
ul {
margin: 0;
padding: 0;
}
Example explained:
list-style-type: none; - Removes the bullets. A navigation bar does not need list markers
Set margin: 0; and padding: 0; to remove browser default settings
The code in the example above is the standard code used in both vertical, and horizontal navigation bars.
Vertical Navigation Bar
To build a vertical navigation bar, you can style the <a> elements inside the list, in addition to the code
above:
Example
li a {
display: block;
width: 60px;
}
Example explained:
display: block; - Displaying the links as block elements makes the whole link area clickable (not just
the text), and it allows us to specify the width (and padding, margin, height, etc. if you want)
width: 60px; - Block elements take up the full width available by default. We want to specify a 60
pixels width
You can also set the width of <ul>, and remove the width of <a>, as they will take up the full width
available when displayed as block elements. This will produce the same result as our previous example:
Example
ul {
margin: 0;
padding: 0;
width: 60px;
}
li a {
display: block;
}
Vertical Navigation Bar Examples
Create a basic vertical navigation bar with a gray background color and change the background color of the
links when the user moves the mouse over them:
90
Home
News
Contact
About
Example
ul {
margin: 0;
padding: 0;
width: 200px;
background-color: #f1f1f1;
}
li a {
display: block;
color: #000;
padding: 8px 16px;
}
/* Change the link color on hover */

li a:hover {
background-color: #555;
color: white;
}
Active/Current Navigation Link
Add an "active" class to the current link to let the user know which page he/she is on:
Home
News
Contact
About
Example
.active {
color: white;
}
Center Links & Add Borders
Add text-align:center to <li> or <a> to center the links.
Add the border property to <ul> add a border around the navbar. If you also want borders inside the navbar,
add a border-bottom to all <li> elements, except for the last one:
Home
News
91
Contact
About
Example
ul {
border: 1px solid #555;
}
li {
text-align: center;
border-bottom: 1px solid #555;
}
li:last-child {
border-bottom: none;
}
Full-height Fixed Vertical Navbar
Create a full-height, "sticky" side navigation:
Example
ul {
margin: 0;
padding: 0;
width: 25%;
height: 100%; /* Full height */
position: fixed; /* Make it stick, even on scroll */
overflow: auto; /* Enable scrolling if the sidenav has too much content */
}
Note: This example might not work properly on mobile devices.
Horizontal Navigation Bar
There are two ways to create a horizontal navigation bar. Using inline or floating list items.
Inline List Items
One way to build a horizontal navigation bar is to specify the <li> elements as inline, in addition to the
"standard" code above:
Example
li {
display: inline;
}
Example explained:
92
display: inline; - By default, <li> elements are block elements. Here, we remove the line breaks
before and after each list item, to display them on one line
Floating List Items
Another way of creating a horizontal navigation bar is to float the <li> elements, and specify a layout for the
navigation links:
Example
li {
float: left;
}
a{
display: block;
padding: 8px;
background-color: #dddddd;
}
Example explained:
float: left; - use float to get block elements to slide next to each other
display: block; - Displaying the links as block elements makes the whole link area clickable (not just
the text), and it allows us to specify padding (and height, width, margins, etc. if you want)
padding: 8px; - Since block elements take up the full width available, they cannot float next to each
other. Therefore, specify some padding to make them look good
background-color: #dddddd; - Add a gray background-color to each a element
Tip: Add the background-color to <ul> instead of each <a> element if you want a full-width background
color:
Example
ul {
background-color: #dddddd;
}
Horizontal Navigation Bar Examples
Create a basic horizontal navigation bar with a dark background color and change the background color of
the links when the user moves the mouse over them:
Home
News
Contact
About
ul {
margin: 0;
padding: 0;
overflow: hidden;
}
93
li {
float: left;
}
li a {
display: block;
color: white;
text-align: center;
padding: 14px 16px;
}
/* Change the link color to #111 (black) on hover */

li a:hover {
}
Active/Current Navigation Link
Add an "active" class to the current link to let the user know which page he/she is on:
Home
News
Contact
About
Example
.active {
}
Right-Align Links
Right-align links by floating the list items to the right (float:right;):
Home
News
Contact
About
Example
<ul>
<li><a href="#home">Home</a></li>
<li><a href="#news">News</a></li>
<li><a href="#contact">Contact</a></li>
<li style="float:right"><a class="active" href="#about">About</a></li>
</ul>
Border Dividers
Add the border-right property to <li> to create link dividers:

94
Home
News
Contact
About
Example
/* Add a gray right border to all list items, except the last item (last-child) */
li {
border-right: 1px solid #bbb;
}
li:last-child {
border-right: none;
}
Fixed Navigation Bar
Make the navigation bar stay at the top or the bottom of the page, even when the user scrolls the page:
Fixed Top
ul {
position: fixed;
top: 0;
width: 100%;
}
Fixed Bottom
ul {
position: fixed;
bottom: 0;
width: 100%;
}
Note: These examples might not work properly on mobile devices.
Gray Horizontal Navbar
An example of a gray horizontal navigation bar with a thin gray border:
Home
News
Contact
About
Example
ul {
border: 1px solid #e7e7e7;
}
li a {
color: #666;
95
CSS Dropdowns
Create a hoverable dropdown with CSS.
Demo: Dropdown Examples
Move the mouse over the examples below:
Dropdown Text
Dropdown Menu
Other:
Basic Dropdown
Create a dropdown box that appears when the user moves the mouse over an element.
Example
<style>
.dropdown {
position: relative;
}
.dropdown-content {
display: none;
position: absolute;
min-width: 160px;
box-shadow: 0px 8px 16px 0px rgba(0,0,0,0.2);
padding: 12px 16px;
z-index: 1;
}
.dropdown:hover .dropdown-content {
display: block;
}
</style>
<div class="dropdown">
<span>Mouse over me</span>
<div class="dropdown-content">
<p>Hello World!</p>
</div>
</div>
HTML) Use any element to open the dropdown content, e.g. a <span>, or a <button> element.
Use a container element (like <div>) to create the dropdown content and add whatever you want inside of it.
96
Wrap a <div> element around the elements to position the dropdown content correctly with CSS.
CSS) The .dropdown class use position:relative, which is needed when we want the dropdown content to be
placed right below the dropdown button (using position:absolute).
The .dropdown-content class holds the actual dropdown content. It is hidden by default, and will be
displayed on hover (see below). Note the min-width is set to 160px. Feel free to change this. Tip: If you
want the width of the dropdown content to be as wide as the dropdown button, set the width to 100%
(and overflow:auto to enable scroll on small screens).
Instead of using a border, we have used the CSS3 box-shadow property to make the dropdown menu look
like a "card".
The :hover selector is used to show the dropdown menu when the user moves the mouse over the dropdown
button.
Dropdown Menu
Create a dropdown menu that allows the user to choose an option from a list:
Dropdown Menu
This example is similar to the previous one, except that we add links inside the dropdown box and style
them to fit a styled dropdown button:
Example
<style>
/* Style The Dropdown Button */
.dropbtn {
color: white;
padding: 16px;
font-size: 16px;
border: none;
cursor: pointer;
}
/* The container <div> - needed to position the dropdown content */

.dropdown {
position: relative;
}
/* Dropdown Content (Hidden by Default) */

.dropdown-content {
display: none;
position: absolute;
min-width: 160px;
box-shadow: 0px 8px 16px 0px rgba(0,0,0,0.2);
z-index: 1;
}
/* Links inside the dropdown */

97
.dropdown-content a {
color: black;
padding: 12px 16px;
display: block;
}
/* Change color of dropdown links on hover */

.dropdown-content a:hover {background-color: #f1f1f1}
/* Show the dropdown menu on hover */

.dropdown:hover .dropdown-content {
display: block;
}
/* Change the background color of the dropdown button when the dropdown content is shown */
.dropdown:hover .dropbtn {
background-color: #3e8e41;
}
</style>
<div class="dropdown">
<button class="dropbtn">Dropdown</button>
<div class="dropdown-content">
<a href="#">Link 1</a>
</div>
</div>
Right-aligned Dropdown Content
Left
Right
If you want the dropdown menu to go from right to left, instead of left to right, add right: 0;
Example
.dropdown-content {
right: 0;
}
CSS Tooltip
Create tooltips with CSS.
Demo: Tooltip Examples
A tooltip is often used to specify extra information about something when the user moves the mouse pointer
over an element:
Top
Right
Bottom
Left
98
Basic Tooltip
Create a tooltip that appears when the user moves the mouse over an element:
Example
<style>
/* Tooltip container */
.tooltip {
position: relative;
border-bottom: 1px dotted black; /* If you want dots under the hoverable text */
}
/* Tooltip text */
.tooltip .tooltiptext {
visibility: hidden;
width: 120px;
background-color: black;
color: #fff;
text-align: center;
padding: 5px 0;
border-radius: 6px;
/* Position the tooltip text - see examples below! */

position: absolute;
z-index: 1;
}
/* Show the tooltip text when you mouse over the tooltip container */
.tooltip:hover .tooltiptext {
visibility: visible;
}
</style>
<div class="tooltip">Hover over me

<span class="tooltiptext">Tooltip text</span>
</div>
Example Explained
HTML) Use a container element (like <div>) and add the "tooltip" class to it. When the user mouse over
this <div>, it will show the tooltip text.
The tooltip text is placed inside an inline element (like <span>) with class="tooltiptext".
CSS) The tooltip class use position:relative, which is needed to position the tooltip text
(position:absolute). Note: See examples below on how to position the tooltip.
The tooltiptext class holds the actual tooltip text. It is hidden by default, and will be visible on hover (see
below). We have also added some basic styles to it: 120px width, black background color, white text color,
centered text, and 5px top and bottom padding.
99
The CSS3 border-radius property is used to add rounded corners to the tooltip text.
The :hover selector is used to show the tooltip text when the user moves the mouse over the <div>
with class="tooltip".
Positioning Tooltips
In this example, the tooltip is placed to the right (left:105%) of the "hoverable" text (<div>). Also note
that top:-5px is used to place it in the middle of its container element. We use the number 5 because the
tooltip text has a top and bottom padding of 5px. If you increase its padding, also increase the value of
the top property to ensure that it stays in the middle (if this is something you want). The same applies if you
want the tooltip placed to the left.
Right Tooltip
top: -5px;
left: 105%;
}
Result:
Hover over me
Left Tooltip
top: -5px;
right: 105%;
}
Result:
Hover over me
If you want the tooltip to appear on top or on the bottom, see examples below. Note that we use the margin-
left property with a value of minus 60 pixels. This is to center the tooltip above/below the hoverable text. It
is set to the half of the tooltip's width (120/2 = 60).
Top Tooltip
width: 120px;
bottom: 100%;
left: 50%;
margin-left: -60px; /* Use half of the width (120/2 = 60), to center the tooltip */
}
Result:
Hover over me
Bottom Tooltip
width: 120px;
top: 100%;
100
left: 50%;
margin-left: -60px; /* Use half of the width (120/2 = 60), to center the tooltip */
}
Result:
Hover over me
Tooltip Arrows
To create an arrow that should appear from a specific side of the tooltip, add "empty" content after tooltip,
with the pseudo-element class ::after together with the content property. The arrow itself is created using
borders. This will make the tooltip look like a speech bubble.
This example demonstrates how to add an arrow to the bottom of the tooltip:
Bottom Arrow
.tooltip .tooltiptext::after {
content: " ";
position: absolute;
top: 100%; /* At the bottom of the tooltip */
left: 50%;
margin-left: -5px;
border-width: 5px;
border-color: black transparent transparent transparent;
}
Result:
Hover over me
Position the arrow inside the tooltip: top: 100% will place the arrow at the bottom of the tooltip. left:
50% will center the arrow.
Note: The border-width property specifies the size of the arrow. If you change this, also change the margin-
left value to the same. This will keep the arrow centered.
The border-color is used to transform the content into an arrow. We set the top border to black, and the rest
to transparent. If all sides were black, you would end up with a black square box.
This example demonstrates how to add an arrow to the top of the tooltip. Notice that we set the bottom
border color this time:
Top Arrow
content: " ";
position: absolute;
bottom: 100%; /* At the top of the tooltip */
left: 50%;
margin-left: -5px;
border-width: 5px;
border-color: transparent transparent black transparent;
101
Result:
Hover over me
This example demonstrates how to add an arrow to the left of the tooltip:
Left Arrow
content: " ";
position: absolute;
top: 50%;
right: 100%; /* To the left of the tooltip */
margin-top: -5px;
border-width: 5px;
border-color: transparent black transparent transparent;
}
Result:
Hover over me
This example demonstrates how to add an arrow to the right of the tooltip:
Right Arrow
content: " ";
position: absolute;
top: 50%;
left: 100%; /* To the right of the tooltip */
margin-top: -5px;
border-width: 5px;
border-color: transparent transparent transparent black;
}
Result:
Hover over me
Fade In Tooltips (Animation)
If you want to fade in the tooltip text when it is about to be visible, you can use the CSS3 transition property
together with the opacity property, and go from being completely invisible to 100% visible, in a number of
specified seconds (1 second in our example):
Example
opacity: 0;
transition: opacity 1s;
}
102
.tooltip:hover .tooltiptext {
opacity: 1;
}
Image Gallery
The following image gallery is created with CSS:
Example
<html>
<head>
<style>
div.gallery {
margin: 5px;
border: 1px solid #ccc;
float: left;
width: 180px;
}
div.gallery:hover {
}
div.gallery img {
width: 100%;
height: auto;
}
div.desc {
padding: 15px;
text-align: center;
}
</style>
</head>
<body>
<div class="gallery">
<a target="_blank" href="fjords.jpg">
<img src="fjords.jpg" alt="Fjords" width="300" height="200">
</a>
<div class="desc">Add a description of the image here</div>
</div>
<a target="_blank" href="forest.jpg">
<img src="forest.jpg" alt="Forest" width="300" height="200">
</a>
</div>
<a target="_blank" href="lights.jpg">
<img src="lights.jpg" alt="Northern Lights" width="300" height="200">
103
</a>
</div>
<a target="_blank" href="mountains.jpg">
<img src="mountains.jpg" alt="Mountains" width="300" height="200">
</a>
</div>
</body>
</html>
CSS Image Sprites
Image Sprites
An image sprite is a collection of images put into a single image.
A web page with many images can take a long time to load and generates multiple server requests.
Using image sprites will reduce the number of server requests and save bandwidth.
Image Sprites - Simple Example
Instead of using three separate images, we use this single image ("img_navsprites.gif"):
With CSS, we can show just the part of the image we need.
In the following example the CSS specifies which part of the "img_navsprites.gif" image to show:
Example
#home {
width: 46px;
height: 44px;
background: url(img_navsprites.gif) 0 0;
}
Example explained:
<img id="home" src="img_trans.gif"> - Only defines a small transparent image because the src
attribute cannot be empty. The displayed image will be the background image we specify in CSS
width: 46px; height: 44px; - Defines the portion of the image we want to use
background: url(img_navsprites.gif) 0 0; - Defines the background image and its position (left 0px,
top 0px)
This is the easiest way to use image sprites, now we want to expand it by using links and hover effects.
104
Image Sprites - Create a Navigation List
We want to use the sprite image ("img_navsprites.gif") to create a navigation list.
We will use an HTML list, because it can be a link and also supports a background image:
Example
#navlist {
position: relative;
}
#navlist li {
margin: 0;
padding: 0;
list-style: none;
position: absolute;
top: 0;
}
#navlist li, #navlist a {

height: 44px;
display: block;
}
#home {
left: 0px;
width: 46px;
background: url('img_navsprites.gif') 0 0;
}
#prev {
left: 63px;
width: 43px;
background: url('img_navsprites.gif') -47px 0;
}
#next {
left: 129px;
width: 43px;
background: url('img_navsprites.gif') -91px 0;
}
Example explained:
#navlist {position:relative;} - position is set to relative to allow absolute positioning inside it

#navlist li {margin:0;padding:0;list-style:none;position:absolute;top:0;} - margin and padding is set
to 0, list-style is removed, and all list items are absolute positioned
#navlist li, #navlist a {height:44px;display:block;} - the height of all the images are 44px
Now start to position and style for each specific part:
#home {left:0px;width:46px;} - Positioned all the way to the left, and the width of the image is 46px
#home {background:url(img_navsprites.gif) 0 0;} - Defines the background image and its position
(left 0px, top 0px)
105
#prev {left:63px;width:43px;} - Positioned 63px to the right (#home width 46px + some extra space
between items), and the width is 43px.
#prev {background:url('img_navsprites.gif') -47px 0;} - Defines the background image 47px to the
right (#home width 46px + 1px line divider)
#next {left:129px;width:43px;}- Positioned 129px to the right (start of #prev is 63px + #prev width
43px + extra space), and the width is 43px.
#next {background:url('img_navsprites.gif') -91px 0;} - Defines the background image 91px to the
right (#home width 46px + 1px line divider + #prev width 43px + 1px line divider )
Image Sprites - Hover Effect
Now we want to add a hover effect to our navigation list.
Tip: The :hover selector can be used on all elements, not only on links.
Our new image ("img_navsprites_hover.gif") contains three navigation images and three images to use for
hover effects:
Because this is one single image, and not six separate files, there will be no loading delay when a user
hovers over the image.
We only add three lines of code to add the hover effect:
Example
#home a:hover {
background: url('img_navsprites_hover.gif') 0 -45px;
}
#prev a:hover {
background: url('img_navsprites_hover.gif') -47px -45px;
}
#next a:hover {
background: url('img_navsprites_hover.gif') -91px -45px;
}
Example explained:
#home a:hover {background: transparent url('img_navsprites_hover.gif') 0 -45px;} - For all three

hover images we specify the same background position, only 45px further down
CSS Attribute Selectors

Style HTML Elements With Specific Attributes
It is possible to style HTML elements that have specific attributes or attribute values.
CSS [attribute] Selector

106
The [attribute] selector is used to select elements with a specified attribute.
The following example selects all <a> elements with a target attribute:
Example
a[target] {
}
CSS [attribute="value"] Selector
The [attribute="value"] selector is used to select elements with a specified attribute and value.
The following example selects all <a> elements with a target="_blank" attribute:
Example
a[target="_blank"] {
}
CSS [attribute~="value"] Selector
The [attribute~="value"] selector is used to select elements with an attribute value containing a specified
word.
The following example selects all elements with a title attribute that contains a space-separated list of words,
one of which is "flower":
Example
[title~="flower"] {
border: 5px solid yellow;
}
The example above will match elements with title="flower", title="summer flower", and title="flower new",
but not title="my-flower" or title="flowers".
CSS [attribute|="value"] Selector
The [attribute|="value"] selector is used to select elements with the specified attribute starting with the
specified value.
The following example selects all elements with a class attribute value that begins with "top":
Note: The value has to be a whole word, either alone, like class="top", or followed by a hyphen( - ), like
class="top-text"!
Example
[class|="top"] {
background: yellow;
}
CSS [attribute^="value"] Selector
107
The [attribute^="value"] selector is used to select elements whose attribute value begins with a specified
value.
The following example selects all elements with a class attribute value that begins with "top":
Note: The value does not have to be a whole word!
Example
[class^="top"] {
background: yellow;
}
CSS [attribute$="value"] Selector
The [attribute$="value"] selector is used to select elements whose attribute value ends with a specified
value.
The following example selects all elements with a class attribute value that ends with "test":
Example
[class$="test"] {
background: yellow;
}
CSS [attribute*="value"] Selector
The [attribute*="value"] selector is used to select elements whose attribute value contains a specified value.
The following example selects all elements with a class attribute value that contains "te":
Example
[class*="te"] {
background: yellow;
}
Styling Forms
The attribute selectors can be useful for styling forms without class or ID:
Example
input[type="text"] {
width: 150px;
display: block;
margin-bottom: 10px;
}
input[type="button"] {
width: 120px;
108
margin-left: 35px;
display: block;
}
Tip: Visit our CSS Forms Tutorial for more examples on how to style forms with CSS.
CSS Forms
The look of an HTML form can be greatly improved with CSS:
First Name Last Name Country Try it Yourself

Styling Input Fields
Use the width property to determine the width of the input field:
First Name
Example
input {
width: 100%;
}
The example above applies to all <input> elements. If you only want to style a specific input type, you can
use attribute selectors:
input[type=text] - will only select text fields

input[type=password] - will only select password fields
input[type=number] - will only select number fields
etc..
Padded Inputs
Use the padding property to add space inside the text field.
Tip: When you have many inputs after each other, you might also want to add some margin, to add more
space outside of them:
First Name Last Name

Example
input[type=text] {
width: 100%;
padding: 12px 20px;
margin: 8px 0;
box-sizing: border-box;
}
109
Note that we have set the box-sizing property to border-box. This makes sure that the padding and
eventually borders are included in the total width and height of the elements.
Read more about the box-sizing property in our CSS3 Box Sizing chapter.
Bordered Inputs
Use the border property to change the border size and color, and use the border-radius property to add
rounded corners:
First Name
Example
input[type=text] {
border-radius: 4px;
}
If you only want a bottom border, use the border-bottom property:
First Name
Example
input[type=text] {
border: none;
border-bottom: 2px solid red;
}
Colored Inputs
Use the background-color property to add a background color to the input, and the color property to change
the text color:
John
Example
input[type=text] {
background-color: #3CBC8D;
color: white;
}
Focused Inputs
By default, some browsers will add a blue outline around the input when it gets focus (clicked on). You can
remove this behavior by adding outline: none; to the input.
Use the :focus selector to do something with the input field when it gets focus:
Example
input[type=text]:focus {
}
110
Example
}
Input with icon/image
If you want an icon inside the input, use the background-image property and position it with
the background-position property. Also notice that we add a large left padding to reserve the space of the
icon:
Example
input[type=text] {
background-color: white;
background-image: url('searchicon.png');
background-position: 10px 10px;
padding-left: 40px;
}
Animated Search Input
In this example we use the CSS3 transition property to animate the width of the search input when it gets
focus. You will learn more about the transitionproperty later, in our CSS3 Transitions chapter.
Example
input[type=text] {
-webkit-transition: width 0.4s ease-in-out;
transition: width 0.4s ease-in-out;
}
width: 100%;
}
Styling Text areas
Tip: Use the resize property to prevent textareas from being resized (disable the "grabber" in the bottom
right corner):
Example
textarea {
width: 100%;
111
height: 150px;
padding: 12px 20px;
box-sizing: border-box;
border: 2px solid #ccc;
border-radius: 4px;
resize: none;
}
Styling Select Menus
Example
select {
width: 100%;
padding: 16px 20px;
border: none;
border-radius: 4px;
}
Styling Input Buttons
Example
input[type=button], input[type=submit], input[type=reset] {
border: none;
color: white;
padding: 16px 32px;
margin: 4px 2px;
cursor: pointer;
}
/* Tip: use width: 100% for full-width buttons */
CSS Counters
Pizza
Hamburger
Hotdogs
CSS counters are "variables" maintained by CSS whose values can be incremented by CSS rules (to track
how many times they are used). Counters let you adjust the appearance of content based on its placement in
the document.
Automatic Numbering With Counters
CSS counters are like "variables". The variable values can be incremented by CSS rules (which will track
how many times they are used).
112
To work with CSS counters we will use the following properties:
counter-reset - Creates or resets a counter

counter-increment - Increments a counter value
content - Inserts generated content
counter() or counters() function - Adds the value of a counter to an element
To use a CSS counter, it must first be created with counter-reset.
The following example creates a counter for the page (in the body selector), then increments the counter
value for each <h2> element and adds "Section <value of the counter>:" to the beginning of each <h2>
element:
Example
body {
counter-reset: section;
}
h2::before {
counter-increment: section;
content: "Section " counter(section) ": ";
}
Nesting Counters
The following example creates one counter for the page (section) and one counter for each <h1> element
(subsection). The "section" counter will be counted for each <h1> element with "Section <value of the
section counter>.", and the "subsection" counter will be counted for each <h2> element with "<value of the
section counter>.<value of the subsection counter>":
Example
body {
}
h1 {
counter-reset: subsection;
}
h1::before {
content: "Section " counter(section) ". ";
}
h2::before {
counter-increment: subsection;
content: counter(section) "." counter(subsection) " ";
}
A counter can also be useful to make outlined lists because a new instance of a counter is automatically
created in child elements. Here we use the counters()function to insert a string between different levels of
nested counters:
113
Example
ol {
}
li::before {
content: counters(section,".") " ";
}
CSS Counter Properties
content Used with the ::before and ::after pseudo-elements, to insert generated
content
counter-increment Increments one or more counter values
counter-reset

Css

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Css

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Css

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

1

Cascading Style Sheets

External style sheets are stored in CSS files

CSS Solved a Big Problem

HTML was created to describe the content of a web page, like:

CSS removed the style formatting from the HTML page

The style definitions are normally saved in external .css files.

A CSS rule-set consists of a selector and a declaration block:

The selector points to the HTML element you want to style.

The declaration block contains one or more declarations separated by semicolons.

The element Selector

The element selector selects elements based on the element name.

Note: An id name cannot start with a number

The class selector selects elements with a specific class attribute.

HTML elements can also refer to more than one class.

<p class="center large">This paragraph refers to two classes.</p>

It will be better to group the selectors, to minimize the code.

To group selectors, separate each selector with a comma.

Comments are ignored by browsers.

/* This is a multi-line comment */

<p>This is another paragraph.</p>

Three Ways to Insert CSS

There are three ways of inserting a style sheet:

External style sheet

External Style Sheet

Here is how the "mystyle.css" looks:

Internal Style Sheet

<h1 style="color:blue;margin-left:30px;">This is a heading</h1>

Multiple Style Sheets

1. Inline style (inside an HTML element)

<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="mystyle.css">

<body style="background-color: lightcyan">

<p>This is another paragraph.</p>

Colors in CSS are most often specified by:

a valid color name - like "red"

RGB (Red, Green, Blue)

The background-color property specifies the background color of an element.

The background color of a page is set like this:

With CSS, a color is most often specified by:

a valid color name - like "red"

The background-image property specifies an image to use as the background of an element.

By default, the image is repeated so it covers the entire element.

The background image for a page can be set like this:

The position of the image is specified by the background-position property:

The shorthand property for background is background:

All CSS Background Properties

background Sets all the background properties in one declaration

background-attachment Sets whether a background image is fixed or scrolls with the

background-color Sets the background color of an element

background-image Sets the background image for an element

background-position Sets the starting position of a background image

background-repeat Sets how a background image will be repeated

CSS Border Properties

I have borders on all sides.

I have a red bottom border

I have rounded borders.

I have a blue left border.

The border-style property specifies what kind of border to display.

The following values are allowed: