Metal Mining Stoping Methods

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Shrinkage stoping
It is an overhand vertical stoping
method in which the ore is mined
in horizontal slices and remains in
the in the stope as temporary
support to the walls and to provide
a platform for the miners. Since the
ore swells in breakage, 30-40% of
the broken ore in the stope must
be drawn off (shrunk) during
mining to provide sufficient
working space. The remainder of
the broken ore is recovered when
the entire stope block is stoped
out. This holdback in production of
60-70% of the ore represents a
significant tie-up of capital. On the
other hand, it affords storage
capacity and the opportunity for
blending. The method is very
simple but required skilled labour.
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key design parameters in shrinkage stoping
The dimensions of the stope, largely governed by the shape and
size of the deposit. In a relatively narrow ore body, the stopes are
placed longitudinally; in a large or wide ore body, the stopes are
placed transversely.
Stope widths vary from 1-30m, lengths from 45-90m and heights
from 30-90m.
Although rock mechanics is a consideration in design, the stope
opening itself is relatively small and not excessively stressed; and
therefore the major concern is to maintain a manageable-sized
stope that ensures a smooth flow of ore by gravity and effective
draw control. Ores, especially those containing uranium minerals
which exude radon gas, impose ventilation constraints on stope
design. In most cases these problems can be minimized by
limiting the size of stopes, by minimizing the duration of mining
activity and by promptly drawing each stope empty following
completion of mining.
Sequence of development
The nature of all vertical stoping methods is such that production operations are carried on
all over a considerable vertical distance. Consequently several levels are required, the main
or haulage production levels being spaced 60-180m. If the stope height is less than the level
intervals, then sublevels may be constructed, connected by orepasses.
On each main level, a haulage drift is driven parallel to the strike of the ore body. It is
connected to the shaft by a haulage crosscut. If the stopes are transverse or drawpoints
offset, then a haulage lateral or loading crosscuts to the drawpoints are constructed. To
provide multiple acess routes into each stope, but mainly to ensure through ventilation,
raise manways are driven between levels, preferably at the ends of each stope.
The two main tasks of vertical stope preparation are to (1) construct a means of drawing ore
in which muck flows by gravity to the bottom of the stope, and (2) undercut (horizontally) at
the sill level or to slot (vertically) the stope, providing an opening into which the ore initially
breaks and subsequently flows.
To construct the draw system and undercut, finger raises are driven at the desired spacing to
connect the haulage level with the sill sublevel. The tops of the finger raises are connected
by a small drift which runs the length of the stope; from it crosscuts are driven above the
raises to the walls of the stope. To form bells, slabbing of the fingure raises begins at the
top, diminishing toward the bottom of each raise, creating funnel-like openings. To form the
undercut and provide working space for stoping (a desirable height of 1.8m), the pillars
formed by the drift and crosscuts are slabbed off, the broken ore falling into the just-formed
bells. Bells and finger raises terminate in chutes through which haulage conveyances are
loaded directly. The spacing of chutes ranges from 5-15m.

Cycles of operation
Rock breakage is the principle activity in the stope itself. A bench face is
established at the rib pillar and advanced across the face by horizontal
drilling with airlegs or vertical drilling with stoppers. Using longhole drifter
drills mounted on columns at the access raise, it is possible to drill out the
entire stope length from one setup. After the holes are charged but prior to
blasting, drawing of ore from the stope should occur. Before the cycle is
repeated, any ground control is carried out, scaling followed by bolting (with
wire mesh if necessary) or timbering.
Basic cycle of production operations

Drilling: pneumatic airleg, stopper, or drifter percussion drill, Dia 29-33
mm, depth 2-2.5 m for stopper and 2-3.5m for drifter.
Blasting: ANFO or slurry, charging by hand (cartridge) or by pneumatic
loader or pump (bulk), firing electrically or by detonating fuse.
Secondary blasting: pop shooting & plaster shooting, impact hammer
Loading: gravity flow (through stope), front-end loader, overhead loader,
LHD, slusher, chute (under stope)
Haulage: truck, LHD, rail, belt conveyor.

Shrinkage stoping
Applicability Conditions
Ore strength: strong (other characteristic: should not pack or stick together,
i.e., free flowing, too much fine or clayey materials will hamper free flowing,
oxidized or be subject to spontaneous combustion)
Rock strength: strong to moderately strong
Deposit shape: almost any shape but should have regular dip and boundaries
Deposit dip: fairly steep (> 45-500 or angle of repose, preferably > 600),
regularity along the dip is a pre-requisite of shrinkage stoping as there must
be no serious obstruction to flow of ore.
Deposit size: narrow to moderate width (1-30m) length minimum 15 m to
fairly large extent
Ore grade: moderate to fairly high
Ore uniformity: uniform
Depth: shallow to moderate (<750m)
Advantages
Ore drawn down in stope by gravity
Method conceptually simple, can use for small
mine
Low capital investment, little equipment required
for basic method, lend itself to some mechanization
ground support in stope if any minimal .
Stope development moderate.
Fairly good recovery (75-85%), low dilution (<10%).
Reasonable selectivity possible.
Disadvantages
Low to moderate productivity (3-10 tons per
employee-shift ).
Moderate to fairly high mining cost
Labour- intensive, difficult to mechanize
Rough footing, dangerous working conditions
Majority of ore tie up in stope ( > 60%) until
completed
Ore subject to oxidation, packing, and
spontaneous combustion in stope.
Cut-and-fill stoping

The term cut and fill stoping - underground mining methods requiring
support.
Support in stopes: local or short-term and general or long-term.
Local support is used for supporting the back of a stope, e.g., rock bolts
or timber stulls. provides a safe working place for the stope miners.
General support for the walls of the stope - provided by backfill.
preserves the access way to the stope and prevents large scale dilution
of ore.
Cut and fill mining is primarily a cyclic stoping method. The cycle begins
with the first round after backfilling on the previous cycle.
sub-cycles of the cut and fill cycle are:
Drilling
Blasting
Mucking/slushing
Ground support
Cleanout
Raising up
Preparation for backfill
Backfilling
Backfilling
Fill performs two unique functions:
Ground support to the weak walls - compressibility is the most critical fill property, varying from
25% for mechanically placed dry fill to 5-10% for hydraulically or pneumatically placed fill.
Working platform on which the next ore slice is drilled and blasted.
0.6 ton (approximately) of fill is required per ton of ore mined.
Deslimed mill tailings or waste sand from the surface is usually hydraulically slurried and piped
underground for distribution in the stopes; sometimes, cement is added to produce a weak
concrete fill, or natural-settling sulphide tailings are employed for greater fill strength. Hydraulic
filling in cut and - fill stoping requires special placement and drainage techniques since the slurry
contains 30 - 40% water. All access openings into the stope from below have to be equipped with
bulkheads to prevent flooding the haulage drift during filling. Sand barricades or fill fences -
earthen dams or burlap-covered lagging on posts --- are erected in the stope to control the
placement of fill. The tops of manways and orepasses must be extended above the fill floor to keep
them open. To provide proper drainage of the fill while it sets, percolation drains are installed along
the stope sill, and decantation towers are maintained through the fill; runoff water must be
disposed of in the drainage system on the level below. Fresh fill withstands human traffic in few
hours and vehicular traffic after 2 - 4 days. The timing of fill placement in cut and fill stoping is
critical to the success of the method, since the fill must be place in time to assume some or all of
the original superincumbent load on the ore in the stope.
Design parameters
rock mechanics
fill placement,
mechanization factors (ease of access,
maneuverability of equipment and production rate
requirements).
Stope height -- 45-90m,
width -- 2-30m (limited mainly by rock mechanics and fill
placement concerns).
Length -- 60-600m (function of mechanization).
Thickness of each horizontal slice -- 2.4-3.6m (function
of the drilling method used).
Orepases -- 1.8-2.4m square and spaced at 15-45m
apart, depending upon the materials-handling
equipment in the stope.
Variations of Cut and Fill Methods
OVERHAND CUT AND FILL STOPING:
Stope advances upward - ore blocks are developed from the bottom.
Horizontal cuts, 1.8 - 4.6 m in height.
Mining advances away from an access point.
Excavated ore falls and rests on the backfill placed during the previous cut and fill cycle.
The back may be unsupported, rock bolted and timber stull back and rib.
UNDER CUT AND FILL STOPING:
Developed in Inco Ltd (Canada) in 1960s as a pillar recovery method to deal with
abnormal grounds conditions. Ore strength can be weaker than in overhand cut-and-fill
stoping. Ground is very weak or depth is so great that strong rocks have the potential to
burst. Mining gold and silver veins at great depth or in very weak rock, operators need to
minimize the amount of exposed ground.
Mining is done in horizontal cuts (upto 4.5m thick slices).
The direction of the stoping is downward. As each horizontal cut is mined, it is backfilled
with cemented backfill (engineered mixture of waste rock, aggregates, and cement).
Mining of the next cut proceeds beneath the cemented backfill placed against a timber
fence along the sides and mat across the floor of the stope. Ore extracted underneath
the fill can actually be made safer than the original host rock. Miners install
supplemental support - rock bolts, wire mesh, shotcrete - to further protect themselves
from the potential for falling ground.
Example: Lucky Friday silver mine in north Idaho
Rill cut and fill stoping:
Stope fill is inclined to facilitate the gravity flow of muck to the chutes.
Underhand cut-and-fill mining
Rill cut-and-fill mining

Excavation methods:
BACK STOPING (UPPERS). When back stoping, enough open space is
allowed between the backfill surface and the stope back to drill vertical
or steeply inclined blastholes into the stope back in an upward
direction. Back stoping can be done with rock-bolted or unsupported
backs. Ribs should be competent to avoid dilution and safety problems.
BREASTING-DOWN (UP). This excavation method employs a vertical
working face and horizontal or slightly inclined blastholes. Backfill must
be placed to nearly fill the void of the preceding cut, allowing only
enough space (0.3 to 1 m) for expansion space for effective blasting.
After each round is blasted, mucking and ground support activities are
completed. Breasting is generally used in poor rock conditions often
with timber support. In undercut and fill stoping, rounds are breasted
upward instead of downward.
DRIFTING. On the first cut or on any cut where breaking room is not
provided, drift rounds are blasted using a burn cut or other type of
drifting cut.
BENCHING. Benching or the drilling of vertical holes from the top down
can be done in undercut and fill stoping.

Development
One common method of developing narrow veins is to drive crosscuts from a lateral in the wall rock
when poor ground conditions exist, or when the vein has poor continuity. The crosscuts are driven
through the vein, and the raises are driven on the vein from the crosscuts. An initial drift is driven in the
ore for the length of the stope, and it may be driven on the level or 6 - 8 m above the level. This serves
as the undercut. Another common method is to drift on vein and not drive laterals.
Access
Access to the stopes is via raises or ramps in mines using LHD equipment. These raises are usually
constructed of square or hexagonal wood crib, or of round steel liner plate. The manway and timberslide
also serve as ventilation conduits. In mechanized stopes, ramps are driven in either the hanging wall or
the footwall. The inclination of the ramps varies from 1 : 5 to 1 : 10. Short access inclines or declines are
also driven into the stopes at regular intervals as the mining progresses.
Drilling
BREAST. non-mechanized - Jacklegs - 0.6-m starter changing to 1.2-m and 1.8-m to finish the hole.
Mechanized - Rubber-tired or crawler-mounted two-boom jumbos - stopes.
No. of holes - 8 for a narrow stope (1.07 m or less, in width) to 12 or more holes for wide stopes. Holes
parallel to the walls in the vertical plane. Holes, except the top row parallel to the floor of the stopes in
the horizontal plane The top row of holes should be inclined upward 2 to 3.
UPPERS. non-mechanized stopers. Holes vertical to a depth of 3 to 10 ft (0.9 to 3.1 m). complete back
of the stope is drilled out before blasting.
Mechanized - Two- or three-boom rubber-tired-mounted jumbos or crawler-mounted drifters. holes
may all be drilled vertical or at preset angle, and be 10 to 15 ft (3.1 to 4.6 m) in length. The important
thing is to drill all of the holes parallel to each other, and to have them all end at the same height above
the floor of the stope. If any ore is left on the periphery of the stope from the last cut mined, it is
slabbed before the round is blasted.
Temporary ground support - square sets, stull sets, stulls, and/or rock bolts.

Mechanization of cut and fill stoping has led to the introduction of
mobile drilling, loading, and haulage equipment in the stopes
themselves, with corresponding improvement in production rate and
productivity.
Continues mining: roadheader in soft to medium hard rock (e.g.,
borate); in hard rock use conventional cycle.
Drilling: pneumatic airleg, stopper, or drifter percussion drill, Dia
29-33 mm, depth 2-2.5 m for stopper and 2-3.5m for drifter. Drill rig
mounting pneumatically or hydraulic machines (percussion or rotary-
percussion); hole size 51-76mm.
Blasting: ANFO or slurry, charging by hand (cartridge) or by
pneumatic loader or pump (bulk), firing electrically or by detonating
fuse.
Secondary blasting: (in stope) drill & blast, plaster shooting, impact
hammer
Loading: (in stope) LHD scraper to shute or orepass, gravity flow to
drawpoints; (on level) LHD, front-end loader, shovel loader.
Haulage: truck, LHD, rail.
Conditions
Ore strength: moderate to strong, may be less competent
than unsupported method.
Rock strength: weak to fairly weak.
Deposit shape: tabular, can be irregular, discontinuous.
Deposit dip: moderate to fairly steep (> 45-500 ), can
accommodate flatter deposit if orepasses are steeper than
angle of repose.
Deposit size: narrow to moderate width (2-30m), fairly large
extent
Ore grade: fairly high
Ore uniformity: moderate, variable (can sort waste in stope).
Depth: moderate to deep (<1.2 -2.4km).

Advantages
moderate productivity (9-18 tonnes per employee-shift & 27-36 is max).
permits good selectivity, sorting; can use waste as fill.
moderate capital investment, adaptable to mechanization
low development cost.
versatile, flexible, and adaptable. excellent recovery if pillar mined (90-
100%), low dilution (<10%).
good safety record.
Disadvantages
fairly high mining cost.
Labour- intensive, requiring skilled miners and close supervision.
filling complicates cycle, causing discontinuous production.
compressibility of fill risks some ground settlement and instability.

Sublevel Stoping
Figure 1 Schematic
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If geo-mechanics studies indicate that very high blocks (height exceeding the
straight drilling length from one drill location) can be extracted using the same
extraction level, then several drilling levels at various heights within the block
must be created. Because of multiple drilling levels, or sublevels, this method is
called sublevel stoping. It is the only patented mining method (more correctly, a
modern version of the method, vertical crater retreat-VCR, is patented).
Sublevel stoping, also known as blasthole, longhole, open or VCR stoping. It is an
overhand, vertical stoping method utilizing longhole drilling and blasting carried
out from sublevels to break the ore. It provides required geometrical form to
create gravitational ore flow from end point of production sublevel drifts to
drawpoints in open stopes.
Method requires very less temporary support; in the sublevel, it is provided by
rock bolts, wire mesh, cables, or shortcrete. Although the stopes are
unsupported, pillars are usually left between stopes and occasionally within
stopes. Method is very safe; no personnel are exposed in the stope: drill and
blast crews work in the protective cover of sublevel drifts and crosscuts, while
loading crews work under the security of the haulage drift below. Doesnt have a
limitation in depth and successful operation has been reported to a depth of
approximately 900 m under the surface.

Stope layout
The orebody is divided vertically by driving
crosscuts and haulage levels at every 45-120m.
Stope width varies from 6-30m, maximum length
90m. Boundary pillars are located similarly to those
in shrinkage stoping. Rock mechanics, blasting, and
materials handling considerations are the major
concerns in specifying dimensions. In addition,
because of the unique reliance on longhole drilling
and blasting, special attention in sublevel stoping
must be paid to rock-breakage design: hole
diameter and length, burden, explosive selection,
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factor, and so forth.
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Sequence of development
The general sequence of development in sublevel stoping parallels
that in shrinkage stoping and other vertical methods. A haulage drift,
crosscut, and drawpoints or draw drifts and trench are driven for
material handling, together with interlevel raises for access and
ventilation. Either an undercut, or end slot is constructed to
commence stoping operations. If an undercut, the sequence
described in shrinkage stoping is employed. If a slot, sublevel
crosscuts are driven across the stope from the sublevel drift and a
raise driven at the boundary. These are then blasted in a manner to
excavate a slot, starting at the bottom.
In the ring-drilling version of sublevel stoping, only sublevel drifts
must be driven for longhole drilling. In parallel drilling and VCR
methods, a horizontal slot must be opened across the orebody to
provide room for the drill stations. This is constructed by driving a
sublevel crosscut the width of the stope and then advancing it the
length of the sublevel drift as mining progresses.
Pillars (sill, crown, and rib) may be delineated at the stope
boundaries and left permanently or recovered in a retreat operation,
often after back filling.
Rock breakage and materials handling are carried out in separate sections
of sublevel stopes. Drilling and blasting are conducted in the sublevel drifts,
while the loading and haulage take place underneath the stope in the
drawpoints or draw drifts. Coordination is necessary, of course, but the two
major groups of unit operations of the production cycle are carried out
largely independently of one another. The cycle of operations follows the
basic production cycle.
Drilling: (1) longhole pneumatic percussion drill (small-hole) with coupled
steel, drifter or fandrill-mounted. (2) downhole pneumatic percussion drill
(large-hole) on drill platform or rig; or (3) roller-bit rotary drill (large hole)
on drill platform or rig.
Blasting: ANFO or slurry, charging by hand (cartridge) or by pneumatic
loader or pump (bulk), firing electrically or by detonating fuse; blasting by
special longhole bench rounds for overhand large scale mining or by
spherical charge in VCR method.
Secondary blasting: (in stope) drill & blast, plaster shooting, impact
hammer
Loading: gravity flow to drawpoints; LHD, front-end loader, shovel loader,
slusher.
Haulage: truck, LHD, rail.
Drilling systems
The main influential operation step to define production rate and
economical result in a period of time could be associated to select type of
drilling system.
Ring drilling and parallel drilling are two main drilling systems in sublevel
stoping. Both employ longhole drilling, the ring pattern with small holes and
the parallel drilling with large holes. In ring drilling, a vertical slot is opened;
whereas either a slot or an undercut is used with parallel drilling (the VCR
method requires parallel holes and an undercut).
In figure 1 a schematic illustration of ring drilling pattern has been
demonstrated in an open stope. In this style of production drilling, blast
holes are drilled on a ring pattern in ore body from the endpoint of each
production sublevel drift to around the drift radially. Mechanized hydraulic
Ring drill rig is the most fitting drilling equipment in this regard. Common
diameter of blast holes in ring drilling system are between 50 75 mm with
lengths up to 25 m. Longholes dont generally exceed 30 m because hole
deviation and manage turn into big problems. The performance of the
drilling system in this respect is between 120 180 m in a shift. Also the
production range of drilling and blasting in this case would be between 1.5
2.5 cubic meters ore per drilled meter (Gertsch and Bullock 1998). In each
blasting 3 or 4 rows are blasted generally. Blast hole spacing is unlike in
collars and ends but burden is regular.
Drilling systems
Parallel drilling system is the most recent developed drilling method in sublevel
stoping which is possible to perform by mechanized airtrack drill rig with DTH
hammer and high pressure. Extending of the endpoint of a production drift is the
first stage to implement parallel drilling system. Production drifts sides are
excavated right upto the walls, i.e., the width of the ore body. Blast holes
diameter in parallel drilling is between 105 165 mm with lengths up to 90 m.
The performance of the drilling system in this respect is about 50 m in a shift.
Also ore production range of drilling and blasting is between 818 m3/m hole
length (figure 2). In this case blast holes are drilled in bottom of the production
drifts downward to drawpoints. In general the inclination of blast holes equals
the maximum dip of the ore body. Production drifts distance in a vertical
alignment in order to implement this system is over 50 meters commonly.
Excavation of one production drift at the top of the open stope is a typical
design. In this case length of the blast holes is defined as the distance of bottom
of a production drift to undercutting space.
Furthermore there are some other type of long hole drilling pattern which have
created of combined parallel and ring drilling properties as underhand fan drilling
by DTH jumbo-drill rigs. As a case in El Soldado mine underhand fan pattern has
been implemented with blast holes diameter 165 mm and length 80 m by DTH
system (Contador and Glavic 2001). High pressure DTH hammers in parallel
drilling system have the highest rate of drillings accuracy. Inaccuracy of this
equipment is less than 2% up to 120m hole length of the blast hole in general
(Haycocks and Aelick 1992).
Figure-2 Call/Whatsapp-
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Conditions of applicability
Ore strength: moderate to strong. ore has to be in a stable
situation
Rock strength: fairly strong to strong. competent hanging
and foot wall rock. Lowest rate of essential compressive
strength of the rock walls to apply sublevel stoping is 55
MPa normally.
Deposit shape: tabular or lenticular, regular dip and
boundaries.
Deposit dip: fairly steep (> 45-500 ), preferably 60-900.
Deposit size: fairly thick to moderate width (6-30m), fairly
large extent.
Ore grade: moderate.
Ore uniformity: fairly uniform to uniform.
Depth: moderate to deep (<1.2 -2.4km).

Advantages
moderate to high productivity (14-27 tonnes per
employee-shift and 27-36 is maximum).
moderate mining cost.
moderate to high production rate, individual stope
outputs running as high as 22700t/month.
lends itself to mechanization; not labour-intensive.
low breakage cost; fairly low handling cost.
little exposure to unsafe conditions; easy to
ventilate.
unit operations can be carried on simultaneously.
fair recovery (75%); can be in excess of 90% when
good pillar recovery is possible.
dilution is generally low and can be contained below
20%.
Disadvantages
slow and complicated development, very capital
intensive and high development cost.
inflexible and nonselective.
Longhole drilling requires careful alignment (<2%
deviation).
large blasts may cause excessive vibration, air
blast, and structural damage.
secondary blasting fumes may leak back into the
stope if excessive secondary blasting is necessary.

Blasthole stoping
In blasthole stoping, from the drilling level at the
top of the block, rows of radial blast holes are
drilled down to the top of the extraction trough. A
raise is driven at one end of the block and slashed
to full stoping width to form a slot. The rows of
blast holes are now blasted as one row or as
several rows at a time toward the open slot. Hole
diameter vary widely, but typically lie in the range
of 76 -165 mm for wide blocks, 165mm in diameter
holes are often used. Hole straightness is an
important design consideration that affects
fragmentation, ore loss, and dilution. In general,
one would select the largest hole diameter
possible for the stope geometry since straight hole
length is strongly dependent on hole diameter. The
specific development (amount of development
required to exploit a certain volume of ore) is
inversely proportional to block height. Since the
cost of development is significantly higher than Blasthole stoping
costs for stoping, one wants to have the highest
possible number of extraction blocks associated
with given extraction and a given drilling level.
Large diameter blasthole stoping at Hutti Gold Mines
Blasthole diameter 152-165 mm.

Cylindrical explosive charges are
used.
Drilling is done from the main
level or a sub-level 9 -10 m
below the main level.
A 3 m wide slot is created along
the full width and height of the
stope. Drill cross-cuts are
developed parallel to the slot
and blasted into the opening
one by one. Vertical slices of ore
between the levels are blasted
in stages into the voids created
by previous blast.
Blasted material is collected in a
trough developed in the
extraction level and drawn.
Design and operation details of LDBH
stope
Strike length of the stope block 50m
Height of the block 60m
Dip of the orebody 65 deg.
Average width of the stope block 9m.
Footwall haulage drive, at the extraction
level at a distance of 7m from the
orebody.
Loading cross-cuts from the haulage drive
at an interval of 10m.
A traugh drive and a traugh above in the
orebody for the entire length of the
block.
Drill cross-cuts of size 4m widths and 4m
height in the drilling levels, leaving a pillar
of 2m thick between the drill cross-cuts.
Drop raise at one end of the block from
the drilling levels which will be developed
into a slot.
VCR Stoping
One of the most recent methods to be
adopted in underground metal mining
the vertical crater retreat (VCR) mining
which is now being employed in over a
dozen of large and medium scale
underground mines in different
countries. The application of this new
and revolutionary mining method has
been possible only after down-the-hole
(DTH) drills were introduced to
underground mining operations around
1973. The method employs large
diameter long holes of 152, 165 or 200
mm diameter and is based on the
spherical charge technology (also known
as crater-blast technology) which is used
to produce a series of craters in a
horizontal plane, as result of blasting. Vertical Crater Retreat Method
Mechanics of creater formation
The method of VCR mining utilises concentrated or
spherical charges. A charge is considered to be spherical if
its length-to-diameter ratio does not exceed 6:1. Thus for
a hole of 165mm diameter, a slurry package of 165mm
diameter and 990mm length would form a spherical
charges. The geometrical configuration of spherical
charges limits its weight to approximately 35 kg in a 165
mm hole (Monahan, 1982). These spherical charges are
placed in vertical or near-vertical parallel blast-holes at an
optimum distance from the bottom of the hole (Fig. 1).
The optimum distance (also called the depth of burial) is
defined as the distance from the free surface to the
centre of gravity of the charges and is so chosen that the
maximum volume of rock is broken to an
excellent fragmentation size. When the charges is
detonated, it produces a crater (surface cavity) in the
surround rock. As gravity works with the explosives
breakage process and as the explosive energy of spherical
charges is used at optimum confinement conditions, the
resultant crater depths normally exceed the top of the
explosives charges location and the muck produced is
very well fragmented for an efficient
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Crater Blasting
The concept of catering and its development may be attributed to C.W. Livingston
whose of long and devoted work resulted in an excellent tool for studying and
understanding the blasting phenomenon, and finally finding a practical application
for it in under ground mining.
A crater blast is a blast when a spherical charge is detonated beneath a surface that
extends laterally in all direction beyond the point where the surrounding material
would be affected by the blast.
In analyzing crater blasts, it has been found that there is a definite relation between
the energy of the explosive and the volume of material that is affected by the blast,
and this relationship is significantly affected by the placement of the charge.
Livingstone determined that a strain energy relation exists, expressed by an
empirical equation:
Where N is the critical distance at which breakage of the surface above the
spherical charges does not exceed a specified limit, E is the stain energy factor, a
constant for one given explosive- rock combination and W is the weight of the
explosive charge.
The same equation may written in the form relation
Where db is the distance from the surface to the centre of gravity of the charge i.e.
depth of burial and equals db/N which is a dimensionless number expressing the
ratio of any depth of burial compared to the critical distance. When db is such that
the maximum volume of rock is broken to an excellent fragment size, this burial is
called optimum distance ( )
Cratering Experiments
An actual cratering experiment consists
of a number of cratering-type shots in
which the type of explosive, its charge
weight and the rock are constant and
only the distance of burial varies.
Critical distance is obtained by
observation. All craters are excavated
and their volume determined, Figure
shows the plot of data obtained from a
cratering test in which the depth ratios
are plotted against energy levels
(volume/charges weight: V/W). This
idealized curve of Livingston also
shows the important transition limits
from the isolation range to the other
extreme which is the air-blast range.
Once having this curve established,
production scale blasts can be
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The explosives contribution in blasting is to provide pressure.
The forces generated by pressure acting over a boreholes
surface area accomplish the necessary work to cause stress
condition within the surrounding mass for fracture and
displacement.
The explosion produces two distinct and separate pressures.
The first is the detonation pressure developed as the
detonation front passes through the explosive charge. The
explosives detonation velocity directly affects the magnitude of
this pressure. The value of the detonation pressure is
approximately proportional to the explosives density and its
detonation velocity squared. This pressure is applied at only a
very shorts period of time against the surrounding mass at a
given section of charge length. For a cylindrical explosive charge
in a typical blasthole the detonation pressure would have only a
minimal influence on the rock surrounding the borehole, and
the detonation pressure would have its greatest effect only at
the charge and opposite the point of initiation. One can
conclude that the detonation pressure in a cylindrical borehole
is not very effective to fragmentation.
The second pressure that quickly follows the first is the borehole pressure produced by the high
temperature gases formed by the chemical reaction. The entire surface area of the borehole where the
explosive is contained will be exposed to a sustained loading condition. It would be, therefore, the
borehole pressure which dominates in the process of breaking the rock.
Dynamic loading by borehole pressure in a cylindrical hole is predominantly directed laterally or radially
outward from the borehole axis, which little or no force being directed towards the charge ends.
The Breakage mechanism of a spherical charge is quite different. The forces produced by a spherical
charge are directed radially outward from the centre in a uniform spherically diverging action in all
planes passing through the centre. It follows that the entire surface area of the cavity confining the
spherical charge receives all the detonation pressure and the borehole pressure.
While Livingston was using true spherical charges, it has been found that as long as the deviation from
the true spherical (diameter =length) is not greater than 1:6 diameter to length ratio, the breakage
mechanism and the result are practically the same as that of a true spherical charge.
Detonate spherical charges towards a free face such as the back of a mine opening is entirely new
concept of cratering forming the basis of a new blasting technology leading a new underground mining
method. Here crater is formed in a downward direction and are not affected by the adverse effects of
gravity and friction. To the contrary gravity enlarges the crater dimensions by removing the entire
rupture zone.
Once the equilibrium of the mass is disturbed by the excavation of an underground opening, a stressed
zone of elliptical shape is formed above this opening. Depending on the stability of the rock the material
within the stress zone caves in sooner or later unless properly supported. When a crater is blasted in
the back of an underground opening this stress zone is enlarged, the material within suffers further
damage and caves in following the detonation. Depending on rock properties and structural geology the
total height of this cavity may exceed the optimum distance of the spherical charge from the back many
time .
However, cratering
characteristics are unique for
each ore and crater design
must be based on actual
tested. Fig. 2 (Crocker, 1979)
shows the result of a set of
crater tested for a particular
rock and explosive
combination, depicting the
occurrence of maximum break
with good fragmentation at a
particular optimum charges
depth. Further, the drill
pattern should be so designed
that the blasted craters may
overlap slightly in the
horizontal plane.
VCR Stoping Method
The VCR method required large diameter holes usually
of 165 mm diameter, to be drilled in a parallel pattern
from a top drilling drive in the ore (called an overcut)
down to an undercut on the level below .When the drill
pattern has been completed over the whole stoping
block, the bottom of each hole is blocked off and
charged with spherical slurry bags are placed in the
hole at an optimum depth of burial. Horizontal slices of
ore up to about 5 m thick are then blasted into the
undercut (Anon, 1981). The swell of broken ore is then
drawn off (as in shrinkage stoping) from draw points by
LHD equipment, prior to the next blast being taken.
After each blast has been drawn off, the space between
the top of the broken ore and the face of the stope is
measured which forms the basis for determining the
thickness of the next slice to be blasted.
Repeating this loading and basting procedure, mining of the
stone or pillar retreats in the form of horizontal slices in a
vertical upwards direction until the entire block is crate
blasted. The VCR method necessitates the use of water jel
or aluminized slurry explosive having high densities, high
detonation velocities and high bulk strengths. ANFO,
because of its low density has not been used in VCR
blasting, despite its attractive cost and safety
characteristics.
Several patterns of millisecond delays for blasting the slices
of the ore body are used but the preferred method is to first
blast a burn cut out of the centre of the pattern while the
remaining holes are then blasted concentrically around the
burn. This method gives each hole two free faces into
which it can break, laterally into the burn and downwards
into the horizontal stop back.
Diameter, Length and Inclination of Blast holes
Most VCR mining has been done with hole diameters in the
152 or 165mm diameter range. Blast holes in the 200mm
range have been successfully used and can give good
production rates, although vibration considerations and the
inability to execute larger drill patterns in narrow widths can
be the limiting factors. The blast holes are usually about 50m
long and the efficiency of the stoping method is largely
dependent upon the drilling accuracy, since a poor
configuration of holes produces a substandard blast. In this
regard, the method works best where the ore body dips at
angles greater than 700 since the static pressure of the drill
string in an inclined hole is greatly reduced (Mitchell, 1980).
Although some blast holes in excess of 90m length have been
used, experience suggests that a reduction in depth to 75m
or even 60m can result in lower overall mining costs because
the higher development costs are then offset by improved
results arising from greater drilling accuracy.
Advantages
VCR method has gained popularity both as a stooping method and for
pillar extraction, in conditions where suitable ore blocks are available and
the rock mechanics aspects are favourable. The VCR stopes have been
used both as sublevel and shrinkage stopes. The method has also been
used in drop raising. The main advantages of this method include :
Higher tonnage per day and lower stoping cost.

Lower development cost since it eliminates raise boring and slot cutting.
Increased safety of operations because drilling and blasting are carried
out from above and there is no need for the miner to enter the actual
stope.
Improvement in fragmentation (the method yields lowest powder
factor).
Reduced labour requirements and drilling and charging time.
Elimination of up-hole drilling and up-hole loading of explosives.

Problems in Deep Underground Mines
Deep mining problem may be categorized into
three groups:
Problems related to the stability of structure in
high stress environment at great depth.
Problems due to excessive rock temperature
Other associated problems in various mining
activities due to large depth.

Problems at great depth due to high rock pressure
From geo-mechanics stand-point, great depth refers to distances below

surface where creation of an opening results in an overstressed condition
in the surrounding rock, resulting in failure or yield. Thus the depth at
which a mine may be considered deep depends on the strength of the
rock mass. In very strong, brittle rocks such as metaquartzites or granites;
mines are not generally considered deep until their workings extend
1800m or more below surface. By contrast, coal and salt rock mines can
be considered deep when they extend more than 450m below surface.
Geomechanics behaviour in deep mines: openings in deep mines in
weak, ductile (or pseudo-ductile) rocks, such as salt rock, shale, or
bituminous coal, are characterized by viscoplastic (or pseudo-viscoplastic)
deformation of the surrounding rock. This behaviour serves to mitigate
the effects of the high stresses. In strong, brittle rocks, however, strain
energy resulting from excavation is not dissipated through viscous flow,
but is stored in the rock until a limit is reached at which failure occurs in
an explosive manner. Such explosive failures, which are called rockbursts,
are small-scale seismic events micro-earthquakes accompanied by
emission of acoustic energy.

Control measures to avert high rock pressure
High rock pressure situation may be averted by proper planning and practicing
right extraction methods that are as follows:
Stop Planning: Planning of the stopping methods should be such that it can
withstand the high rock pressure without endangering the stability and workmen.
Speed of Stopping: Maintaining the extraction rate as fast as possible is a
strategic measure for controlling rockbursts.
Ground Control: Limited number of working faces, adoption of flat back stoping
method with short strike lengths, orientation of mining faces at an angle of 200-350
to the major trend of rock fracture and avoidance of mining the faces towards each
other are some of the strategic measures for ground control.
Geological Conditions: Geological discontinuities are hindrance to the transfer of
stress concentrations. Whenever the orebody is intersected by dykes and faults or
other geological structures, the stoping should be commenced from the
dykes/fault position and moved away from them instead of advancing towards
them.
Shaft and level linings: In high pressure environment movement between the
hanging wall and the foot wall and rock displacement in general affect both the
shafts and levels. Shafts may loose their verticality hindering faster hoisting
operation.

Problem of excessive rock temperature
Environmental control in deep mines can constitute as much as 25% - 30% of the total mine
working cost. High environmental temperatures coupled with heat and humidity can produce on
workers many adverse physiological effects such as heat cramps, heat stroke, heat exhaustion and
collapse. In order to create acceptable working conditions for men, heat must be removed from
workings.
It has been found that in shallow mines about 1.6 m3/s ventilation air per 1000t of rock broken
per month and for deep mines, about 4 times this quantity is desirable. However, since the power
required to circulate air increases with the cube of the quantity of ventilation air, there is an
economic limit to ventilation, in the region of 4.2 m3/s per 1000t rock broken per month. The
economical depth limit is found to be around 2 km depth and the normal ventilation by
circulation is found to be sufficient for rock temperatures up to 300C. When the rock temperature
is about 400C, about 60% of the cooling requirements can still be provided by the normal
ventilation air, the balance being provided by refrigeration (cooling service water). As rock
temperature increases to about 450C, the ventilation air can provide only 30% of the cooling
requirements, while 25% is provided by cooled service water and the balanced 45% by cooled
ventilation air. At greater depths where rock temperatures are of the order of 550C, all cooling
requirements must be provided by refrigeration. Of this, only 20% can be distributed by cooling
the service water with a further 40% by cooling the ventilation air. The remaining 40% of cooling
is provided by the successive re-cooling of the ventilation air as it passes through the mine.
Also it is essential to ensure that maximum production is achieved from minimum number of
working areas to keep ventilation costs to a minimum. More recently, use of ice for cooling the
underground workings, rather than the conventional chilled water circulation has been
considered in South African deep gold mines.

Measures to reduce temperature
Chilled Water Cooling System: Chilled water at any temperature between 00C to 100C is
produced by refrigeration plants situated on the surface and/or underground, and then
distributed via an extensive pipe network to various parts of the mine for cooling
purposes. A 300 400 mm dia insulated shaft line delivers chilled water down the
shaft.
Underground spot coolers and cold water chillers: Spot coolers are self-contained small
spot refrigeration units and are generally used for localized or secondary cooling on
jobs where temperatures are exceptionally high. Spot coolers reduced the temperature
of air locally by allowing hot air to evaporate refrigerant directly.
Use of ice for cooling the underground workings: Small ice crystals (60-70 mm square
and 8-10mm thick) in slurry are conveyed pneumatically for long distances in
underground. The air used in pneumatic conveying is cooled to 10C to minimize melting
of the ice during transport to shaft bottom. It is estimated that for cooling a very deep
mine, about 2 t of ice/t of rock hoisted, will be necessary.
Backfill and recirculation: Installation of backfill gives rise to a substantial reduction in
the rock surface area which emits heat. The environment is further improved by better
ventilation flow, since the presence of backfill prevents the unwanted passage of air
through back areas where it picks up heat.
Recirculation of a portion of the ventilating air in the underground workings can
provide an alternative to increased flow rates of downcast intake air. Advantages
include smaller mine fans, saving in airways (including reduction in the number of
additional ventilation shafts), reduced air leakage and more effective refrigeration
system.

Other associated problems due to great depth
Hoisting problems: Hoisting from great depths is often complex, time consuming,
difficult and therefore expensive on the whole. Maintenance of deep shafts with
expensive hoisting equipments itself an important, parameter for mine safety.
Great depths require a system of primary, secondary and tertiary drops.
Surveying: Great depths makes surveying operations very difficult, time
consuming and complex. High precision instruments are necessary to do the
normal traverses. Correlation survey is tedious and problematic.
Dust control: This is another problem at great depths. One cannot simply spray
water to control dust as it causes enormous humidity due to high rock temperature
thereby making the workers life difficult. Ice blocks are at times used to cool, the
water at the face which at times is used for drilling.
It may be mentioned that combating all these problems of excessive rock
temperature makes the over all mining operation expensive. Hence such
precautions can only be practiced when the mineral to be extracted is either a
priority item or can pay for its high cost of production. However, the national
policies of any country dictate the terms for exploiting such deposits that involves
high investment in capital equipment to overcome the problems of high rock
pressure, rock temperature and hoisting from great depths.

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Basic cycle of production operations

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Rill cut-and-fill mining

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Blasthole diameter 152-165 mm.

Higher tonnage per day and lower stoping cost.

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From geo-mechanics stand-point, great depth refers to distances below

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